Energising a Brighter Tomorrow
Metallurgy
For Non Metallurgist
MODULE-II: Engineering & Application
PRESENTER: AJAY KUMAR SHARMA
WHAT WE LEARNT in MODULE-I
Understood MATERIALS and associated
Science & Engineering.
Understanding about Properties of Materials
and CRYSTALS, GRAIN & Microstructure.
Understanding about Alloys & Solid
Solutions, Phase & Phase Transformations
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Materials Science & Engineering
(Repeat Slide from M-1)
• There are four essential elements in materials science
and engineering.
Processing/Synthesis; Structure/Composition; Properties;
Performance/Application.
• STRUCTURE depend on PROCESSING
• PERFORMANCE depends on PROPERTIES
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COMMON ENGINERING MATERIALS
(Repeat slide from M-1)
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What determines Materials Properties?
(Repeat slide from M-1)
• Properties of a material are determined by two important
characteristics:
Atomic structure
(The way atoms, ions, molecules arranged in the
material).
Electromagnetic structure – the bonding character.
Atomic structure
Properties influenced by
Electromagnetic structure
(Bonding characteristics)
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What determines Materials Properties?
(Repeat slide from M-1)
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STRUCTURE
(Repeat from M-1)
• The structure of a material relates to the arrangement of its
internal components at various lengthscales.
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CRYSTALS
(Repeat from M-1)
Crystals are classified into two types.
1) Poly crystal
2) Single crystal
Poly Crystal: In this type of crystal periodicity is not
maintained throughout the body.
Single Crystal: In this type of crystal periodicity is
maintained throughout the body.
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TYPICAL CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
(Repeat slide of M-1)
• Four relatively simple crystal structures are found for
most of the common metals.
a) Simple Cubic (SC) – rare, only Polonium (Po) has this
b) Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
c) Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
d) Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP)
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GRAINS
(Repeat Slide from M-1)
• A GRAIN is a single crystal, within which the
atomic lattice and its orientation are
continuous. Adjacent grains of the same phase
with different orientations are separated by an
immaterial surface called a grain boundary.
The two crystal lattices extend regularly right
up to the boundary.
• Thickness of this boundary region (grain
boundary) is a few atomic diameters .
• In the vicinity of the boundary, the atoms are
displaced from their normal lattice positions
to minimize the excess energy associated
with the discontinuity. Nevertheless, the
transition from one grain to the other
introduces a large number of defects as
vacancies and dislocations, so that a
boundary represents a region of high local
energy. Hence grain boundaries are
chemically more reactive.
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METALS & ALLOYS
(Repeat Slide from Module-I)
• ALLOYS:
An alloy is a metallic-solid solution, composed of two or
more elements (a metal with another element, either metal or nonmetal).
Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase
microstructure. Partial solutions give two or more phases.
An alloy’s properties are different from its elements.
• SOLID SOLUTIONS:
Solution in solid state i.e. one solid dissolved in other
solid.
Examples are Ni in Cu (Cu-Ni), C in Fe (Fe-C). Ni & Cu are
of (approx.) similar atomic sizes whereas C is much
smaller than Fe.
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TYPES OF SOLID SOLUTIONS
(Repeat Slide from Module-I)
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PHASE (Repeat slide from M-I)
• PHASE: There are 3 phases of matter i.e. SOLID,LIQUID, GASES.
Chemically homogeneous.
Physically Distinct.
(sometimes) mechanically separable part of system
Example: Water ICE (s) / WATER (l) / STEAM (g)
• Phase of a substance is a form of matter that is uniform
throughout in chemical composition & physical state.
• Physical properties of any material depends on different
phases in which that material exists thus change of phase
will result in change of properties.
• To exploit materials properties we need to understand
PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS.
