Er.N.

Kurinchimurugan
Contact No: 7094788583

Chapter 1

Tillage Implements

Farm Machinery

Use of machines in agricultural production has been one of the

outstanding developments all over the world during the past century. The farm
machines have reduced the burden and human drudgery of farm work to a great
extent. Farm Machinery, one of the essential components of Agricultural
Engineering, includes the following.
1. Design and development of new machines for performing agricultural
operations.
2. Improvements and refinements in the existing farm machines to increase
the machine performance.
3. Feasibility testing and evaluation of farm machines.
Tillage
Tillage is the preparation of soil for sowing seeds and the process of
providing favourable conditions in the soil by improving the soil tilth for good crop
growth. Tillage is the preparation of soil zone (about 100 to 900 mm of the top
soil layer) for crop production.
Objectives of tillage
The tillage has the following objectives.
i. To obtain a seed bed of good tilth
ii. To add humus and fertility to the soil by covering the crop residues
iii. To increase soil aeration
iv. To improve the moisture retaining capacity of the soil
v. To destroy soil insects and their breeding places
vi. To destroy the competitive weeds.
vii.To improve physical conditions of soil so as to reduce soil
losses due to water and wind erosion.
Types of tillage
Tillage is done in two phases viz., primary tillage and secondary tillage.
Primary tillage: The operations performed to open up any cultivable land with a
view to prepare seed bed for growing crops are termed as primary tillage
operations. Primary tillage is done with country plough, mould board plough, disc
plough, chisel plough, sub soiler plough and rotary plough.
Secondary tillage: Lighter and finer operations performed on the soil after primary
tillage is termed as secondary tillage operations. The secondary tillage includes
breaking the soil clods and levelling the land. Cultivators, harrows, sweeps, clod
crushers and levellers are some of the secondary tillage implements.
A tillage tool is an individual soil- working element such as a plough
bottom.
A tillage implement consists of a group of tillage tools together with the
associated frame, wheels, control devices, protection devices and power
transmission components.
Minimum tillage systems
Agricultural Engineers, crop and soil scientists agree that tillage is done
more than necessary to assure maximum net income from crop production.
Minimum tillage systems aim to reduce crop production costs and to improve soil
condition. Minimum tillage has the following major objectives.
1. To reduce mechanical energy and labour requirements
2. To conserve moisture and reduce soil erosion
3. To minimize the number of trips over the field.
Stubble mulch tillage involves cutting the roots of weeds and other plants and
leaving the crop residue on the soil surface. The stubble mulch tillage is adopted
to reduce wind and water erosion and to conserve water by reducing run off.
Theory – 02

Primary tillage implements

Country plough

Country plough or indigenous plough is the most commonly used plough

in India. The shape and size of the country plough varies from place to place
depending on the type of soil and tillage requirements. The main parts of the
plough are body, shoe, share, beam and handle. All the parts except share are
made of wood. Share is made of mild steel. The share makes an angle of 10° to
30° with ground level.
The bottom portion of the body is made of a separate piece in some
ploughs, which is called shoe. The foremost point of the share which is known
as share point projects over the shoe by 70 to 100 mm. The share is attached
to the shoe in such ploughs. One end of the beam is fixed to the body. A typical
country plough is shown in Fig.1. When the body of the country plough is
reduced due to wear and tear, the plough is used for sowing behind the country
plough.
Mould board plough
The mould board plough was imported to India during the British rule. The
mould board plough does the following functions.
1.Cutting
2.Lifting
3.Turning and
4.Pulverisation
The mould board plough is best suited for turning and covering crop
residues. The following are essential parts of a typical mould board plough
bottom(Fig.2).
1.Share
2.Mould board
3.Landside
4.Frog
Share: It is that part of the plough which actually penetrates into the soil, cuts the
furrow slice and passes the furrow slice on the mould board. The share consists
of the following parts.
Share point: It enters the soil profile first and also supports the plough bottom.
Cutting edge: It cuts the furrow slice from the main soil body. It is also known
as throat of the share.
Wing of share : It supports the plough bottom at the rear.
Gunnel: It slides over the furrow wall and gives stability to the plough bottom
during ploughing.
Cleavage edge: It is the edge along which the share is attached to the mould
board.
Shares are usually made of high carbon steel, soft cantered steel or cast
iron. A typical share is shown in Fig.3.
Types of share
Slip share : This one-piece share with curved cutting edge is commonly used
in animal drawn and tractor drawn ploughs. The entire share has to be replaced
as and when it is worn out.
Slip-nose share : It is a share in which the share point is provided by a small
detachable piece. Hence the share point alone is replaced and the entire share
need not be replaced often.
Shin share : It is similar to slip share with an extension to fit by the side of the
mould board.
Bar share: It is a share in which the point of share is provided by an adjustable
bar. The different types of shares are shown in Fig.4.
Mould board
The mould board is that part of the plough which receives the furrows slice
from the share. It lifts, turns and breaks the furrow slice. A long gradual curve in
the mould board plough does not pulvarise the soil much, while a short abruptly
curved mould board pulvarise the soil better. In general, inversion of the furrow
slice depends on the twist of the mould board while the degree of soil
pulverization depends on the curvature of the mould board. Generally the
surface of a mould board is a hyperboloid following the equation,
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1
a2 b2 c2
Theory – 03

