Physics

Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

for
FOR

ADVANCED LEVEL
Heat & Thermodynamics

F Mr. Chambilo “PM”

[Link] (Physics & Mathemtics) UDSM

ISBN: 9978 – 9976 – 59 – 647 – 2

+255 - 754 – 249 - 049

i
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Physics
Advanced level

Heat and

Thermodynamics

By Mr. Chambilo “PM”

[Link]. Ed (Physics & Mathematics ) UDSM

ii
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Copyright © 2019
© All rights reserved. No part of this publication/work may be
reproduced, reported, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means of electronic system, mechanical system,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the permission of the
copyright owner

ISBN: 978 – 9976 – 59 – 647 – 2

First Edition 2020

Contact details:
+255 754 249 049/+255 767 669 729
Chambilopm5@[Link]
P.O BOX 356699
Dar Es Salaam – Tanzania

Published by: Chasibookprinters@[Link]

Contact: +255754249049
Email: Inforchasi@[Link]
Website: [Link]
P.O BOX 356699
Dar es salaam - Tanzania

Other series of books related and written by the same author

 Heat And Thermodynamics A-Level

 Modern Physics A-Level
 Principle Of Electromagnetism
 Fundamental Of Electrostatics
 Environmental Physics
 Alternating Current Theory (A.C)
 Fundamental Of Mechanics

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

 Special thanks to almighty GOD for giving me knowledge, strengths,

good healthy and courage me to overcome obstacles and challenges
towards accomplishing this text book.
 I would like to resent a lot of thanks to my lovely parents who spent
a lot energy and spent a lot of money so that I can acquire this
specialization
 I would like to congratulate Mr. Chambilo Tito, a teacher at Maghare
Secondary school (Department of English language) who helped to
organize my work in a grammatical order and is the one who
provided original idea of extracting the book.
 Also I would like to express my feelings to my lovely friend Mr.
Kitaule Stephen, mechanical engineering (UDSM) who helped me to
design and to construct my work.
 Important thanks to Dr. Msambwa Y. a senior lecture at Dar es
Salaam University College Of Education (department of Physics and
Mathematics Block No: 003)
 I would like to congratulate Mr. Konda Dotto Kabu who passed through a
whole book and corrected some of error.
 Otherwise I would like to resent my special feelings to Stella Singaile,
who helped me to re-design and to re-structure my work.
 All in all thanks for your cooperation and congratulations to anyone
who contributed any idea in either a way GOD bless you all.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
EDITORS
1. Dr. Msambwa Y, senior Lecture (Dar es salaam University
College of Education
2. Mr. Mhanga Haji Omary (BSc. Ed) Dar es Salaam University
college of Education.
3. Mr. Samora benard ([Link]) Dar es salaam University College
of Education
4. Mr. Kitaule Stephen Bachelor of Science in Mechanical
Engineering (University of Dar es salaam)
5. Ms. Frida Singaile (BA. Ed) at Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial
Academy

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
ABOUT THE BOOK.

This text extracted to cover the whole heat and thermodynamics

concepts for advanced level with reference to the first re-print
Advanced level Physics syllabus of 2010. Everything is extracted from
different sources but are within syllabus. The book designed in such a
way that every advanced level physics students can grasp the required
knowledge of solving different questions, it is simplified and non-
complicated. It consists of almost 500 questions including NECTA
question. This book written to reduce some complexity in heat and
thermodynamics for advanced leaner.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
DEDICATION OF THE BOOK

To “Sir Isaac Newton” in contribution to Science

Typing, drawing and all other system type setting was done by mwl.
Chambilo

+255754249049
Chambilo5pm@[Link]

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER ONE: THERMOMETER. ...........................................1
Introduction ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Thermometer ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Establishment Of Thermometry. .................................................. 1
[Link] Zero Temperature ......................................................... 2
1.3. Tripple Point ............................................................................... 2
1.4. Thermodynamic Temperature Scale ........................................... 2
1.5. Thermometry Property ................................................................ 3
[Link] Interval (Celcius Scale) .......................................... 7
1.8. Types Of Thermometer ............................................................. 11
[Link] In Glass Thermometer ................................................. 11
1.8.2. Gas Constant Thermometer ................................................... 12
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer ............................................... 13
1.8.3. Pressure Constant Gas Thermometer ..................................... 13
1.8.4. Platinum Resistance Thermometer ........................................ 13
1.8.5. Thermocouple Thermometer ................................................. 16
1.8.6. Pyrometer ............................................................................... 22
1.9. Worked Examples Set 01 .......................................................... 23
1.10. Competetitive Examination File Unit Set 01: ........................ 29
CHAPTER TWO: HEAT TRANSFER ...................................... 35
Ways Of Heat Transfer .................................................................... 35
2.1. Thermal Conduction ................................................................. 35
2.1.1. Mechanism Of Thermal Conduction...................................... 38
2.1.2. Temperature Distribution Along Conductor .......................... 39
2.1.3. Composite Bars (Rods) .......................................................... 41

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
[Link] Series Connection ................................................................ 41
[Link] Parallel Connection .............................................................. 42
2.1.4 Thermoresistance .................................................................... 42
2.1.5 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 02: ............................ 45
2.1.6 Growth Of Ice In Pond ............................................................ 49
2.1.7 Application Of Thermal Conductivity In Daily Life .............. 51
2.2. Thermal Convection.................................................................. 57
2.2.1. Natural Convection ................................................................ 58
2.2.2. Forced Convection ................................................................. 59
2.2.3 Newton’s Law Of Cooling ...................................................... 60
[Link] Five- Fourth Power Law Of Cooling ................................... 60
[Link] Limitation Of Newton’s Law Of Cooling ............................ 61
[Link].Factors Affecting Rate Of Cooling ...................................... 61
2.2.4 Equation Of Cooling ........................................................ 61
2.2.5 Worked Examples Set 02: ....................................................... 62
2.2.6 Application Of Convection ..................................................... 69
2.2.7 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 03: ............................ 69
2.3. Thermal Radiation .................................................................... 70
2.3.1. Prevost’s Theory Of Heat Exchange Theory ......................... 71
2.3.2. The Black Body ..................................................................... 72
2.3.3 How To Realize A Black Body .............................................. 73
2.3.4 Black Body Radiation (Bbr) ................................................... 74
2.2.5 Relative Intensity .................................................................... 74
2.2.6 Spectra Curve .......................................................................... 75
2.3.7. Laws Of Black Body Radiation ............................................. 76
[Link]. Wien’s Displacement Law .................................................. 76

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
2.3.8 Energy Distribution In The Spectrum Of A Black Body ........ 76
2.3.9 Emissive Power(Eλ ) ................................................................ 78
2.3.10 Absorptive Power (𝐚𝛌 ) ........................................................ 79
2.3.11 Kirchooff’s Law Of Black Body Radiation .......................... 79
2.3.12 Stefan’s Law Of Black Body ................................................ 81
2.3.13 Worked Examples Set 03A: .................................................. 82
2.3.14 Worked Examples Set 03B; .................................................. 86
2.3.15 Application Of Stefan’s Law Of Black Body ....................... 89
2.3.16 Solar Constant ....................................................................... 91
2.3.17 Worked Examples 03C: ........................................................ 93
2.3.17. Conceptual Questions ........................................................ 103
2.3.18 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 04: ........................ 104
2.3.19 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 05: ........................ 107
2.3.20. Calorimetry ........................................................................ 110
2.3.21 Law Of Calorimetry ............................................................ 111
THERMODYNAMICS ........................................................... 117
3.1. First Law Of Thermodynamics ............................................... 119
3.2. Molar Heat Capacity ............................................................... 123
3.2.1. Molar Heat Capacity At Constant Volume (𝐂𝐕) ................. 124
3.3. Meyer’s Equation .................................................................... 124
3.3.1. Ratio Of Molar Heat Capacity At (𝛄) .................................. 127
3.4. P – V CURVES....................................................................... 128
3.5. Thermodynamics Processes:.................................................. 129
3.5.1. Isobaric Process ................................................................... 129
3.5.2. Isochoric Process ................................................................. 130
3.5.3. Isothermal Process ............................................................... 131

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
3.5.4. Adiabatic Process ................................................................. 137
3.6. Differences Between Adiatic Process And Isothermal Process
....................................................................................................... 139
3.7. Application Of First Law Of Thermodynamic ....................... 144
3.8. Limitation Of First Law Of Thermodynamics ........................ 145
3.9. Worked Examples Set 04a: ..................................................... 146
3.10. Worked Examples Set 04b .................................................... 151
3.11. Competitive Examination File Unit Set 06: .......................... 156
3.12. Competitive Examination File Unit Set 07: .......................... 159
3.13. Worked Examples Set 05: ..................................................... 173
3.14. General Competitive Examination File Unit Set 07: ............ 228
3.15. Competitive Examinaton File Unit Set 08: ........................... 235
REFERENCES ....................................................................... 269

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

CHAPTER ONE: THERMOME

Chapter
One Thermometer
Introduction
Heat is the form of energy which flow from one point to another point
due to temperature difference.

The device used to measure heat is called calorimeter. And the unit of
heat is are Joules (J) or Caloric (cal).

1cal = 4.2J

Calorie is defined as amount of heat required to rise a temperature and

its measurements of 1gm of water through 1℃

Thermometer

Thermometry is the study of temperature and its measurements

Temperature is a degree of hotness or coldness of the body. The device
used to measure temperature is called THERMOMETR

The most common units of temperature are known as Kelvin (k) or

Centigrade (℃)

1.1 Establishment Of Thermometry.

The factors for the establishment of thermometer

i. Fixed point thermometer

ii. Thermometry property.

Fixed Point

There are two fixed point which are lower fixed point and upper fixed
point.

Lower fixed point is the temperature at which pure ice is in thermo

equilibrium with pure water at standard atmospheric pressure
(760mmHg).

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
NB: Kelvin or absolute temperature scale is standard temperature scale
adopted from scientific measurements and its unit is Kelvin (k)
It is denoted by “T”
T = 273.15 + θ℃

[Link] Zero Temperature

Is the temperature at which the volume and pressure of the gas is

theoretical zero.

i. e (−273.15k)

volume

−273.15k ℃ T

1.3. Tripple Point

Is the temperature at which pure water, pure ice and pure vapor
together exist in equilibrium.

OR

Is the temperature at which all three states of water exist together in

equilibrium. Triple point at water is 273.16k

1.4. Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

Thermodynamic temperature scale is the standard temperature scale

adopted for scientific measurement of temperature.

 It use a triple point of water as upper fixed point and absolute

zero

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
 The triple point of water assigned the temperature 273.16K
while the ice point is 273.15K and the steam point 373.15K
 Thermodynamic temperature is denoted by the symbol T and
is expressed in Kelvin K

1.5. Thermometry Property

Is any property of body which vary linearly with temperature, and it is

represented by letter "x"

Example of thermometry properties are

a) Pressure
b) Volume
c) Resistance
d) E. m. f
e) Length of the liquid in glass

1.6. Qualities Of Good Thermometric Property

 It should have unique value at a particular temperature

 It should be repeatable
 It should vary continuously and linearly with temperature
 It should change considerably for small change of temperature
 It should be easily produced in the laboratory

Let X be the value of thermometric property also

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
let xTr = thermometry property at tripple point

Tr = Triplle point

xT = thermometry property at certain temperature

X 𝑇𝑟

X𝑇 𝑇𝑟

O T = certain temeprature

from x ∝ T

xT ∝ T

x Tr ∝ T

xT = kT − − − −(i)

xTr = kT − − − −(ii)

dividing the two equation

xT kT
=
x Tr kTr

xT
T = ( )T
x Tr r

but Tr = 273.16k

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
xT
T = ( ) × 273.16k
xTr

Example 01:

The pressure recorded by a constant volume gas thermometer

at temperature T is 4.88 × 104 𝑃𝑎. Calculate T if the pressure
at triple point (273.16k) is 4.2 × 104 𝑃𝑎.
solution

PT = 4.88 × 104 Pa

PTr = 4.2 × 104 Pa

Tr = 273.16K

Required T

PT
T = ( )T
PTr r

4.88 × 104
T = ( ) × 273.16
4.2 × 104

T = 317.39K

Example 02: In a particular constant volume gas thermometer

register a pressure of 1.937 × 104 𝑃𝑎 at triple point of water and
2.168 × 104 𝑃𝑎 at boiling point of liquid. Compute boiling point of
liquid.

solution

PTr = 1.937 × 104 Pa

PT = 2.168 × 104 Pa

T at boiling point

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
PT
B. P = ( ) 273.16
PTr

2.168 × 104
B. P = ( ) 273.16
1.937 × 104

Boiling point (B. P) = 305.73K

Example 03:

The resistance thermometer reads 1.2Ω when measuring Kelvin

temperature (T) of a body and 1.00Ω at triple point of water. Find T
and its centigrade equivalent.

solution

RT = 1.2Ω

R Tr = 1.00Ω

T = ?

θ = ?

RT
T = ( ) 273.16
R Tr

1.2
T = ( ) 273.16
1
T = 327.79K

but T = 273 + θ

327.79 = 273 + θ

θ = 327.79 − 273

θ = 54.79℃

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
[Link] Interval (Celcius Scale)

Is the temperature scale in which the lower and upper fixed point
are 0℃ and 100℃ respectively.

Considering the graph below

𝜃𝑇

Thermometry property is directly to the change in temperature

x ∝ ∆θ

let 0℃ = lower point

x℃ = Thermometry property at ice point

100℃ = steam point

x100℃ = thermometry property at steam point

θ℃ = be any temperature

x0℃ = Thermometry property at any certain

temperature

∆x ∝ ∆θ

∆x ∝ ∆T

x100℃ − x0℃ ∝ 100℃ − 0℃

x100℃ − x0℃ ∝ 100℃

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
x100℃ − x0℃ = k100℃ − − − −(i)

xθ − xo = kθ − − − −(ii)
x100℃ − x0℃ k100℃
=
xθ − xo kθ
x100℃ − x0℃ 100℃
=
xθ − xo θ
xθ − xo
θ = ( ) 100℃
x100℃ − x0℃

Example 04:

(i) Write down an expression which calibrates a thermometry property

"x" to read temperature in celcius scale.

(ii) Find the temperature of the system which its pressure is 4.6Pa.
Given that the lower and upper fixed points of pressure are 1.5Pa and
3.0Pa

solution
xθ − xo
(i) θ = ( ) 100℃
x100℃ − x0℃

(ii) data given Pθ = 4.6 Pa

P0℃ = 1.5Pa

P100℃ = 3.0Pa
Pθ − P0℃
θ = ( ) 100℃
P100℃ − P0℃
4.6 − 1.5
θ = × 100℃
3.0 − 1.5
3.1
θ = × 100℃
1.5
θ = 206.7℃

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Example 05:

A thermometer used liquid in glass thermometer show that the length

of mercury at 0℃ and at 100℃ are 5cm and 7cm respectively at a
certain temperature the length is 6.5cm. Find its certain temperature

solution

l0℃ = 5cm

l100℃ = 7cm

lθ℃ = 6.5cm

required θ =?

from the formula

lθ − l0℃
θ = ( ) 100℃
l100℃ − l0℃
6.5 − 5
θ = ( ) 100℃
7 − 5
1.5
θ = ( ) 100
2
θ = 75℃

Example 06:

The pressure of air in constant volume gas thermometer is

80𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 109.3𝑎𝑡𝑚 at 0℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 100℃ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.when a bulb is
placed in hot water the pressure is 100𝑎𝑡𝑚. Calculate the temperature
of the hot water.

solution

Pθ = 100atm

P0℃ = 80atm

P100℃ = 109.3atm

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
required temperature θ
Pθ − P0℃
θ = ( ) 100
P100℃ − P0℃
100 − 80
θ = ( ) 100
109.3 − 80
20
θ = ( ) 100
29.3
θ = 68.259℃

The temperature of the hot water 68.26℃

Example 07:

A platinum resistance wire of 2.0Ω, 2.77Ω and 5.28Ω at melting ice,

steam point and boiling point of sulphur respectively. Calculate boiling
point of sulphur.

solution

R θ = 5.2Ω

R 0℃ = 2Ω

R100℃ = 2.77Ω
R θ − R 0℃
θ = ( ) 100℃
R100℃ − R 0℃
5.2 − 2
θ = ( ) 100
2.77 − 2
3.2
θ = ( ) 100
0.77
θ = 415.58℃

Boiling point of sulphur = 415.58℃

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
1.8. Types Of Thermometer

There are many types of thermometer

i. Liquid in glass thermometer.

ii. Gas constant temperature thermometer.
iii. Thermocouple thermometer.
iv. Pyrometer thermometer.
v. Platinum resistance thermometer.

[Link] In Glass Thermometer

They are most used liquid in glass thermometer used in mercury in

glass thermometer.

Thermometric property under this thermometer is length (𝑙)

Lθ − L0℃
θ = ( ) 100℃
L100℃ − L0℃

Advantage Of This Thermometer

 Can be used over wide range of temperature since its boiling

point 375℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 − 390℃
 Its expansion is linear

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
 Can be easily seen through the glass
 Does not wets the glass
 It have low specific heat capacity.

Disadvantage Of This Thermometer.

 It can be used to measure temperature above the boiling point

and below freezing point

Nb: Why Water Is Not Used In Making Liquid In Glass

Thermometer?

i. Water have high specific heat capacity (4200 𝑗⁄𝑘𝑔𝑘)

ii. It wets the glass
iii. Its expansion is not linear
iv. It is colorless hence it cannot be seen easily.

1.8.2. Gas Constant Thermometer

There are two categories

 Constant volume gas thermometer.
 Constant pressure gas thermometer.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

Is the gas thermometer whose measurement of temperature depends

on variation of pressure.
Pθ − P0℃
i. e θ = ( ) 100℃
P100℃ − P0℃

1.8.3. Pressure Constant Gas Thermometer

Is the type of gas thermometer whose measurement of

temperature depends on variation of volume
Vθ − V0℃
θ = ( ) 100℃
V100℃ − V0℃

advantage of pressure constant

thermometer

 They are more sensitive than liquid thermometer.

 The expansion is linear
 They can be used to measure very low temperature as well as
very high temperature eg 200℃ − 500℃

Disadvantage Of Gas Constant Thermometer

 Indirect reading
 It is very complicated
 It consume time
 Cannot be used to measure liquids in large quantity.

1.8.4. Platinum Resistance Thermometer

Is the thermometer whose measurements of temperature depends on the

variation of resistance

The resistance of platinum increases with increase in temperature, the

variation of resistance of platinum wire and temperature and it is given
by the following relation.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Rθ = R o (1 + aθ + bθ2 )

where a and b are constants

θ is the temperature i. e
Rθ − Ro
θ = ( ) 100℃
R100℃ − R o

Example 08:

The resistance 𝑅𝑡 of platinum varies with temperature according to the

equation 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 800𝑏𝑡 − 𝑏𝑡 2 ) where “b” is constant.
Calculate temperature on a platinum scale corresponding to
400℃ 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒.

solution

since t = 400℃

then from Rt = R o (1 + 800bt − bt 2 )

substituting the value of t to the eqn above

R θ = R o (1 + 800 × 400b − 4002 b

R θ = R o (1 + 320000b − 160000b)

R θ = R o (1 + 160000b) − − − − − (i)

R100 = R o (1 + 800 × 100b − 1002 b)

R100 = R o (1 + 80000b − 10000b)

R100 = R o (1 + 70000b) − − − (ii)

Rθ − Ro
but θ = ( ) 100℃
R100 − R o
R o − 160000R o b − R o
θ = ( ) 100
R o − 70000R o b – R o

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
160000R o b
θ = ( ) 100
70000R o b

θ = 228.57℃

Example 09:

The resistance 𝑅𝑡 of platinum wire at temperature 𝑡℃ measured on the

gas scale is given by 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏𝑡 2 ) where 𝑎 = 3.8 ×
10−3and 𝑏 = −5 × 10−3 . What temperature will be platinum
thermometer indicate when temperature on gas scale is 200℃

solution

θ = 200℃
−3
R θ = R o (1 + 3.8 × 10 × 200 ± 5 × 10−3 × 2002 )

R θ = −198.24R o − − − − − − − −(i)

R100 = R o (1 + 3.8 × 10−3 × 100 − 5 × 10−3 × 1002

R100 = −48.62R o − − − − − −(ii)

Rθ − Ro
from θ = ( ) 100
R100 − R o
−198.24 − R o
θ = ( ) 100
−48.62R o − R o

θ = 4.015 × 100

θ = 401.5℃

Example 10: A liquid in glass thermometer uses liquid of which the

volume varies with temperature according to the equation Vθ =
Vo (1+∝ θ + bθ2 ) where ∝ = b × 103 . What temperature will be
indicated on liquid in glass scale when that gas thermometer if 80℃

solution

given θ = 80℃

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
3
∝ = b × 10

from Vθ = Vo (1+∝ θ + bθ2 )

Vθ = Vo (1 + b × 103 × 80 + b × 802 )

Vθ = Vo (1 + b × 103 + b × 6400)

Vθ = Vo (1 + 86400b) − − − − − (i)

V100 = Vo (1 + b × 103 × 100 + b × 1002 )

Vθ = Vo (1 + 110000b) − − − − − − − (ii)
Vθ − Vo
from θ = ( ) 100℃
V100 – Vo
Vo + 86400bVo − Vo
θ=( ) 100
Vo + 110000bVo − Vo
86400
θ = ( ) 100
110000
θ = 78.55℃

1.8.5. Thermocouple Thermometer

Is the type of thermometer whose measurements of temperature

depends on the variation of electromagnetic force.

Thermometer is made up with two dissimilar wires metals for example

iron (Fe) and copper (Cu).

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

The temperature of hot junction at which e.m.f is maximum is called

neutral temperature.

The temperature of hot junction at which e.m.f is zero is called

Temperature of inversion.
Eθ − Eo
then θ = ( ) 𝟏𝟎𝟎℃
𝐄𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐄𝐨

The variation of e. m. f in thermocouple with temperature is given by

the relation

E. m. f = Aθ + Bθ2

where A and B are constant.

The graph of e. m. f against temperature is curve.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

θN = Neutral temperature

θI = Temperature of inversion

from the graph

θN − 0℃ = θI − θN

θN = θI – θN

θI = 2θN

inversion temperature is twice times the

neutral temperature

also E = Aθ + Bθ2

differentiating the eqn above

dE = Adθ + 2θBdθ
dE
= A + 2θB
dθ
but when E is maximum θ = θN
dE
since = 0
dθ
0 = A + 2θB

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
0 = A + 2BθN

2BθN = −A
A
θN = −
2B
Again E = Aθ + Bθ2

where E = 0 then θ = θI

0 = AθI + Bθ2I

−Aθ = Bθ2I

−A = BθI
A
θI = −
B
Example 11:

In a thermocouple thermometer the temperature of hot junction is 10℃

while the neutral temperature is 270℃ . Find the temperature of
inversion.

solution

given θN = 270℃

θI = ?, tempearture of hot junction = 10℃

from θN − 0℃ = θI − θN

θI = (270 − 10) + 270

θI = 530℃

hence the temperature of inversion is 530℃

Example 12:

19
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The e. m. f of a certain thermocouple thermometer varies with
temperature θ of a hot junction with a cold junction at 0℃ in relation
below
θ2
E = 40θ – 20
, Determine

i. Neutral temperature
ii. Inversion temperature

solution

from the given equation above

θ2
E = 40θ −
20
2θdθ
dE = 40dθ –
20
θdθ
dE = 40dθ −
10
dE θ
= 40 –
dθ 10
dE
= 0
dθ
θ
0 = 40 −
10
θ
40 =
10
θ = 400℃
dE
when = 0 then θ = θN
dθ
hence neutral temperature is 400℃

(ii)Inversion temperature obtained when

20
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
E = 0

Hence from the equation

θ2
E = 40θ −
20
θ2
0 = 40θ −
20
θ2
40θ =
20
θ
40 =
20
θ = 800℃

or

θN − 0℃ = θI − θN

θI = (400 − 0) + 400

θI = 800℃

hence the inversion temperature = 800℃

Example 13:

The e. m. f of Cu-Fe thermocouple varies with temperature of hot

junction (cold junction 0℃) as given below

E(mv) = 14θ − 0.02θ2 . Calculate

i. Inversion temperature
ii. Neutral temperature

solution

21
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(i)inversion temperature

from the given equation

E = 14θ − 0.02θ2

At θI , E = 0

0 = 14θ − 0.02θ2

14θ = 0.02θ2

14 = 0.02θ
14
θ =
0.02
θ = 700℃

inversion temperature = 700℃

(ii)Neutral temperature

E = 14θ − 0.02θ2

dE = 14dθ − 0.04dθ
dE
= 14 − 0.04θ
dθ
dE
At θN , = 0
dθ
0 = 14 − 0.04θ

0.04θ = 14
14
θ =
0.04
θ = 350℃

1.8.6. Pyrometer

22
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Is the type of thermometer which is used to measure temperature of
radiation from the hot objects, Example Furnace

The radiation of temperature depends on intensity (I) of a radiation.

Iθ − Io
θ = ( ) 100℃
I100 − Io

Types Of Pyrometer

i. Total radiation pyrometer Is the type of pyrometer which is

used to measure the temperature of bodies which emits
invisible radiation. Example Radiation from furnace
ii. Optical pyrometer Is the type of pyrometer which is used to
measure temperature of bodies which emits visible radiation.
Example Radiation from the sun.

1.9. Worked Examples Set 01

1. A constant volume gas thermometer and a thermocouple

thermometer are used together to measure a boiling point of a certain
liquid X. the reading of the two thermometers at the ice point, steam
point and the boiling point of X were given in the table below

23
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Gas thermometer Thermocouple thermometer

Ice point 101kPa 0mV

Steam point 138kPa 5.4mV

Boiling point X 124kPa 3.4mV

Calculate

(i) The boiling point of X

(ii) Its boiling point on the thermocouple centigrade scale.

Solution
Pθ − P0
θ = ( ) × 100℃
P100 − Po
124 − 101
=( ) × 100℃
138 − 101
θ = 62.16℃

(ii)the boiling point on the thermocouple

centigrade scale is
Eθ − E o
θ = ( ) × 100℃
E100 − E0
3.4 − 0.0
θ = ( ) 100℃
5.4 − 0.0
θ = 62.96℃

[Link] table below gives data for two thermometers at three different
temperatures (the ice point, the steam point and room temperatures)
Type of property Ice point Steam point Room
thermometer temperature
Gas Pressure in 760 1040 795
mmHg
thermistor Current in mA 12.0 54.0 15.0

24
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(i) Calculate the temperature of the room according to each
thermometer
(ii) State why thermometers disagree in their value for room
temperature
(iii) Explain why a gas thermometer is seldom used for
temperature measurement in the laboratory.

solution

(a)the room temperature on the gas scale

Pθ − Po
θgas = ( ) 100℃
P100 − Po
795 − 760
θgas = ( ) 100℃
1040 − 760
= 12.5℃

the room temperature on the resistance scale

Rθ − Ro
θresistance = ( ) 100℃
R100 − R o
15 − 12
= ( ) 100℃
54 − 12
θresistance = 7.1℃

(c)Because it is bulky, does not give direct reading and it is very slow
in operation.

3. The relation connecting the magnitude of X and the absolute

temperature T is given by
a
X =
T − 273
When T is greater than 223K and a is constant. Derive an expression
for the celcius temperature t based on this scale and establish the
relation between t and T. What is the value of t corresponding to T =
423K?

25
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
solution
Xθ − Xo
from the relation θ = ( ) 100℃
X100 − X o

X θ is the value of property X at

temperature θ to be determined
a
X =
T − 223
at ice point 0℃, T = 223K
a a
Xo = =
273 − 223 50
at steam point 100℃, T = 373K
a a
X100 = =
373 − 273 150
at temperature t℃, T = T
a
Xt =
T − 223
the temperature on centigrade scale is
Xθ − Xo
t = ( ) 100℃
X100 − X o
a a
−
T−223 50
t = ( a a ) 100℃
150
− 50

3 T − 273
t = ( ) 100℃
2 T − 223
3 50
t = (1 − ) 100℃
2 T − 223
3 50
t = (1 − ) 100℃
2 423 − 223

26
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
t = 112.5℃

4. What type of thermometer would you use to measure each of the

following. In each case explain the reason for your choice.

(i) The boiling point of water on the mountain

(ii) The temperature just after the ignition in a cylinder of an
internal combustion engine.
(iii) The temperature of the filament of an electric lamp
(iv) The normal melting point of zinc.

Answers:

(i) Platinum resistance thermometer: it is very accuracy

than all other thermometer except gas thermometer.
It is also responds quickly than the gas thermometer.
(ii) Thermocouple thermometer: it respond quickly to
varying temperature and it is also suitable to
measure temperature of a point
(iii) Optical pyrometer: this respond to visible radiation
emitted by the filament it is only thermometer for
measuring high temperature
(iv) Platinum resistance thermometer: it is accuracy and
it respond quickly compared to gas thermometer.

5. The resistance of the given wire at various temperatures on constant

volume gas scale are as follows
t℃ 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
R 5.00 5.08 5.16 5.23 5.31 5.4 5.5 5.61 5.73 5.86 6.00
(Ohm)
Find

(i) The temperature on the resistance scale corresponding to

75℃ on the gas scale.
(ii) The temperature on the scale corresponding to 35℃ on
the resistance scale

solution
5.73+5.61
(i)at 75℃ R = 2
= 5.67

27
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
R o = 5.0Ω, R100 = 6.00Ω
Rθ − Ro
θ = ( ) 100℃
R100 − R o
5.67 − 5.0
θ = ( ) 100℃
6.00 − 5.0
θ = 67℃

(ii) the resistance corresponds to 35℃ is

R − 5
35 = ( ) 100℃
6 −5
R−5
0.35 =
1
R = 5 + 0.35

R = 5.32Ω

6. The apparent expansion of a liquid in glass is given by Vt = Vo (1 +

β
αt + βt 2 ),where = −8 × 10−5 ℃−1, and t is the centigrade
α
temperature measured by constant volume air thermometer. Calculate
the reading of the liquid thermometer if an air thermometer in the
same enclosure reads 50℃.

volume at 0℃, = Vo

volume at the steam point V100 = Vo (1 + 100α + 10000β)

volume at 50℃ V50 = Vo (1 + 50α + 2500β)

then the liquid in thermometer is

Vθ − Vo
θ = ( ) × 100℃
V100 − Vo

Vo (1 + 50α + 2500β) − Vo
θ = ( ) × 100℃
Vo (1 + 100α + 10000β) − Vo

28
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
α + 50β
θ = ( ) × 50℃
α + 100β

β = −8 × 10−5

α − (50 × 8 × 10−5 α)
θ = ( ) × 50
α − (100 × 8 × 10−5 α)

0.996α
θ = × 50℃
0.992α
θ = 50.20℃

1.10. Competetitive Examination File Unit Set 01:

Problem 01

A thermometer uses mercury as liquid in glass experiments show

that the length of mercury at 0 and 100 are 5cm and 7cm
respectively. At a certain temperature the length of the mercury is
found to be 6.5cm, find this certain temperature. (Answer: 𝛉 =
𝟕𝟓℃)

Problem 02

The pressure recorded by a constant volume gas thermometer at a

Kelvin temperature T is 4.80 x 104Nm-2. Calculate T if the
pressure at triple point 273.16K is 4.20 x 104Nm-2. (Answer. T =
312K)

Problem 03

The resistance of a platinum wire at a temperature θ℃, measured

on gas scale is given by R θ = R o (1 + aθ + bθ2 ) Where a =
3.8 × 10−3 and b = −5.6 × 10−7 . What temperature will the

29
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
platinum thermometer indicate when the temperature on a gas
scale is 200℃

Problem 04

The pressure of air in a constant volume gas thermometer is

80cm and 109.3cm at 0℃ and 100℃ respectively. When the bulb
is placed in hot water, the pressure is 100cm. calculate the
temperature of hot water

Problem 05

The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is 100Ω at

room temperature of 25℃. In an experiment for measurement of
temperature, the resistance of the thermometer is found to be
115.68Ω. Find the value of temperature given that the
temperature coefficient of resistance of platinum is 0.004/℃.