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PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS
(Repeat Slide from M-1)
This curves represents the plot of free energies of
the liquid and solid phases of a pure metal
• Tm = Melting Temperature
• GS = Free Energy of Solid
• GL = Free Energy of Liquid
• ∆G = GS - GL
• Free energy changes as a result of a transformation:
difference between the solid and liquid phases (volume
free energy, ΔGV); and
solid-liquid phase boundary (surface free energy, ΔGS).
• The change in free energy ΔG must be
negative for a transformation to occur.
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MECHANISM OF SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
(Repeat Slide from M-1)
(a) Nucleation (b) Grain Growth (c) Solidified Metal
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MECHANISM OF SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS
(Repeat Slide from M-1)
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PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS & GRAIN SIZE
(Repeat slide from M-I)
• Undercooling: It is the gap between the temp predicted for the
transformation to occur and the temp at which the transformation
actually occurs.
• The driving force to nucleate increases as ∆T increases
• Small supercooling slow nucleation rate – few nuclei - large crystals.
• Large supercooling rapid nucleation rate -many nuclei - small crystals.
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PHASE DIAGRAM
&
HEAT TREATMENT
Fe-C phase Diagram
TTT Curve
Phase Diagram (understanding)
Fe-C Phase Diagram (Invariant Reactions)
Time Temperature Transformations (TTT)
Annealing & Normalising
PHASE DIAGRAM
• PHASE DIAGRAMS: They explain stability field of
different phase present in w.r.t. thermodynamic
variables (like Pressure P, Temperature T )
• Phase diagrams are used to determine the phases that
are present* and the percentage of each, based on the
alloy composition at a temperature and changes by
increasing and decreasing temp. [*Lever Arm Rule]
• Phase changes can be related to alloy compositions
and temperature when they are in equilibrium, and
shown on a diagram (known as phase diagrams, alloy
equilibrium diagrams or constitution diagrams).
• Let us understand it with single component phase
diagram from Water (H2O).
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PHASE DIAGRAM (Single Component)
Fig: Single component (i.e. H2O)Phase Diagram
• As we know that alloys are solid solutions of 2 or more components hence a
new variable is introduced i.e. composition. In case of alloys to simplify the
phase diagram pressure is assumed constant thus now we have
Temperature vs Composition.
• Gibb’s Phase Rule: F= C-P+2 (P vs T) OR C-P+1 ( T vs Composition).
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Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
• In their simplest form, steels are alloys of Iron (Fe) and
Carbon (C).
• The Fe-C phase diagram is a fairly complex one, but we
will only consider the steel and cast iron part of the
diagram, up to 6.67% Carbon.
• Fe-C alloys can be of two types.
Steels: Steels are alloys of iron and carbon containing up
to 2.14% C. Other alloying elements may also be present
in steels.
Cast irons: Cast irons are alloys of iron and carbon
containing more than 2.14% C. Other alloying elements
may also be present in cast irons.
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Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
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Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
• Pure iron is relatively weak but ductile metal. When carbon is added
in small amounts, the iron acquires a wide range of properties and
uses and becomes the most popular metal, ‘steel’.
• 0% carbon, pure iron:
above 1540ºC, in liquid state, no crystalline structure.
< 1540 ºC, solidification starts, BCC structure, Delta iron.
< 1400 ºC, transformation occurs, FCC structure, Gamma iron.
< 910 ºC, iron back to BCC, alpha iron until room temp
• Iron and carbon form a compound known as iron carbide (Fe3C) or
cementite.
• When iron carbide or cementite is heated above 1115 ºC, it
decomposes into liquid iron saturated with graphite, which is a
crystalline form of carbon.
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Phase in Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
• PHASES
1. Ferrite.
2. Austenite.
3. Cementite.
4. δ-ferrite
• PHASE MIXTURES
1. Pearlite.
2. Ledeburite
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Phase in Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
• FERRITE: Ferrite is the interstitial solid solution of carbon in alpha iron. It
has B.C.C. Structure. It has very limited solubility for carbon (maximum
0.022% at 727°C and 0.008% at room temperature). Ferrite is soft and
ductile.