Mould board plough is usually made of high carbon steel. Types of mould board
are given below.
i.General purpose type: It is the best for all round general farm use. It
pulvarises the soil thoroughly. It has a long mould board with a gradual twist.
ii.Stubble type: It is a short mould board with an abrupt curvature. It is suitable
for stubble soil.
iii.Sod or breaker type: It is useful where complete inversion of soil is required.
It is used in tough soil which is infested with dense growth of grass.
iv.Slate type: It is a mould board whose surface is made of slots with gaps in
between. This type of mould board is often used in sticky soil where the solid
mould board does not scour (shred off the soil) well.
v.High speed type: The high speed type mould board is used in tractor drawn
ploughs for general farm use. It has a short mould board with less abrupt
curvature.
Landside
It is the part of the plough which slides along the face of furrow wall. It
helps to resists the side thrust exerted by furrow slices on the mould board. It
also helps in stablising the plough bottom during ploughing. The rear most
bottom end of the landside is called heel. The trailed mould ploughs are not
provided with landside. Instead, a rear furrow wheel is provided to take up the
soil side thrust. The landside is made of soft centered steel, mild steel or cast
iron.
Frog
It is the part which connects the mould board, land side and share of the
mould board plough. It is an irregular piece of metal and is made of cast iron or
mild steel.
Attachments of mould board plough: There are a few accessories such as
coulter, jointer and land wheels which are necessary for effective performance of
mould board plough
Coulter
It helps to cut furrow slice ahead of the plough bottom. It cuts through the
trash that might otherwise be collected on the plough beam and cause clogging.
The coulter may be rolling type or sliding type. Rolling coulter is a round steel
disc of 300 to 450 mm diameter with sharp edge. It is adjustable up and down
and also sideways. It is set 20 mm outside the land side to obtain a neat furrow
wall. The axis of the coulter and the share point are in the same vertical line.
The vertical clearance between the share point and the bottom most part of the
coulter is about 50 mm. Sliding coulter is in the form of knife which slides on the
ground instead of rolling.
Jointer
The jointer is a miniature plough used in conjunction with the rolling
coulter. It cuts a narrow and shallow furrow ahead of share point. It also pushes
trash and roots from the narrow strip towards the main furrow so as to ensure
complete coverage by the plough bottom.
Land wheel
Land wheel is used to control the depth of ploughing. It is provided with a
handle by means of which it can be raised or lowered. It partly supports the
plough bottom.
Theory - 04

Size of mould board plough

It is the width of furrow that the plough is designed to cut. It is measured
by the perpendicular distance of share wing to the straight line joining the share
point and heel of land side. The size of bullock drawn mould board ploughs is
in the order of 150 mm and that of tractor drawn ploughs ranges from 300 to 400
mm.
For proper penetration and for maintaining prepare width of plouhing, the
mould board plough is provided with vertical suction and horizontal suction.
Vertical suction
It is otherwise known as vertical clearance or down suction. It is the
maximum clearance between the landside and the horizontal surface in working
position. It is usually the vertical distance from the ground measured at the
joining point of share and landside. The vertical suction is provided to reduce the
area of contact between the plough bottom and the soil surface. Hence the
power required to overcome the sliding friction is reduced. The vertical suction
varies from 3 to 5 mm depending on the plough size. It helps to maintain the
desired depth of ploughing.
Horizontal suction
It is also known as horizontal clearance or side suction. It is the maximum
horizontal distance between the landside and furrow wall. This clearance helps
to maintain proper width of ploughing. It also helps to reduce the area of contact
of the plough bottom against the furrow wall. It is about 5 mm but it varies
according to the size of plough.
Throat clearance
It is the vertical distance between the share point and the beam of the
plough. Sufficient throat clearance is desired so that the plough does not get
clogged while ploughing.
Adjustments in tractor drawn mould board plough for efficient operation
 The cross shaft of tractor drawn mould board plough has two hitch points
in opposite direction corresponding to the two bottom links of the tractor. There
is a provision to change the width of plough by rotating the cross shaft either in
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. This can be done by loosening the cross
shaft cap bolts. The cross shaft has an index line for this adjustment. This index
line can be made to coincide with anyone of the three markings 1, 2 or 3
engraved in the bracket provided at the right hand side of the cross shaft. The
cross shaft can also be moved to left or right to maintain equal slackness of the
two check chains which connect the two lower links of the tractor with the
chassis. The length of upper link should be adjusted so that the longitudinal
frames of the plough are horizontal. The leveling lever provided with the right
hand side lower link of the tractor should be adjusted to keep the cross shaft of
the plough horizontal.
Theory - 05

Disc plough

Disc plough is used in the following conditions.

1. Clayey and sticky soils where mould board plough does not scour well.
2. Soil having hard pan or plough sole below regular ploughing depth.
3. Dry and hard land which are difficult to plough with mould board
plough.
4. Stony and stumpy soils which are likely to cause damage to mould
board plough.
Disc plough is capable of ploughing at more depth than mould board
plough. Disc plough does not completely invert the soil. A disc plough consists
of 2 or 3 discs, cross shaft, frame, disc bearing brackets, scrapers, land wheel
and furrow wheel. Diameter of steel concave discs varies from 600 to 900 mm.
Furrow wheel is attached at the rear of disc plough. This is provided to
counter act the soil side thrust force exerted on the discs during ploughing.
Scrapers are used to keep the disc surfaces clean.
Discs are set at an angle to the direction of travel and also to vertical line .
Disc angle in the angle made by the plane consisting of the cutting edge of the
disc with respect to the direction of travel. The disc angle ranges from 42° to
45°. Tilt angle in the angle made by the plane consisting of the cutting edge of
the disc with respect to vertical line. The tilt angle varies from 15 to 25°.
Depth of ploughing by disc plough can be increased by
1. Increasing disc angle
2. Decreasing tilt angle
3. Adding dead weight
Care and maintenance of ploughs
Share of the country plough needs one or two sharpening during the
whole working reason. Share is generally replaced once in two years. In the
case of iron ploughs the only part which needs attention is share. The steel
share is heated in furnace and the cutting edge is sharpened by hammering and
grinding. It is always hammered from the bottom so as to maintain smooth
surface on the top. Worn out shares should be replaced by a new one whenever
necessary.
Discs of a disc plough should be kept with sharp cutting edges. Grinding
is generally done on the outer edge or convex side to have sharp cutting edge.
The ploughs are to be kept inside a shed during off- reason. All the metallic
surfaces especially the plough bottom should be coated with grease to protect
the surfaces from rusting.
Scouring
It is the non-sticking property of soil on plough surfaces. A mould board plough
is said to scour well when the plough surfaces are clean after ploughing.
Theory- 06