Problem 06

A constant mass of a gas maintained at constant pressure has a

volume of 200cm3 at the temperature of melting ice, 273.2cm3 at
the temperature of water boiling under standard pressure and
525.1cm3 at the normal boiling point of sulphur. A platinum wire
has resistances of 2.00Ω, 2.778Ω, and 5.280Ω at these
temperatures. Calculate the values of boiling- point of sulphur
given by the two sets of observations and comment on the
results.

Problem 07

In the thermocouple, the temperature of the cold junction is 10

while the neutral temperature is 270 . What is the value of
temperature of inversion?.

Problem 08

30
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
In a certain thermocouple the thermo e. m. f E is given by E =
1
αθ + 2 βθ2 where θ is the temperature of the hot junction and
the cold junction being at 0℃. If α = 10μV/℃ and β =
1
− 20 μV/℃, find

(i) The neutral temperature

(ii) The temperature of inversion

Problem 09

(a) What does one require in order to establish a scale of

temperature?

(b) A Copper – constant thermocouple with its cold junction at

0 had an EMF of 4.28mV with its other junction at 100℃. The
EMF becomes 9.29mV when the temperature of the hot junction
was 200℃. If the EMF E is related to the temperature different
θ by the equation E = Aθ + Bθ2 , Calculate

(i) The values of A and B

(ii) The range of temperature of which E may be assumed

proportional to θ without incurring an error of more that 1%?

Problem 10

The resistance R t of a platinum varies with temperature t

according to the equation R t =R0 (1 + 8000bt – bt2) where “b” is
a constant. Calculate the temperature on platinum scale
corresponding to 400℃ on the gas scale.

Problem 11

(a) Define the thermodynamic temperature scale

31
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) The resistance of a platinum resistance thermometer is
1.20Ω when measuring a Kelvin temperature T of a body and
1.00Ω at the triple point of water. Find T and its centigrade
equivalent.

Problem 12

(a) What do you understand by the terms

(i) Thermodynamic temperature scale

(ii) Triple point of water

(b) The resistance of a platinum wire at temperature T℃ measured

on a gas scale is given by R (T) = R0 (1 + aT + bT 2 ). What
temperature will the platinum thermometer indicate when the
temperature on the gas scale is 200 ?

(Take a =3.8 x 10-3 and b = −5.6 x 10-7)

Problem 13

(a) Define

(i) Thermodynamic temperature scale

(ii) How thermodynamic temperature donated and what is its

SI unit?

(iii) Explain why a gas thermometer is seldom used for

temperature measurement in the laboratory?

32
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) Study the table below and answer the questions which
follow:

(i) Calculate the temperature of the room for each thermometer

(ii) Explain why thermometers disagree in their values of room

temperature.

(iii)What are the advantages of gas thermometer over

liquid in-glass thermometers?

Problem 14

(a) (i) Describe how mercury in glass thermometer could be

made sensitive.

(ii) A sensitive thermometer can be used to investigate the

difference in temperature between the top and bottom of the
waterfall. Calculate the temperature difference of the water
fall 50m high.

(b) (i) Platinum resistance thermometer and constant volume

gas thermometer are based on different thermometric properties
but they are calibrated using the same fixed points. To what
extent are the thermometers likely to agree when used to measure
temperature near the ice point and near the steam point.
(ii)The resistance of the element of a platinum resistance

33
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
thermometer is 2.0Ω at ice point and 2.73Ω at steam point. What
temperature on the platinum resistance scale would correspond to
resistance value of 8.34Ω and when measured on the gas scale the
same temperature will correspond to a value of 1020℃? Explain
the discrepancy.

Problem 15

(a) (i) What is meant by a thermometric property of a

substance?

(ii) What qualities make a particular property suitable for

use in practical thermometers

(b) Explain

(i) Why at least two (2) fixed points are required to define a
temperature scale?

(ii) Mention the type of thermometer which is most suitable for

calibration of thermometers.

34
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

C HEAT TRANSFER
Chapter 2
Haet Transfer
Is a flow of heat energy from one point to another due to temperature
difference between the points.

OR

This is the transfer of heat energy from one body or system to

another as a result of difference in temperature. In general heat
energy transfers from the region of higher temperature to the
region of lower temperature

Ways Of Heat Transfer

i. Thermal radiation
ii. Thermal convection.
iii. Thermal conduction

2.1. Thermal Conduction

Is a flow of heat energy from one point to another point due to

vibration of particles about their mean position.

Or Is the process in which heat flow from hotter region to the colder
region of an objects without any next movement of substance particle
itself.

Consider the figure below

35
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
As the energy applied in one side it makes the molecules collision of
the conductor particle as the particle vibrate about their mean position
it collide with neighbor, one some energy applied to them.

 Conductor Is the substance which allow heat energy to pass

through it example iron and aluminum.
 Insulator Is the substance which does not allow heat energy to
pass through it. Example Plastic, Glass, wood and rubber.
 Steady state condition Is the phenomena for which rate of
heat flow of each cross section area is constant but not the
dθ
same. hence dt = constant
 Lagging Is the process of covering conductor with an insulator
in order to prevent heat loss to the surrounding.

dθ
lagging material
dt
 Unlagged Conductor
Is the conductor which do not covered by insulating materials.
For unlagged conductor the rate of heat flow is not constant.
 Rate of heat flow
Is the flow of heat energy per unit time. The SI –unit is watt or
J/s
 Temperature difference
Is the difference interval between two points
∆θ = dθ = θ2 − θ1 if θ2 > θ1
 Temperature gradient
Is the temperature difference per unit length of a conductor
θ − θ
g = 2 l 1
 Cross sectional area
Is the section of area on a conductor where heat is conducted
NB:Due to experimental investigation the following
observation observed

36
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dθ
a) The rate of heat flow dt is directly
proportional to
the temperature gradient
dθ θ − θ
∝ 2 1 − − − − − (i)
dt l
b) The rate of heat flow is directly proportional to the
cross sectional area
dθ
∝ A − − − − − − − (ii)
dt
Combining the two equations
dθ θ2 − θ1
∝ A( ) iff θ2 > θ1
dt l
dθ θ2 − θ1
= kA ( )
dt l
k is a proportionality constant
called Thermoconductivity

NB: Good conductor of heat have large value of thermo conductivity

(k)

Then from the equation

dθ θ2 − θ1
= kA ( )
dt l
k can be obtained
dθ
( ) l = kA(θ2 − θ1 )
dt
dθ
( dt ) l
k =
A(θ2 − θ1 )

hence kis the measure how easily a substance

conduct heat

Or k is the rate of heat flow per cross section area per temperature
gradient. The unit of K is w/mK and its dimensional variables with
dimension [MLT −3 θ−1 ]

Consider a table below

37
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
substance K in w⁄mk
Silver 420
Copper 380-400
Aluminum 200
Steel 40
Glass 0.84
Brick 0.84

This is the process in which heat flows from the hot end to the
cold end of the solid body without there being any net movement
of the particles of the solid.

2.1.1. Mechanism Of Thermal Conduction

Mechanism 1

The molecules of a solid vibrate about their fixed positions with

an energy that increases with temperature.

When a part of the solid is heated, the molecules there start

vibrating more violently.

Since neighboring molecules are bound to each other, a molecule

vibrating with larger energy will transfer some of its energy to its
neighbors which in turn will transfer energy to the next neighbors
and so on.

Mechanism 2

In case of metals heat energy can also be transported by the free

electrons.

Since the electrons are very small, they can travel rapidly around
throughout the specimen transferring energy by collision to other
electrons and other molecules.

38
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Hence, the electrons are more effective in transferring energy
from the hotter part to the colder part of the material than the
mechanism explained above (mechanism 1)

This explains why thermal conduction in metals is much more

than that in insulator. In metals heat energy is mainly carried by
the free electrons although some energy is carried by
intermolecular vibration.

2.1.2. Temperature Distribution Along Conductor

(i) Lagged conductor

If the metal bar is well-lagged with a bad conductor of heat

such as asbestos and wool the temperature now falls
uniformly from the hot end to the cold end of the bar.

A graph of temperature against length of the bar is shown below:

dθ
= constant
dt
there is no heat loss from a conductor

39
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
the radial heat lines are uniform

(ii) Unlagged conductor

dθ
is not constant
dt
there is heat given out (lost)from the conductor

The radial heat lines are not uniform they are randomly

Since the metal bar is well-lagged no heat is lost to the

surrounding and a graph of fall of temperature against length of
the bar is a straight line (see figure above).

Sketch showing the temperature distribution along a conductor with

length for both lagged and unlagged bar in one area

For lagged for unlagged

40
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The shaded part represent the heat lost by the bar

NB: for the formation of

dθ θ2 − θ1
= kA ( ) is valid iff there is no
dt l
heat lost (means the conductor is lagged)

2.1.3. Composite Bars (Rods)

If two or more bars are connected in any way and then allowed to
conduct heat, The rate of heat flow can be analyzed as follows

[Link] Series Connection

A composite bars is that bar consisting of two or more metal bars

of different materials joined end to end.

Consider a composite bar made of different materials of

coefficient of thermal conductivities K1 and K2 respectively

Consider the figure below

if θ1 > θ2 > θ3 in series connection

the rate of heat flow is constant in

each bar

41
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dθ dθ dθ
hence ( )1 = ( ) = ( )
dt dt 2 dt 3
dθ θ1 − θ2
but = kA ( )
dt l
k1 A(θ1 − θ2 ) k 2 A(θ2 − θ3 )
=
L1 L2

[Link] Parallel Connection

In parallel connection the total rate of heat flow is the sum of

individual rate of heat flow of each conductor as the figure below show

θ1 L θ2

𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
dθ dθ dθ dθ
( ) = ( ) + ( ) + ( )
dt T dt 1 dt 2 dt 3
dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
since =
dt L
dθ k1 A(θ1 − θ2 ) k 2 A(θ1 − θ2 ) k 3 A(θ1 − θ2 )
( ) = + +
dt T L L L
dθ A(θ1 − θ2 )
( ) = (k1 + k 2 + k 3 )
dt T L

2.1.4 Thermoresistance

Is the opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of heat through it.

Or is the temperature difference per unit rate of heat flow.

42
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
θ1 − θ2
Rθ = dθ
iff θ1 > θ2
dt

R θ is related with conductivity k by the following formula

dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
from = − − − − − (i)
dt L
θ1 − θ2
also R θ = dθ
− − − −(ii)
dt

substituting eqn (i)into eqn )ii)

θ1 − θ2
Rθ =
θ1 − θ2
(kA ( L
))

1
Rθ = 1
kA (L)

L
Rθ =
kA
Thermo resistance (R θ )is inversely proportional to the
thermoconductivity if L and A remain constant then the unit
R θ is wk

Thermo resistance in series

L1 L2
dθ k1 A(θ1 − θ2 )
=
dt L1

43
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
L1 dθ
θ1 − θ2 = ( ) − − − − − (i)
k1 A dt

for conductor 2

dθ k 2 A(θ2 − θ3 )
=
dt L2
L2 dθ
θ2 − θ3 = ( ) − − − − − (ii)
k 2 A dt

add the two equations

L1 dθ
θ1 − θ2 = ( )
k1 A dt
+
L2 dθ
θ2 – θ3 = ( )
{ k 2 A dt
dθ L1 L2
θ1 − θ3 = ( + )
dt k1 A k 2 A
θ1 − θ3 L1 L2
dθ
=( + )
k1 A k 2 A
dt

L1 L2
but + = Rθ
k1 A k 2 A
dθ
R θ = (θ1 − θ3 )/
dt
L1
R θ1 =
k1 A
L2
R θ2 =
k2A

Since R θT = R θ1 + R θ2

R = R1 + R 2

for parallel bars

44
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
In parallel bars total rate of heat flow is the sum of bars rate of heat
flow.

θ1 L θ2

k 1 R1 𝐴1

k2 R2 𝐴2

dθ k1 A2 (θ1 − θ2 )
( ) = − − − −(i)
dt 1 L
dθ k 2 A2 (θ1 − θ2 )
( ) = − − − −(ii)
dt 2 L
dθ k1 A1 (θ1 − θ2 ) k 2 A2 (θ1 − θ2 )
( ) = +
dt T L L
1 k1 A k2A
= [ + ]
RT L L
1 1 1
= +
RT R1 R2

2.1.5 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 02:

Problem 01

Calculate the quantity of heat conducted through 2m2 of

brick-wall 12cm thick in 1 hour if the temperature on one
side is 8 and the other side is 28 . Given that thermal
conductivity of brick = 0.13Wm-1K-1

Problem 02

45
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Estimate the rate at which ice melts in a wooden box 2cm thick
and inside measurements 60cm x 60cm x 60cm, assume that
external temperature is 27℃ and coefficient of thermal
conductivity of wood = 0.1674 Wm -1K-1. Specific latent heat of
fusion of ice = 336 x 103 Jkg-1

Problem 03

Two cylinders of equal physical dimensions are placed one on

top of the other as illustrated below.

The lower surface of the silver cylinder is kept at 0℃ and the

upper surface of the iron cylinder is kept at 100℃. Given that the
thermal conductivity of silver is eleven times that of iron,
calculate the temperature of the surface AB

Problem 04

A composite bar is made of a bar of copper 10cm long, a bar of

iron 8cm long and a bar of aluminium 12cm long, all having the
same cross – sectional area. If the extreme ends of the bars are
maintained at 100℃ and 10℃ respectively, find the temperature

46
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
at the two junctions. Given that thermal conductivity of copper,
iron and aluminium are 400, 40 and 20 Wm-1K-1 respectively.

Problem 05

A window of height 1.0m and 1.5m contains a double glazed unit

consisting of two single glass panes, each of thickness 4.0mm
separated by an air gap of 70mm. Calculate the heat energy per
second conducted through the window when the temperature
difference across the unit is 10K.

Problem 06

An electric heater is used in a room of total wall area 137m2 to

maintain a temperature of 20℃ inside it when the outside
temperature is 10℃. The walls have three layers of different
materials. The innermost layer is of wood of thickness 2.5cm, the
middle layer is of cement of thickness 1.0cm and the outermost
layer is of brick of thickness 25cm. Find the power of electric
heater. Assume that there is no heat loss through the floor and
ceiling. Thermal conductivity of wood, cement and brick are 1.25
Wn-1K-1,1.5 Wm-1K-1 and 1.0 Wn -1K-1 respectively.

Problem 07

(a) What does it mean by thermal conductivity of substance.

(b) Find the heat lost per square meter through a cavity wall
when the temperature difference between the inside and outside
is 15℃, given that each of the two brick layers is 100mm thick
and the cavity is also 100mm across. Brick = 1.0 Wm-1K-1
Air = 0.025 Wm-1K-1
Problem 08
(a) Assuming you are managing a metal box company what
requirements for thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and
coefficient of expansion would you want a material to be used
as a cooking utensil to satisfy.
47
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) A hot water boiler consists of iron wall of thickness 2.0cm
and effective inner area of 2.5m2. The boiler is heated by a
furnace and generates high pressure steam of temperature
170℃ at the rate of 1.2kgmin-1. The latent heat of steam at
170℃ is 2.09 x 106 Jkg-1. Assuming the outer face of the boiler to
be at a temperature of 178℃, what is the coefficient of thermal
conductivity of iron?

Problem 09

A copper kettle has a circular base of radius 10cm and thickness

3.0mm. The upper surface of the base is covered by a uniform
layer of scale 1.0mm thick. The kettle contains water which is
brought to the boil over an electric heater. In the steady state
condition, 5.0g of steam is produced each minute. Determine the
temperature of the lower surface of the base assuming the
condition of heat along the surface of the cattle can be neglected.
Thermal conductivities: -

Copper = 3.8 x 102 Wm -1k-1

Scale = 1.34 Wm -1k-1

Specific latent heat of steam = 226 x 103 JKg -1

Problem 10

(a) Define thermal conductivity of a material

(b) Heat is supplied at the rate of 80W to one end of a well –

lagged copper bar of uniform cross – sectional area 10cm2 having
a total length of 20cm. The heat is removed by water cooling at
the other end of the bar. Temperature recorded by two
thermometers T1 and T2 at distance 5cm and 15cm from the hot
end are 48℃ and 28℃ respectively.

(i) Calculate the thermal conductivity of copper

48
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(ii) Estimate the rate of flow ( in g/min) of cooling water
sufficient for the water temperature to rise by 5

(iii) What is the temperature of the cold end of the bar.

Problem.11
(a) (i)The thermal conductivity β of a substance may be defined
dq dθ
by the end equation dt = −βA dx

(ii) Identify briefly each term in this equation and explain the
minus sign.

(iii) Describe briefly one method of measuring thermal

conductivity of a bad conductor in the form of disc.

(b) One end of a well lagged copper rod is placed in a steam

chest and a 0.6kg mass of copper is attached to the other end of
the rod with an area of 2cm2. When steam at 100℃ is passed into
the chest and a steady-state is reached the temperature of the
mass of copper rises by 4℃ per minutes; if the temperature of the
surrounding is 15℃ . Calculate the length of the rod. Given that:
Specific heat capacity of copper = 400Jkg-1K-1. Thermal
conductivity of copper = 360Wm -1K-1

2.1.6 Growth Of Ice In Pond

Freezing of ponds from a surface downwards depends on two facts

(i) The water is densest at about 4℃.

(ii) Heat is abstracted from the top only.

If the air above a pond is at, say −10℃, convection will be maintained
normally until the whole of the water in the pond is at 4℃. Next, below
this temperature the coolest liquid stays at the top and a thin layer of
ice forms. The eventual thickness of the coating of the ice is
determined by conduction and the length of time for which this
operates

49
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
ASSUMPTIONS

a) Heat is transferred by conduction through the layer of ice

b) The temperature above the surface of ice is constant at – θ,
the temperature of air above ice .
c) The temperature below the surface of the ice is constant at
0℃
d) There is no absorption of heat from the bulky of the surface.

Let θ be the temperature of ice contact with air and θ1 be the

temperature of ice in contact with water.

Then let x be the thickness of ice at time t and dx be rise in the

thickness after small interval of time dt

Then the rate of heat of fusion will be given

dθ dm
= Lf ( ) − − − − − −(i)
dt dt
where Lf = latent heat of fusion
dm
= rate of mass increase
dt
but mass (m) = ρv

Volume (v) = Adx

m = ρAdx − − − −(ii)

substituting into equation (i)

dθ Lf ρAdx
=
dt dt
dθ dx
= Lf ρA ( ) − − − − − (iii)
dt dt
The rate of heat conduction

dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
=
dt dx

50
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
since the system is in series

heat of conduction = heat of fusion

kA(θ1 − θ2 ) dx
= Lf ρA ( )
dx dt
dx kA(θ1 − θ2 )
=
dt Lf ρdx

2.1.7 Application Of Thermal Conductivity In Daily Life

i. Cooking utensils are made up of metal with handles of high

conductivity source metal have k
ii. Thick walls are used in construction of houses.
iii. To prevent ice melting if is placed in gunny bags.
iv. In cold countries windows have two pores of glass with layer
in between.
v. In thermos flask stopper is made up of woody or plastic
materials to prevent heat loss by conduction
vi. When water is poured into the beaker of thick walls glass
cracks. The inner surface expand on heating but glass is bad
conductor of heat so heat does not reach outside.

Example 14:

Calculate the quantity of heat conducted through 2m2of brick wall

12cm thickness an 1hour if the temperature of one side is 8℃ and on
other side is 28℃ given that (k = 0.13wm−1 k −1 )

solution

A = 2m2 , θ1 = 8℃

θ2 = 28℃ , L = 12cm or 0.12m

k = 0.13wm−1 k −1

dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
from =
dt L

51
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
H kA(θ1 − θ2 )
=
t L
kA(θ1 − θ2 )
H = ×t
L
2(28 − 8)
H = 0.13 × × 3600
0.12
H = 156000J

Heat requred = 156KJ

Example 15:

Two cylinder of equal physical condition are placed on top of each

other as shown below

iron

Heat flow silver

100℃

Given that conductivity of silver is eleven times that of iron . Find the
temperature of surface AB and state the assumption made from your
solution.

solution

let conductivity of silver be x

and that of iron be y

x = 11y

θ1 100℃

52
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
θ2 = 0℃

length of iron = length of silver since the bars are in series

hence in series connection:

rate of heat flow in iron = rate of heat flow in silver

dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
from =
dt L
for iron

yA(100 − θ) xA(θ − 0℃)

=
L L
since x = 11y

yA(100 − θ) 11yA(θ − 0℃)

=
L L
100 − θ = 11θ

100 = 11θ + θ

12θ = 100
100
θ =
12
θ = 8.3℃

assumption the cylinder was lagged

Example 16:

A temperature gradient in a 0.5m long rod is 80 ℃⁄m. The

temperature of hot end is 30℃. Find the temperature of the cold end

solution

L = 0.5cm, Temp gradient = 80 ℃⁄m

θ1 = 30℃, θ2 = ?

53
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
θ1 − θ2
from temp gradiend =
L
30 − θ2
80 =
0.5
80(0.5) = 30 − θ2

40 − 30 = −θ2

θ2 = −10℃

Example 17:

The opposite faces of cubical block of iron of cross section area 4cm2
and of thickness of 0.5m are kept in contact with steam and melting ice.
Calculate the quantity of ice melted in 10minutes. Given of thermal
conductivity of iron is 83wm−1 C−1 and latent heat of fusion of ice is
336 × 103 Jkg −1

solution

Rate of conduction

dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
= − − − − − (i)
dt L
rate of fusion
dθ mLf
= − − − − − −(ii)
dt t
rate of conduction = rate of fusion
kA(θ1 − θ2 ) mLf
=
L t
required mass of ice

kAt(θ1 − θ1 )
m =
Lf L

54
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
−4
83 × 4 × 10 × 600(100 − 0)
m =
336 × 103 × 0.5
mass of ice melted = 0.01187kg

Example 18:

Two solid copper spheres of diameter 10cm and 5cm are at

temperatures which are respectively 10℃ and 5℃aove that of
surrounding. Assuming Newton’s la and condition to apply, compare
the rate of fall of temperatures of two spheres. Indicate assumption
made in your calculation.

solution

the rate of loss of heat by spheres is given by

dθ
mc = −kA( θ − θs )
dt
but m = ρv

4πr 3 ρ
m = and area A = 4πr 2
3
dθ 3k(θ − θs )
= −
dt rρc

for the first sphere

dθ θ1 − θs
( ) = −3k − − − − − −(i)
dt t r1 ρc

for the second sphere

dθ −3k (θ2 − θs )
( ) = − − − − − −(ii)
dt 2 r2 ρc

dividing eqni by ii

55
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dθ
( dt ) 1 r2 θ1 − θs
dθ
= ( )( )
( dt ) r1 θ2 − θs
2

5 10
= ( )( )
10 5
=1
dθ
( )
dt 1
dθ
= 1
( dt ) 2

Example 19:

A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15m2 and the thickness of 1cm. It
boils water at the rate of 6kg/m when placed on the gas stone. What is
the temperature of a flame contact with boiler Given conductivity of
brass 109wm−1 k −1 latent heat of vaporization of water 2.25 ×
106 J/kg

solution

A = 0.15m2 , l = 1m

k of brass = 109wm−1 k −1

latent of vaporization = 2.25 × 106 J⁄kg

θ2 = 100℃, θ1 = ?

dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
from = for conduction
dt L
for vaporizatio
θ mLV
=
t t
kA(θ1 − θ2 ) Lv dm
=
L dt

56
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
0.1(θ1 − 100)
109 × = 2.25 × 106 × 6
0.01
θ1 − 100 = 137.6

θ1 = 137.6 + 100

temperature will be = 237.6℃

Example 20:

The closed metal vessel contain water at 30℃. The vessel has surface
area of 0.5m2 and uniform thickness of 40mm if the outside
temperature is 15℃. Calculate the heat lost per minute by conduction
give thermal conductivity of metal is 400wm−1 k −1

solution

L = 0.04m, k = 400wm−1 k −1

θ1 = 30℃, θ2 = 15℃
dθ kA(θ1 − θ2 )
=
dt L
dθ 400 × 0.5(30 − 15)
=
dt 0.04
dθ 15
= 200 ( )
dt 0.04
dθ
= 75000 J⁄min
dt

2.2. Thermal Convection

Is the process of heat transfer from one point to another due to actual
movement of heated body molecules.

Thermal convection it mostly occurred in fluid liquids and gases.

dθ
Rate of heat loss is the quantity of heat lost per unit time ( dt )

57
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The SI- unit is watt or (J/s)

Excess temperature is the difference between body temperature and

surrounding temperature.

Excess temp = θ − θs iff θ > θs

where θ is body temperature

θs surrounding temperature.

Thermal convections classified into two types.

i. Natural or free convection

ii. Forced or artificial convection

2.2.1. Natural Convection

Is the type of convection in which heated body molecules flow due to

difference in density or pressure example boiling point of liquid. It
remove heat naturally.

This is a type of convection in which a heated fluid flows from

the hot region to the cold region due to differences in density.

Example
When a fluid is heated from below, the lower part of the fluid
become hot and therefore expands.
Its density decreases due to the increase in volume of fluid
molecules. Its position is displaced by cold fluid from the top .
This in turn gets heated and rises to the top and this process
continues as shown the figure below

58
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

2.2.2. Forced Convection

Is the type of convection in which heated body molecules are forced to

move by pumps or blowers

It influence by external factor such as wind blowers in cooling forced.

Forced convection is used in electrical motors for efficiency cooling.

This is the transfer of heat energy from one point to another

without the requirement of any material medium. It is like a
throw of radiant energy. Thermal radiation consist of
electromagnetic waves with a range of wavelengths covering the
infra-red and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

59
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
All bodies continuously emit and absorb thermal radiation in the
form of electromagnetic waves. A body at higher temperature
than the surrounding units it emits more radiation than it
absorbs.

Thus, there is a continuous exchange of radiation between the

body and the surrounding with the result that there will be a rise
or fall in temperature of the body.

2.2.3 Newton’s Law Of Cooling

The law of cooling state that

“The rate of heat loss is directly proportional to excess temperature

over surrounding”
dθ
∝ (θ – θs )
dt
dθ
= −k(θ − θs )
dt
the negative sign show that heat lost to the surrounding.

[Link] Five- Fourth Power Law Of Cooling

This was a modification of Newton’s law of cooling

dθ 5
= −k(θ − θs )4
dt
This was done by PETIT and DULONG. Hence Newton’s law of
cooling modified to

“The rate of heat loss is directly proportional to the excess temperature

power five over four”
dθ 5
∝ (θ − θs )4
dt

60
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
[Link] Limitation Of Newton’s Law Of Cooling

i. The law it carry under excess temperature between

50k and 300k
ii. The law is not used for forced convection.

[Link].Factors Affecting Rate Of Cooling

a) Excess temperature
dθ
i. e ∝ (θ − θs )
dt
dθ
b) Surface area dt ∝ A
c) Volume of a liquid
dθ 1
∝
dt V
2.2.4 Equation Of Cooling.
Consider the cooling curve below

θt

from Newton′ slaw of cooling

dθ
∝ (θ – θs )
dt
θ mCθ
But =
t t
dθ mCdθ
=
dt dt

61
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dθ
if = −k (θ − θs )
dt
dθ
= −kdt
θ − θs

Integrating both sides of the equation

θt t
dθ
∫ = ∫ −kdt
θ − θs
θ 0

t
θt
[In (θ − θs )] = −k ∫ dt
θ
0

In(θt − θs ) − In(θo − θs ) = −kt

θt − θs
In ( ) = −kt
θo − θt
θt − θs
log e ( ) = −kt
θo − θs
θt − θs
= e−kt
θo − θs

θt − θs = (θo − θs )e−kt

θt = θs + (θo − θs )e−kt

this is the equation of cooling

2.2.5 Worked Examples Set 02:

Example 21:

A body cools in 7minutes for 60℃ to 40℃. What will be its

temperature after next 7minutes? The room temperature is 10℃.
Assume Newton’s law of cooling holds good throughout the process

62
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Initial temperature (θo ) = 60℃

Temperature at time t(θ)t = 40℃

temperature of surrounding (θs ) = 10℃

time for cooling t = 7minutes

from the equation of cooling

θt = θs + (θo − θs )e−kt

40 = 10 + (60 − 10)e−7k

30 = 50e−7k
30
= e−7k
50
Apply In both sides
3
In ( ) = −7kIne
5
3
In (5)
k =
−7
k = 0.073

since required to calculate temperature after

7minutes next means (θt )

θt = 10 + 50e−0.073×14

θt = 10 + 17.97

θt = 27.97℃

Example 22.

The temperature of the body falls from 30℃ to 20℃ in 5minutes. The
air temperature is 13℃. Find the temperature after further 5minutes

63
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
solution

θo = 30℃, θt = 20℃, θs = 13℃

from Newton′ slaw of cooling

θt = θs + (θo − θs )e−kt
θt − θs
e−kt =
θo − θs

for the first 5minutes

θt − θs
−5k = In ( )
θo − θs
20 − 13
−5k = In ( )
30 − 13
7
−5k = In ( )
17
k = 0.1775

but required to find temperature after

5minutes (θt )

θt = 13 + (20 − 13)e−(5×0.1775)

θt = 13 + 7 × 0.4118

θt = 15.88℃

Example 23.

A liquid in calorimeter cools from 80℃ to 70℃ in 5minutes. How long

it will take the liquid to cool from 60℃ to 55℃ if the surrounding
temperature is 30℃?. Assume Newton’s law of cooling hold true

consider when

θo = 80℃ , θt = 70℃, θs = 30℃

64
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
the θt = θs + (θo − θs )e−kt
θt − θs
( ) = e−kt
θo − θs
70 − 30
−5k = In ( )
80 − 30
4
−5k = In ( )
5
k = 0.0446

required t when θo = 60℃, θt = 55℃ , θs = 30℃

55 − 30
−0.0446t = In ( )
60 − 30
25
−0.0446t = In ( )
30
−0.0446t = −0.1823
0.1823
t =
0.0446
t = 4.085minutes.

Example 24:

The body is initially at 75℃ cools to 65℃ in 5minutes. The body has
cooled to 57℃ after 5minutes. Determine the surrounding temperature
of a body and temperature of a body after 12minutes.

solution

from Newton′ slaw of cooling

θt − θs
−kt = In ( )
θo − θs

case 1: when θo = 75℃, θt = 60℃, θs = ?