• AUSTENITE: Austenite is the interstitial solid solution of carbon in
gamma (γ) iron. It has FCC structure. Austenite can have maximum 2.14%
carbon at 1143°C. Austenite is normally not stable at room temperature.
Austenite is nonmagnetic and soft.
• CEMENTITE: Cementite or iron carbide (Fe3C) is an intermetallic
compound of iron and carbon. It contains 6.67% carbon. It is very hard and
brittle. This intermetallic compound is a metastable phase and it remains as
a compound indefinitely at room temperature.
• δ-FERRITE: It is a solid solution of carbon in δ-iron. It is stable at high
temperatures. It has BCC structure.
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Phase in Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
• PEARLITE: The pearlite consists of alternate layers of ferrite and
cementite. It has properties somewhere between ferrite and
cementite. The average carbon content in pearlite is 0.76%.
• LEDEBURITE: Ledeburite is an eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite in the form of alternate layers. The average carbon
content in ledeburite is 4.3%.
• Carbon occupies interstitial positions in Fe. It forms a solid solution
with α, γ, δ phases of iron
• Maximum solubility in BCC α-ferrite is limited (max. 0.025 % at 727
°C) as BCC has relatively small interstitial positions
• Maximum solubility in FCC austenite is 2.14 % at 1147 °C as FCC has
larger interstitial positions
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Fe-C PHASE DIAGRAM
• Mechanical properties:
Cementite is very hard and brittle - can strengthen steels.
Mechanical properties depend on the microstructure,
that is, amount and distribution of ferrite and cementite.
• Magnetic properties: α -ferrite is magnetic below 768 °C,
austenite is non-magnetic.
• Important Reactions in Fe-C System: There are three
important reactions taking place in Fe-C system.
1. Eutectic reaction.
2. Eutectoid reaction.
3. Peritectic Reaction.
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Important Reactions Fe-C Phase Diagram
Fig: Five Important three Phase Reactions in Binary Phase Diagram
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Important Reactions Fe-C Phase Diagram
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Important Reactions Fe-C Phase Diagram
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HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
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HYPEREUTECTOID STEEL
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Summary of Fe-C Phase Diagram
• LHS is HYPOETECTOID & RHS is HYPERETECTOID steel.
• Fe – C diagram is useful to determine:
the number and types of phases,
the wt% of each phase,
and the composition of each phase
• for a given T and composition of the steel or cast iron.
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Alloying Steel With More Elements
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TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION
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TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION
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TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION
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TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION
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TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION
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TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION
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TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION
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Classification of Metals & Alloys
Ferrous & Non Ferrous
Classification
Important Ferrous Alloys( Steel, Stainless Steel, Cast Iron)
Important Non Ferrous Alloys ( Brass, Bronze,
Monel, Inconel
Effect of Alloying element on Steel
Classification of Metals
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Classification of Metals
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Ferrous Alloys
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Ferrous Alloys
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Ferrous Alloys
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High Speed Steels
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Non Ferrous Alloys
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High Speed Steels
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STELLITES
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STAINLESS STEEL
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STAINLESS STEEL
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STAINLESS STEEL
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STAINLESS STEEL
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SUPER ALLOYS (High Temp Alloys)
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BABBIT METAL (Bearing Alloy)
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EFFECT of ALLOYING ELEMENT
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EFFECT of ALLOYING ELEMENT
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EFFECT of ALLOYING ELEMENT
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APPLICATION OF ALLOYS
Understanding through
Refinery Petrochemical
application
Refinery Petrochem applications
Understanding Material Selection
Material Specification w.r.t. service
APPLICATION OF ALLOYS
Understanding through
Refinery Petrochemical
application
Refinery Petrochem applications
Understanding Material Selection
Material Specification w.r.t. service
STUDY MATERIAL
EIL SPEC
ONE CORROSION CIRCUIT SYSTEM
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Any Questions ?
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End of Course
THANK YOU