Furrow Terminology
Furrow
The trench formed by a plough in the soil.
Furrow slice
The soil mass cut, lifted and thrown to the side.
Furrow wall
Unploughed vertical face of the furrow.
Back furrow
A raised ridge left at the center of field in the round and round method of
ploughing when ploughing is done from centre towards the sides.
Dead furrow
An open trench left in between two adjacent strips of land after ploughing
is completed when ploughing is done from sides towards the centre.
Headland
Strip of field left uploughed along the edges of fields to facilitate turning of
farm equipment.
Methods of ploughing
To form furrows at the right hand side of the plough all the times,
following methods are followed for ploughing the fields.

1.Round and round ploughing

In this method, plough moves around a field strip. Ploughing can be
started either from the center of field or from the field boundary.
2.Gathering
When a plough works round a strip of ploughed land, it is said to be
gathering.
3.Casting
 When a plough works round a strip of unploughed land, it is said to be
casting.
4.Continuous ploughing
This method consists of gathering and casting alternately so that idle runs
are minimised. Field is devided into strips of equal width. Each strip is divided
into two parts in the ratio of 3:4. Casting is started at the first strip leaving 1/3 of
the strip at the middle. Then gathering in done around the ploughed portion.
This operation is repeated.
Pull is the force required to operate a farm equipment. Pull on an
implement is the total force exerted upon the implement by a power unit. With
tillage implements the pull is generally at some angle above the horizontal and it
may or may not be in a vertical plane parallel to the line of motion.The pull is
expressed in kgf or N.
Draft is the horizontal component of pull in the direction of travel. Draft is
also expressed in kgf or N.
Factors affecting draft
1. Type and shape of plough bottom
2. Sharpeners of tillage tools
3. Depth of ploughing
4. Width of ploughing
5. Soil type
6. Forward speed of operation
7. Land slope.
Unit draft
Unit draft of an agricultural equipment is defined as the draft per unit
average furrow cross sectional area, expressed in kgf/cm2 or k Pa. Unit draft of
soil is also termed as specific draft or specific soil resistance. It varies from 0.30
to 0.80 kgf/cm2 or 30 to 80 k Pa.
Side draft is the horizontal component of pull perpendicular to the direction of
travel.
 A tillage tool moving at a constant velocity is subjected to three main
forces, which must be in equilibrium.
1. Gravitational force
2. Soil forces
3. Forces acting between the tillage tool and the prime- mover. If torque
from rotary power transmission is not involved, the resultant of theses
forces is the pull of the power unit.
Theoretical field capacity of an agricultural equipment is the area
covered by the equipment per unit time assuming the equipment works at 100
per cent rated forward speed and 100 per cent rated width. The theoretical field
capacity is expressed in ha/h.
Actual field capacity or effective field capacity of an agricultural
equipment is the actual area covered by the equipment per unit time in the field
conditions taking into account the time lost in turning and the time taken for
repairs and adjustments of the equipment. The effective field capacity is also
expressed in ha/h.
Field efficiency of an agricultural equipment is the ratio of effective field
capacity to the theoretical field capacity expressed in per cent.
Field efficiency = Effective field capacity x 100
Theoretical field capacity
Factors affecting field efficiency
1. Width of operation
2. Forward speed of operation
3. Operator’s skill
4. Length: breadth ratio of the field. When the field length is
more, field efficiency is high.
5. Non-operating time of the equipment.
Theory - 07

Average forward speed and field efficiency of agricultural equipments as

recommended by the Bureau of Indian Standards are given in the following table.
Equipment Forward speed, Field efficiency,
km/h %
Plough 4.5 80
Tiller, Harrow 6.0 80
Seed drill, seed cum fertiliser 5.0 70
drill, seed planter
Ridger 4.5 90
Puddler 5.0 75
Rotovator 2.5 80
Harvester, combine 2.5 70

The tractor drawn implements are classified as

1.Mounted implements are attached to tractor by means of three hitch points.
The
mounted implements are directly controlled by the tractor steering and are fully
supported
by the tractor.
2.Trailed implements are connected to tractor by means of only one hitch point.
The
trailed implements are pulled and guided by the tractor but not fully supported by
the
tractor.
Cultivator
Cultivator is a secondary tillage implement used to stir the ploughed land
for shallow depth prior to sowing. It is popularly known as tiller. When soil has
sufficient moisture, cultivator is directly used as primary tillage implement. It is
the only implement that can be used for tilling the soil in between standing rows
of crops.
Functions of cultivator
1. It breaks the clods
2. It does weeding and intercultural operations in between standing rows
of crops.
3. It aerates the soil
4. it conserves soil moisture by preparing soil mulch
5. It sows seeds when provided with sowing attachment.
Cultivator consists of 9 or 11 tynes attached to a rectangular frame. The tynes
are staggered in two rows one behind the other. Spacing in between the tynes
is adjustable. The bottom of the tynes are fitted with shovels, which are
replacable and reversible. The cultivator has two heavy coiled springs fitted with
each tyne. The spring loaded tynes deflect when the tynes hit obstacles in the
field infested with stones and root stumps. It covers 0.40 ha/h and costs around
Rs. 12000.
Theory – 08