65
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
for first 5minutes
65 – θs
−5k = In ( ) − − − − − (i)
75 – θs

also case 2: when

θo = 65℃, θt = 57℃ θs = ?

for other 5minutes

57 − θs
−5k = In ( ) − − − − − −(ii)
65 − θs

equating the two eqns

65 − θs 57 − θs
In ( ) = In ( )
75 − θs 65 − θs
65 − θs 57 − θs
=
75 − θs 65 − θs

(65 − θs )2 = (75 − θs )(57 − θs )

4225 − 130θs + θ2s = 4275 − 132θs + θ2s

4225 − 130θs = 4275 − 132θs

50 = 2θs

θs = 25℃

calculating the value of k from eqn (i)

65 − 25
−5k = In ( )
75 − 25
4
−5k = In ( )
5
now at t = 12

66
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
θt − 25
−12k = In ( )
75 − 25
1 4 θt − 25
−12 (− In ( )) = In ( )
5 5 50

θt − 25
−0.5355 = In ( )
50
θt − 25
e−0.5355 =
50
θt − 25
0.5854 =
50
29.27 = θt − 25

θt = 29.27 + 25

θt = 54.27℃

Example 25: A body at 80℃ cools to 64℃ in 5 minutes and to 52℃ in

the next 5 minutes. What will be its temperature after 5 minutes?
Calculate temperature of the surroundings.

solution

from Newton′ slaw of cooling

for first 5 minutes

θt − θs
In ( ) = −kt
θo − θs
64 – θs
In ( ) = −5k − − − − − (i)
80 − θs

consider second 5 minute

52 − θs
In ( ) = −5k − − − − − −(ii)
64 − θs

equating the two equations

67
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
52 − θs 64 − θs
In ( ) = In ( )
64 − θs 80 – θs
52 − θs 64 − θs
( ) = ( )
64 − θs 80 − θs

(64 − θs )2 = (52 − θs )(80 − θs )

4096 − 128θs + θ2s = 4160 − 132θs + θ2s

4096 − 128θs = 4160 − 132θs

solving for θ

4θs = 64
64
θs = = 16℃
4
surrounding temperature is 16℃

also require temp after next 5 min

θt = θs + (θo − θs )e−kt

if θs = 16℃ then solve for k

52 − 16
In ( ) = −5k
64 − 16
36
−5k = In ( )
48
1 3
k = − In ( )
5 4
k = 0.05754

θt = 16 + (52 − 16)e−0.05754×5

θt = 16 + 27

θt = 43℃

68
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
hence temp after next 5 min is 43℃

2.2.6 Application Of Convection

 Heating of rooms :A room heater warms air closer to it

which then rises and cool air (denser) moves down to take
their place. This cool air is in turns heated abd rise upward. In
this way convectional currents are set up in the room which
transfers heat to different parts of the room.
 Cooling of transformer :A transformer is always kept in a
tank containing oil so as to remove the heat generated on it
due to the flow of current. The heat is removed by convection.
 Water is poor conductor of heat but water in a beaker can be
warmed quickly due to convection currents.
 Refrigerator use convectional currents of air to cool food
and beverage. Cooling unit cools the air around it and cause it
to sink down thus displacing the bottom warm air upward,
which is then cooled and establish convectional currents.
 Land and sea breeze , are examples of convectional current
in nature

2.2.7 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 03:

Problem 01

A body cools from 40℃ to 30℃ in 5 [Link] temperature of

the room being 15℃, what will be the temperature of the body
after another 5 minutes?

Problem 02

In a room at 15℃ a body cools from 35℃ to 30℃ in 4 minutes.

Find the further time elapse before the temperature of the body is
20℃

69
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Problem 03

Wind blows over a hot liquid placed in a beaker in the laboratory

whose average room temperature is 27℃. The liquid rate of
cooling is 15℃/ min when it is at a temperature of 87℃.
Calculate the liquid rate of cooling when it is at a temperature of
57℃.

Problem 04

A body initially at 80℃ cools to 64℃ in 5 minutes and 52℃ in 10

minutes. What will be the temperature after 15 minutes and what
is the temperature of the surrounding?

Problem 05
(a) State Newton’s law of cooling and give one limitation of the
law.
(b) A body initially at 70℃ cool to a temperature of 55℃ in
5minutes. What will be its temperature after 10minutes given that
the surrounding temperature is 31℃. (Assume Newton’s law of
cooling holds true)

2.3. Thermal Radiation

Is the way of heat transfer by invisible electromagnetic radiation.

Heat produced by this process is known as radiant energy. An object

above 0k emits thermal radiation continuously.

At low temperature body emits infrared radiation and at high

temperature bodies emit ultraviolet radiation (UV) together with
infrared Properties of radiant energy due to thermal radiation. Hence
due to thermal radiation a body can

 Can travel via vacuum

 Travel in a straight line
 Obey law of reflection
 Can be refracted

70
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
 Travel with a speed of light
 Exhibit phenomena of diffraction in interference.

When thermal radiation is incident on a body some of the radiation can

be reflected, Transmitted and some can be absorbed and cause heating.

2.3.1. Prevost’s Theory Of Heat Exchange

When the temperature of a body is constant the body is losing

heat by radiation and gaining it by absorption at equal rates

Consider a black body at a temperature T to be placed in an

enclosure having temperature T0

Energy radiated /sec = A𝛿T4

Energy absorbed /sec = A𝜎 T04

If the body is not at the same temperature as its surrounding

temperature, the net flow of energy between the surrounding and
the body is not constant because of unequal emission and
absorption.

If the temperature of the body is greater than that of the

surrounding, then the net energy will flow from the body to the
surrounding.

71
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Net energy emitted /sec = A T4 – A T04

Therefore

Net energy emitted /sec =A (T4 – T04)

The theory state that “When the temperature of the body is constant, at
this condition will absorb and emit radiation at equal rate”

Consider the body A and B which are at different temperature and

suppose the temperature of A and temperature of B are above 0k. And
let TA be a temperature of body A and TB be a

A B

𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝐵
Temperature of body B considering the diagram below.

 If TA > TB the body the body B will absorb more radiation

than it emits.
 If TA = TB then the two bodies will absorb and emit radiation
at equal rate and they are said to be in thermo equilibrium.
 The body which absorbs radiation is called Adiathermanous
or absorber.
 The body which emits radiation is called Diathermanous or
emitters

2.3.2. The Black Body

BLACK BODY Is the body which absorb radiation from the

surroundings

A perfectly black body is the one which absorbs completely all

the radiation falling on it and reflects none

72
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Since a perfectly black body is a perfect absorber, it will also be a
perfect radiator.

When a perfectly black body is heated to a high temperature, it

emits thermal radiation of all possible wavelengths.
Practical examples of perfectly black body,

(1) The sun

(2) A surface coated with lamp- black

This surface can absorbs 96% to 98% of the incident radiation

and may be considered as a perfect black body for all practical
purposes

2.3.3 How To Realize A Black Body

A good black body can be realized simply by punching a small

hole in the lid of a closed empty tin.

The hole looks almost black, although the shining tin is a good
reflector.

73
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Reason

The hole looks almost black ,although the shining tin is a good
reflector because the radiation that enters through it is reflected
from the inside walls several times and is partially absorbed at
each reflection and loses energy until no radiation is reflected
back. Hence the hole absorbs all radiation falling on it.

2.3.4 Black Body Radiation (Bbr)

Is that thermal radiation emitted by a black body at a given

temperature. Any object at a temperature greater than absolute
zero emits thermal radiation of all wavelengths within a certain
range.

The amount of thermal energy radiated for different wavelength

intervals is different and depends on temperature and nature of
the surface.

perfect black body Is the body which absorb all radiation falling on it
and reflect none.

2.2.5 Relative Intensity

Is the power of radiation per unit area per unit wavelength of the
radiation and it is denoted by letter (Eλ)
P
Eλ =
Aλ

This is the rate at which radiant energy is transferred per unit

area.

Energy emitted /Time

I=
Area

74
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
power emitted
I =
Area
P
I=A

The SI unit used is Watt/metre2 (Wm-2)

2.2.6 Spectra Curve

These are graph of curve which show the relationship between relative
intensity and wavelength at a particular temperature.

Eλ

T4

T3

T2

T1

λm

T4 > T3 > T2 > T1

The curve provide the following features,

i. The total energy emitted by black body increase rapidly with

increase in temperature.
ii. The area enclosed by a particular curve represents total radiant
energy per unit area emitted by black body.
iii. As a temperature increase a peak of curve shift towards lower
wavelength
iv. At a given temperature with increase in wavelength the (Eλ)
first increase and reaches at top then start decreasing

75
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
maximum wavelength Is the wavelength corresponding to maximum
relative intensity.

2.3.7. Laws Of Black Body Radiation

[Link]. Wien’s Displacement Law

The law state that “ The absolute temperature is inversely proportional

to the wavelength corresponding to maximum wavelength”

Eλ

λmax λ
1
T ∝
λmax

2.3.8 Energy Distribution In The Spectrum Of A Black

Body

The energy radiated by a black body at constant temperature

contains a continuous range of wave lights

The energy carried by the radiation is not distributed evenly

across the wavelength range

However the distribution changes if the source temperature alters

76
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The proportion of energy carried by shorter wave lengths
increases as the source temperature increases

The figure below shows how the energy is distributed over the
wave length range for several values of source temperature.

Deductions

The total energy emitted by a black body increases rapidly with

the increase in temperature for any wavelength.

For a given temperature, the radiant energy emitted by a black

body is the maximum for a particular wave length as the
temperature of the body increases the peak of the curve shifts
towards shorter wave length

This is in accordance to Wien’s displacement law

i.e. λ max

This explains why a heated metal i.e. iron changes colours from
red through yellow to white. When a metal i.e. iron is heated it

77
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
first emits invisible radiation of longer wave length in infrared
region. With increasing temperature the wave length of the
emitted radiation becomes shorter and the metal appears red

With further increasing temperature the wave length becomes

shorter and shorter and the metal emits all the colors of the
visible spectrum and finally it appears white.

The area enclosed by a particular curve represent the radiant

energy [of all wave length] per second per unit area emitted by
the black body at that temperature

When the area enclosed by a particular curve is measured, it is

found to be directly proportional to the fourth power of the
corresponding absolute temperature

This is in accordance to Stefan’s law

2.3.9 Emissive Power(Eλ )

Means the emissive power of a body at a particular temperature

is the total energy of all wave lengths radiated per second per unit
area of the body.

Is the ratio of energy radiated by the body to the energy radiated by

perfect black body.
The emissivity ( ) of a surface is the ratio of the power radiated
by a surface of a given body to that radiated by a black body at
the same temperature
energy radiated by black body
ε =
Energy radiated by perfect black body

Emmisivity (ε)does not exceed one (1)

78
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
0 ≤ ε<1

2.3.10 Absorptive Power (𝐚𝛌 )

The absorptive power of a body at a given temperature and for a

particular wavelength is the ratio of thermal energy absorbed by
it in a given time to the total thermal energy incident on it for the
same time , both in the unit wave length around

2.3.11 Kirchooff’s Law Of Black Body Radiation

The law state

"The ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power of

radiation of a given wavelength is the same for all bodies at the
same temperature and is equal to the emissive power of a
perfectly black body at the temperature".

Where

e =Emissive power of a body corresponding to wave length

Absorptive power of a body corresponding to wave length

Emissive power power of a perfectly black body at the

same temperature corresponding to wave length

From Kirchhoff’s law

79
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Since

If is large is also large

Therefore

If a body emits strongly the radiation of a particular wavelength,

then it must also absorb the same wave length strongly.

i.e. good emitters of heat also good absorbers and vice- versa

b
T =
λmax
b = Tλmax

Example 25:

An indirect heating filament is radiating maximum energy of

wavelength 2.16 × 10−7 m. Find the absolute temperature of the
body if b = 2.88 × 10−3 km.

solution

λ = 2.16 × 10−7 m

b = 2.88 × 10−3 km

reqquired temperature

from b = Tλmax

80
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
b
T =
λmax

2.88 × 10−3
T =
2.16 × 10−7
T = 13333.33k

Example 26:

Radiation from the moon gives maximum at λ = 4700Ao and λ =

14 × 10−6 [Link] conclusion can you draw.

solution

b = 2.9 × 10−3 mk

λ1 = 4700Ao

λ2 = 14 × 10−6 m
b
from T =
λmax

2.9 × 10−3
T =
4.7 × 10−7
T = 6170k

again when λ = 14 × 10−6 m

2.9 × 10−3
T =
14 × 10−6
T = 207.14k

2.3.12 Stefan’s Law Of Black Body

Stefan’s law state that “The total rate at which the body radiate energy
per unit area is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute
temperature”

81
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
P
∝ T4
A
P ∝ AT 4

P = kAT 4

k is proportionality constant which is called

stefen′ sconstant (δ)

P = δεAT 4

for perfect black body ε = 1

P = δAT 4

Consider the two bodies with temperature (T) above 0k in an

enclosure as shown below.

𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝐵

If TA > TB the physical composition and the size is the same since
bodies radiate energy at different rate, a there is net power loss.

net power loss = PA − PB

Pnet = δεATA4 – δεATB4

Pnet = δεA(TA4 − TB4 )

2.3.13 Worked Examples Set 03A:

Example 27:

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
A spherical black body of radius 12cm radiate 450watt at 500k. If the
radius were halved and temperature doubled. What will be the power
radiated

solution

radius (r) = 12cm = 0.12m

P1 = 450w

T1 = 500k

T2 = 1000k

P2 = ?

Area A = 4πr 2

P1 = 4δεπr12 T14 − − − − − (i)

P2 = 4δεπr22 T24 − − − − − (ii)

P1 4δεπr12 T14
=
P2 4δεπr22 T24

P1 r12 T14
= 2 4
P2 r2 T2
r1 T1
P2 = [( )2 ( ) 4 ] P1
r2 T2
6 1000 4
P2 = 450( )2 ( )
12 500
1
P2 = 450 × × 16
4
P2 = 1800w

Example 28:

A metal sphere of temperature 127℃ is placed in an enclosure of 27℃.

The sphere has a surface area of of 0.1m2 and is attached to radiate
83
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
heat of 100w. If it behaves as black body determine the value of
stefan’s constant

solution

from P = δεAT 4
P
δ =
εA(T14 − T24 )
100
δ =
0.1(4004 − 3004

δ = 5.7 × 10−8 wm−1 k −4

Example 29: A tungsten filament of 60w electric lamp has length of

0.5m and diameter of 6 × 105 m. The radiation energy from the lamp is
80% of its power. Calculate the average power per unit area radiated
from the filament given that (ε = 1).

solution

L = 0.5m, r = 3 × 105 m,

P = 80%, A = 2πrl
P 48
=
A 9.4 × 10−5
P
= 5.1 × 105 wm−2
A
P
intensity =
A
Example 30:

A tungsten filament of an electric lamp has length of 0.5m and

diameter of 6 × 10−3 m .The power rating is 60w. Assume that the
radiation from the filament is equivalent to 80% of that of the perfect
black body radiator at the same temperature. Estimate the steady
temperature of the filament.

84
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
solution
80
ε= = 0.8, l = 0.5m
100
r = 3 × 10−3 m, p = 60w

δ = 5.7 × 10−8 wm−2 k −4

Required temperature

P = δεAT 4
P
T4 =
δεA
P
T4 =
2πrlε

4 P
T = √
2πrlδε

4 60
T = √
2π × 0.5 × 3 × 10−3 × 5.7 × 10−8 × 0.8

T = 611.27k

Example 31:

An iron ball having surface area of 400m2 at a temperature of 727℃ is

placed in an enclosure 227℃. If the surface emission of iron is 0.4.
Find the heat radiated by the ball per second. Given that stefan’s
constant is 5.7 × 10−8 wm−2 k −4

ε = 0.4, δ = 5.7 × 10−8 wm−2 k −4

T1 = 727 + 273 = 1000K

T2 = 227 + 273 = 500K

A = 400 × 10−4 m2

85
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
P = δεA(T14 − T24 )

P = 0.4 × 5.7 × 10−8 × 4 × 10−2 (10004 − 5004 )

Power radiated = 850J

2.3.14 Worked Examples Set 03B;

Example 1: A small hole is made in hollow sphere whose wall are at

723℃. find the total energy radiated per second per square cm.

solution

given σ = 5.7 × 10−5 crgcm−2 s−1 K −4

temperature T − (723 + 273) = 996K

total energy radiated per second per cm2

= σT 4

such that

= 5.7 × 10−5 × 9964 erg

= 5.61 × 107 erg = 561J

Example 2:

Calculate the temperature in kelvvin at which perfect black body

radiates at the rate of 5.67W/cm2 given σ = 5.67 × 10−5 ergs−1 cm−2

solution

from the relation

E = σT 4
1

4
E E 4
T = = ( )
σ σ

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
1
5.67 × 107 4
T = ( )
5.67 × 10−5

T = 1000K

Example 3:

Due to change in the mains voltage, the temperature of an electric bulb

rises from 3000K to 4000K. What is the percentage rise in electric
power consumed?.

solution

electric power consumed in the first case

P1 = σT14 − − − − − −(i)

electric power consumed in second case

P2 = σT24 − − − − − −(ii)

P1 T14
= 4
P2 T2

(4 × 1012 )4 256
= 12 4
=
(3 × 10 ) 81
P1 256
=
P2 81

Example 4:

Consider a sun as perfect black body sphere of radius 6.8 × 108m.

calculate the energy radiated by the sun in one minute. Surface
temperature of the sun is 6200K. stefan’s constant 5.67 × 10−8

solution

radiation from the sun = 6.8 × 108 m

surface area of the sun = 4πR2

87
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(6.8 8 )2
= 4π × × 10

= A = 5.8 × 1018

time t = 1minute = 60sec

total energy radiated = σT 4 × A × t

E = 5.67 × 10−8 × 62004 × 5.8 × 1018 × 60

E = 2.92 × 1028 J

Example 5:

An electric tungsten filament having an area 0.3m2 is raised to a

temperature of 2727℃ when a current passes through it. Calculate the
electric power consumed in watt if the emissivity of the filament is
0.35. stefan’s constant σ = 5.7 × 10−8 ergs −1 K −4 . given that 1W =
107 ergs−1

solution

Area A = 0.3cm2 = 0.3 × 10−4 m2

Temperature T = (2727 + 273) = 3000K

then Power consumed = AeσT 4

P = 0.3 × 10−4 × 0.35 × 5.7 × 10−8 × 30004

P = 48.22 W

Example 6:

An indirectly heated filament radiating maximum energy of

wavelength of 2.16 × 10−5 cm. Find the net amount of heat energy lost
per second unit area. The temperature of a surrounding air is 13℃.

solution

apply Wien′ sdisplacement law

b = λmax T

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
b 0.288
T= =
λmax 2.16 × 10−5

T = 13333.3K

temperature of surroundings,

To = (13 + 273) = 286K

E = σ(T 4 − To4 )

= 5.7 × 10−5 [13333.34 − 2864 )

18.24 × 108 Js−1

2.3.15 Application Of Stefan’s Law Of Black Body

(i) Estimation of temperature of the earth and other planet.

Consider the figure below

𝑟𝑠 𝑟𝑒
𝑅

power consumed from the earth

Ae P
Pe = × PT
Aimag
PT = δεAs Ts4
This is total power radiated by a system

89
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Ae P
Pe = × δεAs Ts4
4πR2
where Ae = Area of Earth
As = Area of earth
re = Radius of earth
Ts = Temperature of sun
Te = Earth′ stemperature
Aimag = Area of imaginary sphere
PT = Total power radiated from the sun
Assume the earth and the sun are perfect black,
The power absorbed by the earth =
area of the earth over area of imaginary
sphere times total power radiated from the
sun.
P = δεAT 4
Ae
Pe = ( ) × PT
Aimag
But = Ae = πre2
As = 4πrs2
Ae
Pe = ( ) × PT
As
πre2
Pe = ( ) × 4πδεrs2 Ts4
4πR2
πre2
4εδπre2 Te4 = ( ) × 4πδεrs2 Ts4
4πR2
apply mathematical simplification
the equation become
Ts4 × rs2
4Te4 =
4
R22
Ts × rs
R2
Te4 =
4
rs
Ts √
4Ts4 rs4 R
Te = √ T e =
4R2 √2

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Ts = 6000K
rs = 7 × 108 m
R = 1.5 × 1011 m
7×108
6000√1.5×1011
Te =
√2

Te = 289.82k
Te ≈ 290K
Hence the temperature of the earth = 290K

2.3.16 Solar Constant

Is the maximum energy radiated by the sun per unit area

reached at the certain place on the planet from the sun.
The SI unit is watt⁄m2
P
solar constant (s) =
A
Example 32:

The solar constant which the energy is arriving per second at the earth
from the sun is about 1400wm2. Estimate the surface temperature of the
sun given that the radius of the sun is 1.5×1011m and stefan’s constant
5.7 × 10−8 wm−2 K −4

solution
solar constant S = 1400wm−2
rs = 7 × 108 m
R = 1.5 × 1011 m
δ = 5.7 × 10−8 wm−2 K −4
required temperature
Pe
S =
Aimag
δεAs Ts4
S =
4πR2
assume the sun is perfect black body
ε = 1

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
δAs Ts4
S =
4πR2
δrs2 Ts4
S =
R2
4 SR2
Ts = √
δrs2
4 1400 × (1.5 × 1011 )2
Ts = √
(5.7 × 10−8 )(7 × 108 )2
temperature of the sun = 5800K

Example 33:

A solar furnace have a concave mirror of collecting area 0.6m2 . A

solid x of mass 0.5kg and specific heat capacity of 700 J⁄kgKand
temperature of 18℃ is placed at the focus of the mirror. What
temperature is reached by x in 0.5minutes? If the average solar constant
is 1400 w⁄m.

solution
Ax = 0.6m2 , mx = 0.5kg
Cx = 700 J⁄kgK , θi = 18℃
θf = ? , S = 1400 w⁄m
Time = 0.5minutes = 30sec
Heat gained by x = Energy due to radiation
Pt = mx Cx (θf − θi )
but Power P = SA
SAt = mx Cx (θf − θi )
0.5 × 700(θ − 18) = 1400 × 0.6 × 30
350(θ − 18) = 25200
350θ − 6300 = 25200
350θ = 31500
31500
θ =
350
θ = 90℃
temp = 90 + 273
temperature required = 363K

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
2.3.17 Worked Examples 03C:

1 .A solid sphere has a temperature of 773K. The sphere is

melted and recast into a cube that has the same emissivity and
emit the same radiant power as the sphere. Calculate the
temperature of the cube.

solution

Let T be a temperature of cube

volume of sphere − volume of cube

4 3
πr = L3
3
simple mathematics

L 3 4π
= √
r 3

consider a stefan′ slaw of black body

εAδT 4 = εAδTc4
(4πr 2 )εσ × 7734 = 6L2 εσT 4

(4πr 2 )7734 = 6L2 T 4

4 4π r 2
T = 773 × √ × ( )
6 L

r 3 4π
since = √
L 3

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

4
4π 3 4π
T = 773 × √ × (√ ) 2
6 3

T = 1181K
2. A solid cylinder is radiating a energy. It has length that is ten
times its radius. It is cut into smaller cylinders, each of the same
length. Each small cylinder has the temperature as the original
cylinder. The total radiant power emitted by the pieces is twice
that emitted by the original cylinder. How many smaller
cylinders are there?

solution

Given L = 10r and let n be number of small cylinder

produced the applying stefan′ s law

let total radiant power emitted by “n” number of pieces of
cylinder be Pc also let Po be radiant power emitted by original
cylinder such that

2Po = nPc
2πrL
2εσT 4 (2πr 2 + 2πrL) = nεσT 4 (2πr 2 + )
n
simplifying the equation results

2πr 2 (n − 2) = 2πrL

r(n − 2) = L
L
= n−2
r
L
but = 10
r

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
10 = n − 2
n = 12
3 (a) What is meant by Stefan’s constant.
(b) A sphere of radius 2cm with a black surface is cooled and
then suspended in a large evacuated enclosure the black walls of
which are maintained at 25℃. If the rate of change of thermal
energy of the sphere is 1.85Js-1 when its temperature is −73℃.
calculate the value of Stefan’s constant.

solution

By stefan′ s law

P = σεA(T14 − T24 )
P
σ =
εA(T14 − T24
P
σ =
4πr 2 ε(T14 − T24 )

T14 − T24 = (273 + 27)4 − (−73 + 273)4

= 6.5 × 109 K
1.85
σ = , ε=1
4π × (0.02)2 × 6.5 × 109
σ = 5.66 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4
4 (a) State Stefan’s law and draw diagram to show how the
energy is distributed against wavelength in the spectrum of a
black body for two different temperature. Show which
temperature is higher

95
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) Draw a sketch showing how the energy Eλ in a narrow band
of wavelengths of mean value 𝜆, emitted by a black body radiator
at a constant temperature, varies with 𝜆. In your diagram showing

(i). The wavelength λmax with maximum energy

(ii).The area which is measure of total energy emitted by a
black body.
𝐸𝜆

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜆

o The maximum wavelength is as indicated in the diagram.

o The are under the whole curve.
5.(a) State Prevost’s theory of heat exchange. Refer to notes
(b) A solid copper sphere, of diameter 10mm, is cooled to a
temperature of 150K and is then placed in an enclosure
maintained at 290K. Assuming that all interchange of heat is by
radiation, calculate the initial rate of rise of temperature of the
sphere. The sphere may be treated as black body. Given that
density of copper is 8930kgm-3, specific heat capacity of copper
is 370Jkg-1K-1 and stefan’s constant is 5.7 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4

By stefan′ s law of blackbody

from Q = mc∆T

96
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dQ dT
= mc ( ) − − − − − −(i)
dt dt
P = εσA(To4 − T14 ) − − − − − (ii)
dQ
P =
dt
dT
mc ( ) = 4πr 2 εσ(To4 − T14 )
dt
dT 4πr 2 εσ(To4 − T14 )
=
dt mc
4
m = ρv = πr 3 ρ
3
dT 4πεσr 2 (To4 − T14 )
= 4
dt πr 3 ρc
3

dT 3σε 4
= (T − T14 )
dt rρc o
3 × 1 × 5.7 × 10−8
= (2904 − 1504 )
10−3 × 8930 × 370
dT
= 0.068Ks −1
dt
6. The silica cylinder of radiant wall heater is 0.6m long and has
a radius of 5mm. If it is rated at 1.5kW estimate its temperature
when operating. State two assumption made during temperature
estimation.

solution

consider stefan′ s law of black body

P = εσAT 4

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

4 P
T = √
εσA

Area for cylinder = 2πrL

4 P
T = √
2πrLσε

4 1500
= √
1 × (2π × 0.005 × 0.6) × 5.7 × 10−8

T = 1072K
Assumptions made from estimation
 The body behaves as blackbody.
 The heat is radiated only on the curved surface of cylinder
but not on its sides.

7. The diagram below show how Eλ , the energy radiated per unit
area per second per unit wavelength interval, varies with
wavelength 𝜆 for radiation from the sun’s surface.
𝐸𝜆

𝑇 = 5800𝐾

500𝑛𝑚 𝜆
Calculate the wavelength at λmax at which the corresponding
curve peak for.

98
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
• Radiation in the sun’s core where the temperature is
approximately 15 × 105 K
• Radiation in interstellar space which corresponds to a
temperature of approximately 2.7K. Name the part of the
electromagnetic spectrum to which the calculated
wavelength belongs in each case.

solution

Applying Wien′ sdisplacement law

(i)λmax T = 15 × 106 λ

500 × 5800 = 15 × 106 λ

500 × 5800
λ =
15 × 106
= 0.193nm

λ = 1.93 × 10−10 m

X − radiation
(ii) 500 × 5800 = 2.7λ
500 × 5800
λ =
2.7
λ = 1.07 × 10−3 m

Infra − red region

8. Calculate the apparent temperature of the sun from the
following given information; sun’s radius 4.4 × 105 miles.
Distance from earth is 9.2 × 107 miles. Solar constant=
1.4kWm−2 and stefan′ s constant = 5.7 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4

solution

99
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Power from the sun
Solar constant =
Area of earth
P
S =
A
P = AS

εAσT 4 = 4πr 2 S

4
4πr 2 S
T = when ε = 1
4πR2 σ

4 r 2 S
T 4 = √( ) ( )
R σ

1 1
r 2 S 4
T = ( ) ( )
R R
1 1
9.2 × 107 2 1400 4
T = ( ) ( )
4.4 × 105 5.7 × 10−8

T = 5724K
9. A body which has surface area 5.00cm2 and temperature of
727℃ radiate 300J energy in one minute. What is emissivity?
Given that stefan’s constant is 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4

solution

P = Aεσ(T 4 )
Energy radiated
since POwer =
time (t)
E
= εσA(T 4 )
t

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
4)
E = εσAt(T
E
ε =
σAT 4
300
ε =
5.67 × 10−8 × 5 × 10−4 × (727 + 273)4
ε = 0.18
10.(a) A tungsten wire of length 100cm and perimeter of 0.2cm
behaves as black body at 2000K. Calculate the rate at which the
wire is radiating energy at 2000K. Given that stefan’s constant
σ = 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4.

solution
The rate at which the tungsten wire radiates energy is given by
P = εσT 4 A

ε = 1; A = perimeter × length

A = 0.2 × 100 = 20cm2

A = 20 × 10−4 m2

P = 1 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 20004 × 20 × 10−4

P = 1814.4 W
(b) An aluminum foil of relative remittance 0.2 is placed between
two concentric spheres at temperature 300K and 200K
respectively. Calculate the temperature of the foil after the steady
state is reached. Also calculate the rate of energy transfer
between one of the sphere and the foil. Given Stefan’s constant
5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4

T1 = 300K, T2 = 200K

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
At the steady state let T be the absolute temperature of the foil.
Under steady state, Heat gained per second by foil from first
sphere = heat lost per second by foil to the second sphere.
εσA(T14 − T 4 ) = εσA(T 4 − T24 )

simple mathematics

T14 − T24 = 2T 4

4
T14 − T24
T =
2

4 3004 − 2004
T = √
2

T = 263.9K
The rate at which energy is transferred from the first sphere to the
foil.

= εAσ(T14 − T 4 )

= 0.2 × 5.67 × 10−8 × (3002 − 263.94 )

= 36.85Wm−2
11.(a) Calculate the energy radiated in one minute by a
blackbody of surface area 200cm2 maintained at 127℃. Given
stefan’s constant = 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4.

solution
the energy radiated per sec by a body is given by

P = εσA(T 4 – To4 )

ε = 1 for perfect black body

P = 1 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 200 × 10−4 × 4004

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P = 29.184 J⁄s
energy radiated in one minute

= 29.184 × 60

Energy = 1751J
(b) At what temperature will the filament of a 100W lamp
operate if it is supposed to be a perfectly black body of
area 1cm2 ? Given that σ = 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4

solution

consider Stefan′ s law of radiation

P = εσAT 4
P
T4 =
εσA
100
=
1 × 5.67 × 10−8 × 10−4
T = 2049K

2.3.17. Conceptual Questions

12. (a) why the pupil of the eye black?

• Any radiation that enters the pupil of the eye is reflected
from inside the eye many times and is partly absorbed at
each reflection until none remain
(b) Why does a good absorber of radiant energy appear black?
• Answer; a good absorbing surface remove all visible
colors when it converts all the radiant energy incident
upon it to heat. It cannot absorb and reflect the same
wavelengths at the same time.

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(c) Why is the energy of thermal radiation is less than that of
visible light?
• Answer; the energy of electromagnetic wave is given by
E = hf since the frequency of thermal radiation is less
than that of visible light, the energy associated with
thermal radiation is less than associated with visible light.
(d) The tile floor feels colder than wooden floor, even though
both floor materials are at the same temperature. Explain.
• Answer; It is because tile is a better heat conduct than
wood. The heat transferred from foot to the wood is not
conducted away rapidly. So the wood quickly heats up on
its surface to the temperature of your foot.
(e) Why are steam pipes wrapped with insulating material?
• Answer; to minimize the loss of heat due to radiation.
13. (a) A red glass heated in a furnace and then taken out appears
green. Explain.
• Answer; At low temperature, red glass appears red
because it absorbs green light strongly. Therefore at high
temperature, it emits green colour strongly and therefore
appear green.

(b) A body is at 0℃. Is it radiating heat?