Harrows
Harrows are used to break the clods, to stir the soil and to destroy weeds
after ploughing
Type of harrows
1. Disc harrows: i) Single action disc harrow
ii) Double action disc harrow or tandem disc harrow
iii) Offset disc harrow
2. Spike tooth harrow
3. Spring tooth harrow
1. Triangular harrow
2. Blade harrow
3. Power harrow
Disc harrows
Concavity of discs in disc harrows is less than the concavity of disc in disc
ploughs. Single action disc harrow has two opposed gangs throwing soil
outwards. Tandem disc harrow has two front gangs and two rear gangs throwing
the soil in opposite directions. The field is worked twice in each run.
Offset disc harrow
This tractor drawn secondary tillage implement has concave steel discs of
400 to 600 mm diameter mounted on long gang bolts. The discs are spaced at a
distance of 150 to 250 mm by means of spacers. Each disc is provided with a
scraper to remove soil sticking to the disc. Cut-away or notched discs are
provided in the front gang to cut the crop residues in the field. Disc angle of the
discs in a disc harrow is less than 25°.
The angle between gang bolt and the direction of travel is called gang
angle. Width of operation by the disc harrow is changed by altering the gang
angle. The center line of the implement is offset to the center line of the tractor
and therefore it is called offset disc harrow. Two gangs are provided one behind
the other. The discs in the front gang and rear gang face opposite direction.
The offset disc harrow is suitable for tilling orchards.
Depth of operation by disc harrows can be increased by
1. Reducing gang angle
2. Adding dead weight on the implement
3. Using sharp edged discs of small diameter and less concavity
4. Depth of harrowing is better at lower forward speed than at higher forward
speed.
Animal drawn disc harrows have two gangs, each gang consisting of 3 or
4 discs. Operator’s seat is provided on the top of the frame. Two wheels are
provided on the side of the seat for road march. The anima drawn disc harrows
are provided with gang angling mechanism.
Theory – 09

Spike tooth harrow

It is also known as drag harrow or smoothing harrow. Stirring of
soil is done by long spike teeth. The peg shaped spikes are fitted to a
rectangular frame. The spike tooth harrow is used to smoothen the soil
directly after ploughing, break the clods and uproot the weeds.
Spring tooth harrow
It has flexible pegs. It is suitable for stony and root infested lands.
Depth of harrowing is better in spring tooth harrow than spike tooth harrow.
Triangular harrow
It is otherwise known as peg tooth harrow. It is a spike tooth harrow
having triangular, wooden frame. Pointed spear sectioned pegs are rigidly fitted
along the three sides of the triangular frame. Triangular harrow covers a width of
1 m and stirs the soil to a depth of 50 mm.
Blade harrow
It is popularly known as buckhar blade. It consists of a metal blade of 150
mm width connected in between two beams. It is used for weeding and
intercultural operations in between standing rows of crops like tomato, cotton,
sugarcane and maize. It is pulled by a pair of bullocks.
Power harrow
It is a spike tooth harrow operated by tractor pto shaft. The spikes are
subjected to zig-zag motion. Due to this clods are thoroughly broken and
pulverised.
Clod crushers
Clods are not desirable in the field. They cause obstructions to the
cultural operations. They reduce the contact area between the seeds and the
soil which is harmful for seed germination. For obtaining better crop growth,
clods should be broken and pulverised.
Clod crushers or rollers are used to smoothen the soil and to pulvarise the
soil to make a good seed bed. Cambridge roller is one of the clod crushers. It
consists of a gang of rings with wedge shaped rims. The clod crushing efficiency
of the cambridge roller depends on the diameter of rollers and their weight.
Small rollers are better to crush the clods. Clod crushers are used after
harrowing before seeding.
Bullock drawn leveller or patella is commonly used as a clod crusher. It
consists of a rectangular wooden or metal plank provided with two rings for
hitching. The plank is fitted with a series of curved iron rods which act as
weeding hooks.
Leveller
Levelling of agricultural land is necessary for
1. effective application of irrigation water
2. reducing water logging and
3. controlling soil erosion
Tractor drawn leveller is also known as blade terracer. The leveling board is
attached to the three point linkage of the tractor and controlled by the tractor
hydraulic system. Land levelling is essential when areas under forests are
converted to farm lands. The leveller is used in ploughed fields to collect top soil
from high spots and to dump the soil in depressions. It is used in irrigated fields
for precision levelling. Crawler tractor or chain type tractor fitted with levelling
board at the front is known as bulldozer or simply dozer.
Theory - 10
Ridger
The ridger is useful in forming ridges and furrows in garden land to
facilitate sowing of seeds. Ridger is also known as ridge plough or double mould
board plough. The ridger has a wedge shaped share and two mould boards
fitted to the share. Distance between the mould boards can be adjusted at the
back according to the size of furrow desired in the field. Ridger is also used for
earthing up operation in row crops like sugarcane. Distance between ridger
bottoms can also be altered according to the crop row spacing.
Rotary plough
It is also known as rotovator or roto-tiller. It combines the primary tillage
and secondary tillage operations in one single operation. It plough and
pulvarises the soil by a number of rotary tynes or rotary knives which are
mounted on a horizontal shaft. The rotary shaft rotates at 200-250 rev/min speed.
It is suitable for shallow soil tillage operations and for ploughing sugarcane fields
after harvesting sugarcane. It uproots the stubbles, chops and converts them to
manure. It is available with working widths of 1 m to 1.7 m according to the
tractor hp. The rotary knives are replaceable.
Bund former
It makes bunds by gathering the top soil Bunds are formed in the field to
prevent water run – off and to reduce soil erosion. Two bund forming boards are
fitted to a frame. Distance between the bund forming boards is more at the front
than at the back. Size of bund former is specified by the maximum horizontal
distance between the two bund forming boards at the rear end. If two bund
formers are used side by side, an irrigation channel is formed. Bund former is
also used to form field boundaries . In dry land, bunds are formed across the
slope to conserve soil moisture. In some bund formers the size of the bund is
adjustable.
Melur plough
It is used for shallow ploughing. The cast iron shares made in Melur, near
Madurai in Tamil Nadu. It is also known as Bose plough. In some areas double
Melur plough bottoms are used. Except the share, all other components viz.,
frame, beam and handle are made of wood. It is an alternative to the country
plough. When the share happens to encounter root stumps or roots, the share
will break. The broken share can be easily replaced.
Chisel plough
The chisel plough cuts a furrow of an average depth of 300 mm with an
average draft of 110-130 kg. The chisel plough is operated at a spacing of 300
to 450 mm. It helps to conserve the soil moisture and 16 per cent yield is
increased. The tyne is 30 mm thick and 700 mm wide. It is used to break hard
pan once in three years. It needs a pair of heavy sized bullocks. It will not
pulvarise soil. It improves air permeability of the soil.

Basin lister
It is a soil conservation equipment especially useful in dry farming areas
receiving meagre rainfall. The equipment has one to three plough bottoms with
ground wheels. The plough bottoms are lifted often during operation by the cam
arrangement and by this furrows are formed in the field intermittently. The
precipitated water is retained in the furrows, thus reducing the top soil erosion
and conserving moisture. Several versions of basis listers are now available in
India such as tractor drawn and power tiller drawn basin listers. An offset disc
harrow drawn by tractor can be converted to a basis lister by shifting the center
of rotation of the dics to one side. Seeds are sown in between the staggered
pits.
Theory – 11

Puddler
Puddler is a wet land implement used for the preparation of paddy fields in
standing water of 50 to 100 mm depth after ploughing. It breaks the clods and
churns the soil to a homogeneous mixture. The purpose of puddling is to
minimise water leaching, to destroy weeds by burying and decomposing them
and to facilitate transplanting of paddy seedlings by making the soil softer. High
yielding varieties of paddy respond well to good quality puddling. The puddlers
are operated by bullock, power tiller or tractors. Some of the bullock drawn
puddlers available in India are.
1. Open blade puddler
2. Straight blade puddler
3. Helical blade puddler
In the absence of a puddler an indegenous plough is used as a puddler.
In the case of helical blade puddler a number of helical blades are mounted on a
wooden frame such that the blades rotate freely. Due to the helical shape of the
blades, there will be continuous contact between the blades and the soil which
gives a uniform load on the neck of the bullocks. The helical geometry also
facilitates better churning and slicing of the soil.
Puddling increases the viscosity and apparent density of soil. A puddler
expends energy in doing the following works.
1. Compressing the soil
2. Shearing the soil
3. Accelerating and shifting the soil
4. Overcoming the friction between the soil and the blade surface
5. Over coming the adhesion between the soil and the blade surface.
Green manure trampler
This implement is used to trample and press the green manure crops the
paddy field. There are two types of tramplers viz., slat type and disc type. In slat
type trampler long radical slats of flats are fitted to a central axle through
supporting discs. In disc type trampler, flat discs are fitted to a central axle with
intermediate spacing.

Sheep foot roller

This implement is used in wet lands after puddling to arrest deep

percolation losses. Truncated conical sections are fitted on the outer surface of a
rotating drum. Percolation loss of water is reduced by the compaction of the
hollow buoyant drum.
Theory - 12

Performance index of a farm equipment

The performance index of a farm equipment is directly proportional to the
area covered per unit time (effective field capacity) and the quality of work and
inversely proportional to the power required. Expressed mathematically,
Performance index (PI)of a weeder for example
PI = a q e
P
where a = effective field capacity, ha/h
q = quality of work =(100 – per cent plant damage) in the
case
of a weeding tool
e = weeding efficiency
p = power input
Power input is worked out by measuring the draft of the equipment with
dynamometor and the speed of operation. Generally maximum power input is
taken as 0.1 hp for an average man labourer and 1.0 hp for a pair of bullocks.
Solved Problems
1. In a 9 tyned cultivator the tynes are spaced 450 mm apart. It is pulled at a
speed of 6 km/h. Time lost in turning is 15 per cent. Calculate the effective field
capacity. Depth of furrow formed by the tynes is 120 mm and width of furrow is
50 mm. Unit draft of the soil is 0.63 kgf/cm2. What is the draft and power
requirement of the cultivator ?
Width of coverage = 5 x 450
= 2.25 m
Theoretical field capacity = 2.25 x 6000
10000
= 1.35 ha/h
Effective field capacity = 1.35 x (100 – 15)
100
 = 1.15 ha/h
Furrow cross sectional area per tyne = 0.12 x 0.05
= 0.006 m2
Total furrow cross sectional area = 9 x 0.006
= 0.054 m2
Draft = 0.054 x 106 x 0.63
= 340 kg
Power = 340 x 6000
3600 x 75

= 7.56 hp.
2. How many hectare of land can be covered by a bullock drawn triangular
harrow having 1.5 m width is a day of 8 hours. Bullocks move with a speed of
2.5 km/h. Field efficiency of the harrow is 80 per cent.
Theoretical field capacity = 1.5 x 2500
10000
= 0.375 ha/h
Effective field capacity = 0.375 x 0.80
= 0.3 ha/h
Area covered in 8 h = 0.3 x 8
= 2.4 ha