• Answer; yes, a body radiate heat even at 0℃

2.3.18 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 04:

1. Find the rate of heat flow through a square iron plate each sides
equal to 4cm and thickness of 5mm. its opposite faces are kept at
90℃ and 40℃ respectively. K for iron is 0.15cgs

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[ans. 240cal/s]
2. Calculate the thermal reeistance of an alminium rod of length
0.20m and diameter of 0.04m the thermal conductivity is
0.50cal/cmdeg. The temperature difference along the length of
the rod is 50℃ . Also calculate the rate of heat transfer along the
length of the rod. [ans. 3.18sdeg/cal; 15.7cal/sec]
3. Calculate the difference in temperature between two sides of an
iron plate 2cm thick when heat is conducted at the rate of 6 ×
105 cal/min per square metre. The coefficient of thermal
conductivity of metal is 0.2cgs units. [ans. 𝟏𝟎℃]
4. Calculate the rate of heat loss through a glass window of area
1000cm2 and thickness of 4mm when a temperature inside is
37℃ and outside is −5℃. Coefficient of thermal conductivity of
glass is 0.0022cal/scmK. [[ans. 231cal/s]
5. Air in the room is at 25℃ and outside temperature is 0℃. The
window of the room has an area of 2m2 and thickness of 2mm.
Calculate the rate of loss of heat by conduction through window.
Thermal conductivity of glass is 1.0W/mdegree. [ans. 25kW]
6. Calculate the radiant emittance of black body at temperature of
400K. Given that σ = 5.672 × 10−8 Js −1 m−2 K −4 .
[ans. 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝐉𝐬−𝟏 𝐦−𝟐 ]
7. Black body at temperature 400K radiates at the rate of 1.452 ×
1010 erg/sm2 . Calculate the value of stefan’s constant
[ans. 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐞𝐫𝐠/𝐬𝐜𝐦−𝟐 𝐊 −𝟒 ]
8. The energy per second emitted by a black body at 1227℃ is E. If
the temperature of the black body is increased to 2727℃,
calculate the energy emitted per second in terms of E in second
case. [ans. 16E]
9. At what temperature will the filament of 100W lamp operate, if it
is supposed to be perfectly black body of area 1cm2 ? Given σ =
5.67 × 10−8 Js−1 m2 K 4 . [ans. 2049K]
10. A copper ball 2cm in radius is heated in a furnance to 400℃. if
its emissivity is 0.3, at what rate does it radiate energy? Given
σ = 5.67 × 10−8 Js−1 m2 K 4.[ans. 17.54J/s]
11. To what temperature must a black body be raised in order to
double total radiation if original temperature is 727℃.

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
[ans. 916.2℃)
12. Calculate the temperature at which a perfect black body radiates
energy at the rate of 1W/cm2 . Given σ = 5.67 × 10−8 Js−1 m2 K 4 .
[ans. 648K]
13. Two body A and B are kept in evacuated vessel maintained at a
temperature of 27℃ . The temperature of A is 527℃ and that of
B is 127℃. Compare the rates at which heat is lost from A and
B. [ans. 22.9]
14. Radiation from the moon gives two maxima at wavelengths of
4700A° and at 14 × 10−4 cm. What conclusion can you draw
from this? Given that b = 0.2898cmK.

15. A body cools from 50℃ to 40℃ in 6minutes, when its

surrounding temperature is 30℃. What will be its temperature 12
minutes after the start of the experiment. [ans. 𝟑𝟓℃]

16. The total energy arriving from the sun and falling on the upper
atmosphere of the earth is 1400W/m2 . The distance of the earth
from the sun is 1.5 × 1011 m. Find the power out put of the sun.
[ans. 10.68cal]

17. For T = 1000K, ⋋m = (i)5 × 10−4 cm (ii) 4 × 10−4 cm for a blak

body spectrum. Calculate the corresponding values of
wavelength for temperature T = 2000K [ans. 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 ; 2×
𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝐜𝐦]

18. Calculate the temperature corresponding to maximum intensity

of 4800A°. [ans 6037.5K]

19. The surface temperature of the body is 1500K. Find the

wavelength at which it radiates maximum. Given b =
0.2898cmK [ans.19320𝐀°]

20. An electric bulb with tungsten filament having an area of

0.25cm2 is raised to a temperature of 3000K when a current
passes through it. Calculate the electric energy being consumed

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in watt, if the emissivity of the filament is 0.35. stefan’s constant
σ = 5.67 × 10−5 crgs −1 cm−2 K −4 . If due to fall in mains voltage,
the filament temperature falls to 2500K. What will be the wattage
of the bulb. [ans. 40.19W; 19.38W]

21. A thin brass rectangular sheet of sides 15cm and 12cm is heated
in furnance to 600℃ and taken out. How much electric power is
needed to maintain the sheet at this temperature, given that its
emissivity is 0.250? [ans. 296W]

22. A body cools from 60℃ to 40℃ in 7 minutes when placed in a

surrounding which is maintained at a temperature of 10℃. What
is the temperature of the body after the expiry of next 7 minutes?
[ans. 𝟐𝟖℃]

23. A room is maintained at 20℃ by a heater of resistance 20Ω

connected to 200V mains. The temperature is uniform throughout
the room and the heat is transmitted through a glass window of
area 1m2 and thickness 0.2cm. Calculate the temperature outside.
Given that thermal conductivity of glass is 0.2cal/ms℃ and
mechanical equivalent heat is 4.2/cal. [ans. 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟒℃]

24. The temperature of the body increased from 27℃ to 127℃. By

what fraction would the radiation emitted by it increase? [ans.
256/81]

2.3.19 Competitive Examination File Unit Set 05:

Problem 1

Assuming the total surface area of human body is 1.25m2 and the
surface temperature is 30 .

Find the total rate of radiation of energy from the human body.
Given that Stefan’s constant, = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4
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Problem 2

A black ball of radius 1m is maintained at a temperature of 30 .

How much heat is radiated by the ball in 4 . Given that
Stefan’s constant = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4

Problem 3

Two spheres made of the same material have radii 2.0cm and
3.0cm and their temperature are 627 and 527 respectively. If
they are black bodies, compare:

i. (a) The rate at which they are losing heat

i. (b) The rate at which their temperature are falling.

ii. Problems 4
iii. A tungsten filament of total surface area of 0.45km2 is
maintained at a steady temperature of 2227 °c. Calculate
the electrical energy dissipated per second if all this
energy is radiated to the surrounding. Given that
emissivity of tungsten at 22270C = 0.3 and Stefan’s
constant = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4[29.9W]

Problem 5

The tungsten filament of an electric lamp has a length of

0.5m and a diameter of 6 x 10-5m. The power of rating of the
lamp is 60W. Assuming the radiation from the filament is
equivalent to 80% that of a perfect black body radiator at the
same temperature, estimate the steady temperature of the
filament given that. Stefan's constant = 5.67 10-8 Wm -2 K-4
𝐓 = 𝟗𝟑𝟓. 𝟓𝐊

Problem 6

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The total external surface area of the dog’s body is 0.8 m and the
2

body temperature is 37 °C at what rate is it loosing heat by

radiation when it is in a room whose temperature is 17 °C?
Assume that dog’s body behaves as a black body and given that
Stefan’s constant is

5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4 [P = 98.086W]

Problem 6

The cathode of a certain diode valve consists of a cylinder 2 x 10-

2
m long and 0.1 x 10-2 m in diameter. It is surrounded by a co-
axial anode of diameter larger than that of the cathode. The anode
remains at a rate temperature of 127 °C when the power of 4
watts is dissipated in heating the cathode. Estimating the
temperature of cathode. [1035.29]. List the assumption you
have made in arriving at your estimate

Problem 7

A metal sphere with a black surface and radius 30 mm is cooled

to 200k and placed inside an enclosure at a temperature of 300k.
Calculate the initial rate of temperature rise of the sphere,
assuming the sphere is a black body given that Density of
metal=8000 kgm-3. Specific heat capacity metal 400Jkg-1K-1
Stefan’s constant 5.67 10-8 Wm-2 K-4
[answer: dθ/dt = 0.012 c / sec]

Problem 9

The energy arriving per unit area on the earth’s surface per
second from the sun is 1.34 x 103 Wm-2 the average distance
from the earth to the sun is 215 times as great as the sun’s radius.
Given that both the earth and the sun are black bodies Stefan’s
constant = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4. [Answer: T = 575k]

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Problem 10

The amount of radiant heat received by the earth from the sun is
1.38 × 103 Wm−2. Suppose all these radiations on the earth are
re emitted by the earth. Calculate the temperature of the earth.
Given Stefan’s constant =5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-1 [T = 395K]

Problem 11

The surface temperature of the sun is 6000K. If we consider it as

a perfect black body, calculate the energy radiated by the sun per
second. Given that the radius of the sun = 6.92 × 108m and δ =
5.67 10-8Wm-2K-4 [P = 4.42 × 1026W]

Problem 12

The temperature of a furnace is 2324°C and the intensity is

maximum in its radiation spectrum nearly at 12000A0. If the
intensity in the spectrum of a star is maximum is nearly at
4800A0 then calculate the surface temperature of the star.
[T2=6492.5K]

Problem 13

The wavelength corresponding to maximum energy for the moon

is 14 x 10-6m estimate the temperature of the moon if b = 2.884 ×
10-3 mK [T = 206K]

2.3.20. Calorimetry

Calorimetry is a science which deals with heat and measurement.

Calorimeter is a device which is used to measure quantity of heat.

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2.3.21 Law Of Calorimetry

The law states that “If two bodies with different temperature are mixed
together then heat lost by a hotter one is equal to heat gained by cold
ones”

Heat lost = Heat gained

In this case we move interested in determination of heat
capacities
Thermometer

By principle of calorimeter

Heat lost by metal = heat gained by calorimeter and water

let heat lost by metal be Hm

Heat gained be water be Hw

Heat gained by calorimeter be Hc

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Then Hm = mm cm (θm − θf )

Hw = mw cw (θf − θi )

Hc = mc cc (θf − θi )

Hm = Hc + Hw

mm cm (θm − θf ) = mc cc (θf − θi ) + mw cw(θf − θi )

mc cc (θf − θi ) + mw cw (θf − θi )
cm =
mm (θm − θf )

Example 34:

When a block of metal of mass0.11kg and specific heat capacity of

400J/kgK heated to 100℃ and quickly transferred to a calorimeter
containing 0.2kg of liquid at 10℃the resulting temperature after
stirring is 18℃. On repeating the experiment with 0.4kg of liquid in the
same container at the same initial temperature the resulting
temperature is 14.5℃. Calculate

i. Specific heat capacity of liquid.

ii. Thermal heat capacity of calorimeter.

solution

Experiment 1

mb = 0.11kg, mw = 0.2kg

θb = 100℃, θf = 18℃

cb = 400 J⁄kgK , Require Cw

Heat lost by block = Heat gained by water

Hb = Hw

mb cb (θb − θf ) = mw cw(θf − θi )
mb cb (θb − θf )
Cw =
mw (θf − θi )

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0.11 × 400(100 − 18)
Cw =
0.2 × (18 − 14.5)
44 × 82
Cw =
0.7
Cw = 5154.29

Specific heat capacity of watr (Cw ) = 5154.29 J⁄kgK

Experiment 02

mw = 0.4kg, θi = −10℃

θf = 15.5℃, Require Cc

Hb = Hc

mb cb (θb − θf ) = mc cc (θf − θi )

mb cb (θb − θf )
Cc =
mc (θf − θi )
0.11 × 400(100 − 14.5)
Cc = )
0.4(14.5— 10

Cc = 383.88

Specific heat capacit of calorimeter (Cc ) = 383.88 J⁄kgK

(ii)Thermal heat capacity of calorimeter

Hc = mc cc (θf − θi )

Hc = 0.09 × 383.88(14.5— 10)

Hc = 846.46J

heat capacity of calorimeter = 846.46J

 Specific heat capacity Is the quantity of heat required to rise a

temperature of unit mass of substance by 1K or 1℃

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 Heat capacity is the quantity of heat require to rise a
temperature of a body with a whole mass by 1K
 Latent heat is the heat required to change the state of a
substance without change in temperature.
 Specific latent heat is heat energy required to change a unit
mass of 1kg from one state to another at constant temperature.
The SI-unit is J/kg.
 Specific latent heat of fusion is the heat required to change
unit mass of a solid to liquid at constant temperature.
𝐇 = 𝐦𝐋𝐟
 Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat
required to change unit mass 1kg of a substance from liquid to
vapour at constant temperature.
H = mLv

Example 35:

Calculate the heat required to melt ice of mass 10kg at 0℃ given

specific latent heat of ice is 3.4 × 104 J⁄kg.

solution

from Heat H = mLf

H = 10 × 3.4 × 104

Heat = 3.4 × 105 J

Example 36:

Calculate the heat required to turn 500g of ice at 0℃ to water at 100℃.

Given that specific latent heat 3.4 × 105 J⁄kgKand specific heat
capacity of water 4200 J⁄kgK

Example 37:

It takes for an electric kettle to heat a certain quantity of water from

0℃ to boiling point 100℃in 15minutes. It require 80minutes all the
water at 100℃ into steam. Calculate the latent heat of steam.

solution

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let the mass of water be m

A quantity of heat liberated in 15minutes

= mc (θf − θi )

= m × (100 − 0)

= 100mcal − − − − − (i)

A quantity of heat liberated in 80minute

80
= 100m ×
15
8000
= m − − − − − (ii)
15
let Lv be latent heat of steam
8000m
mLv =
15
8000
Lv =
15
Lv = 533.33 cal⁄g

Example 38:

0.75g of petroleum burnt in a bomb calorific factor which contained

200g of water and had a water equivalent 750g. The rise of temperature
was 3.08℃. Calculate the calorific value of petroleum.

solution

heat gained by water

= mw cw (θf − θi )

= 200 × 1(3.08 − 0)

= 2000 × 3.08

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heat gained = 6160cal

heat gained by calorimeter

H = m∆θ

Heat = 750 × 3.08

Heat gained by calorimeter = 2310cal

Total heat gained = 6160 + 2310

= 8470cal

This heat is gained due to combustion of 0.75g

of petroleum
total heat
Calorific value =
mass of petroleum
8470
=
0.75
= 11293 cal⁄g

Calorific value of petroleum = 11293 cal⁄g

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THERMODYNAMICS
Chapter 3
Thermodynamics
Is the study of relationship between heat and other forms of
energy.
Thermodynamics is the science of energy conversion involving
heat and other forms of energy, most notably mechanical work.
It studies and interrelates the macroscopic variables (temperature,
volume and pressure

Examples
• Rise the temperature of water in kettle
• Burn some fuel in the combustion chamber of an aero
engine to propel an aircraft.
• Cool our room on a hot humid day.
• Heat up our room on a cold winter night.
• Have our beer cool.
• Some coal/gas in a power plant to generate electricity.
• Petrol in a car engine
It explain that at any isolated system in the universe is associated
internal energy. THERMAL ENERGY
(U)

Internal energy U is the total average kinetic energy of all gases

molecule in the system.

mathematically

U = K. E × N

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where

K. E = kinetic energy of the molecules

N = Number of molecules
3
Hence K. E = KT
2
R
K=
LA
3
U = NkT
2
where N = nLA
3
U = nLA kT
2
Since R = kLA
3
U = nRT
2
3
du = nRdT
2
R = Unversal gas constant ≈ 8.314

k = Boltzman constant ≈ 1.38 × 10−28

n = Number of moles

Example 39: Find the internal energy of a gas of volume

20cm3 at STP

Solution

given volume v = 20cm3

absolute temp = 273k

volume at stp = 22.4dm3

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R = 8.314

then required to find the value of U

3
U = nRT
2
V
but n =
V at stp
20000
n= = 892.86moles
22.4
3
u= × 892.86 × 8.314 × 273
2
Energ u = 3.03 × 106 J

3.1. First Law Of Thermodynamics

When the heat is supplied an isolated thermodynamic system the

internal energy is produced in the gas which will cause the rise of
pressure of the piston and the load will be raised up.

Considering the given system below

movable piston load

heat

Gas
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Isolated system is thee system designed for a certain work,
hence from here we can state the first law of thermodynamics
• Isolated systems Are the one in which no interaction
between system and the surroundings.
• Are completely isolated from their environment.
• They do not exchange heat, work or matter with their
environment.
• An example is a completely insulated rigid container,
such as a completely insulated gas cylinder.

Closed systems are able to exchange energy (heat and work) but not
matter with their environment. A greenhouse is an example of a closed
system exchanging heat but not work with its environment.

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1. Open systems may exchange any form of energy as well
as matter with their environment (from the system to
surroundings or vice versa).
2. A boundary allowing matter exchange is called
permeable. The ocean would be an example of an open
system and most of the engineering devices are open
system.

Summary of Open, closed and isolated system

Open systems can exchange both matter and energy with the
environment.
Closed systems exchange energy but not matter with the
environment.
Isolated systems can exchange neither energy nor matter with
the environment.

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Internal energy
1. Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with
the random, disordered motion of molecules.
2. It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered
energy associated with moving objects; it refers to the
invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular
scale.
3. The internal energy is the total energy contained in a
thermodynamic system.

 It is the energy necessary to create the system, but

excludes the energy associated with a move as a whole, or
due to external force fields.
 Internal energy has two major components, kinetic energy
and potential energy.
First law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is the application of the conservation

of energy principle to heat and thermodynamic processes:

Heat added to the thermodynamic system goes to change the internal

energy and to do the work by the system.

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The law state that “When heat is supplied to the isolated
thermodynamic system it will be equal to the sum of internal
energy and external work done of the system”.

mathematically

Q=U+w

where

Q = Heat supplied to the system

w = workdone

U = internal energy

since dQ = du + dw

but dw = pdv
3
du = nRT
2
The internal energy of a system can be changed by heating the system
or by doing work on it.

1. If the system is isolated, its internal energy cannot change.

2. An isolated system which does not interact with the

surroundings Q=0 and W=0. Therefore, E remains constant for
such a system.

3. If we apply the first law of thermodynamics to the human body

(Human Metabolism ):

4. we know that the body can do work. If the internal energy is

not to drop, there must be energy coming in. It isn’t in the form
of heat; the body loses heat rather than absorbing it. It is the
chemical potential energy stored in foods.

3.2. Molar Heat Capacity

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Is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of
Heat supplied
a gas through one Kelvin C = no of moles×∆T

Q
C=
ndT
J
The SI − unit of molar heat capacity ⁄molK

then heat supplied = nCdt

There are two molar principle heat capacities namely

 Molar heat capacity at constant volume (Cv )

 Molar heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp )

3.2.1. Molar Heat Capacity At Constant Volume (𝐂𝐕 )

Is the heat required to raise the temperature of the mole of a gas

through 1k at a constant volume

Molar heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp ) is the amount of heat

required to raise a temperature of of one mole of a gas through 1k at
constant pressure

3.3. Meyer’s Equation

Meyer’s equation is given by the relation

Cp − Cv = R

The absolute difference between molar heat capacity at constant

pressure and at constant volume is equal to the numerical value
Universal gas constant (R)

Proof

consider the expansion of gas at constant

pressure and volume in isolated system

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𝐜𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝟏

At constant volume for n − no of moles or gas in cointainer which

does not expand

hence in this case dv = 0

consider the figure below

dw = pdv

but dv = o

Q = nCdT

dQ = nCv dT

From the first law of thermodynamic

Q= U+w

dQ = du + dw

nCv dT = du + pdv

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nCv dT = du + 0

nCv dT = du − − − − − (i)

case 2

consider a gas expand at constant pressure

As shown in the figure below

v2

dx

v1
supplied
Heat

The volume will change from v1 to v2 (there is change in volume)

dw = pdv

dQ = nCp dT

from 1st law of thermodynamics

dQ = du + pdv − − − − − (ii)

substitung into eqn (i)into (ii)

nCv dT = du

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nCp dT = nCv dT + pdv

But from ideal gas

pv = nRT

differentiating equation with respect to T

pdv nRdT
=
dT dT
pdv = nRdT

plug eqn iii

nCp dT = nCv dT + nRdT

nRdT = nCp dT − nCv dT

nRdT = ndT(Cp − Cv )

concelling ndT both side we get

R = Cp − Cv

where

Cp = molar heat capacity at constant pressure

Cv = molar heat capacity at constant volume

R = Universal gas constant

3.3.1. Ratio Of Molar Heat Capacity At (𝛄)

Consider this ratio for gases classified as

 Monotonic gases example Helium, Argon, Krypton

 Diatonic gases example Oxygen, water, dintrogen
 Polyatomic gases example Ammonia, Carbon dioxide, water,
methane gas

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Hence this ratio sometimes is called atomicity

Atomicity is the ratio of molar heat capacity at constant pressure over

molar heat capacity at constant volume

mathematically
Cp
γ=
Cv

for monotonic gases

γ = 1.67

For diatomic gas

γ = 1.4

For triatomic

γ = 1.3

3.4. P – V CURVES

These are curves which show the relationship between pressure and
volume in isolated system

Example

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
V1 V2

Under P-V curve the area represented in the curve is equal to the total
work done(dw)

3.5. Thermodynamics Processes:

There are processes on ideal gases which occur continuously namely:

a) Isothermal process
b) Isobaric process
c) Isochoric/isovolumetric process
d) Adiabatic process

3.5.1. Isobaric Process

Is a thermodynamic process which occur at constant pressure

Example

In p − v curve it is represent y straight line and it measure the line

along the x − axis

the workdone in this proces

from

dw = pdv

intergrating from v1 to v2

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w v2
∫ dw = ∫ pdv
0 v1

vf
w. d = p ∫ dv
vi

v
w. d = p[ v ]v21

w. d = p(v2 − v1 )

hence the workdone in this process

is w. d = v2 + v1

3.5.2. Isochoric Process

Is any thermodynamic process in ideal gas which occur at

constant volume
p

this process obey pressure law

since workdone in this process is zero

because dv = 0

w. d = pdv

w. d = p × 0

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w. d = 0J

3.5.3. Isothermal Process

Is a thermodynamic process which occur at constant temperature Or Is

a thermodynamic process which obey Boyle’s law

pv = k

In such a process heat is, if necessary, supplied or removed from

the system at just the right rate to maintain constant Temperature.
Conditions for isothermal change
(1) The gas must be held in a thin-walled, highly conducting
vessel, surrounded by a constant temperature bath.
(2) The expansion or contraction must take place slowly. So that
the heat can pass in or out to maintain the temperature of the gas
at every instant during expansion or contraction.

Isothermal change represented graphically

When the temperature is constant the pressure of a gas varies

with volume and a graph which shows this variation is a curve
known as isothermal curve.

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Where

This graph is also called PV - curve or PV – Indicator diagram

When a gas expands, or is compressed, at constant temperature,
its pressure and volume vary along the appropriate isothermal,
and the gas is said to undergo an isothermal
compression..expansion
Isothermal reversible change When the gas is compressed
isothermally from , , T to , , T then a graph which
show this variation is:

If the gas is allowed to expand isothermally so that the state of

the gas is brought back from ( , , T) through exactly the same
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intermediate stage then the gas is said to undergo isothermal
reversible change:
Definition
An isothermal reversible change is that change which goes to
and from through exactly the same intermediate stages at
constant temperature.
Isothermal reversible change equation
Since the temperature is constant, and is isothermal
change obeys Boyle’s law.
PV = constant.

... P1V1 = P2V2 Isothermal reversible change equation

the workdone in isothermal process

workdone in this process

p1 v1 = p2 v2 = p3 v3 = k

let

pv = nRT

if n = 1

pv = RT − − − − − (i)

but w. d = pdv − − − −(ii)

from equation (i)

RT
p =
v
substitute into eqn

w. d = pdv
RT
dw = ( ) dv
v
integration the equation

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w v2
dv
∫ dw = RT ∫
0 v1 v

v
w. d = RT[ Inv ]v21

w. d = RT(Inv2 − Inv1 )2
v2
w. d = RT In ( )
v1

if will be given

p1 &p2

p1 v1 = p2 v2
p1 v2
=
p2 v1

mathematically
p1
w. d = RT In ( )
p2

Example 40 :
Calculate amount of heat necessary to raise a temperature of
2moles of the gas from 20℃ to 50℃ at
a) Constant volume
b) Constant pressure

solution

R = 8.314

Cp = 2.49R

Cv = 1.5R

(i)at constant volume

Q = ncv dT
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n = 2moles

Cv = 1.5R

R = 8.314

Q = 2 × 1.5 × (50 − 20)

Q = 3 × 30 × 8.314

Q = 90 × 8.314

Heat supplied = 748J

(ii)At constant pressure

Q = nCp dT

Q = 2 × 2.49 × 8.314 × 30

Q = 1242J

heat supplied = 1242J

Example 41:

One gram of water (1cm3 ) become 1671cm3 steam at pressure

oof 1atm (1.013 × 105 )pa . The Latent heat of vaporization at
this pressure is 2256Jg −1. Calculate
a) External work
b) Internal energy
solution

v1 = 1cm3 = 1 × 10−6 m3

v2 = 1671 × 10−6 m3

p = 1.013 × 105 pa

Lv = 2256Jg −1

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mass = 1g

workdone = pdv

w. d = 1.013 × 105 × (1671 − 1) × 10−6

w. d = 169J

hence the external workdone = 169J

(ii)internal energy

from first law of thermodynamics

dQ = mLv
2256J
Q = 1g ×
g −1

Q = 2256J

from first law of thermodynamics

dQ = du + dw

Q=u+w

u = Q−w

u = 2256 − 169

u = 2087

The internal energy = 2087J

Example 42:
Determine the amount of work done when a system containg
Determine the amount of work done when a system containg
1cm3 of a liquid water at 0℃ free under constant pressure of
1.0atm and forms 1.1cm3 of ice and name the process formed .
The process is called isobaric process

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solution

vi = 1cm3 = 1.0 ×10 − 6m3

vf = 1.1 cm3 = 1.1 × 10−6 m3

105 N
p = 1.013 ×
m2
from workdone

w. d = pdv

w. d = p(vf − vi )

w. d = 1.013 × 105 (1.1 × 10−6 − 1.0 × 10−6 )

workdone = 0.1 J

3.5.4. Adiabatic Process

Adiabatic ia a thermodynamic process which occur when there is

no heat enter or leave the system (i.e heat is constant)
An adiabatic change is the change which takes place without
exchange of heat between inner and outer of the system.
It is the one which takes place at constant heat.
In general, an adiabatic change involves a fall or rise in
temperature of the system.
Condition for adiabatic change
No heat is allowed to enter or leave the gas.
therefore.
(1) The gas must be held in a thick – walled, badly, conducting
vessel.
(2) The change in volume must take place rapidly to give as little
time as possible for heat to escape.

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Examples of adiabatic process/change

i. i. The rapid escape of air from a burst Tyre.

i. ii. The rapid expansions and contractions of air through which a

sound wave is passing.

Adiabatic change represented graphically

A curve which relates the pressure and volume when the heat
content of the gas is kept constant is called an adiabatic.
Adiabatic curves and isothermal curves are similar except that
adiabatic are steeper than isothermals.
If the gas is compressed adiabatically from volume Vo to
volume V1 its temperature rises to T2 so that its new position is
P1 V1 on the new isothermal.
Similarly, if the gas is left to expand adiabatically from volume
Vo to volume V2 its temperature is lowered to T1 so that its new
position is ( ) on P2 V2 the new isothermal
Adiabatic reversible change

An adiabatic reversible change is the change which goes to

and fro through exactly the same intermediate stages without
exchange of heat between inner and out of the system.
In this process all vaiable pressure, volume, temperature are
changing

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
P

Adiabatic expansion

Adiabatic process

InAdiabatic the process is too fast than isothemal process

Hence the equation of adiabatic process
pv γ = k

3.6. Differences Between Adiatic Process And

Isothermal Process

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS ADIABATIC PROCESS

Temperature remain constant Heat is constant
The process occurs slowly The process occur suddenly

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(faster)
Obey the equation of boyle’s law Obey the equation of PV γ = k
At any point on the isothermal At any point the slope is larger
process the slope is less than that than isothermal at the same poin.
of adiabatic process

Derivation

pv γ = k

from first law of thermodynamic

Q=U+w

dQ = dU + dw

But dw = pdv

dQ = dU + pdv

but for adibtic process heat is constant = 0

0 = dU + pdv

dU = −pdv

dU = ncv dT

0 = ncv dT + pdv

from ideal gas equation

pv = nRT

differentiate w. r. t. T
pdv vdp
+ = nR
dT dT
pdv + vdp = nRdT

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pdv + vdp
dT = − − − −(i)
nR
substituting to the equation

0 = ncv dT + pdv
pdv + vdp
0 = ncv ( ) + pdv
nR
pdv + vdp
0 = cv ( ) + pdv
R
pdv + vdp
−pdv = cv ( )
R
hence from Meyer ′ s equation

R = cp − cv

cv pdv + cv vdp
−pdv =
c p − cv

−pdv (cp − cv ) = p cv pdv + cv vdp

cp pdv cv vdp
− =
pv pv
cp dv cv dp
cv cv
− =
v p
cp
dp (c ) dv
= − v
p v
cp
but = γ
cv
γdv dp
− =
v p

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dp γdv
+ =0
p v
dp γdv
∫ + ∫ = ∫0
p v

Inp + γ Inv = c

Inp + Inv γ = c

In (pv γ ) = c

log e pvγ = c

pv γ = ec

pv γ = K

Hence proved

since for ideal gas

pv = Rt for 1mole
RT
p =
v
RTv γ
K =
V
also
pv RT
=
p P
RT
v =
P
K RTV γ
=
R RV
K = TV γ−1

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And the expression for the workdone

dw = pdv

But pV γ = k
k
p =
Vγ
k
dw = ( ) dv
vγ
integrating both sides
w v2
k
∫ dw = ∫ dv
0 v1 Vγ
v2
dv
workdone = k∫
v1 vγ
v2
w. d = k ∫ V −γ+1 dv
v1

v
V −γ+ 1 2
w. d = k [ ]
−γ + 1 v
1

k −γ+1 −γ+1
w. d = (V2 − V1 )
−γ + 1

but

PV γ = k
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = k

1 1−γ 1−γ
w. d = (kV2 − kV1 )
1−γ
1 γ 1−γ γ 1−γ
w. d = (P2 V2 V2 − P1 V1 V1 )
1−γ

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
1
w. d = (P V – P1 V1 )
1−γ 2 2

but

pv = Rt

P1 V1 = RT1

P2 V2 = RT2
1
w. d = (RT2 − RT1 )
1−γ
R
w. d = (T − T1 )
1−γ 2

3.7. Application Of First Law Of Thermodynamic

 It is used to show the relationship between molar heat

capacity at constant pressure and molar heat capacity at
constant volume (Cp and Cv )
 Boiling process. Suppose a liquid of mass, m vaporizes at
a constant pressure P. Its volume in liquid state is V1 and
its volume in the vapor state is Vv . the work done in the
expansion and change in internal energy of the system.
Since expansion takes place at constant pressure, the
work done by the system is given by
v2
w = ∫ pdv
v1

v2
w = P ∫ dv = p(v2 − v1 )
v1

 Melting process. When a solid changes into liquid state,

its internal energy increases. This can be calculated from
the first law of thermodynamics.

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Let m = mass of the solid
L = specific latent heat of fusion

heat absobed during melting process

Q = mL
 Isobaric process. A process that occurs at constant
pressure is called isobaric process. Suppose a gas expands
at constant pressure

Q = ∆U + w
In this case, the heat added increases the internal energy of the
gas as well as the gas does external work.
 Isochoric process. A process that occurs at constant
volume is called isochoric process, work done is zero
because there is no change of volume.
We conclude that, if the heat is added to a system at constant
volume, all the heat goes into increasing the internal energy of
the system.

3.8. Limitation Of First Law Of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics based on the conservation of

energy. any process which would violet it cannot occur. The first
law of thermodynamics failed to the following
(a) The first law of thermodynamics does not indicate the
direction of transfer of heat.
(b) The first law does not tell anything about the conditions
under which heat can be converted into work.
(c) The first law does not tell us why the whole heat energy
cannot be converted into mechanical work continuously.