3. A country plough makes a triangular furrow having 150 mm top width and 100
mm depth. Specific resistance of the soil is 0.70 kgf/cm2. Speed of operation is
2 km/h. Calculate the draft of the plough. Also calculate the power requirement
of the plough.
Furrow cross sectional area = ½ x 0.15 x 0.10
= 0.0075 m2
Draft = 0.0075 x 10000 x 0.70
= 52.5 kg
Power = 52.5 x 2000
3600 x 75

= 0.40 hp.
Theory - 13

4. Calculate the area covered per day of 8 h by a two bottom 360 mm size
tractor drawn mould board plough. Forward speed of tractor in field operation is
5 km/h. Time lost in turning is 9 per cent.
Width of the plough = 2 x 360
= 720 mm
= 0.72m
Theoretical area covered per hour = 0.72 m x 5000 m
= 3600 m 2
Actual area covered per hour = 3600 x (100-9)
100
= 3276 m2
Area covered is 8 h = 3276 x8
10000
= 2.62 ha
5. A 9 tyned cultivator operates at a speed of 3.6 km/h. The tynes are spaced
450 mm apart. Time lost in turning is 20 per cent. Determine the time required to
cultivate one ha of land.
Width of operation by the cultivator = 5 x 0.45
= 2.25 m

Theoretical area covered in one hour = 2.25 x 3600

= 8100 m2
Actual area covered in 1 h = 8100 x 0.80
= 6480 m2
= 0.648 ha
∴Time required to cultivate one ha = 1/0.648
= 1.54 h
= 1 h 32 min
6. Find the field coverage of a disc harrow having 1.2 m width. Forward speed
of operation is 3 km / h.
Area covered per hour = 1.2 x 3000
= 3600 m2
∴ Field coverage = 0.36 ha/h
Theory - 14

Practice Problems
1. Draft of a four bottom 400 mm size mould board plough is 2000 kg. When
it is operated at a speed of 6 km/h calculate a) unit draft if the depth of
ploughing is 200 mm b) draw bar horse power required to operate the
implement and c) the rate of coverage assuming 75 per cent field
efficiency.
(Ans: a) 0.625 kg/cm2 : b) 44.5 hp: c) 0.72 ha/h)
2. Find the draft, side draft and vertical component of a plough for pull of
2500 kg when the line of pull makes an angle of 25° with the horizontal
and lies in the vertical plane which is at an angle of 15° with the direction
of travel. Find also the drawbar horse power required to operate the
plough at a speed of 5 km/h.
(Ans: Draft = 2187.5 kg, Side draft = 585.25 kg, Vertical
component = 1021 kg, Drawbar hp = 40.5)
3. Find the field coverage of a triangular harrow having 1.2 m width. Forward
speed of harrowing is 3 km/h. Each peg gives 0.9 kg resistance to the
soil. The harrow has 45 pegs, Also calculate the power necessary to pull
the harrow.
(Ans : Field coverage = 0.36 ha/h ; Power = 0.33 kW)
4. Determine the actual area ploughed per day of 8 hours by a tractor drawn
two bottom 356 mm mould board plough. Forward speed of operation is
4.8 km/h. Field efficiency of the implement is 81 per cent. Depth of
ploughing is 140 mm. What will be the power requirement of the plough if
the unit draft is 7 psi.
(Ans : 2.21 ha, 8.72 hp)
5. A three bottom disc plough makes rectangular furrow 270 mm wide and
160 mm deep. Average soil resistance is 0.75 kgf/cm2. The tractor moves
at a speed of 4.5 km/h. What is the unit draft is k Pa?. Also find the
power required in kW.
 (Ans : 73.58 kPa; 35.04
kW)
6. A pair of bullocks is pulling a victory plough at a speed of 3 km/h. Pull
exerted by the bullocks was observed to be 90 kg in the hydraulic
dynamometer gauge. Distance between the hitch point of plough and
yoke is 2100 mm. Center of the yoke is at a vertical distance of 1100 mm
above the ground level. The plough makes trapezoidal furrow having 200
mm top width, 30 mm bottom width and 120 mm depth. Field efficiency is
85 per cent. Determine the draft, unit draft, theoretical field capacity,
actual field capacity and power required for the operation. The hitch point
of the plough is 300 mm above the ground level.
(Ans: 77.52 kg, 0.56 kg/cm2, 0.06 ha/h, 0.05ha/h, 0.86 hp)
Theory - 13

4. Calculate the area covered per day of 8 h by a two bottom 360 mm size
tractor drawn mould board plough. Forward speed of tractor in field operation is
5 km/h. Time lost in turning is 9 per cent.
Width of the plough = 2 x 360
= 720 mm
= 0.72m
Theoretical area covered per hour = 0.72 m x 5000 m
= 3600 m 2
Actual area covered per hour = 3600 x (100-9)
100
= 3276 m2
Area covered is 8 h = 3276 x8
10000
= 2.62 ha
5. A 9 tyned cultivator operates at a speed of 3.6 km/h. The tynes are spaced
450 mm apart. Time lost in turning is 20 per cent. Determine the time required to
cultivate one ha of land.
Width of operation by the cultivator = 5 x 0.45
= 2.25 m

Theoretical area covered in one hour = 2.25 x 3600

= 8100 m2
Actual area covered in 1 h = 8100 x 0.80
= 6480 m2
= 0.648 ha
∴Time required to cultivate one ha = 1/0.648
= 1.54 h
= 1 h 32 min
6. Find the field coverage of a disc harrow having 1.2 m width. Forward speed
of operation is 3 km / h.
Area covered per hour = 1.2 x 3000
= 3600 m2
∴ Field coverage = 0.36 ha/h
Theory - 16