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3.9. Worked Examples Set 04a:

Example 43:
The ideal gas at 17℃ has a pressure of 760mmHG and is
compressed.
i. Isothermally
ii. Adiabatically
Until its volume halved in each case reversibly. Calculate the
final presure and temperature of the gas assuming that cp =
2100 and cv = 1500
solution

Given T1 = 17℃

P1 = 760mmHG

vi = v
v
v2 =
2
(i)Isothermally

P1 V1 = P2 V2
P1 V1
P2 =
V2
760 × V
P2 =
V⁄2

P2 = 760 × 2

P2 = 1520mmHg

For isothermally the temperature is constant

hence T2 = 17℃ = 290k

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(ii)Adiabatically

final temperature

from PV γ = k
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = k

Cp
But atomicity (γ) =
Cv
2100
(γ) =
1500
γ = 1.4
γ
P1 V1
P2 = γ
V2

V1
P2 = P1 [ ]γ
V2
V 1.4
P2 = 760( )
V⁄
2
P2 = 760 (2)1.4

P2 = 2005mmHG

The final temperature for adiabatic process

from TV γ−1 = k
γ−1 γ−1
T1 V1 = T2 V2 = k
γ−1
T1 V1
T2 = γ−1
V2

V1
T2 = T1 ( )γ−1
V2

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
V γ−1
T2 = 290( )
V⁄
2
T2 = 290(2)1.4−1

T2 = 290 × 20.4

T2 = 382.65k

Hence the final temperature T2 = 382.65k

Example 44:

A gas is suddenly compressed to 1/3 to its volume. Compute the rise in

temperature if original temperature is 27℃. Use atomicity (γ) = 1.5

solution

vi = v
1
vf = v
3
T1 = 27℃ = 300k

required to calculate T2

from TV γ−1 = k
γ−1 γ−1
T1 V1 = T2 V2 = k
vi
T2 = T1 ( )γ−1
v2
v
T2 = 300(v )γ−1
⁄3

T2 = 300 (3)1.5−1

T2 = 519.62k

hence the rise in temperature

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dt = 519.62 − 300

dt = 219.62k

Example 45:

A quantity of perfect gas at 15℃ is compressed adiabatiacally to one

fourth of its volume. Calculate the final temperature use γ = 1.4

T1 = 15℃ = 288k

v1 = v
1
v2 = v
4
γ = 1.4
γ−1 γ−1
T1 V1 = T2 V2
v1
T2 = T1 ( )γ−1
v2
v
T2 = 288( v ) γ−1
4

T2 = 288(4)1.4−1

T2 = 501.4k

The final temperatute of the system is 501.4k

Example 46:

Ten moles of water gas at N.T.P are compressed adiabatically so that

its temperature become 400℃ . Calculate

i. The work done by the gas

ii. The increase in internal energy of the gas given that
(R = 8.314 and γ = 1.4)

solution

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
T1 = 273k

T2 = 400 + 273 = 673k

γ = 1.4

R = 8.314
1
from w. d = (nRT2 − nRT1 )
1−γ
nR
w. d = (T − T1 )
1−γ 2
10 × 8.314
w. d = (673 − 273)
1 − 1.4
81.34
w. d = (400)
−0.4
w. d = −8.314 × 104 J

the negative sign means the work was done on

the gas

(ii)the increase in internal energy

fron fisrt law of thermodynamics

dQ = du + dw

but for adiabatic process dQ = 0

du + dw = 0

du = −dw

du = −(−8.314 × 104 )

du = 8.314 × 104 J

hence the internal energy = 8.314 × 104 J

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3.10. Worked Examples Set 04b

Example 1:

1kg of water at 373K is converted into steam at same temperature.

Volume of 1cm3 of water become 1671cm3 of boiling. What is change
in the internal energy of the system if the latent heat of vapourization
of water is 5.4 × 105 cal/kg? [MPPTET 2002]

solution

volume of 1kg of water

= 1000cm3 = 10−3 m3

volume of 1kg of steam 103 × 1671cm3 = 1.671m3

change in volume dV = (1.671 − 10−3 )m3

dV = 1.670m3

pressure P 0.76 × 13600 × 9.8Nm−2

∴ density of mercury = 13600kgm−3

since dw = PdV

dw = 0.76 × 13600 × 9.8 × 1.67

1.691 × 105
dw = 1.691 × 105 = cal
4.2
dw = 4.026 × 104 cal

but dU = dQ − dw

dU = 5.4 × 105 − 0.4026 × 105 cal

dU = 4.9974 × 105 cal

Example 2:

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
1mole of an ideal gas undergoes a cyclic change ABCD. Calculate the
net work done in the process. Given that 1atm = 106 dynes/cm2

solution

Since the loop ABCD is traced in the clockwise direction therefore the
work done is positive.

work done = +area of ABCD

W = DC × DA

= (4 − 1)litre × (5 − 2)atm

= 3litre × 3atm

w = 3 × 103 × 3 × 106

workdone = 9 × 109 erg.

Example 3:

Consider the figure shown below, when a system is taken from state B
along the path ACB, 80kcal of heat flows into the system and 30kcal
of work done.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(i) How much heat flows into the system along path ADB, if the
work done is 10kcal.
(ii) When the system is returned from B to A along the curved
path, the work done is 20kcal. Does the system absorb or
liberate heat and how much?
(iii) If UA = 0 and UD = 40kcal, find the heat absorbed in the
processes AD and DB.

solution

Heat flowing into the system when it is taken from A to state B along
the path ACB.

dQ ACB = +80kcal positive sign indicate the heat flows into the
system

Corresponding work done

dQ ACB = +30kcal, positive sign taken because work is done by the

system

Let the change in internal energy along the path ACB be dUACB

now dQ ACB = dUACB + dwACB

dUACB = dQ ACB − dWACB

dUACB = (80 − 30)kcal

dUACB = 50kcal

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Example 4:

A certain gas at atmospheric pressure is compressed adiabatically so

that its volume becomes half of its original volume. Calculate the
resulting pressure in dynescm−2 . Given that γ = 1.4

solution

let initial volume V1 = V

final volume be V2 = V

initial pressure P1 = 76cmHg

= 76 × 13.6 × 981dyne cm−2

final pressure P2 = ?

consider the equation for adiabatic expansion

γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2
V1
such that P2 = P1 ( )γ
V2
1.4
V
P2 = P1 ( V )
2

P2 = 76 × 13.6 × 981 × 21.4 dyne cm−2

P2 = 2.7 × 106 dyne cm−2

Example 5.

A motor tyre pumped to a pressure of 3 atm suddenly bursts. Calculate

the fall in the temperature due to adiabatic expansion. The temperature
of air before expansion is 27℃. Given that γ = 1.4

solution

initial pressure P1 = 3atm

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
initial temperature T1 = 27 + 273 = 300K

final preesure P2 = 1 atm

Final temperature let be T2

fall in temperature = T1 − T2

form the relation

γ 1−γ γ 1−γ
T1 P1 = T2 P2

T2 γ P1 1−γ
( ) = ( )
T1 P2

T2 1.4 3 1−1.4
( ) = ( )
300 1
T2 1.4 1 0.4
( ) = ( )
300 3
simplify and solve for T2

T2 = 219.2K

fall in temperature

T1 − T2 = 300 − 219.2

= 80.8K

Example 6:

A gram molecule of a gas at 127℃ expands isothermally until its

volume is doubled. Find the amount of work done and heat absorbed.

solution

temperature T = 127 + 273 = 400K

molar gas constant R = 8.3 × 107 erg/mol ℃

let initial volume V1 = V

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
let final volume V2 = 2V
V2
the work done Wiso = RT In ( )
V1
2V
Wiso = 8.3 × 107 × 400 × In ( )
V
wiso = 2.301 × 1010 erg
wiso
heat absorbed Q =
J

2.301 × 1010
Q =
4.2 × 107
Q = 547.9cal

Example 7:

Why the brake drum of an automobile gets heated up when the

automobile moves down a hill at constant speed.

 Since the speed is constant therefore there is no change kinetic

energy. The loss in gravitational potential energy is partially
the gain in the heat energy of the brakes drum.

Example 8

Why water at the base of waterfall is slightly warmer than at the top?

 The potential energy at the top gets converted into kinetic

energy at the bottom. The kinetic energy gets partially
converted into heat energy when the water hits the ground.
Consequently, there is slightly increase in the temperature of
water.

3.11. Competitive Examination File Unit Set 06:

1. One mole of an ideal gas undergoes cyclic change ACBD. Using the
figure below to calculate
a. Work done along AB, BC CD and DA.

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
b. Net work done in the process
c. Net change in internal energy of the gas. (1atm =
1.01 × 105 N/m2 )

[ans, (a) 1010J;0J; -404J; 0J (b)606J; (c)zero]

2. A gas occupying 1litre at 80 cm pressure is expanded adiabatically to

1190cm3. If the pressure falls to 60cm in the process, deduce the value
of γ. [ans. 1.66]
3. A gas suddenly compressed to half of its original volume. Calculate the
rise in temperature, the original temperature being 27℃ given that γ =
1.5 [ans. 𝟏𝟐𝟒. 𝟐℃]
4. Calculate the fall in the temperature of helium initially at 15℃ when it
is suddenly expanded to 8 times its volume. The ration of specific heats
id 5/3. [ans. 𝟐𝟏𝟔℃]
5. Ideal gas at 75 cmHg pressure is compressed isothermally until its
volume reduced to 3/4th of its original volume. It is then allowed to
expand adiabatically to a volume of 20% greater than its original
volume. If the initial temperature of a gas is 17℃, calculate the final
pressure and temperature such that γ = 1.4. [ans. 51.79cmHg;
−𝟑𝟐. 𝟕℃]
6. A tyre is pumped to a pressure of 6atmosphere suddenly bursts. Room
temperature is 15℃. Calculate temperature of the escaping air. Given
γ = 1.4 for air. [ans. 𝟏𝟕𝟐. 𝟔K]

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7. Calculate the final volume of one mole of a gas after isothermal
expansion at 27℃, if its original volume is 150cm3. Given that the
amount of work done by the gas during expansion is 2.303 × 109 erg
and 8.31 × 107erg/molK. [ans. 𝟏𝟔𝟒. 𝟓𝐜𝐦𝟑 ]
8. the volume of an ideal gas in vessel is two litre at normal pressure. The
gas is compressed under adiabatic conditions to such an extent as to
reduce its volume to 1litre. What is the final pressure of the gas? Given
that γ = 1.4 [ans. 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐍𝐦−𝟐]
9. 2 moles of Helium gas (γ =5/3) of 20 litre volume at 27℃ subjected to
constant pressure is expanded to double the initial volume. Then it is
adiabatically taken to initial temperature 27℃. What will be the final
pressure, final volume and work done in isobaric and adiabatic process.
[ans. 112.8litre, 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐍𝐦−𝟐 ; 7470 J]
10. 2m3 of volume of a gas at a pressure of 4 × 105 Nm−2 is compressed
adiabatically so that the volume becomes 0.5m3. Find the new
pressure. Compare this with the pressure, if the compression was
isothermal. Calculate the work done in each process. Given thatγ =
1.4. [ans. 𝟐. 𝟕𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐍𝐦−𝟐 ; 𝟏. 𝟕𝟒; −𝟏. 𝟒𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐉; −𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 J]
11. At 27℃, two moles of an ideal monatomic gas occupy a volume V.
the gas expands adiabatically to volume 2V. Calculate
(i) Final temperature of the gas.
(ii) The change in its internal energy.

The work done by the gas during the process.[ans. 189K; -

2767.2J; 2767.2J]

12. Two moles of an ideal monatomic gas is taken through a cycle ABCA
as shown below in P – T diagram. During the process AB, pressure and
temperature of the gas vary such that PT = constant. If T1 = 300K,
calculate

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(i) The work done on the gas in the process AB
(ii) The heat absorbed or released by the gas in each of the process.
Give answers in terms of the gas constant R. [ans. -1200R;
1500R (B to C); 1200Rlog2 (C to A); -2100R (A t o B).
13. 20000J of heat energy is supplied to a metallic object of mass 1kg at
atmospheric pressure at 20℃. Find
(i) The final temperature of the metal.
(ii) The work done by the metal.
(iii) Change in internal energy of metal. Specific heat of metal =
400J/kg℃. Density of metal is 9000kg/m3 , coefficient of
expansion = 9 × 10−5/℃ and atmospheric pressure =
105 N/m2 . [ans. 𝟕𝟎℃; 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝐉; 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝟓J

3.12. Competitive Examination File Unit Set 07:

Problem 01
5 moles of hydrogen initially at STP are compressed
adiabatically so that the temperature becomes 400℃. Find:
(i) The work done on the gas
(ii) The increase in internal energy of the gas

Given that γ = 1.4 for diatomic gas.

Problem 02
At 27℃ two moles of an ideal monatomic gas occupy a volume
V. the gas expands adiabatically to a volume 2V. Calculate:
(i) The final temperature of the gas
(ii) The change in its internal energy
(iii)The work done by the gas during this process

Given that γ = 1.67

Problem 03

A metallic cylinder contains 10 litres of air at 3 atmospheres of

pressure and temperature of 300K.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(a) If the pressure is suddenly doubled, what are the new values
of volume and temperature.
(b) If the pressure is slowly doubled, what are the new values of
volume and temperature.

Problem 04

(a) Define the principle molar heat capacities of a gas.

(b) Why the energy needed to raise the temperature of a fixed
mass of a gas by a specific amount is greater if the pressure is
kept constant than when the volume is kept constant.
(c) Find the two principal heat capacities for oxygen (diatomic
cp
molecule) whose ratio of c is 1.4 at STP.
v
Problem 05
A quantity of oxygen is compressed isothermally until its
pressure is doubled. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically
until its volume is restored. Find the final pressure in terms of the
initial pressure. Given that γ = 1.4
Problem 06
(a) With the help of sketch diagram distinguish between an
“isothermal change” and an “adiabatic change”. Illustrate your
answer with an example of a gas changing from state A to state
B.
(b) Argon gas (specific heat capacity ratio 1.67) is contained in a
250 cm3 versel at a pressure of 750mmHg and a temperature of
0℃ The gas is expanded isothermally to a final volume of
400cm3
(i) Calculate the final pressure of the gas
(ii) By how much will the pressure will be lowered if the change
is made adiabatically instead?

Problem 07

(i) Define mean “free path” for a molecule of a gas

(ii) How is the means free path of the molecule of a gas affected
by temperature.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) The heat capacity Cv at constant volume for 8 moles of
oxygen gas is 166.2KJ-1 .
Find the heat capacity at constant pressure for 8 moles of oxygen.
Problem 08
(a) What is the difference between an “isothermal process” and
“adiabatic process”?
(b) How, much work is required to compress 5 moles of air at 20
1
and 1 atmosphere pressure at 10 of the original volume by:
(i) An isothermal process
(ii) An adiabatic process
(c) What are the final pressure for case (b) (i) and (b) (ii) above?
(d) In a diesel engine, the cylinder compresses air from
approximately standard temperature and pressure to about one
sixteenth of the original volume and a pressure of about 5
atmospheres. What is the temperature of the compressed air?
= 1.403
R = 8.31 mol−1 K −1
= 20.68 Jmol−1 K −1

Problem 09

100g of a gas are enclosed in a cylinder which is fitted with a

movable frictionless piston.

When a quantity of heat is supplied to the gas it expands at

constant pressure doing 8400J of work and heating up by 20℃.
Calculate:

(i) The change in internal energy of the gas

(ii) The specific heat capacity of the gas at constant volume Cv

Given that = 1.26 x

Problem 10

161
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Given that the molar heat capacities of hydrogen at constant
value and constant pressure are respectively 20.5Jmol−1 K −1 and
28.8Jmol−1 K −1 . Calculate

(i) The molar gas constant

(ii) The heat needed to raise the temperature of 8g of hydrogen
from 10℃ to 15℃ at constant pressure.
(iii) The increase in internal energy of the gas
(iv) The external work done

Problem 11

The density of a gas is 1.775kgm−3 at 27℃ and 1×

105 Nm−2 pressure and its specific heat capacity at constant
pressure is 846Jg −1 K −1. Find the ratio of its specific heat
capacity at constant pressure to that at constant volume.

Problem 12

A gas of volume 500cm3 and pressure 1.0 × 105 Nm expands

adiabatically to 600cm3 . Calculate

(i) The final pressure

(ii) The work done by the gas
(iii) The final temperature if the initial temperature of the gas
before expansion was 23℃

Given that γ = 1.4

Problem 13

One gram of water becomes 1671 of steam at a pressure of 1

atmosphere . The latent heat of vaporization
at this pressure is 2256 . Calculate the external work done
and the increase in internal energy.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Problem 14

1.0 of water is converted into 1671 of steam at

atmospheric pressure and 100 temperature. The latent heat of
vaporization of water is 2.3 × 106 Jkg −1 . If 2.0Kg of water is
converted into steam at atmospheric pressure and 100
temperature, then how much will be the increase in its internal
energy?

Given that

Density of water = 1.0 × 105 kgm−3

Atmospheric pressure = 1.01 × 105 Nm−2

Problem 15

(a) What is an isothermal change?

(b) A cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston holds a volume of
1000cm3 of air at a pressure of 1.10 × 105 Pa and temperature of
300 K. The air is then heated to 375K at constant pressure.
Determine the new volume of the gas. The gas is then
compressed isothermally to a volume of 1000cm3 . Calculate the
new
pressure.

Problem 16
(a) (i) What is the difference between an isothermal and an
adiabatic process?
(ii) Show that an adiabatic change follows an adiabatic equation.
= constant
(b) (i) Distinguish between the specific heat capacity and the
molar heat capacity. Given the unit of each.

163
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(ii) Calculate the two principal molar heat capacities of oxygen
and explain why the specific heat capacity of the gas at constant
volume is less than that at constant pressure.

Problem 17

[Link] is reversible change?

[Link] the condition for a reversible change to occur.
iii.A litre of air at Pa pressure expands adiabatically and
reversibly to twice its volume.

Calculate the work done by the gas.

Problem 18

A cylinder in the figure below holds a volume = 1000cm3 of

air at an initial pressure of P1 = 1.1 × 105 Pa and temperature
T1 = 300K. Assume the air behaves like an ideal gas.

164
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

(i ) AB – the air heated to 373 K at constant pressure. Calculate

the new volume.

( ii) BC – the air is compressed isothermally to volume .

Calculate the new pressure

(iii) Calculate the root mean square speed of nitrogen molecules

at a temperature of 27

Problem 19

a. State the 1st law of thermodynamics and write its

equation.
b. A liter of air initially at 25℃ and 760mmHg is heated at
constant pressure until the volume is doubled. Determine:

(i) The final temperature

(ii) The external work done by the air in expanding it.
(iii) The quantity of heat supplied

Problem 20

0.15 mol of an ideal mono atomic gas is enclosed in a cylinder at

a pressure of 250 KPa and a temperature of 320K. The gas is

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
allowed to expand adiabatically and reversibly until its pressures
is 100KPa

(a) Sketch a P – V curve for the process.

(b) Calculate the final temperature and the amount of work done
by the gas.

Problem 21

i. Define the bulk modulus of a gas

i. Find the ratio of the adiabatic bulk modulus of a gas to that of

its isothermal bulk modulus in terms of the specific heat
capacities of the gas.

Problem 22
(a) A gas expands adiabatically and its temperature falls while
the same gas when compressed adiabatically its temperature
rises. Explain giving reasons why this happens.
(b) A mole of oxygen at 280K is insulated in an infinitely
flexible container is 5× 105 Nm−2 . When 580J of heat is supplied
to the oxygen the temperature increases to 300K and the volume
of the container increases by 3.32× 10−4 m3 . Calculate the values
of the principal molar heat capacities and the specific universal
gas constant.
Given that molar mass of oxygen = 32 × 10−3 kg
Problem 23
(a) (i) Why is heat needed to change liquid water into vapour?
What amount of energy is needed

(ii) The molar heat capacity of hydrogen at constant volume

is 20.2Jmol−1 K −1. What is the molar heat capacity at

constant pressure?

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) In an industrial refrigerator ammonia is vaporized in the
cooling unit to produce a low temperature. Why should the
evaporation of ammonia reduce the temperature in the
refrigerator?. How much energy is needed to convert 150g of
water at 20℃ into steam at 100℃

Problem 24

An ideal gas is kept in thermal contact with a very large body of

constant temperature T and undergoes an isothermal expansion in
which its volume changes from V1 to V2 .

Derive an equation for the work done by the gas.

Problem 25

A heat engine carries I mole of an ideal gas around a cycle as

shown in the figure below. Process 1 – 2 is at constant volume,
process 2 – 3 is adiabatic and process 3 – 1 is at a constant
5
pressure of 1 a.t.m. The value of for this gas is 3.

Find:

i. )The pressure and volume at points 1, 2 and 3

ii ) The net work done by the gas in the cycle.

167
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Problem 26

The door of a working refrigerator is left open.

What effect will this have on the temperature of the room in

which the refrigerator is kept?. Explain

Problem 27

(a) What do you understand by the terms:

(i) Critical temperature?
(ii) Adiabatic change?
(b b) An air bubble is observed in a pipe of the braking system
of a car. The pipe is filled with an incompressible liquid (see
figure below). When the brakes are applied, the increased
pressure in the pipe causes the bubble to become smaller.

168
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Before the brakes are applied the pressure is 110 × 103 Nm−2,
the temperature is 290K and the length of the bubble is 15mm.
When the brakes are applied quickly, the air bubble is
compressed adiabatically and if the change in its length exceed
12mm the brakes fail. If the internal cross-sectional area of the
pipe is 2 × 10−5 m2
(i) Explain briefly why the compression of the bubble is
considered to be adiabatic.
(ii) What is the maximum safe pressure in the system during
rapid braking if the bubbles change in length does not exceed
12mm? Take γair = 1.4
(iii). Determine the temperature of the air in the bubble at the end
of the adiabatic compression.

Problem 28

(a) Find the number of molecules and their mean kinetic energy
for a cylinder of volume 4 × 10−4 m3 containing oxygen at a
pressure of 2× 105 Pa Pa and a temperature of 300K
(b) When the gas is compressed adiabatically to a volume of 2
, the temperature rises to 434K. Determine the , the
ratio of the principal heat capacities.
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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Given that:
Molar gas constant = 8.31Jmol−1 K −1
And NA = 6 × 1023 mol−1
Problem 29
(a) The first law of thermodynamics is a consequence of the law
of conservation of energy. Explain briefly.
(b) What is the difference between isochoric process and
isobaric process?
(c) Why is the energy needed to raise the temperature of a fixed
mass of a gas by a specific amount is greater if the pressure is
kept constant than if the volume is kept constant?
A certain volume of a dry air at S.T.P is allowed to expand
four times its original volumes under:
(i) Isothermal conditions
(ii) Adiabatic conditions

Calculate the final pressure and temperature in each case

Given that γ = 1.4

Problem 30

In a P – V diagram shown below, an adiabatic and an isothermal

curve for an ideal gas intersect. Show that the absolute value of
dp
the slope of the adiabatic |[dv]| is γ times that of the isothermal

170
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Hence the adiabatic curve is steeper because the specific heat

ratio γ is greater than 1

Problem 31

A Tyre has air pumped at a pressure of 4 atmospheres at room

temperature of 27℃. If the Tyre bust suddenly, calculate the final
temperature (take γ = 1.4)

Problem 32

Two moles of oxygen are initially at a temperature of 27℃ and

volume of 20 litres. The gas expanded first at constant pressure
until the volume has doubled, and then adiabatically until the
temperature returns to the original value.

(i) What is the total increase in internal energy?

(ii)What is the final volume?
C
Given that CP = γ = 2
v

Problem 33

The Specific heat capacity of hydrogen at constant volume is

1.01 × 104 Jkg −1 K −1. If the density of hydrogen at S.T.P is
171
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
−3
0.09kg , calculate the specific heat capacity of hydrogen at
constant pressure.

Problem 34

(i) Does a gas do work when is expands adiabatically? If so

what is the course of energy needed to do this work.
(ii)Derive a relation between the bulk modulus K and density ρ
of a perfect gas under isothermal conditions and adiabatic
conditions. A mass of air at 27℃ and 750mmHg pressure
occupies a volume of 8litres. If the air expands first isothermally
until its volume increases by 50% and then adiabatically until its
volume again increases by 50% each time reversibly. Calculate
(a) The final pressure
(b) The final temperature
(iii) An ideal gas expands adiabatically from initial temperatures
T1 to a final temperature T2 , prove that the work done by the gas
is Cv (T1 − T2 )
Problem 35
An ideal gas at 760mmHg is compressed isothermally until its
volume is reduced to 75% of its original volume. The gas is then
allowed to expand adiabatically to a volume 120% of its original
volume. If the temperature of the gas is 20℃
(a) Construct the P – V indicator diagram.
(b) Calculate the final pressure and temperature
Given that:
= 3600 J/kg K
= 2400 J/kg K

Problem 36

A mono atomic gas initially at the temperature T = 25℃ and

pressure of 2 atmospheres is expanded to a final pressure of 1.0
atmosphere.

a) Isothermally and reversibly

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
b) Isothermally against a constant pressure of 1.0 atmosphere.
Calculate for each case:
(i) The final temperature of the gas
(ii) The increase of internal energy

3.13. Worked Examples Set 05:

1 .Two slabs of cross-section area A and of thickness d1 and d2

and thermal conductivities k1 and k 2 are arranged in contact face
to face. The out face of the first slab is maintained at T1 ℃, that of
the second one at T2 ℃ and the interface at T℃. Calculate
a) Rate of flow of heat through the composite slabs
b) The interface temperature
c) The equivalent conductivity.
solution
consider the figure below

(i) (a)for the first slab, heat flow is

given by
dQ1 k1 A(T1 − T)
= − − − −1
dt d1
for the second slab, heat flow is given by
dQ2 k 2 A(T − T2 )
= −−−−−2
dt d2
now heat flow must be the same
in both slabs
dQ1 dQ2 dQ3
= =
dt dt dt
d1 dQ
T1 − T = ∙ … … … … . .1
k1 A dt
173
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
d2 dQ
T − T2 = ∙ − − − −2
k 2 A dt
add the two eqns results
d1 dQ d2 dQ
T1 − T2 = ∙ + ∙
k1 A dt k 2 A dt
1 d1 d2 dQ
T1 − T2 = ( + )
A k1 k 2 dt
simple mathematics
the rate of heat flow
dQ A(T1 − T2 )
= d d
dt 1
+ 2
k1 k2

2. A bar of copper and a bar of iron equal length are welded

together end to end and are lagged. Determine the temperature of
interface when the free end of the copper bar is at 100℃ and the
free end of the iron is at 0℃ and the condition are steady. Given
that thermal conductivity of copper is 92 and that of iron is
16 cal⁄msc
solution
consider the bar below
𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑖

100℃ Lc Li 0℃
suppose
k c − thermal conductivity of copper
k i − themal conductivity of iron
Lc − length of copper bar
Li − length of iron bar
but given that Lc = Li
then the bars are connected is series
such that rate of heat flow is the same
for both bars

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
k c A(100 − θ) k i A(θ − 0)
then =
Lc Li
θ − temperature of interface
k c (100 − θ) = k i (θ − 0)
92(100 − θ) = 16θ
9200 − 92θ = 16θ
108θ = 9200
9200
θ=
108
θ = 85.19℃

3. Find radial flow of heat in a material of thermal conductivity

placed between two concentric spheres of radii r1 and r2 (r1 <
r2 ) which are maintained at temperature T1 and T2 (T1 > T2 ).
solution
Consider the concentric sphere below

dQ dT
= −kA ( )
dt dr
1 dQ dr
dT = − ( ) ( )
k dt 4πr 2
when a steady stady state is reached
dQ
will be independent of r and is
dt
constant hence
−1 dQ dr
dT = ( )
4πk dt r 2
integrating both sides

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
T2 r2
−1 dQ dr
∫ dT = ∫ ( )
4πk dT r 2
T1 r1
integrating on the left side
r2
−1 dQ dr
T2 − T1 = ( )∫ 2
4πk dT r
r1
−1 dQ 1 r2
T2 − T1 = ( ) [− ]
4πk dT r r1
−1 dQ −1 1
T2 − T1 = ( )( + )
4πk dT r2 r1
−1 dQ 1 1
T2 − T1 = ( )( − )
4πk dT r1 r2
simple mathematics
−1 dQ r1 − r2
T2 − T1 = ( )( )
4πk dT r1 r2
dQ 4πk(r1 r2 )(T2 − T1 )
=−
dT r1 − r2
dQ r1 r2
= 4πk ( ) (T1 − T2 )
dT r2 − r1

4. Find the radial rate of heat flow in a material of thermal

conductivity k placed between co-axial cylinder of length L and
radii r1 and r2 respectively ( r1 < r2 ) maintained at temperature
T1 and T2 respectively(T1 > T2 ).
solution
dQ dT
= −kA ( )
dt dr
neglecting the area of the faces, the
area of the cylinder is given by
A = 2πrL
dQ
also = constant
dt
dQ dT
= −2πrLk ( )
dt dr
176
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
apply mathematical operations
dr 2πLk
= ( dQ ) dT
r
dt
apply integral both sides
T2 r2
2πLk dr
∫ ( dQ ) dT = ∫
( dt ) r
T1 r 1
T2 r2
2πLk dr
( dQ ) ∫ dT = ∫
( dt ) T r
1r 1

2πLk
( dQ ) (T2 − T1 ) = In(r2 − r1 )
( dt )

2πLk r2
( dQ ) (T2 − T1 ) = In ( )
( dt ) r1
dQ
simplify and solve for
dt
dQ 2πLk(T2 − T1 )
= r
dt In ( 2 )
r1

5. A small pond has layer of ice on the surface that is 1cm thick.
If the air temperature is −10℃ , Find the rate (in m/h) at which
ice is added to the bottom of the layer. The density of ice is
917kg/m3, thermal conductivity of ice is 0.59W/mK and the
latent heat of fusion is 333KJ/kg. Assume that the underlying
water is at 0oC.
solution
dQ kA
= (T − T2 )
dt d 1
dQ 0.59A(0 − −10)
=
dt 0.01

177
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dQ J
= 590A ⁄s − − − − − (i)
dt
m
let x ( ) ice be added at the bottom
s
of the layer. mass of ice formed
per second
m = ρ × A − − − − − (ii)
the required energy per second
m = ρ × AL − − − −(iii)
equating eqn i and iii
590A
x=
ρAL
590
x =
917 × 333 × 103
x = 1.932 × 10−6
x = 0.00695 m⁄h

6. At low temperature say below 50K, the thermal conductivity

of a metal is proportional to the absolute temperature, that k =
aT where a is constant with a numerical value of that depends on
the particular metal. Show that the heat flow through a rod of
length l and cross- sectional area A and whose ends are at
temperatures T1 and T2 are given by
aA 2
Q = (T − T22 )
2L 1
solution
tHermal conductivity k = aT
also tHe Heat flow in a conductor
dT
dQ = kA
L
but k = aT
dT
dQ = AaT
L
LdQ = AaTdT
integrating both sides

178
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
T1 Q

∫ AaTdT = L ∫ dQ
T2 0
Aa 2 T1
[T ]T2 = QL
2
Aa 2
(T − T22 ) = QL
2 1
Aa 2
Q = (T − T22 )
2L 1
proved

7. n slabs of the same thickness, the cross sectional area

A1 , A2 … … An and thermal conductivities k1 , k 2 … … . k n are
placed in contact in parallel and maintained at temperature
T1 and T2 . Calculate
1. The rate of heat flow through the composite slabs
2. The equivalent conductivities.
solution
the rate of heat flow through the
opposite slab
consider the figure below

(i)the rate of heat flow through a

composite bar
dQ kA
= (T − T2 )
dt L 1
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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
but k = k1 , k 2 … … . k n
A = A1 , A2 … … . . An
hence slab have constant change in
temperature and thickness L
n
dQ T1 − T2
= ∑ k i Ai
dt L
i=1
(ii)the equivalent conductivities
taking the above eqn
n
dQ T1 − T2
= ( ) ∑ k i Ai
dt L
i=1
∑ k i Ai
k eq =
∑ Ai
8. Two perfectly lagged metal bars A and B are arranged in series
and parallel. When the bars are in series the hot end of A is
maintained at 90℃ and the cold end B is maintained at 30℃.
When the bars are in parallel the hot end of each is maintained at
90℃ and the cold end of each is maintained at 80℃. Calculate
the ratio of the total rate flow of heat in the parallel arrangement
to that in the series arrangement. The bars have the same length
and the same cross sectional area. Thermal conductivity of A is
400W/mK and that of B is 200W/mK.
the rate of conduction of heat through

the bars when in series is

dQ temperature difference
( )series =
dt total thermal resistance
dQ θ1 – θ2
( ) in series = l l
dt +k A
k A 1 2

dQ A θ1 – θ2
( ) series = ( ) ( 1 1 )
dt l + k1 k2

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

dQ A 90 − 30
( ) series = ( ) ( 1 1 )
dt l + 400 200

dQ A
= 8000 ( )
dt l
(ii)the total rate of flow of heat

through the bars in parallel is

dQ dQ dQ
( ) parallel = ( ) + ( )
dt dt A dt B
k A A(90 − 80) k B A(90 − 80)
+
l l
A
= ( ) (400 × 10 + 200 × 10)
l
dQ A
( ) in parallel = 6000 ( )
dT l
the ratio of heat flow
dQ A
( dt ) 6000 ( l )
parallel
dQ
= A
( dt ) 8000 ( l )
series

= 0.75
9. Assuming the thermal conductivity of copper is two times that
of aluminum and four times that of brass. Three metal rods, made
of copper, aluminium and brass respectively are each 15cm long
and 3cm in diameter. The rods are placed end to end, with the
aluminium between the other two. The free end of the copper and
brass are maintained at laced end to end, with the aluminium
between the other two. The free end of the copper and brass are
maintained at 100℃ and 0℃ respectively. Find the equilibrium
181
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
temperatures of the copper- aluminium junction and the
aluminium –brass junction.

solution
Let θ1 and θ2 be the temperature at the copper - aluminium
junction and aluminium brass junction respectively. And let k be
thermal conductivity of copper, then that of alunium is ½ k and
that of brass is ¼ k

θ1 θ2

100℃ 0℃
At equilibrium the rate of heat flow is the same
dQ 100 − θ1 θ1 − θ2 θ2 − 0
= k cu A ( ) = k Al A ( ) = kBA ( )
dt 15 15 15
1 1
k(100 − θ1 ) = k(θ1 − θ2 ) = (kθ2 )
2 4
400 − 4θ1 = 2θ1 − 2θ2 = θ2

4θ1 + θ2 = 400 − − − −(i)

2θ1 − 3θ2 = 0 − − − −(ii)

adding the two eqns

and solve for θ

θ1 = 85.7℃ and θ2 = 57.1℃

10. A copper rod has a length of 1.5m and a cross section area of
4.0 × 10−4 m2 . One end of the rod is in contact with boiling
water and the other with mixture of ice and water. What is the
mass of ice per second that melts? Assume that no heat is lost
through the side surface of the rod. Latent heat of fusion of ice is
no heat is lost through the side surface of the rod. Latent heat of

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
5
fusion of ice is 3.35 × 10 J/kg and thermal conductivity of
copper = 390W/mK.

solution

rate of heat flow through the copper

bar = heat gained by ice per second

dQ kA(θ1 − θ) m
= = ( )L
dt x l
m 390 × 4 × 10−4 × 100
=
t 1.5 × 3.35 × 105
m
= 1.86 g⁄min
t
11. Three building materials, plaster board (k = 0.3 W⁄mK 4 ,
brick (k = 0.6Wm−1 K −4 and wood (k = 0.1Wm−1 , are
sandwitched together, such that the brick is in the middle of the
plasterboard and wood. The plasterboard being at the inside
surface. The temperatures at the inside and outside surfaces
are25℃ and 0℃, respectively. Each material has the same
thickness and cross sectional area. Find the temperature at
(i). Plasterboard – brick interface.
(ii).Brick- wood interface

solution

Let θ1 and θ2 be the temperature at

the plasterboard − brick interface

and brick − wood interface respectively

183
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
25℃ ℃

θ1 θ2
At steady, the rate of flow of heat is the same
dQ 25 − θ1 θ1 − θ2 θ2 − 0
= kpA ( ) = k𝐁A ( ) = kwA ( )
dt x x x
0.3(25 − θ1 ) = 0.6(θ1 − θ2 )

simple mathematics

θ1 = 19.4℃ and θ2 = 16.7℃

NB: thermal conductivity depend on
(i). Temperature of the material.
(ii).Nature of the material itself.