13. Total draft of a two bottom 450 mm disc plough poughing 190 mm deep at
a speed of 5.7 km/h is 1100 kg. Compute a) unit draft b) power
required and c) rate of doing work in ha/h for 73 per cent field efficiency.
(Ans: 0.64 kgf/cm2; 23.22 hp; 0.375 ha/h)
14. A tractor operating at a speed of 3.7 km/h develops at a draft of 1000 kg.
Calculate i)drawbar power ii) kwh of drawbar work per day of 8 hours
and iii) percentage change in speed necessary to increase the drawbar
horse power to 27.
(Ans : 13.7 hp; 80.64 kWh; 97.05 per cent)
15. A country plough makes a trapezoidal furrow having 90 mm top width, 30
mm base width and 63 mm depth. Average unit draft is 0.73 kgf/cm2.
Calculate the pull exerted by the bullocks if the plough chain makes an
angle of 27° with horizontal.
(Ans: 30.97 kg)
16. A pair of bullocks weighing 435 kg and 480 kg is pulling a puddler with a
speed of 2.5 km/h. What power is expected to b developed by bullocks?
(Ans : 0.85 hp)
17. Line of pull of a plough makes 19° with horizontal and it is in vertical plane
which is at an angle of 11° with the direction of travel. Draft of ploughingis
930 kg. Determine i) pull required and ii) side draft of the plough.
(Ans : 1002 kg; 180.77 kg).
Theory - 17
CHAPTER 2

SOWING EQUIPMENT

Sowing refers to placing seeds into the soil in accepted pattern under
optimum soil moisture and at optimum row to row and plant to plant spacing. To
get high yield, the right amount of seed should be placed at the right time at a
predetermined depth and spacing in the soil. Conventionally the seeds arte
sown either by broadcasting by hand or by dropping behind the country plough.
Both the above operations are labour-intensive and less efficient. Now a days a
number of labour sowing and efficient equipments are available for saving the
seeds. The operational requirement of a sowing equipment are as follows.
1. Provision to change the seed rate.
2. Placing of seeds at an appropriate depth and their covering with soil
layer.
3. Seeds should not be exposed to injury by the seeding devices
4. Operating efficiency of the seed drill should not be dependent on field
undulations and travel speed (6-15 km/h)
Methods of sowing the seeds
The methods of sowing seeds include broadcasting, dibbling, drilling, hill
dropping, planting, check row planting and transplanting.
Broadcasting :
It is the process of scattering of seeds at random on the prepared seed
bed. It is usually done with manual labour, Seed rates are generally higher in
this method. After the seeds are broadcast they are covered by planking.
Dibbling
It is the method of placing the seeds into the holes made on prepared
seed bed at predetermined depth and at fixed spacing. The seeds are then
covered by physically manipulating the soil. For dibbling, dibber (Fig. ) is used
in kitchen gardens and vegetable plots. This method is not suitable for small
seeds.
Drilling
It consists of dropping seeds along with rows of furrows in a continuous
steam and covering them. Seeding behind the country plough is a manual seed
drilling process. Mechanical seed drilling machines are called seed drills.

Hill dropping
Seeds are dropped in the furrows as in the case of drilling. But in one hill
move than one seed is dropped with fixed spacing between hills.

Planting

Individual seeds are dropped with a fixed seed to seed spacing.

Check row planting

In this method spacing between rows is equal to the spacing between

seeds. This facilitates weeding and interculturing operations in both the
directions.

Transplanting

Seeds are broadcast in prepared nursery bed. The grown up seedlings

are plucked from the nursery field and transplanted in the main field. It is suitable
for paddy, vegetables and flower crops. Transplanting requires less seed rate.
Seedlings can be selected before transplanting and hence uniform crop stand
can be obtained. Weeds are buried at the time of puddling. Plant protection
measures can be effectively done in the nursery field.
Theory - 18

Hand operated seed broadcasting device :

The main disadvantage of broadcasting by hand is the non-uniformity of

distribution. This causes uneven crop growth which results in poor yield. The
hand operated broadcasting device (Fig. ) consists of a plastic hopper with
agitator, a rotating disc made of aluminium sheet with projections and a handle.
By rotating the handle the disc is made to rotate at a speed of 500 rev/min. The
hand operated broadcasting device spreads the seeds 50 per cent more
uniformity with respect to hand broadcasting. The device is hung infront of the
operator. The material is spread, over a width of 3.5 to 10 metre. The unit
weighs only 3.6 kg and costs about Rs.1500/-. The seed rate can be varied by
changing the opening area at the hopper bottom. The device is capable of
covering one hectare per hour.

Seed drill :

The typical functions of a seed drill are :

1. It holds and carries the seeds
2. Opens furrow to a uniform depth
3. Meters the seeds at a predetermined seed rate
4. Drops seeds into the opened furrows and
5. Covers the seeds and compacts the soil around them.
A seed drill has the following components to accomplish the above
functions.

1. Seed box or hopper

2. Furrow opener
3. Seed metering device
4. Seed tube and boot
5. Furrow covering device
The seed box is provided with agitator to prevent clogging of seeds.
Furrow opener ensures seed deposition in soil for optimum seed germination.
The three principal types of furrow openers are a.. shoe opener b. hoe
opener and c. disc openers (Fig. ) Shoe opener is made of two flat steel
pieces welded together to form a wedge shaped cutting edge. Hoe opener is the
shovel used in a cultivator. It is fastened to the lower part of the boot. Hoe
opener is better adapted for cultivation of compact and stumpy soils than shoe
opener, except in cultivated field previously well prepared for drilling.
Disc openers may be of single disc or double disc type. The diameter of
the disc is generally 300 mm. The disc opener slides easily over possible
obstacles encountered on its path such as hard stumps of earth, garbage,
fragments of plants etc. For this reason, such openers are satisfactorily
employed on compact, hard soils not sufficiently prepared for sowing. It is also
free from chocking up by wet soil and subsequently shifting it in its front. The
minimum distance between the adjacent disc openers is 150 mm. Disc openers
are considerably heavier, more complex in design and more expensive than shoe
or hoe openers. Single disc furrow opener is slightly dished and set to run at
some disc angle. Double disc furrow opener is composed of two flat discs with a
slight angle forming a bevel cutting edge. Seeds are dropped in between the
discs.