𝐍𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐀 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟕
12 . (a) (i) What is meant by thermometric property of a
substance?
Answer; thermometric property of the substance is the property
of that substance which varies with temperature and can be in the
construction of thermometer.
(ii) What qualities make a particular property suitable for use
in practical thermometers?

Answer.

 The sensitivity of the property to temperature change.

 The linearity of the change. The change of temperature
should give a proportional change in the property.

184
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b)(i) Explain why at least two (2) fixed points are required to
define a temperature scale.
Answer; At least two fixed points are required to define a
temperature scale because the two fixed points can be used to
create the fundamental interval of that scale.
(ii) Mention the type of thermometer which is most suitable for
calibration of thermometers.
Answer; A gas thermometer is the most suitable thermometer for
the calibration of thermometers.

(c) When a metal cylinder of mass 2 × 10−2 kg and specific heat

capacity 500Kkg −1 K −1 is heated at constant power, the initial
rate of rise of temperature is 3Kmin−1 . After a time the heater is
switched off and the initial rate of fall of temperature is
0.3Kmin−1 . What is the rate at which the cylinder gains heat
energy immediately before the heater is switched off?

solution

from H = mcθ
dH d(mCθ) dθ
= = mc
dt dt dt
dθ
given that = 3 − 0.3 = 2.7 K⁄min
dt
dH
then = 2 × 10−2 × 500 × 2.7
dt
27 −1
= 27 J⁄min = Js
60
since the cylinder gain heat at the

rate of 0.45Js −1

185
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
13. (a) (i) What is black body radiation of a given body?

Answer; Black body radiation is the radiation emitted by a perfectly

non – reflecting body as a consequence of its temperature property
(alone)

(i) Explain why heat may just mean infrared.

Answer; Heat is may just mean infrared wave because infrared

radiation is the major constituent of the radiation emitted by a body
with temperature above 0K.

(ii) State Prevost’s theory of heat exchange.

(ans; refer to your notes)

(b) (i) Explain why in cold climates, windows of modern building are
double grazed, i.e there are two pieces of glass with a small air
space between them.

Answer; because the air in the middle acts as insulator for it i.e air ia
bad conductor of heat hence it prevent the transfer of heat from the
inside to outside hence keeping the inside warm.

(ii). what is Wien’s displacement law? (refer to your notes)

(c) The sun’s surface temperature is about 6000K. The sun’s radiation
is with maximum at wavelength of 0.5 × 10−6 m. A certain light
bulb filament emits radiation with maximum wavelength of 2 ×
10−6m. if both the surface of the sun and of the filament have the
same emissive characteristics, What is the temperature of the
filament?

solution

Let T1 be sun′ s temp = 6000K.

T2 be the filament temp

λ1 the wavelength of sun′ s radiation

= 0.5 × 10−6 m λ2 be wavelength of the

filament radiation = 2 × 10−6 m

186
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
′
consider wien s law displacement
1 k
λmax ∝ ; λmax =
T T
λ1 T1 = λ2 T2

0.5 × 10−6 × 6000

T2 =
2 × 10−6
temperature of filament = 1500K

(d) (i) State Newton’s law of cooling and give one limitation of the
law.

The law states that “the rate of loss of heat from a body is
proportional to the excess temperature of the body over the
temperature of its surrounding”

Limitation of the law;

The surroundings should be in forced convection, but provided the

temperature excess is small, the law is fairly well obeyed even in the
case of free or natural convection.

(ii). A body initially at 75℃ cools to a temperature of 55℃ in 5

minutes. What will be its temperature after 10 minutes given that
the surrounding temperature is 31℃? (assume Newton’s law of
cooling holds true)

solution
dθ
fron Newton′ s law = −k(θ − θs )
dt
negative value show temperature decreasing
dθ
= −kdt
θ − θs

187
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
θ2 t
dθ
∫ = ∫ −kdt
θ − θs
θ1 0

θ
[In(θ – θs )]θ21 = −kt

simple mathematics
θ2 − θs
In ( ) = −kt
θ1 − θs
θ2 − θs
( ) = e−kt
θ1 − θs

simplifying results

θ2 = θs + (θ1 − θs )e−kt

55 = 31 + (70 − 31)e−5k

solving for k

k = 0.097

let θt be temperature of the body after 10 min

θt = θs + (θ2 − θs )e−0.097(10)

θt = 31 + (55 − 31)e−0.097×10

= 40.09℃

the temperature will be 40.09℃

𝐍𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐀 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟖.

14 . (a) (i) What is meant by reference temperature as applied in

thermocouple?

Answer; The reference temperature of thermocouple is the

temperature of its cold junction.

188
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(ii). The emf (in microvolt) in a lead iron thermocouple, one
junction of which is at 0℃ is given by V =1784t – 2.4t2, when t is the
temperature of the hot junction in ℃. Calculate the neutral temperature.

 The neutral temperature is that temperature at which the emf

generated by thermocouple is maximum.

then if V = 1784t − 2.4t 2

dV
= 1784 − 4.8t
dt
dV
at maximum = 0 = neutral temp
dt
1784
θN = = 371.67℃
4.8
(iii). When a particular temperature is measured on scales based on
different properties, it has different numerical value on each scale
except at a certain points. Explain why and state at what points the
value agree.

Answer; the numerical values are different because the different

thermo metrical properties vary differently with temperature. The
numerical value disagree at the fixed points.

(b) A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15m2 and thickness of 1cm It
boils water at the arte of 6kg/min when placed on the gas stove. What
is the temperature of the part of the flame in contact with the boiler?

Consider the diagram of the brass boiler below

189
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

As water evaporates, it consume latent heat of vaporization Q. Latent

heat of vaporization is given by as Q = mL

Where L = specific latent heat of vaporization

The rate of consumption of latent heat

Q mL m
= = ( )L
t t t
Q 6
= ( ) × 2.25 × 106
t 60
Q
= 2.25 × 105 J⁄s
t
this heat comes from the gas stove,

since the rate of flow of heat through the brass

Q
is also
t
Q kA(θ2 − θ1 )
=
t l
simple mathematics
Q
( )l
t
θ2 = + θ1
kA

190
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

5
1 × 10−2
= (2.25 × 10 0 × ( ) + 100
109 × 0.15

= 237.6℃

Therefore the temperature of the part of flame in contact with boiler is

237.6℃

9. (a) (i) Differentiate between forced and natural convection and state
the laws governing these processes.

Forced convection Natural convection

The body cools in an environment the air around the cooling body is
where air surrounding the body is stay stationary. i.e no external
made to move example by fanning fanning or blowing air
and blowing
law governing is a Newton law of Law governing is a Doulong and Petit
cooling law
5
rate of cooling ∝ (θ − θs ) Rate of cooling ∝ (θ−θs )4

(ii) A piece of copper of mass 50g is heated to 100℃ and then

transferred to a well insulated copper calorimeter of mass 25g
containing 100g of water at 10℃. Neglecting heat loss calculate the
final steady temperature of water after it has been well stirred,

solution

After stirring each body will have a temperature θ. The piece of copper
will have lost heat while the calorimeter and water will gain heat.

Conserve energy

Heat lost by copper = heat gained by calorimeter + water

H(copper) = H(calorimeter)+H(water)

Since H = mc∆θ

H = MC∆θ (copper) = MC∆θ (calorimeter) + MC∆θ (water)

191
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Mcu Ccu (100 − θ) = Mca Cca (θ − 10) + Mw Cw ( θ − 10)

0.05 × 4 × 102 (100 − θ) = 0.025 × 4 × 102 (θ − 10) + 0.1 × 4.2 × 103 (θ − 10)

20(100 − θ) = 10(θ − 10) + 420(θ − 10)

2000 − 200 = 10θ − 100θ420θ − 4200

6300 = 450θ

6300
θ = = 14℃
450

Therefore the final heat steady temperature is θ = 14℃

(b) A blackened sphere of radius 2cm is contained within a hollow

evacuated enclosure the wall of which are maintained at 27℃.
Assuming that the sphere radiate like a black body, calculate the rate at
which the sphere loses heat when its temperature is 227℃.

from Stefan′ s law of black body

P1 = σAT14

temp of surrounding T1 = 27 + 273

T1 = 300K

temp of sphere T2 = 273 + 227

T2 = 500k

∆P = σA(T24 – T14 )

∆P = 4πr 2 σ(T24 − T14 )

= 4π × 0.022 × 5.7 × 10−8 × (5004 − 3004 )

= 15.59 J⁄s

15. (i) State two important thermal characteristics of an ideal cooking

pot.(necta 2009)

(ii) Ice is forming on the surface of pond. When is at 4.6cm thick the
temperature of the ice in contact with the air is 260K while the surface

192
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
in contact with the water is at temperature 273K. Calculate the rate of
loss of heat per unit area from the water. Find the rate at which the
thickness of the ice is forming.

solution

(i) – High thermal conductivity to ensure fast transfer of heat

from the source to the object.
- Low specific heat capacity to ensure that the amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of the pot in minimum so that little heat is used to raise the
temperature of the pot.
- small coefficient of expansion to ensure that there is no
considerable expansion of the pot so that the handles of the
pot are not disturbed.
- high melting point to ensure that the pot will stand high
temperature.

(ii) consider the illustration below.

Rate of conduction of heat across ice = rate of loss of latent

heat from water to form ice
dT mlf
k ice A =
l t
since m = Ahρ

where h is new thickness of ice formed

dT h
k ice A = Aρice lf ( )
l t
h 13
= k ice ( )
t 4.6 × 10−7 × ρice lf

193
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The value for the thermal conductivity of ice, ( = 1.6W/mK) density of
ice ( = 920kg/m3 ) and specific latent heat of fusion ( = 334000J/kg)
should be provided to complete the answer.
h 13 × 1.6
=
t 0.046 × 920 × 334000
h
t
= 1.47 × 10−6 m/s

The rate of increase of thickness of ice = 1.47× 10−6 m/s.

16. (a) State Stefan’s law.

(b) A metal sphere of temperature 127℃ is placed in an enclosure of

temperature 27℃. The sphere has a surface area of 0.1m2 and is found
to radiate heat at a rate of 100W If it behaves as a black body.
Calculate the value of Stefan’s constant.

17 (a) Differentiate between Heat capacity and specific heat capacity.

(b) Explain briefly how you can measure the temperature (T) of
furnace (≈ 300℃) using the normal laboratory apparatus (Without
using a pyrometer)

18. (a) The resistance and a gas thermometers may show different
values in measuring the temperature of the surrounding. Explain the
reason behind.

(b) The electrical resistance in ohms of a certain thermometer varies

with temperature according to the approximate law R = R o [ 1 +
(5 × 10−4 )(T − To )]. The resistance is 101.6𝝮 at the triple point of
pure water and 165.5𝝮 at the normal melting of load (600.5K).
Determine the temperature when the resistance is 123.4𝝮. (ans.
𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟐℃; necta 2009)

𝐍𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐀 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟎.

19. (a) (i) Define thermal convection.

Thermal convection is the process by which heat is transmitted through

fluids (gases and liquids) from one point to another due to the actual
bodily movement of heated particles of the fluid.

194
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) In a special type thermometer a fixed mass of a gas has a volume
of 100cm3 at a pressure of 81.6cmHg at the ice point and volume of
124cm3 and pressure of 90cmHg at steam point. Determine the
temperature if it volume is 120cm3 and pressure of 85cmHg.

solution
Pθ Vθ − P0 Vo
θ =( ) × 100℃
P100 V100 − Po Vo
120 × 85 − 100 × 81.6
θ =( ) × 100
124 × 90 − 100 × 81.6
100 × 2040
= = 68℃
300
θ = 68℃

The temperature at the given pressure and volume is 68℃℃

(d) What value does the scale of this thermometer give for
absolute zero?

solution

at absolute temperature Po = 0; Vo = 0
Pθ Vθ − Po Vo
θ = 100 ( )
P100 V100 − Po Vo
0 − 100 × 81.6
θ = 100 ( )
124 × 90 − 100 × 81.6
−100 × 8160
θ = = −272℃
3000
Absolute zero temperature is − 272℃ on this scale

20. (a) Stefan’s law of thermal radiation.

(ans; refer to your notes)

195
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) A solid copper sphere cools at the rate of 2.8℃/min when its
temperature is 127℃. At what rate will a solid copper sphere of twice
the radius cool when its temperature is 227℃? In both cases the
surrounding are kept at 27℃ and conditions are such that Stefan’s law
may be applied.

solution

By Prevost ′ s theory
dθ
P = σA(T 4 − To4 ) = mc
dt
dθ σA(T 4 − To4 )
=
dt mc
dθ 4πr 2 σ(T 4 − To4 )
= 4πr3
dt ρc
3

dθ 3σ(T 4 − To4
=
dt ρcr

dθ1 k(T 4 − To4 )

=
dt r1

so that T1 = 127 + 273

= 400K

To = 27 + 273

= 300K

T2 = 227 + 273 = 500K

k(4004 − 3004 )
2.8 = ; r2 = 2r1
r1

dθ2 k(T14 − To4

=
dt r2

196
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dθ2 k(5004 − 3004 )
=
dt 2r1

dθ2 2.8(4004 − 3004 )

=
dt 2(4004 −3004 )

the new rate of cooling = 4.352℃/min

21. (a) State Newton’s law of cooling.

(b) Explain the observation that a piece of wire when steadily heater
up appears reddish in color before turning bluish.

22. (a) A glass disc of radius 5cm and uniform thickness of 2mm had
one of its sides maintained at 100℃ while a copper block in good
thermal contact with this side was found to be 70℃. The copper block
weighs 0.75kg. The cooling of copper was studied over a range of
temperature and the rate of cooling at 70℃ was found to be 16.5K/min.
Determine thermal conductivity of glass.

solution

consider the figure below

dH KA(θ2 − θ1 )
=
dt l
dH dθ
= mc
dt dt
dH Kπr 2 × (100 − 70)
= = 117.8K
dt 0.002

197
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
16.5
117.8 = 0.75 × c × ( )
60
K = 0.7W /mk

thermal conductivity K = 0.7 W/mk

(b) A cylindrical element of 1KW electrical fire is 30cm long and

1.0cm in diameter. If the temperature of surroundings is 20℃, estimate
the working temperature of the element.

solution

from Stefan′ slaw of black body radiation

P = σA(T 4 − To4 )

P = 1000W; σ = 5.67 × 10−8

and A = 2πrh + πr 2

A = π(2 × 0.005 × 0.3 + 0.0052 )

A = 9.5033 × 10−3 m2

1000 = 5.67 × 10−8 × 9.5033 × 10−3 (T 4 − 2934 )

solving for the value of T

T = 894℃

the working temperature T = 894℃

𝐍𝐄𝐂𝐓𝐀 𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟏

23. (a) Briefly explain what it means by thermal conduction and define
the coefficient of thermal conductivity.

Thermal conduction is the process by which heat flows from the hot
region to the cold region of a body without there being net movement
of the particle of the body. Thermal conduction is caused by free
movement of electrons or friction between adjacent atoms or molecules

198
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Coefficient of thermal conductivity is the rate of flow of heat per unit
area per unit temperature gradient when the heat flow is at right angles
to the faces of thin parallel sided slab of the material

(b) Ice cubes of mass 5g at 0℃ are placed inside a spherical container

having an outside diameter of 40cm, 2mm thick and of thermal
conductivity 5.0 × 10−4 Wm−1 K −4 . How long will it take for all the
ice cubes o melt if the room temperature is 30℃?

solution

Consider the illustration below

the rate of heat flow across a spherical shell

4πk(θ2 − θ1 )
Rate = 1 1
r1
– r2

4π × 5 × 10−4 (30 − 0)
Rate = 1 1
0.198
– 0.2

Rate = 73 W
mlf
R =
t
5 × 10−4 × 3.33 × 105
3.73 =
t
t = 44.116s

t = 7.43 minutes

199
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
It will take 7 minutes 26 second for the ice cube to melt

[Link] metal rods A and B of lengths 40cm and 80cm respectively the
same cross section area of 10cm2 are joined end to end. If the
composition is perfectly lagged and the free of A is fixed at 100℃
while that of B is pressed to a point at 0℃. Calculate

(i.) The junction temperature of the two metal rods;

(ii.) The quantity of heat that flows per minute in steady state
(thermal conductivities of rods A and B are 360 and
80Wm−1 K −4)

solution

(ii)consider the illustration below

let the junction temperature be t

for series connection

rate for conductor A = rate for B

k A A(100 − t) k B A(t − 0)
=
lA lB
360(100 − t) 80 (t − 0)
=
0.4 0.8
900(100 − t) = 100t

t = 90℃

the junction temp is 90℃

360 × 10 × 10−4 (100 − 90)

(ii) Rate =
0.4
200
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Rate = 9watt

heat flow = rate × time

heat = 9 × 60

= 540J of heat flows in a minute.

NECTA 2004 P2.

25. (a) A gas expands adiabatically and its temperature falls while the
same gas compressed adiabatically its temperature rises. Explain.

Answer.

 When a gas expands, it does work. example in driving a piston.

The molecules of the gas bombarded the piston, and if the
piston moves they gives up some of their kinetic energy to it.
When a molecules bounces off the moving piston, it does so
with a velocity less than that with which it truck. The change in
velocity is small because the piston moves much more slowly
than the molecules but there are many molecules striking the
piston at any instant and their total loss of of kinetic energy is
equal to the work done in driving the piston forward. The work
done by a gas expanding, therefore is at expense of its internal
energy. The temperature of the gas will consequently fall
during expansion.
 Simultaneously: if a gas is compressed, its temperature rises.
The molecules now rebound from the forward – moving piston
with a velocity greater than their incidence velocity. The total
increase in kinetic energy of all molecules is equal to the work
done in moving the piston.

(b) A mole of oxygen is insulated in an infinitely flexible container.

The atmospheric pressure outside the container is 5 × 105 Nm−2 when
580J of heat is supplied to the oxygen the temperature increases to
300K and the volume of the container increases by 3.32 × 10−2 m3.
Calculate the value of principle molar heat capacities and the specific
universal gas constant. Given molar mass of oxygen = 32 × 10−3kg.

solution

201
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
consider first law of thermodynamics

dQ = dU + dw

dQ = total heat supplied

dU = increase in internal energy

dw = pdv = external workdone

dQ = nCp dT

dQ
Cp =
ndT
580
Cp =
1 × (300 − 280)K

CP = 29 J⁄Kmol

molar hat capacity at constant pressure is 29 J⁄Kmol

from dQ = dU + dw

dU = nCv dT
dQ − pdv
Cv =
ndT
580 − (5 × 105 )(3.32 × 10−4 )
Cv =
1 × (300 − 280)

molar heat capacity at constant volume is 20.7 J⁄Kmol

from Meyer ′ sequation

Cp − Cv = R

R = (29 − 20.7) J⁄Kmol

R = 8.3 J⁄Kmol

required to find R in J⁄kgK gas constant r

202
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
R 8.3
r = =
Mr 32 × 10−3

= 259.375 J⁄kgK

specific universal gas constat = 259.375 J⁄kgK

NECTA 2009 P2

26. When water is boiled under a pressure of 2atm the boiling point is
120℃. At this pressure 1kg of water has a volume of 10−3 m3 and 2kg
of steam have a volume of 1.648m3. Compute the

(i). Work done when 1kg of steam is formed at this temperature.

(ii). Increase in the internal energy.

solution

(i) workdone when 1kg of steam is formed = pdv

w = p(V2 − V1 )

w = 2 × 1.01 × 105 (0.824 − 10−3 )

w = 166246J = 166.246kJ

workdone = 166.246kJ

(ii)from the first law of themodynamic

dQ = dU + dw

dQ = mLv

dQ = 1 × 2.3 × 106

dQ = 2.3 × 106 J

dU = dQ − dw

dU = 2.3 × 106 − 1.66 × 105

dU = 2.134 × 106 J

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
6
increase in internal energy = 2.134 × 10 J

NECTA 2008 P2

27.

In a P  v diagram above, an adiabatic and an isothermal

curve for an ideal gas intersect. Show that the absolute value
 dP 
of the slope of the adiabatic   is ɣ times that of the
 dV  ad
isothermal. Hence the adiabatic curve is steeper because the
specific heat ratio ɣ is greater than one.

solution

for isothermal process

PV = K

differentiating w. r. t. V
d d
(PV) = (K)
dV dV
dP
P+V = 0
dV
dP
V = −P
dV

204
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dP P
|( )| = − − − − − − −(∗)
dV iso V

for adiabatic process

PV γ = K

differentiating w. r. t. V
d d
(PV γ ) = (K)
dV dV
Pd γ V γ dP
(V ) + = 0
dV dV
V γ dP
γPV γ−1 + = 0
dV
V γ dP Vγ
= −γP
dV V
dP P
= −γ ( )
dV V
dP P
|( )| = −γ ( ) − − − (∗∗)
dV adi V

dividing the two equations

dP P
|(dV)| γ( )
adi V
dP
= P
|(dV)| (V)
iso

dP
|(dV)|
adi
dP
= γ
|(dV)|
iso

dP dP
∴ |( ) | = γ |( ) |
dV adi dV iso

hence shown

205
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
NECTA 2004
28. (a) (i) What is the difference between Kelvin temperature scale and
the Celcius temperature scale?
(ii) A copper – constantan thermocouple with its junction at ice
point had an emf of 4.28mV with its junction at 100℃. The emf
became 9.29mV when the temperature difference was 200℃. Find the
values of A and B in the equation E = Aθ + Bθ2 where E is the emf
and θ the temperature difference.
(b) (i) What is meant by temperature gradient?
(ii) The end of the straight uniform metal rod are maintained at
temperature of 100℃ and 20℃, the room temperature being below
20℃. Draw sketch graphs of the variation of temperatures of the rod
along its length when the surface of the rod is lagged, coated with soot
and polished. Give a qualitative explanation of the form of graphs.
solution
(a) (i) Kelvin temperature scale uses the triple point of water as
its only one fixed point where as the celcius scale uses the
temperature of the melting ice and temperature of pure boiling
water (at 1atm pressure) as its two fixed points.
T = 273 + θ℃ Where T is the temperature in Kelvin and θ℃
temperature in celcius.
(ii) solution

emf is 4.28mV when T = 100℃

emf is 9.29mV when T = 200℃

given that

E = Aθ + Bθ2

case 1; when θ = 100℃ and emf = 4.28mV

4.28 × 10−3 = 100A + B(100)2

100A + 10000B = 4.28 × 10−3 − − − (∗)

also case 2; when T = 200℃ and emf 9.29mV

200A + 40000B = 9.29 × 10−3 − − − (∗∗)

solving equation (∗)and (∗∗)

206
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
−3
100A + 10000B = 4.28 × 10

200A + 40000B = 9.29 × 10−3

then solving for A and B

A = 3.915 × 10−5 V o C −1 and B = 3.65 × 10−5 V o C−1

(b) (i) The temperature gradient is the temperature difference

between two points divide by the length of the conductor
between these points.
dθ
i.e temp gradient = L
(ii) The graphs of a lagged rod and that of a polished rod are
similar, since polishing prevent heat to escape by radiation for
the lagged rod or polished rod.
Temperature (℃)

100℃

Lagged polished surface

20℃
20℃

Very little heat escape by radiation

Temperature (℃)

100℃
Soot on the surface

20℃ 20℃

Heat escape by radiation

From the graph.
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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
 A lagged rod will have a straight line indicating that no heat lost
to the surrounding and so heat is conducted uniformly.
 A rod coated with a soot is good radiator of heat, so
heat is lost as it is conducted from the hot end to the
cold end hence the graph is curve.
 A polished rod; this is similar to the lagged one. A
polished surface has a very low tendency of losing
heat. Hence graph is straight line indicating that the
flow of heat is uniform.
NECTA 2005
29. (a) (i) What is black body?
(ii) State Wien’s la for black body radiation.
(iii) If the radiated power per nanometer wavelength from the sun
to peaks at 490nm, estimate the temperature of the sun’s surface
assuming the sun to radiate as a black body and that Wien’s constant is
2.93 × 10−3 mK.
(b) What is Prevost’s theory of heat exchange?
(c) A cube of side 0.01m has a surface which gives 50% of the
emission of black body at the same temperature. If the temperature of
the cube is 700℃,
(i) Calculate the power radiated by the cube.
(ii) If the same power above is given by a black body sphere at
300℃, what would its diameter be? Suppose that Stefan’s
constant is 5.7 × 10−8W/m2 K 4.
solution
(a) (i) A black body is an ideal body which absorbs all radiation that
falls on it and reflect none; its radiation therefore is characteristic
of its temperature alone.

(ii) Wiens’ law state that “ The peak wavelength of a particular

radiation emitted by a black body is inversely proportional to the
black body’s absolute temperature”.

Stefan’s law: state that “ the total energy E radiated per second
per unit surface area at temperature T is proportional to the fourth
power of the body’s absolute temperature.

(iii) 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
consider Wien′ s law
𝛌𝐦 𝐓 = 𝐂

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
−3
C 𝟐. 𝟗𝟑 × 10
T = =
λm 490 × 10−9
T ≈ 5980K
(b) Prevost’s Theory of heat exchange states that “ A body radiate
heat at a rate which depends on the nature of its surface and its
temperature and absorb heat at a rate which depends on the nature
of its surface and temperature of its surrounding”
(c) (i) solution
side of a cube = 0.01m, emissivity = 50% = 0.5
temp of cube = 700 + 273 = 973K
Total surface area A = 6 × (side × side)
= 6 × (0.01 × 0.01)
A = 6 × 10−4 m2
from Stefan′ s law
P = AσεT 4
P = 0.5 × 6 × 10 × 5.7 × 10−8 × 9734 15.33watts
−4

power radiated by cube = 15.33watts

(ii) solution
power = 15.33w; T = 300 + 273 = 573K
let R be radius of the sphere
such that A = 4πR2
if P = AεσT 4 then
P = 4πR2 εσ T 4
1
P 2
R = ( ) where ε = 1
4πσ
1
15.33 2
R = ( )
4π × 5.7 × 10−8 × 5734
R = 0.0141m but diameter = 2R
d = 2 × 0.0141 = 0.0282
therefore diameter d = 0.0282m
NECTA 2005
30. (a) (i) What is the difference between ice point and triple point of
water?
(ii) Several cooking utensils for sale are rated at “HIGH” or
“LOW” in terms of their thermal conductivity, specific heat
capacity, coefficient of expansion, and melting point. Explain briefly
the thermal ratings you would observe with respect to each
property in purchasing a cooking utentsil.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
3
(b) A calorimeter of thermal capacity 30J/K contains 100cm of
glycerin and it cools from 80℃ to 70℃ in 3.5min room temperature
being 20℃. When the glycerin is replaced by 100cm3 of water, the
water cools from 43℃ to 33℃ in 6.5min. Determine the specific heat
capacity of glycerin. density of glycerin is 1.2 × 103kg/m3
solution
Differences between ice point of water and triple point of water
Ice point of water Triple point of water
Is the temperature at which three states of
Is the temperature of the pure melting ice water exist together in equilibrium
It is at 273.16K
It is at 273.15K

(ii) Thermal rating to be observed for

 Thermal conductivity; HIGH – To ensure fast transfer of
energy from the source to the object.
 Specific heat capacity: LOW – to ensure that the amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of
a vessel is minimum so that little heat is used to rise the
temperature of the vessel.
 Coefficient of expansion: LOW – to ensure that there is no
considerable expansion of the vessel as not to disturb handling
of the vessel.
 Melting point: HIGH – this is to ensure that vessel will stand
high temperature.
(c) Consider the below illustration

WATER GYLCERINE

Calorimeter calorimeter

let surrounding temp be θs = 20℃

heat lost by glycerine H = mg cg ∆θ

H
= mg cg ∆θ
t
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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dH dθ
but also = m g cg − − − −(∗)
dt dt

consider Newton′ slaw of cooling

Heat lost by Glycerine

dH
∝ A(θ − θs )
dt
dH
such that = kA(θ − θs ) − − − (∗∗)
dt

k depends on the nature of surface

A surface area of calorimeter

substitute equation ∗ into equation ∗∗

dθ
mg cg = kA(θ − θs )
dt

separating variablea and integrate

dθ kAdt
=
θ − θs mg cg

θ2
dθ kA t1
∫ = ∫ dt
θ1 θ − θs mg cg 0

kAt1
[ In(θ − θs )]θθ2 =
1 mg cg

θ2 − θs kAt1
In [ ] = − − − −(∗∗∗)
θ1 – θs m g cg

also for water

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
θ4 − θs kAt 2
In [ ] = − − − −(∗∗∗∗)
θ3 − θs mw cw

dividing equation (∗∗∗∗)by (∗∗∗)

θ −θ
In [ θ 4− θ s ] t2 mg cg
3 s
θ −θ
= ( )( )
In [ 2 s ] mw cw t1
θ1 − θs

33 − 20
In ( ) 16.5 ρg Vg cg
43 − 20
70 − 20
= ( 3
)( )
In ( ) 4.2 × 10 × ρw Vw 3.5
80 − 20

13
In ( ) 16.5 1.2 × 103 × 100 × cg
23
= ( 3 ) ( )
50
In ( ) 10 × 100 × 4.2 × 103 3.5
60

3.12933 = 1.34693 × 10−3 cg

solving for cg

3.12933
cg = = 2323.29Jkg −1 k −1
1.34693 × 10−3

31. (a) (i) How does heat transfer by convection differ from that by
conduction?
(ii) State Newton’s law of cooling and Stefan’s law. For each law
state one significant limitation.
(iii) State and illustrate how an increase of temperature affects the
radiation spectrum of a black body.
(b) Given that the solar constant has value of 1350W/m2 .
(i) Estimate the total direct solar energy which enters the Tanzania
atmosphere from 06.55a.m to 05.05p.m a sunny day. Neglect
changes in solar beam between the Earth’s atmosphere and the
sun – earth midpoint.
(ii) What is the total rate at which the sun emits out energy.

solutions

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(a)(i) Differences between heat transfer by convection and by
conduction

Heat transfer by convection Heat transfer by conduction

In this way heat energy is In this way heat energy is

transferred through the transferred by either vibratory
convection fluid currents that are motion of particles constituting a
set within the fluid and moving solid or through free electrons
from hotter to cooler parts

(iii) Newton’s law of cooling: “ The rate of loss of heat energy to

the surrounding is directly proportional to the excess
temperature”
Limitation: It is applied only under forced convection.
Stefan’s law: “The amount of heat energy radiated by a black
body per second per unit surface area is directly proportional to
the fourth power of its absolute temperature”.
Limitation: it is applied for black body radiation only.

(b) (i) solution

time = 10hrs + 10minute

= (10 × 60)minutes = (10 × 60) + 10

t = 610minutes = 36600seconds

power receirced = solar constant × Area of Tanzania

Prec = 1350 × 94500 × 106

= 1.27575 × 1015 watts

energy
Power =
time

Energy received on Tz = Power × time

E = 1.27575 × 1015 × 36600

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
19
energy = 4.67 × 10 J

energy from sun that enter Tanzania = 4.67 × 1019 J

(ii) Total rate at which the sun emits out energy. The sun emits
total power P, this power is distributed in a sphere of radius R by the
time it reaches the earth. Since given power unit area (solar constant) =
1350W/m2 on the earth.

P
= 1350
area of sphere

P
= 1350
4πR2

P = 1350 × 4πR2

P = 1350 × 4π × (1.5 × 1011 )2

P = 3.8151 × 1026

the rate of energy emitted by the sun is

3.8151 × 1026

NECTA 2006
31. (a) (i) Why is heat needed to change liquid water into vapor? What
amount of energy is needed?
(ii) The molar heat capacity of hydrogen at constant volume is
20.2J/mol℃. What is the molar heat capacity at constant
pressure?
(b) (i) In industrial refrigerator, ammonia is vaporized in the cooling
unit to produce a low temperature. Why should the evaporation of
ammonia reduce the temperature in the refrigerator?
(ii) How much energy is needed to convert 150g of water at 20℃
into a steam at 100℃? Given Latent heat of vaporization 2.2 × 103J/g.
solution
(a)(i) Heat is needed to change water into vapor in order to:
 Breaks intermolecular bonds of water molecules and become
free molecules.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
 Work against the atmosphere as the molecules evaporate. (the
amount of energy needed is the Latent heat of vaporization)

(ii) From mayor’s equation

cp − cv = R

such that cp = cv + R

where R = 8.3Jmol−1 C−1

cp = 20.2 + 8.3

= 28.5Jmol−1 ℃−1

The molar heat capacity of hydrogen at constant pressure is

28.5J/mol℃.

(b)(i) The evaporation of ammonia reduces the temperature of the

refrigerator since, as the ammonia vapourizes, it absorbs its latent heat
of vapourization from the surrounding hence cools the refrigerator.

(ii) solution

let H be energy needed to convert 150g of

water at 20℃ to steam at 100℃

H = ML + MC∆θ

C = 4.2Jg −1 ; L = 2.2 × 103 J g −1

∆θ = 100 − 20 = 80℃

H = ML + MC∆θ

= M(L + C∆θ)

= 150(2.2 × 103 + 4.2 × 80)

= 3.804 × 105 Joules

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Therefore 380.4KJ is needed to convert 150g of water at 20℃ to steam
100℃

32. A vessel in shape of spherical shell has an inner radius "a" and outer
radius "b". The wall has a thermal conductivity k. If the inside is
maintained at a temperature T1 and the outside is at a temperature T2.
Show that the rate of flow of heat between the surfaces is given by the
relation;
dQ 4πkab
= ( ) (T1 − T2 )
dt b−a
Suppose the vessel appeared as shown below,

the rate of heat flow in the vessel

dQ kAdT
=
dt dr
dQ 4πr 2 k
= dT
dt dr

4πr 2 k
dr = dQ
dT
dt
dr 4πk
2
= dQ dT
r
dt
b T1
dr 4πk
∫ 2
= ∫ dQ DT
r
a T2 dt
T1
b
1 4πk
[ − ] = dQ ∫ dT
r a
dt T2

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
1 1 4πk T
− + = dQ [ T ]T12
b a
dt
b−a 4πk
= dQ (T1 − T2 )
ab
dt
dQ 4πkab
= (T − T2 )
dt b − a 1
NECTA 2016;

33. Briefly explain why:

(i) A body with large reflectivity is poor emitter.
(ii) It would be too cold to live on the earth without its atmosphere.

Answer:

(i) A body of large reflectivity is poor emitter because the higher

the reflecting ability the more difficult it is for heat to penetrate
across the surface, whether into the body (absorption) or out of
the body (emission)
(ii) The earth without its atmosphere would be too cold to live
because.
 The atmosphere a poor conductor and so it acts as an insulator
of heat from the earth’s surface thereby the sun is not directly
above an area.
 The atmosphere itself absorbs heat and preserves it through its
heat capacity. Thus, without the atmosphere heat would escape
quickly to space leaving the earth surface very cold during the
night.
34. (a) Identify two factors on which the coefficient of thermal
conductivity of material depends.
(b) A brass boiler area 1.5 × 10−1 m2 and thickness of 1.0cm boils a
water at the rate of 0.6kg/min when placed on the gas stove. Estimate
the temperature of the part of the flame in contact with the boiler.
Answers:
(i) Factors affecting coefficient of thermal conductivity of material;
- Nature of the material
- Free electrons available in the material
- Efficiency of lagging.
(ii) Temperature of the flame;

217
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
in this case the rate of heat through the base is the same as the rate of
boiling of water
dQ dQ
( ) = ( )
dt base dt boiling

kA(θf − θc ) dm
then = LV
L dt
where

θf − flame temp; θc − boiling water tem

A − area of base of boiler

L − thickness of base;
dm
− rate of boiling of water
dt
dm 6
= 6 kg⁄min = kg⁄s = 0.1 kg⁄s
dt 60
dm
L L
dt V
θf = + θc
kA
0.1 × 2.25 × 106 × 0.01
θf = + 100
109 × 0.15
θf = 238℃

35. (a) Briefly describe the working principle of an thermocouple.

(b) In a certain thermocouple thermometer the emf is given by E =
1
aθ + 2 bθ2 where θ is the temperature of hot junction. If a =
1
10mV℃−2, b = mV℃−1 and the cold junction is at 0℃, calculate
20
the neutral temperature.
Answers:
(b) Required neutral temperature
1
E = aθ + bθ2
2
differentiating the equation

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dE 2b
= a + θ
dθ 2
dE
= a + bθ
dθ
dE
for neutral temperature = 0
dθ
a
then θN = −
b
= −10 × −20
θN = 200℃
36. (a) what is meant by thermal radiation?
(b) Briefly explain why forced convection is necessary for excess
temperature less than 20K.
Answer:
(a) Thermal radiation is the transfer of heat in form of
electromagnetic waves.
(b) Forced convection is necessary for excess temperature less than
20K because at such small temperature difference the various
layers of air/fluid above a hot surface do not acquire enough
kinetic energy for convection currents to all substantial air
movement. Thus it is necessary for air to be set in motion using
external force.
37. (a) why is the energy of thermal radiation less than that of visible light?
(b) A body with a surface area of 5.0cm2 and temperature of 727℃
radiate 300Joules of energy in one minute. Calculate the emissivity of
the body.
Answers:
(a) Energy of thermal radiation is less than that of visible light
because the wavelength of thermal radiation (which is in the
infra – red region of the spectrum) is longer than that of visible
spectrum. Longer wavelengths have lower energy.
(b) Required emissivity of the body.
dQ
= σAeT 4
dt
dQ
dt
e =
σAT 4
dQ 300
but = power = = 5Watts
dt 60
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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
5
e =
5.67 × 10 × 5 × 10−4 × (727 − 273)4
−8

e = 0.18

38. (a) State Newton’s law of cooling.

(b) A body cools from 70℃ to 40℃ in 5 minutes. If the temperature of
the surrounding is 10℃, calculate the time it takes to cool from 50℃ to
20℃.
Answers:
Newton’s law of cooling “the rate of cooling of a body is directly
proportional to excess temperature above its surrounding”
(b) time to cool from 50℃ to 20℃
1 θ2 − θs
k = − In ( )
t θ1 − θs
1 40 − 10
k = − In ( )
5 70 − 10
−1
k = 0.1386min
1 θ2 − θs
t = − In ( )
k θ1 − θs
1 20 − 10
t = − In ( )
0.1386 50 − 10
t = 10min
NECTA 2015.
39. (a) What is meant by a thermometric property?
(b) Mention three qualities that makes a particular property suitable for
use in practical thermometer.
Answers:
(a) Thermometric property is a physical property that varies
linearly with temperature variation.
(b) Qualities of a suitable thermometric property
- Linearity: it must vary linearly with temperature variation.
- Sensitivity: it must change with temperature change.
- Measurability: its variation with temperature must be
measurable.
- Visibility: the thermometer property.
40. Study the value in table below which represent the observations of a
particular room temperature obtained by using two types of
thermometers and then answer the questions that follows.

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Temp in ℃ Resistance measured by Pressure recorded by constant
resistance thermometer 𝝮 volume gas thermometer NM-2

Steam, 100℃ 75 1.1 × 107

Ice point, 0℃ 63 8.00 × 106
64.992 8.51 × 106
(i) Calculate the value of unknown room temperature on the
scales of resistance thermometer and constant volume gas
thermometer.
(ii) Why do the answers above differ slightly.

(i) Unknown room temperature

Xθ − Xo
θ = ( ) × 100℃
X100 − X o

for resistance thermometer scale

64.992 − 63
θ = ( ) × 100℃
75 − 63
θ = 16.6℃

for the gas thermometer

8.51 × 106 − 8 × 106

θ = ( ) × 100℃
1.1 × 107 − 8 × 106

θ = 17℃

(iii) The answer differ slightly because the function of the variation
of resistance with temperature and that of volume with
temperature are not identical.
41. (a) Define coefficient of thermal conductivity.
(b) Write down two characteristics of perfect lagged bar.
42. A thin copper wall of a hot water tank having a total surface area of
5.0m2 contains 0.8m3 of a water at 350K and is lagged with a 50mm
thick layer of a material of thermal conductivity 4.0 × 10−2 W/mK. If
the thickness of copper wall is neglected and the temperature of the
outside surface is 290K.
(i) Calculate the electrical power supplied to an immersion heater.

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(ii) If the heater were switched off, how long would it take for the
temperature of hot water to fall by 1K?
43. The element of an electric fire with an output of 1000W is cylinder of
250mm long and 15mm in diameter. If it behaves as black body,
estimate its temperature.
NECTA 2014.
44. (a) Give two ways in which the internal energy of the system can be
changed.
(i) Ways of changing internal energy of a system
- By changing its temperature
- By changing its pressure (for gaseous system)
(b) List down two simple applications of the first law of
thermodynamics in our daily life.
(ii) Application of first law of thermodynamics.
- The combustion of fuel of fuel in a diesel engine.
- Warning a hot air balloon.

45. (a) define thermal convection.

Thermal convection is the transfer of heat in fluids by bulk movement
of molecules.
(b) Prove that at a very small temperature difference ∆T = Tb − Ts
Newton’s law of cooling obey’s the Stefan’s whereby Tb is the
temperature of the body and Ts is the temperature of the surrounding.
solution
Proof that Newton’s law of cooling obey’s Stefan’s law.
dθ
−mc = σA(Tb4 − Ts4 ) − − − −(i)
dt
where Tb − temp of the body; Ts − surrounding
dθ
= rate of cooling
dt
Tb and Ts that have small difference,
say Tb = Ts + ∆T − − − − − (ii)
substituting (ii)into (i)
dθ
−mc = σA[(Ts + ∆T)4 − Ts4 ]
dt
dθ
−mc = σA[Ts4 + 4Ts3 ∆T + 6Ts2 ∆T 2 + 4Ts ∆T 3 + ∆T 4 − Ts4 )
dt
dθ
−mc = σA[4Ts3 ∆T + 6Ts2 ∆T 2 + 4Ts ∆T 3 + ∆T 4
dt
∆T is small, that higher power can be neglected

222
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
dθ
−mc = 4σATs3 ∆T
dt
dθ 4σATs3
− = ∆T
dt mc
3
4σATs
since is constant
mc
dθ
thus − = k∆T
dt
dθ
− ∝ ∆T
dt
hence shown‼‼!
NECTA 2013
46. Name the temperature of thermocouple at which the thermo,
(i) emf changes its sign.
(ii) Electric power becomes zero.

Answers:

(i) The temperature at which emf changes its sign is called neutral
temperature.
(ii)The temperature at which electric power becomes zero is called
inversion temperature.
47. A person sitting on a bench on a calm hot summer day is aware of a
cool breeze blowing from the sea. Briefly explain why there is a natural
convection.
Answers;
There is a natural convection of cool air from the sea during the day
because during the day, land is warmer than the ocean, as a result hot
air on the land raises up in atmosphere and is replaced by cool air
moving from the sea. This cool air what brings cool breeze known is
sea breeze.

48. A nichrome – constantan thermocouple gives about 70μV for each 1℃

difference in temperature of between the junctions. If 100 such
thermocouples are made into thermopile, what voltage is produced
when the junction are 20℃ and 240℃?.
solution
voltage produced
given sensitivity, 70μV per ℃
from the information given

223
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
V = ∆θ × sensitivity of junction
V = (240 − 20) × 70 × 10−6 × 100
V = 15.4V
49. A black body of temperature θ is placed in blackened enclosure
maintained at a temperature of 10℃. When its temperature rises to
30℃ the net rate of loss of energy from the body was found to be 10W.
find the power generated by the body at 50℃ if the energy exchange
takes place solely the process of forced convection.
solution
dQ
rate of change of heat; = P = mc (Ts − Te )
dt
but mc is constant
P ∝ Ts − Te
P1 Ts1 − Te
=
P2 Ts2 − Te
Ts2 − Te
P2 = P1 ( )
Ts1 − Te
50 − 10
P2 = 10 ( )
30 − 10
P2 = 20W
50. (a) Write down the laws governing the black body radiation.
(b) A cup of tea kept in a room with a temperature of 22℃ cools from
66℃ to 63℃ in one minute. How long will the same cup of tea take to
cool from the temperature of 43℃ to 40℃ under the same condition?
Answers:
Laws of radiations:
Stefan’s law: The rate of emission of heat per unit area is directly
proportional to the fourth power of thermodynamic temperature.

Wien’s displacement law: The wavelength of radiation emitted at

maximum intensity is inversely proportional to temperature.

Prevost theory of heat exchange: A body emits heat at a rate which

depends on the nature of its surface and its temperature and absorbs
heat at a rate which depends on the nature of its surface and the
temperature of its surrounding.
51. A lagged copper rod is uniformly heated by a passage of an electric
current. Show by considering a small section dx that the temperature θ
d2 T
varies with a distance x along a rod in a way that, K = ( dx2 ) = −H,

224
 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
where K is a thermal conductivity and H is the rate of heat generation
per unit volume.
solution
dθ
consider P = −kA
dx
differentiate w. r. t. x
dP d dθ
= − (kA )
dx dx dx
dP d dθ
= −kA ( )
dx dx dx
dP d2 θ
= −kA 2
dx dx
dP d2 θ
= −k 2
Adx dx
since Adx = dv
dP d2 θ
= −k 2
dv dx
dP
= H
dv
rate of heat transfer per unit volume
d2 θ
H = −k 2
dx
d2 θ
k 2 = −H
dx

NECTA 2012
52. What is difference between Kelvin temperature scale and celcius
temperature scale.
Kelvin temp scale Celcius temp scale
Has its zero at −273.15℃ Has its zero at ice point

There is one fixed point, the triple There are two fixed points (ice and
point of water (273.16℃) steam point)

53. Mention three basic advantages of gas thermometer.

Advantages of gas thermometer
- It is very accuracy.
- It is very sensitive.

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
- It can measure a wide range of temperature (−270℃) to
1500℃
54. (a) What is meant by a “a perfect thermal source” as used in thermal
radiation.
(b) Define thermal conduction.
Answers:
A perfect thermal source Is the body that radiates all the heat generate
in it and absorb none that falls on it.
Thermal conduction is the process by which heat flows from the hot
end to the cold end of a solid body without there being net movement
of the particles of the body.
55. An aluminium saucepan in contact with a hot plate has a base of
diameter 20.0cm and thickness of 0.5cm if the saucepan contains water
boiling away at the rate of 0.15g/s, estimate the temperature at the
lower surface of the saucepan vessel.
NOTE:
“water boiling way” implies that the surface in contact with water is at
100℃. This further implies that the rate of conduction of heat by the
aluminum sauce pan.

100℃

Water

0.5m
Base

𝑑 = 20𝑐𝑚

kA(θ2 – θ1 ) dm
Q = = LV
l dt
πr 2 k(θ2 − θ1 ) dm
= LV
l dt
210 × π × 0.12 (θ2 − 100)
= 0.15 × 10−3 × 2.25 × 106
0.5 × 10−2
1.695
θ2 − 100 =
6.597
θ2 = 0.2569 + 100

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 Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
θ2 = 100.257℃

56. Define the term perfect black body. Give one limitation of Newton’s
law of cooling.
Answers:
A perfect blackbody is the body which absorbs all the radiation falling
on it and reflects none.
Limitation of Newton’s law of cooling
- It can only be applied when the excess temperature over the
surroundings is small (less than 30℃)
57. Briefly explain the following
(i) Why does a good absorber of radiant energy appear black?
(ii) Why do two sheets of similar glass insulated much more
effectively when separated by a thin layer of air than when
they are in contact.

Answers:

(i) A good absorbs of radiant energy appear black since it

absorbs all radiation falling including visible light. Objects
appear of the colour they reflect.
(ii) Two sheet of similar glass insulate much more effectively
when separated by a thin layer of air than in contact
because air is a better insulator than glass, thus;
Air being a better insulator it has very low conductivity
which reduces the rate of conduction of heat.
58. A roof which measures 20m × 50m is blackened. If the temperature of
the sun’s surface is 6000K, calculate the solar energy incident on the
roof per minute, assuming that half of it is lost when passing through
the earth’s atmosphere.
solution
Rate of radiation by sun is equal to power
P = σAs Ts4
P = 4πR2s σTs4
but constant
power from the sun
S =
Ao
since Ao = is area of sphere containing the orbit
σAs Ts4
S =
Ao

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
4πR2s σTs4
S =
4πR2
R2s
S = σTs4 ( )
R
Rs 2
S = σTs4 ( )
R
−8 4
7.04 × 108 2
S = 5.67 × 10 × 6000 × ( )
1.5 × 1011
S = 1618.64 J⁄s
since half of heat is lost
1
the rate of heat gain = As S
2
P = 0.5 × 1618.64 × 20 × 50
P = 809,321 J⁄s
Heat Power × time
Heat = 809321 × 60
Heat = 48.6 × 106 J
48.6 × 106 is incident on the roof per minute

3.14. General Competitive Examination File Unit Set 07:

[Link] platnum thermometer has resistance of 1330Ω at 50℃. What is

the resistance at 500℃ if the temperature coefficient of resistance is
4.5 × 10−3 ℃−1
02. The resistance of platnum wire at temperature T℃ is measured on
a gas scale given by equation R t = R o (1 + aT + bT 2 ) what
temperature will the platinum thermometer indicate when a
temperature of a gas scale is 200℃ given (a = 3.8 × 10−3 and b =
5.6 × 10−7

03. A copper constant thermocouple with its 0℃ has an E.m.f of

4.28mV when its hot junction is 10℃ the E.m.f become 9.29mV when
temperature at hot junction 200℃ if the emf is related to the
temperature difference θ between the hot and cold junction by the
equation E = Aθ + bθ2 Calculate;

i. The value of A and B

ii. Calculate the range of temperature which emf may be
assumed proportional to θ without error of more than 1%

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
04. A cylinder contain 3 moles of oxygen at temperature of 27℃. The
cylinder is provided with frictionless piston which maintain a constant
pressure of 1atm on the gas. The gas is heated unless its temperature
rises to 127℃.

i. Calculate the energy supplied to the system

ii. What is the change in internal enrgy of the gas
iii. How muuch woork done in the system is required

5.(a) (i) Define Isothermal and adiabatic changes and give the
equation relating the pressure and volume of an ideal gas for each type
of change.
(ii) Why has it been concluded that the pressure and volume
change accompanying the passage of sound waves through
a gas are adiabatic?
(b) Density of oxygen at s.t.p. is 1.43 kgm-3 and its molar mass is
32 × 10-3kgmol-1. Calculate the two principle molar heat
capacities of oxygen if their ratio is 1.40?

(c) (i) State the first law of thermodynamics.

(ii) When applied to a fixed mass of a gas this law can be

written in the form . Explain the meaning
of each of the three terms.
(iii) If the density of nitrogen at s.t.p. is 1.25kgm-3. Calculate
the root-mean square speed of nitrogen molecule at 2270C.

6(a)(i)The first law of thermodynamics is a consequence of the law at

conservation of energy.
Explain briefly.
(ii) What is the difference between isochoric process and
isobaric process
(iii) Why is the energy needed to raise the temperature of a
fixed mass of a gas by a specific amount is greater if the
pressure is kept constant than if the volume is kept constant?

(b) A certain volume of dry air at STP is allowed to expand four

times its original volume under
(i) Isothermal conditions
(ii) Adiabatic conditions.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Calculate the final pressure and temperature in each case

(take ɣ = 1.4)
(c) (i)Calculate the change in the internal energy of 1g mass of
water at atmospheric pressure when 1cm3 of water at its boiling
point becomes 1671cm3 of water vapours

7(a) What do you understand by the terms

(i) Thermodynamic temperature scale?
(ii) Triple point of water?

(c) (i) What is the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a

material?
(ii) The temperature difference between the inside and
outside of a room is 25˚C. The room has a window of an area
2m2 and the thickness of the window material is 2mm.
Calculate the heat flow through the window if the coefficient
of the thermal conductivity of the window material is 0.5 SI
units.

(d) (i)The temperature of a furnace is 2324˚C and the intensity is

maximum in its radiation spectrum nearly at 12000Å. If the
intensity in the spectrum of a star is maximum nearly 4800Å then
calculate the surface temperature of the star.

(ii)A patient waiting to be seen by his physician is asked to

remove all is clothes in an examination room that is at 16˚C.
Calculate the rate of heat loss by radiation from the patient,
given that his skin temperature is 34˚C and his surface area is
1.6m2. Assume emissivity = 0.80.

(iii)Estimate the temperature of the surface of the sun from the

following data: average radius of the earth’s orbit
 1.5  108 km average radius of the sun  7.0 105 Km,
2
solar radiant power on earth at noon  1400Wm . Assume
the sun to be a perfectly black body?

8.(a) (i)What is fundamental interval? How would you use it to

establish a scale of temperature?

230
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(iii) Explain how the Kelvin absolute thermodynamic scale
of temperature is defined (1mk)

(b) (i)State the three laws of black body radiation

(ii)The roof which measures 20m by 50m is blackened. Find
the solar energy incident onto the roof per minute if the
temperature of the sun’s surface is about 6000K, given that
half of the energy is absorbed while passing through the
atmosphere, the roof being normal to the sun’s rays (Radius of
sun Rs  7.5 108 m; distance of sun to earth
d  1.5 1011 m.

(c) (i) Define thermal conductivity of a material and state its units
(ii) What is the rate of flow of heat through a plaster ceiling of
dimensions 5m  3m 15mm with 45mm thick layer of an
insulting fiber glass if the inside and outside are at the
surrounding air temperatures of 15˚C and 5˚C respectively?

9(a) (i) Briefly explain what it means by thermal conduction and

define the coefficient of thermal
Conductivity.

(ii) Ice cubes of mass 5.0g at 0˚C are placed inside a spherical
container having an outside Diameter of 40cm, 2mm thick and
4 1 1
of thermal conductivity 5  10 wm k . How long will it
take for all the ice cubes to melt if the room temperature is
30˚C?

(b) Two metal rods A and B of lengths 40 and 80cm respectively

having the same cross sectional area of 10cm2 are joined end to
end. If the composition is perfectly lagged and the free end of A is
fixed at 100˚C while that of B is pressed to a point 0˚C. Determine
(i) The junction temperature of the two metal rods.
(2mks)
(ii) The quantity of heat that flows per minute in steady
state. (Thermal conductivities of rod A and B are 360
1 1
and 8wm k respectively)

231
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
10.(a) Define the following terms as used in thermometry
(i) Lower fixed point
(ii) Upper fixed point
(iii) Fundamental interval
(iv) Temperature
(v) Temperature scale

(b) A constant mass of a gas maintained at a constant pressure, has

a volume of 200m3 at the
Temperature of heating ice, 273cm3 at the temperature of water
boiling point of sulphur. Calculate the value of the boiling
point of sulphur. Also calculate the absolute zero temperature
of the sulphur.

(c) Define
(i) Thermocouple thermometer
(ii) Reference temperature
(iii) Neutral temperature  N 
(iv) Inversion temperature  i 

(d) In a thermocouple thermometer, the e.m.f varies with

temperature according to the following
relation.
E  a  b 2 where a and b are constants. Show that
neutral temperature  N is given by  N   2ab if cold junction
temperature is 0˚C.

(e) Given that E  a  b 2 where

a  4  103 mv / C, b  7.6  106 mv / C
Calculate the following
(i) Inversion temperature
(ii) Neutral temperature
(iii) Cold junction temperature

11.(a) Define the following terms as used in heat transfer

(i) Lagged conductor

232
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(ii) Unlagged conductor
(iii) Steady temperature
(iv) Temperature gradient(G)
(v) Thermal conductivity (K)
(vi) Rate of heat flow(R).

(b) A room has a 4m  4m 10cm roof k1  1.26wm k . At 1 1


some instant, the temperature outside is 46˚C and inside is 32˚C.
(i) Neglecting convection, calculate the amount of heat
flowing per second into the room through the roof

(ii) If bricks k 2  0.65wm k
1 1

of thickness 7.5cm are
laid down on the roof, calculate the new rate of heat
flow under the same temperature conditions.

12.(a) Define the following laws

(i) Dulong’s and petit law
(ii) Newton’s law of cooling
(iii) Wiens displacement law
(iv) Stefan’s law
(v) Prevost’s theory of heat exchange
(b) (i) Under critical condition, the rate of heat lost to the
environment is equal to the rate of heat
flowing in the liquid. Show that
 t   s    o   s   kt
. Where  t is the temperature of
the body after time t ,  s is the temperature of the
surrounding (room temperature),  o is the initial
temperature of the body, k is a constant and t is time
taken to cool the body.

(ii) Proof the Newton’s law of cooling from Stefan’s law?

(iii) A body is placed inside a room where temperature is
about 25˚C. If the body was placed with temperature of 75˚C
and after 1 minute its temperature was found to be 71˚C. Find
the time elapse for the temperature of the body to be 27˚C.

13.(a) State the following

233
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(i) Thermodynamics
(ii) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
(iii) First law of thermodynamics
(iv) Open system
(v) Closed system
(vi) Isolated system

(b) Show that C p  Cv  R when C p and C v are molar heat

capacities at constant pressure and constant volume of a gas
respectively and R is the universal gas constant

(c) Define the following processes

 Isochoric
 Isobaric
 Isothermal
 Adiabatic


(d) Show that PV  K (constant) in adiabatic process.
C
NB   P
CV
(e) Show that work done in adiabatic process when considering
R
one mole of a gas is given by w = (T2 − T1 )
1− γ

14.(a) A mole of a gas at 127˚C expands isothermally until its volume

is doubled. Find the amount of workdone and heat absorbed.

(c) A cylinder containing one gram molecule of the gas was

compressed adiabatically until its
temperature rose from 27˚C to 97˚C. Calculate the work done

and heat produced in the gas   1.5 
(d) A quantity of oxygen is compressed isothermally until its
pressure is doubled. Its then allowed to expand adiabatically
until its original volume is restored. Find the final pressure in
terms of the initial.

234
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
3.15. Competitive Examinaton File Unit Set 08:

Problem 01

A mono atomic gas initially at the temperature T = 25℃ and

pressure of 2 atmospheres is expanded to a final pressure of 1.0
atmosphere.

a) Isothermally and reversibly

b) Isothermally against a constant pressure of 1.0
atmosphere. Calculate for each case:
(i) The final temperature of the gas
(ii) The increase of internal energy

Problem 02

The figure below shows some details concerning the behavior of

a fixed mass of a gas assumed to be an ideal one in a petrol
engine. The gas starts at A with a volume 5× 10−4 m3 ,
temperature 300 K and a pressure of 1 × 105 Nm−2. In the
change from A to B it is compressed to volume of 1 × 10−4 m3 ,
the pressure rises to 1.5 × 105 Nm−2 . And temperature 630K

a) Using the equation of state for an ideal gas, find the

number of molecules in the fixed mass of a gas.
235
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
b) In the change from B to C the temperature of a gas rises
from 630 K to 1500 K. The molar heat capacity at
constant volume of the gas is 21JK −1 mol−1. Calculate the
internal energy of the gas.
c) How much work is done by the gas in changing from
B to C?
d) In the change from C to D, the gas expands to its original
volume; the temperature at D is 680 K. Calculate the
pressure at D.
Problem-03
The figure below shows a sample of gas enclosed in a
cylinder by a frictionless piston of area 100cm2 . The
cylinder is now heated, so that 250J of energy is
transferred to the gas, which then expands against
atmospheric pressure of 1.00 × 105 Nm−2. And pushes
the piston 15.0 cm along the cylinder as shown

Calculate:

(a) The external work done by the gas

(b) The increase in internal energy of the gas.

Problem 04
When 1.50kg of water is converted to steam (at 100℃) at
standard atmospheric pressure of 1.01× 105 Nm−2, 3.39MJ of
heat are required. During the transformation from liquid to vapor
state, the increase in volume of the water is 2.50m3 . Calculate
236
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
the work done against the external pressure during the process of
vaporization. Explain what happens to the rest of the energy.

Problem05
A fixed mass of gas is cooled, so that its volume decreases from
4.0 liters to 2.5 liters at a constant pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa.

Calculate the external work done by the gas.