Fluted roller and internal double run are the seed metering devices used in
seed drills. Fluted roller (Fig. ) is a grooved metal roller mounted on a shaft
which is extending to the full length of seed box. The shaft gets power from one
of the ground wheel of the seed drill through suitable gear or chain sprocket
mechanism. Above each seed tube opening a fluted roller is fitted below the
seed hopper bottom. The fluted rollers receive seeds into the longitudinal
grooves and pass them to the seed tubes. Each fluted roller is housed in a
separate cup. By sliding the fluted roller sideways along the axis of the shaft,
area of grooves exposed to the seeds is varied. A seed rate adjustment lever is
provided to actuate the fluted roller shaft. Thus the fluted roller has a greater
number of seed rate settings. Fertilizers are also metered using fluted roller.
Theory - 19

The internal double run seed metering device consists of a double faced
wheel having a small and a large side for sowing small and large seeds
respectively. A is hinged over the middle of the wheel so that it can be reversed
to cover either side. Seed rate is changed by varying the speed of the device.

The seed tube carries seeds from seed metering device to the boot. Seed
tubes are made of rolled steel, ribbon, polythene, plastic or rubber. Boot is a
hollow casting into which the lower end of the seed tube is inserted. The boot
conveys the seeds from the seed tube to the furrow.

Furrow closing devices cover the seeds in the furrows and packs the soil
around the seeds. Some of the commonly used furrow closers are drag chains
rollers and press wheels.

Efficiency of seed drill

Size of a seed drill is specified by the number of furrow openers and the
distance between two consecutive furrow openers.

The actual field capacity of a seed drill depends on the length of field strip,
ie., On the frequency of turning on head lands, on the frequency of filling boxes
with seeds which in turn depends on the capacity of the box and further on the
frequency of choking of furrow openers with soil.

The ratio of the time used in cleaning the choked furrow openers from soil
and rectifying technical defects to the total time of seeding is expressed as the
coefficient of serviceability. This ratio varies within 0.90 - 0.98.
Calibration of seed drill

The method of testing a seed drill to know the seed rate delivered from the
drill is known as calibration of seed drill. The procedure of calibrating a seed drill
is given below.
1. Find the width covered by the drill. To get this multiply the distance
between the consecutive furrow openers by the number of furrow
openers.
2. Put the seeds in the seed box, jack up the drill and tie paper bags to
the end of each seed tube.
3. Rotate the ground wheel driving the seed metering device for a known
number of revolutions, collect the seeds from all the seed tubes and
weigh the seeds.
4. Calculate the area that would have been covered by the drill for the
known number of revolutions of the ground wheel.
5. By dividing the weight of seeds by the area thus calculated we will get
the seed rate of the drill.
6. If this calculated seed rate is lesser to the desired seed rate set by the
seed rate adjustment lever, move the lever to increase the seed rate
and vice versa.

Recalibrate the drill until you get the desired seed rate. The calculated seed
rate may be 10 to 15 per cent more than the desired seed rate to take care of
ground wheel skid in actual field conditions.
Theory- 20

Country seed drill

The simple seed drill otherwise known as ‘Gurru’ has a wooden bowl with
holes at the bottom (Fig. ) Seed tubes are inserted in the holes. The other end
of seed tubes are connected to the country plough bottom like furrow openers.
Uniformity of seed distribution in this drill depends mainly on the skill of the
operator dropping the seeds in the bowl. A three bottom gorru can cover one
hectare in a day.

Seed Planter

Seed planters are meant for sowing the seeds in rows with specific seed
to seed spacings. All the components of a seed planter are the same as in the
case of seed drill except the seed metering device. The seed planters are
suitable for till dropping, planting and check row planting. A seed planter has a
seed hopper for each row. The seed metering device of planters are of two
types.

1. Cup pick up type Horizontal cell plate

2. Cell plate type Vertical Cell Plate

Inclined Cell Plate

Seed plates with different sized spoons are used for different crops. The seed
metering device of a planter is of two types as 1 ) cup pick up type and 2) cell
plate type.
Cup pick up type seed metering mechanism consists of cups or spoons on
the periphery of a vertically rotating disc. The cups pick up the seeds from seed
box and delivers them into the seed tube. The seed box has two compartments
viz.,upper grain box and lower feed box which are connected by a shutter. Seed
to seed spacing is altered by changing the number of cups in the disc and the
speed ratio between the disc and ground wheel.
 In the cell plate type, the seed hopper bottom is equipped with plates
having cells or notches along the periphery. The seed plate may be horizontal
or inclined. After receiving the seeds, the seed plate moves under a cut-off
mechanism. The cut-off mechanism allows only the required number of seeds in
the plate cell and brushes out excess seeds from the cells. There is also a
knock-out mechanism to push the seed or seeds out of the seed plate in case the
seed or seeds tend to stick on or clog. Seed to seed spacing depends on the
ratio of linear speed of cells to the forward speed of the seed planter and on the
distance between the cells. A wide range of seed spacing can be obtained by
using plates with varying numbers of cells or by changing the gears or sprockets
in the power transmission system from ground wheel to the seed plates.