Problem 06

The specific latent heat of vaporization of steam is 2.26 MJ

. When 50cm3 of water is boiled at standard atmospheric
pressure of 1.01 × 105 Pa, 83 × 103 cm3 of steam are formed.

Calculate

(a) The mass of water boiled

(b) The heat input needed
(c) The external work done during vaporization
(d) The increase in internal energy
Given that density of water 1000 kgm−3
Problem07
56.0 × 103 kg of nitrogen is to be heated from 270 K to 310K.
When this occurs in an insulated freely extensible container, 2.33
Kj of heat is required when contained in an insulated rigid
container, 1.66KJ of heat is required. Calculate the principal
molar heat capacities of nitrogen.
Problem 08
The specific heat capacity of a diatomic gas at constant volume is
0.410 KJkg −1 K −1
Calculate
(a) The specific heat capacity of the gas at constant pressure.
(b) The specific gas constant for the gas.

Problem 09

237
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 3.00
mole of a polyatomic gas, at constant pressure, from 320 K to
370 K is 4.99 KJ.

Calculate

(a) Cp and Cv
(b) The value of γ
(c) The heat required to raise the temperature of 4.00 mole from
300 K to 400 K at constant volume

Problem 10

Argon has a molar heat mass of 40 × 103 kg and a principal

molar heat capacity, at constant volume, of 12.5Jmol−1 K −1.

Calculate:

(a) The valve of γ

(b) The specific heat capacity at constant volume
(c) The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1.00kg of argon by 80 K at constant volume.

Problem 11

2.00 mole of nitrogen, at 300K are in an insulated, freely

extensible container, and the pressure outside the container is
1.00× 105 Nm−2. The principal molar heat capacity of nitrogen at
constant pressure is 29.0 Jmol−1 K −1.

Calculate:

(a) The heat required to raise its temperature to 340 K.

(b) The increase in volume of the gas during this process.
(c) The external work done
(d) The internal energy change

238
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(e) The heat required to effect the temperature change at
constant volume
Compare (d) and (e) and comment
Problem 12
The piston of a bicycle pump is slowly moved in until the
volume of air enclosed is one-fifth of the total volume of the
pump and is at room temperature (290K). The outlet is then
sealed and the piston suddenly drawn out to full extension. No air
passes the piston. Find the temperature of the air in the pump
immediately after withdrawing the piston assuming that air is a
perfect gas with γ = 1.
Problem 13
A fixed mass of gas, initially at 7℃ and a pressure of 1.00 ×
105 Nm−2 , is compressed isothermally to one – third of its
original volume. Calculate the final temperature and pressure,
assuming γ = 1.40
Problem 14
A fixed mass of gas is taken through the closed cycle A→ B → C
→ D → A as shown in the figure below

(a) Calculate the work done in the cycle.

239
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) How much heat transferred in the cycle?
(c) Is the heat absorbed or emitted by the gas?

Problem 15

One mole of water, occupying a volume of 1.8× 10−5 cm3 , is

turned into steam in a boiler at a temperature of 373 K and a
pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa. The volume of steam generated is
0.031cm3 . The energy required is 41,000J.

Calculate the work done (in Joules) against the atmospheric

pressure in the production of steam.

Problem 16

The figure below shows water changing into steam at constant

pressure and held in a cylinder by a free – sliding piston. 1.00 kg
of water at 100℃ is changing into steam at atmospheric pressure.
Calculate:

(a) The external work done

(b) The increase in internal energy
(c) What happens to the internal energy absorbed during the
vaporization process?

240
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Given that:

Density of water at 100℃ = 960 kgm−3

Density of steam at 100℃ and at atmospheric pressure = 0.59

Atmospheric pressure, Po = 1.01× 105 Pa.

Specific latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26× 106 Jkg −1

Problem 17

At a temperature of 100 and a pressure of 1.01× 105 Pa, 1.00Kg

of steam occupies 1.67m3 , but the same mass of water occupies
only 1.04× 10−3 cm−3 . The specific latent heat of vaporization o
water at 100℃ is 2.26× 106 Jkg −1 . For a system consisting
of 1.00kg of water changing to steam at 100℃ and 1.01× 105 Pa,
find :
(a) The heat supplied to the system
(b) The work done by the system
(c) The increase in internal energy of the system.

Problem 18

241
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The ratio of the principal heat capacities of an ideal gas is γ, and
the molar gas constant is R. Show that the molar heat capacity at
γR
constant pressure of the gas is Cp = γ−1

Problem 19

The specific heat capacity at constant volume of a certain ideal

gas is 6× 105 KJg −1 K −1 and is independent of temperature.
Find the internal energy of 5.0 × 10−3kg of the gas at 27℃.

Problem 20

Helium may be assumed to behave as an ideal gas. A sample of

20 moles of the gas are taken through the cycle of changes ABC
as shown in the figure above.

(i) Use the data from the figure to show that the change from A
to B must take place at constant temperature.
(ii) The temperature for this change is 300K. What is the
temperature of the gas at C?
(iii)What energy process takes place between B and C?

242
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(iv) The change in internal energy of the sample in the process
from B to C is 56KJ. Calculate the molar heat capacity at
constant volume for helium.
(v) Calculate the work done during the change from C to A. State
and explain whether work is done on or by the gas during this
part of the cycle. Justify your answer.
(vi) Determine the value of molar heat capacity at constant
pressure for helium. Show Clearly how you arrive at your
answer.
(vii) Use the figure to estimate the net work done during one
complete cycle.

Problem 21

A fixed mass of an ideal gas has a volume Vo at an initial

temperature of 300 K and an initial pressure of 1.2 × 105 Pa.
It is made to undergo the following cycle of process.

A. Isothermal expansion from its initial volume Vo to a volume

2Vo
B. Expansion at constant pressure to a volume 4Vo
C. Isothermal compression

D. Compression at constant pressure to its initial state.

(a) Sketch a cycle on a P – V diagram

(b) Determine:
( i) The pressure at the end of process A
(ii) The temperature at the end of process B
(iii) The volume at the end of process C

Problem 21

A fixed mass of an ideal gas at an initial temperature of 20℃ and

at a pressure of 1.00 × 105 Pa is compressed until its volume is
one- quoter of its original volume.

243
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Calculate the final temperature and pressure of the gas, assuming:

(a) The compression is isothermal

(b) The compression is adiabatic
Cp
Given that = γ = 1.40
Cv
Problem 22

In a diesel engine, fuel oil is injected into a cylinder in which air

has been heated by adiabatic compression to above the ignition
temperature of the oil. The ignition temperature of a certain fuel
is 630℃, and the air enters the cylinder, which has an initial
volume of 5.0× 10−4 m3 at a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa and a
temperature of 28℃

(a) What minimum compression ratio (the ratio of the initial to

the final volume of the cylinder) is required to heat the air to the
fuel ignition temperature?
(b) How much work is done in compressing the air?
Given that for air γ = 1.40

Problem 23

(a) A cylinder fitted with a piston which can move without

friction contains 0.05 mole of a mono atomic ideal gas at a
temperature of 27℃ and a pressure of 1.0 × 105 Pa.

Calculate:
(i) The volume of the gas.
(ii)The internal energy of the gas
( b)The temperature of the gas in (a) above is raised to 77℃, the
pressure remaining constant.
Calculate:
(i) The change in internal energy
(ii)The external work done
(iii) The total heat energy supplied
Given that molar gas constant = 8.3Jmol−1 K −1.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Problem 23
(a) Give one practical example of each of the following:
(i) A process in which heat is supplied to a system without
causing an increase in temperature.
(ii) A process in which no heat enters or leaves a system but the
temperature changes.
(b) What happens to the energy added to an ideal gas when it is
heated:
(i) At constant volume?
(ii) At constant pressure?
(c) Deduce an expression for the difference between the specific
heat capacities of a gas at constant pressure and at constant
volume.
(d) If the ratio of the principal specific heat capacities of a
certain gas is 1.40 and its density at S.T.P is 0.09kgm−3 ,
calculate the values of the specific heat capacity at constant
pressure and at constant volume. Standard atmospheric
pressure = 1.01 × 105 Nm−2
Problem 24
A steel pressure vessel of volume 2.2× 10−2 m3 contains 4.0×
105 Pa and temperature 300 K. An explosion suddenly releases
6.48× 104 J of energy, which raises the pressure instantaneously
to 1.0× 106 Pa. Assuming no loss of heat to the vessel, and ideal
gas behaviour,
Calculate:
(a) The maximum temperature attained
(b) The two principal specific heat capacities of the gas.

What is the velocity of sound in this gas at a temperature of 300

K?

Problem 25

(a) Explain why an ideal gas can have infinity number of molar
heat capacities and define the principal values.
(b)A thermally – insulated tube through which a gas may be
passed at constant pressure contains an electric heater and
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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
thermometers for measuring the temperature of the gas as it
enters and as it leaves the tube. 3.0× 10−3 m3 of gas of density
1.8 kgm−3 flows into the tube in 90 seconds and, when electrical
power is supplied to the heater at a rate of 0.16W, the
temperature difference between the out let and inlet is 2.5 K.
Calculate a value for the specific heat capacity of the gas at
constant pressure.
Problem 26

(a) Explain clearly and concisely why, for a fixed mass of a

perfect gas:

(i) The internal energy remains constant when the gas expands
isothermally.
(ii) The heat capacity at constant pressure is greater than the heat
capacity at constant volume.
(b) A vessel of volume 1.0 contain an ideal gas at a
temperature of 300 K and pressure 1.5 Pa. Calculate the
mass of gas, given that the density of the gas at temperature 285
K and pressure 1.0 Pa is 1.2
(c) 750 J of heat is suddenly releases in the gas, causing an
instantaneous rise of pressure to 1.8 Pa. Assuming ideal
gas behavior, and no loss of heat to the containing vessel,
Calculate the temperature rise, and hence the specific heat
capacity at constant volume of the gas.
Problem 27
(a) What is an adiabatic change?

A vessel of volume 8.00 contains an ideal gas at a

pressure of 1.14 Pa.

A stopcock in the vessel is opened and the gas expands

adiabatically, expelling some of its original mass, until its
pressure is equal to that outside the vessel 1.01 Pa.
246
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
The stopcock is then closed and the vessel is allowed to stand
until the temperature returns to its original value; in this
equilibrium state, the pressure is 1.06 Pa.

(i) Explain why there was a temperature change as a result of the

adiabatic expansion.
(ii)Find the volume which the mass of gas finally left in the
vessel occupied under the original conditions.
(iii) Sketch a graph showing the way in which the pressure and
volume of the mass of gas left in the vessel changed during the
operations described above:
(iv) What is the value of , the ratio of the principal heat
capacities of the gas.
(v) What can you deduce about the molecules of the gas? Give
your reasons.

Problem 28

The diagram above represents an energy cycle whereby a mole of

an ideal gas is firstly cooled at constant pressure then
heated a constant volume and returned to its original
state .

247
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
( a) Calculate the temperature of the gas at A, at B and at C
( b) Calculate the heat given out by the gas in the process A B
( c) Calculate the heat absorbed in the process B C
( d) Calculate the net amount of heat transferred in the cycle.
Given that R = 8.3 . and

Problem 29

The specific latent heat of vaporization of particular liquid at 130

and a pressure of 2.60 Pa is 1.84 .

The specific volume of the liquid under these conditions is 2.00

. And that of the vapor is 5.66 × 10−1 m3 kg −1
. Calculate:

(a) The work done, and

( b) The increase in internal energy when 1.00 kg of the vapor is
formed from the liquid under these conditions.

Problem 30

(a) Explain what is meant by a reversible change.

(b) A mass of 0.35 kg of ethanol is vaporized at its boiling
point of 78 and a pressure of 10 Pa. At this temperature.
The specific latent heat of vaporization of ethanol is 0.95
and the densities of the liquid and vapor are 790
and 1.6 respectively. Calculate:
(i) The work done by the system
(ii)The change in internal energy of the system

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Explain in molecular terms what happens to the heat supplied to
the system.

Problem 31

The graph below relates the pressure and volume of a fixed mass
of an ideal gas which is first compressed isothermally from A to
B and then allowed to expand adiabatically from B to C.

For each of the changes shown on the graph, state and explain
whether:

(a) The temperature of the gas changes

(b) There is heat transfer to or from the gas
(c) Work is done on or by the gas

Problem 32

An ideal gas at 17 has a pressure of 760mmHg, and is

compressed.

(a) Isothermally,
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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) Adiabatically until its volume is halved, in each case
reversibly. Calculate in each case the final pressure and
temperature of the gas, assuming = 2100 and =
1500 .
Problem 33
(a) Show that for an ideal gas the curves relating pressure and
volume for an adiabatic change have a greater slope than those
for an isothermal change, at the same pressure.
(b) A gas in a cylinder initially at a temperature of 17 and a
pressure of 1.01 , is to be compressed to one-eighth
of its volume. What would be the difference between the final
pressures if the compression were done.
(i) Isothermally
(ii) Adiabatically?
Given that = 1.40

Problem 34
Given that the volume of a gas at S.T.P is 2.24
and that standard pressure is 1.01
, calculate the molar gas constant R and use it to
find the difference between the quantities of heat required to raise
the temperature of 0.01kg of oxygen from 0 to 10 when.
(a) The pressure is kept constant
(b) The volume is kept constant

(Given that relative molecular mass of oxygen = 32)

Problem 35

(a) By considering the expansion of an ideal gas contained in a

cylinder and enclosed by a piston, show that the work done in a
small expansion is equal to the pressure times the volume
change.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(b) An ideal gas, at a temperature of 290 K and a pressure of 1.0
, occupies a volume of 1.0 . Its density
conditions is 0.30 .
It expands at constant pressure to a volume of 1.5 .
Calculate the energy added
(c) The gas is now compressed isothermally to its original
volume. Calculate.
(i)Its final pressure and temperature
(ii)The difference between its final and initial internal energies.

Given that specific heat capacity at constant volume of this gas =

7.1 .

Problem 36

A litre of air, initially at 20 and at 760mmHg pressure, is

heated at constant pressure until its volume is doubled. Find

( a) The final temperature

(b) The external work done by the air in expanding
(c) The quantity of heat supplied.

Assume that the density of air at S.T.P is 1.293 and that

the specific heat capacity of air at constant volume is 714
.

Problem 37

a) Deduce an expression for the difference between the specific

heat capacities of an ideal gas.
(b) If the specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure is
1013 and the density at S.T.P is 1.29 ,

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
estimate a value for the specific heat capacity of air at constant
volume.

Problem 36
(a) What is the importance of the ratio of the specific heat
capacities of an ideal gas?
(b) A mass of air occupying initially a volume 2 at a
pressure of 760mmHg and a temperature 20 is expanded
adiabatically and reversibly to twice its volume, and then
compressed isothermally and reversibly to a volume of 3
. Find the final temperature and pressure, assuming
the ratio of the specific heat capacities of air to be 1.40.
Problem 39
Air initially at 27 and at 750mmHg pressure is compressed
isothermally until its volume is halved. It is then expanded
adiabatically until its original volume is recovered. Assuming the
changes to be reversible find the final pressure and temperature
take = 1.40
Problem 40
When water at 100 and pressure of 101 kPa changes to steam
under the same conditions, its volume increases by a factor of
1670 given the density of water is 960 at 100 and 101
kPa, and its specific latent heat of vaporization is 2.26
,

Calculate
(a) The heat supplied to convert 1 kg of water at 100 to steam
at the same temperature.
(b) The work done when 1 kg of water turns to steam at 101kPa
pressure.
(c) The increase of internal energy.

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Problem 41
A fixed mass of ideal gas is contained in a cylinder. The cylinder
volume can be varied by moving a piston in or out. The gas has
an initial volume 0.01 at 100 kPa pressure and its temperature
is initially 300K. The gas is cooled at constant pressure until its
volume is 0.006 . Sketch a pressure against volume graph to
show the change. Calculate:

(a) The final temperature of the gas.

(b) The work done on the gas.
(c) The number of moles of gas.
(d) The change of internal energy of the gas.
(e)The heat transfer from the gas
(Assume R =8.3 Jmol -1k-1)

Problem 42

Two identical cylinders X and Y contain equal volumes of ideal

gas at the same temperature and pressure. The volume of each
cylinder can be varied by moving a piston in or out for the
cylinder. The gas in each cylinder is then compressed to half its
initial volume: X is compressed isothermally whereas Y is
compressed adiabatically. Show the changes on a
compressed adiabatically. Show the changes on a pressure
against volume diagram and compare the energy changes for the
two gases.

Problem 43

A motor car tyres has a pressure of four atmospheres at a room

temperature of 27 . If the Tyre suddenly bursts, calculate the
temperature of the escaping air. Value of for air is 1.4

Problem 44

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

A molecule of a gas at 27 expands isothermally until its

volume is doubled. Find the amount of work done and heat
absorbed.

Problem 45

A cylinder fitted with a movable piston contains 3 moles of

hydrogen at standard temperature are made and pressure. The
walls of the cylinder are late by having a pile of sand on it. By
what factor does the pressure of the gas increase if the gas is
compressed to half its original volume? Given = 1.4

Problem 46

A quantity of air at 27 is compressed

(i) Slowly and

(ii) Suddenly to one third of its volume. Find the change in

temperature in each case.

Problem 47

A Tyre pumped to a pressure of 6 a.t.m suddenly burst. The room

temperature is 15 . Calculate the temperature of escaping air.

Take = 1.4

Problem 48

A litre of air, initially at 20 and at 760mmHg pressure, is

heated at constant pressure until its volume is doubled.

Find:

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(i) The final temperature
(ii) The external work done by the air in expanding
(iii)The quantity of heat [Link] that the density of air
at N.T.P is 1.293 and = 714

Problem 49

A gas is suddenly compressed to one-half of its volume.

Calculate the rise in temperature, the original temperature being
27 . Take = 1.5

Problem 50

A certain volume of dry air at N.T.P is allowed to expand four

times its original volume under.

i) Isothermal conditions
(ii) Adiabatic conditions

Calculate the final pressure and temperature in each case. Take

= 1.4

Problem 51
10 moles of hydrogen gas at NTP are compressed adiabatically
so that its temperature becomes 400 . How much work is
done by the gas? Also find the increase in internal energy of the
gas.

Given R = 8.4 and = 1.4

Problem 52

Calculate the work done when one mole of a perfect gas is

compressed diabatically. The initial pressure and volume of the

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

gas are and 6 litres respectively. The final volume of

the gas is 2 litres. Molar specific heat of the gas at constant

volume is

Problem 53

A cylinder contains 1 mole of oxygen at a temperature of 27 .

The cylinder is provided with a frictionless piston maintains a
constant pressure of 1 a.t.m on the gas. The gas is heated until its
temperature rises to 127 .

(i) How much work is done by the gas in the process?

(ii)What is the increase in internal energy of the gas?
(iii) How much heat was supplied to the gas?
Given that = 7.03 cal and
R = 1.99 cal
Problem 54
5
Two moles of helium gas γ = 3 are initially at a temperature 27
and occupy a volume of 20 litres. The gas is first expanded at
constant pressure until the volume is doubled then it undergoes
adiabatic change until its temperature returns to its original value.
(i) Sketch the process the P – V diagram
(ii)What are the final volume and pressure of a gas?
(iii) What is the work done by the gas? Gas constant R = 8.3

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Problem 55

Consider the cyclic process ABC on a sample of 2.0 mole of an

ideal gas as shown in the figure below

The temperature of the gas at A and B are 300 K and 500 K

respectively. A total of 1200 J of heat is withdrawn from the
sample. Find the work done by the gas in part BC.

Given that R = 8.3J

Problem 56

A cylinder contains 3 moles of oxygen at a temperature of 27 .

The cylinder is provided with a frictionless piston which
maintains a constant pressure of 1 atmosphere on the gas. The
gas is heated unless its temperature rises to 127 .

(i) How much heat is supplied to the gas?

(ii) What is the change in internal energy of the gas?

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(iii) How much work is done by the gas in the process? Given
that = 7.03 cal

Problem 57

An ideal gas having initial pressure P, volume V and temperature

T is allowed to expand adiabatically until its volume becomes

5.66 V while its temperature falls to

i) What is the value of for the gas?

ii) Obtain the work done by the gas during expansion as a
function of initial pressure P and volume.

Problem 58

What amount of heat is to be transferred to nitrogen in an

isobaric heating so that the gas may perform 2 J of work?

Problem 59

In the figure below an ideal gas changes its state from state A to
C by two paths ABC and AC

258
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(i) Find the path along which work done is less
(ii)The internal energy of gas at A is 10 J and the amount of heat
supplied to change its state to C through the path AC is 200J .
Calculate the internal energy at C.
(iii) The internal energy of gas at state B is 20J. Find the amount
of heat supplied to the gas to go from A to B.

Problem 60

As a result of isobaric heating by = 72 K, one mole of a

certain ideal gas obtains an amount of heat Q = 1.60 KJ.

Find:

(i) The work done by the gas

(ii) The increment in its internal energy
(iii) The value of

Problem 61

The figure below shows a process ABCA performed on an ideal

gas. Find the net heat given to the system during the process.

Problem 62

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
In a thermodynamic process the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas
is changed in such a manner that the gas releases 20 J of heat and
8 J of work is done on the gas. If the initial energy of the gas was
30 J. What will be its final internal energy?

Problem 63

Two different adiabatic paths for the same gas intersect two
isothermal at and as shown in the P – V diagram below.

How does compare with

Problem 64

At 27 two moles of an ideal mono atomic gas occupies a

volume V. The gas expands adiabatically to a volume 2V. Find:

(i) The final temperature of the gas

(ii)The change in its internal energy
(iii) The work done by the gas during the process.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level

Given that R = 8.31 J

Problem 65

A gas of 2 volume and at a pressure of 4

is compressed adiabatically to a volume 0.5 . Find
its new pressure. Compare it with the pressure obtained if
compression were isothermal. Calculate the work done in each
process.

Problem 66

(a) Explain what is meant by temperature gradient.

(b) An ideally lagged compound bar 25 cm long consists of a
copper bar 15 cm long joined to an aluminum bar 10 cm long and
of equal cross-sectional area. The free end of the copper is
maintained at 100 and the free end of the aluminium at 0 .
Calculate the temperature gradient in each bar when steady state
conditions have been reached. (Thermal conductivity of copper =
390 W . Thermal conductivity of aluminium = 210 W
.)
Problem 67
(a) If a copper kettle has a base of thickness 2.0mm and area3.0
x , estimate the steady difference in temperature
between inner and outer surfaces of the base which must be
maintained to enable enough heat to through so that the
temperature of 1.00 kg of water rises at the rate of 0.25 .
Assume that there are no heat losses, the thermal conductivity of
copper = 3.8 W and the specific heat capacity of
water = 4.2 × 103 J/kgK .

(b) After reaching the temperature of 373 K the water in (a)

above is allowed to boil under the same conditions for 120

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
seconds and the mass of water remaining in the kettle is 0.948
kg. Deduce a value for the specific latent heat of vaporization of
water ( neglecting condensation of the steam in the kettle

Problem68
A cubical container full of hot water at a temperature of 90
is completely lagged with an insulating material of thermal
conductivity 6.4 W . The edges of the container
are 1.0m. Estimate the rate of flow of heat through the lagging if
the external temperature of the lagging is 40 . Mention any
assumptions you make in deriving your result.

Problem69
A thin-walled hot-water tank having a total surface area 5 ,
contains 0.8 of water at a temperature of 350 K. It is lagged
with a 50mm thick layer of material of thermal conductivity 4
W . The temperature of the outside surface of
the lagging is 290 K. What electrical power must be supplied to
an immersion heater to maintain the temperature of the water at
350 K? Assume the thickness of the copper walls of the tank to
be negligible) What is the justification for the assumption that
the thickness of the copper walls of the tank may be neglected?
(Thermal conductivity of copper = 400 W .

If the heater were switched off, how long would it take for the
temperature of the hot water to fall 1 K?

(Density of water 1000 kg ; specific heat capacity of water

= 4170 J .)

Problem 70

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
(a) Sketch graphs to illustrate the temperature distribution along
a metal bar heated to one end when the bar is (a) lagged, and (b)
unlagged. In each case assume the temperature equilibrium has
been reached. Explain the difference between the two graphs.
(b) A window pane consists of a sheet of glass of area 2.0
and thickness 5.0mm. if the surface temperatures are
maintained at 0 and 20 , calculate the rate of flow of heat
through the pane assuming a steady state is maintained. The
window is now double glazed by adding a similar sheet of glass
so that a layer of air 10mm thick is trapped between the two
panes. Assuming that the air is still calculate the ratio of the rate
of flow of heat through the window in the first case to that in the
second.

(Conductivity of glass = 0.80 W , conductivity of air =

0.025 W .)

Problem 71

An iron pan containing water boiling steadily at 100 stands on

a hot-plate and heat conducted through the base of the pan
evaporates 0.090 kg of water per minute. If the base of the pan
has an area of 0.04 and a uniform thickness of 2.0 m,
calculate the surface temperature of the pan.

(Thermal conductivity of iron = 66 W . Specific latent

heat of vaporization of water at 100 = 2.2 J )

Problem 72

(a) A sheet a glass has an area of 2.0 and a thickness 8.0 x

m. The glass has a thermal conductivity of 0.80 W .

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the glass when there is
a temperature difference of 20 K between its faces.
(b) A room in a house is heated to a temperature 20 K above that
outside. The room has 2 of windows of glass similar to the
type used in (a) above. Suggest why the rate of heat transfer
through glass is much less than the value calculated above.

Problem 73

(a) Explain why two sheets of similar glass each 4mm thick
separated by a 10mm layer of air. Assuming the thermal
conductivity of glass to be 50 times greater than that of air
calculate the ratio.

(b) A double-glazed window consists of two panes of glass each

4mm thick separated by a 10mm layer of air. Assuming the
thermal conductivity of glass to be 50 times greater than that of
air calculate the ratio.
(i) Temperature gradient in the glass to temperature gradient in
the air gap.
(ii)Temperature difference across one pane of the glass to
temperature difference across the air gap.

Problem 74

(a) Outline an experiment to measure the thermal conductivity

of a solid which is a poor conductor, showing how the result is
calculated from the measurements.
(b) Calculate the theoretical percentage change in heat loose by
conduction achieved by replacing a single glass window by a
double window consisting of two sheets of glass separated by
10mm of air.
Problem 75
The silica cylinder of a radiant wall heater is 0.6m long and has a
radius of 5mm. If it is rated at 1.5 kW estimates its temperature

264
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
when operating. State two assumptions you have made in making
your estimate.
(The Stefan constant, = 6 W ).
Problem 76
(a) Explain what is meant by black body radiation
(b) A blackened metal sphere of diameter 10mm is placed at the
focus of a concave mirror of diameter 0.5m directed towards the
sun. If the solar power incident on the mirror is 1600 W m−2 .
Calculate the maximum temperature in which the sphere can
attain. State the assumptions you have estimated.
(The Stefan’s constant, = 6 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4
Problem 176
If the mean equilibrium temperature of the Earth’s surface is T
and the total rate of energy emission by the sun is E Show that

=
Where δ is the Stephan constant and R is the radius of the Earth’s
orbit around the sun.
(Assume that the Earth behaves like a black body)
Problem 78
An unlagged thin-walled copper pipe of diameter 2.0 cm carries
water at a temperature of 40 K above that the surrounding air.
Estimate the power loss per unit length of the pipe if the
temperature of the surroundings is 300K and the Stefan constant,
, is 5.67 W ).
State two important assumptions you have made.

Problem 79
The solar radiation falling normally on the surface of the Earth
has an intensity 1.40 k Wm−2 . If this radiation fell normally on
one side of a thin, freely suspended blackened metal plate and the
temperature of the surroundings was 300 K, calculate the
equilibrium temperature of the plate. Assume that all heat
interchange is by radiation.

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
−8 −2 −4
(The Stefan constant 5.67 × 10 Wm K
Problem 80
A steel rod has length 1.5m and radius 1 cm. One end of the rod
is maintained at 100 and the other end is at 0℃. Find the
quantity of heat conducted through the rod in 2 minutes. The
thermal conductivity of steel is 50.4 W/m K.
Problem 81
A glass window pane of a room has dimensions 2m × 0.5 m x
0.002m. The temperature on its two sides are 300 K and 295 K
respectively. Find the quantity of heat conducted out of the room
in 10 minutes if the room has two windows, each having two
such panes.

Problem 82
In Searle’s method. A metal rod of length 50cm and area of
cross-section 8 cm2 is used. The flow of water through the tube
is adjusted at 20 grams per minute. The stead temperature of 65
and 55℃ respectively are shown by the two thermometers
instead in the rod. The separation between the thermometers is 4
cm. The out flowing water shows a rise of 6℃. Find the thermal
conductivity of the metal.
Problem 83
In Searle’s experiment for the measurement of thermal
conductivity of a metal, a road having a cross-sectional area of 10
is used. The flow of water through the cooling tube is
adjusted at 150gm/minute. When a steady state is reached, two
thermometers, inserted in the road at a distance of 5cm from each
other, record temperature of 60℃ and 50℃ respectively. If the
rise in temperature of the water flowing through the cooling tube
is 5 , find the thermal conductivity of metal.
Problem 84
The temperature inside an air-conditioned room is maintained at
20℃ when the outside temperature is 30℃. Calculate the quantity
of heat conducted per minute through a glass window pane of

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Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
2
area 0.25cm and thickness 5mm if the thermal conductivity of
glass is 0.84 W/mK.
Problem 85
The temperature inside the room is 15℃ and that of outside is
5℃. How much heat will be lost by conduction per hour through
one square meter of the wall if its thickness is 25cm [K for the
material of the wall = 2.5 w/mK]
Problem 86
Calculate the amount of heat conducted per minute through a
glass window pane of length 50cm, breadth 20cm and thickness
0.5 cm, if there is a steady temperature difference of 10℃ on its
two sides (Thermal conductivity of glass = 0.002 CGS units)
Problem 87
One end of a copper rod 20 cm long and 5 cm in diameter is
maintained at 50℃ while the other end is kept at a constant
temperature of 20℃. Calculate the quantity of heat conducted
through the rod in 10 seconds if the thermal conductivity of
copper is 0.92 CGS units
Problem 88
A large glass window has an area of 10cm2 and thickness of
3mm. If the temperature in side and outside the room is 20℃ and
-10 respectively, calculate the quantity of heat flowing per
second through the window. Thermal conductivity of glass = 1.5
MKS units)
Problem 89
In Searle’s method, rod of length 30cm and cross-sectional area
5cm2 is used and flow of water is adjusted at 60 grams per
minute. Steady temperature of 60℃ and 50℃ respectively are
shown by two thermometers inserted in the rod 8cm apart. If the
water coming out of the spiral shows 5℃ rise in temperature,
calculate the thermal conductivity of the metal.
Problem 90
The thermal conductivity of brass is 0.26 cal/s cm . In Searle’s
experiment a brass rod having a cross-sectional area of 10 is
used. When the steady state is reached, the temperature recorded

267
Mwl [Link]. Heat & Thermodynamics Advanced level
by the two thermometers, inserted in the rod at a distance of 4 cm
from each other, differ by 5℃. If the rate of flow of water
through the cooling tube is 0.5 gm/s. find the rise in temperature
of water.
Problem 91
A hollow cube of metal having mean length 10cm and thickness
0.25cm is filled with ice at 0℃ and is surrounded by water at 80
. How much ice will melt in ten minutes?
Latent heat of ice = 80 kCal/g.

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REFERENCES
1. Satish K. Gupta 1996; Moderns ABC Plus of Physics class XI
Volume 1 Published by MBD Group Publishers
2. Narinder Kumar 1995; Comprehensive Physics Class XI
volume-II Published by Laxmi publication.
3. Halliday & Resinick 1995; Fundamental of Physics for
Advanced level. 9th Edition.
4. V.K Mehta, Rohit Mehta 2008; Principle of Physics for class
XI Published by S> Chand & Company [Link].
5. Nelkon & Parker 1995; Physics for advanced level. 3rd Edition.

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