2D-ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY SURVEY

OF SHIKHAR BESI TO CONSTRUCT A DAM FOR THE IRRIGATION

OF COMMAND AREA
GORKHA

Final Report

Prepared by:

Earth Investigation and Solution Nepal Pvt. Ltd

Kathmandu
MAY 2022
 Table of Contents

I INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Physical and geological basis of electrical resistivity methods ........................................................ 1
1.3 Study objectives................................................................................................................................. 3
2. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................4
2.1 Electrical Resistivity of Rocks ............................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Electrical Resistivity Tomography Survey Design ............................................................................. 5
2.3 Data acquisition ................................................................................................................................. 8
2.4 Data quality........................................................................................................................................ 9
2.5 Data processing................................................................................................................................ 12
III ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ............................................................................................................ 13
3.1 Relation of electrical resistivity with geotechnical parameters .................................................... 13
3.2 Correlation of model electrical resistivity with lithology ............................................................... 13
3.3 Interpretation of model electrical resistivity patterns and values with geology and hydrogeology
................................................................................................................................................................ 14
3.4 Pitfalls of the processing and interpretation .................................................................................. 16
3.5 Resistivity tomograms and interpretative cross-sections .............................................................. 17
 I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This report deals with the results of 2D-Electrical Resistivity Tomography (2D-ERT) that has
been carried out in Shikar Besi area for irrigation of the Command Area on the downstream area
of the project.
Fieldwork was carried out during the May 2022. During the fieldwork, measurement of electric
current, primary voltage and decay voltage has been carried out to calculate resistivity and
chargeability. Chargeability information of the subsurface could be an interpretational aid to 2D-
ERT sections in case of ambiguity in the interpretation of electrical resistivity tomography.

Figure 1: Locations of ERT profiles

Measurements of decay voltages have been carried out to estimate chargeability of the
subsurface. The measurements have been carried out in eighteen profiles. The details about
length and location of 2D-ERT profiles are presented in Table 1 and the location of the profiles
on the map is presented in Figures 1.
1.2 Physical and geological basis of electrical resistivity methods

Different response to the applied voltage between two points in the subsurface is responded by
the flow of electric current in variable quantities. This is the main basis for the response of the
applied voltage by different layers and bodies in the subsurface. The result to applied voltage
mainly depends on the capacity to conduct electric current by different materials in the
subsurface. In 2D-electrical resistivity tomography (2D-ERT) alternating current (AC) of very
low frequency is passed through the geological subsurface. The response of current flow on
geological formations, such as clay, silt, sand, gravel, boulders, and bedrock are different. By
virtue of the different capacity of different materials to conduct electricity it is possible to
1
separate different materials from each other. Electrical resistivity of a material depends both on
the matrix (rock and/or granular) and on the salinity of the water and degree of saturation of the
pore space. The influence on the current conduction by pore water salinity and its saturation is
high in high porosity formations than in low porosity formations.

There is medium to high grade metamorphic rock like Gneiss, schist and limestone in the
investigation site. These rocks comprise of minerals of Pilitic composition such as clay, mica,
sericite mica, calcite and chlorite. Similarly, the Psammatic schist contains abundant minerals of
quartz and feldspar. Bedrocks are covered by thin soil cover and colluvium in most of the hilly
area. These rocks are weathered on exposed outcrops. The Bharbhung River flows through
narrow channel in some of the area and wide channel in some of the area and all the
investigation site on the right uphill side of the Bharbhung River. The proposed headworks area
is on the wide flood plain area. The power house area is at the old small terrace of the Veri River
and Tatu khola. The ERT profiles covers small valleys, spurs, and colluvium material of old
landslide. On the other hand most of the old landslide area were occupied by cultivated land.

For metamorphic bedrocks if unaltered have low porosity (usually in the range of 0.1%-3%,
rarely reaches to 10%) and very few pores are interconnected. Pores in metamorphic rocks
resemble very fine capillary tubes. Below the zone of weathering even if the regional water table
is at depth the water will rise in these capillary tubes. In other words due to fine pore structure
these rocks have good moisture holding capacity. Because of low porosity the electrical
resistivity of the unaltered metamorphic rocks depend predominantly on the rock matrix and less
extend to the mineralization of the water in the capillary. In sedimentary rocks like shale, there
are enough interconnected pores in the rock therefore these are very conductive in nature. On the
other hand these rocks have higher moisture holding capacity which increases the conductive
nature of the sedimentary rocks. If some kind of shale contains graphite mineral the rock shows
high conductive nature.

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1.3 Study objectives

The main objective of the proposed study of 2D-Electrical Resistivity Tomography (2D-ERT)
are
1. To establish ground profile showing different layers of soil and rock,
2. To find out depth to bedrock
3. To find out jointed, fractured and sheared zone (weakness zone) within the
bedrock
4. To find out plane of weakness for slope stability, deformed zones in bedrock,
slopes and slides

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 2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Electrical Resistivity of Rocks

Electrical resistivity of the rocks or sediments depends on the resistivity of the rock mineral
matrix and the fluid contained in its pore spaces. Rocks are composed primarily of quartz,
feldspar and mica or other silicate minerals, which are poor conductors. They contain water in
the pores, which is usually a better conductor. Thus the resistivity of rocks generally depends on
geometry of its pore spaces and the resistivity (or salinity) of its contained fluid. As permeability
and porosity decrease, resistivity usually increases, when there is no change in formation fluid.
The resistivity also depends upon the age of the rock or sediment as, with age, they become
compacted and/or weathered. Compacted rocks show very high resistivity compared to
unconsolidated sediments like clays, sands, gravels and so on as there will be less fluid in it. The
weathered rock shows low resistivity when there is presence of water in it. Dry rocks or
sediments have very high resistivity (of the order of 10,000 to 100,000 Ohm-m), whereas water
bearing rocks or saturated sediments become much less resistant (10 to 1,000 Ohm-m). The
resistivity of different rocks and sediments are in Table 2.

All rocks contain some pores in them. Under any reasonable circumstances, these pores are
partly or completely filled with water. This water usually carries some salt in solution so that the
water content of rock has a far greater capacity for transmitting current than does the solid
matrix of the rock unless highly conducting minerals are present.

In some rocks such as consolidated sedimentary rocks, porosity is inter-granular in nature

consisting of the spaces left over after the rock grains were compacted. In other rocks and
particularly in igneous rocks, porosity occurs primarily in the form of joints.
In general, hard rocks are poor conductors of electricity, but geological processes like
weathering, dissolution, hydrothermal alteration; faulting and shearing can alter rock to increase
the porosity and permeability of rock and hence decreases resistivity. By comparison,
compaction of sedimentary rock and metamorphism of all types may result in lower porosities
and permeability. Resistivity is, therefore, a widely varying parameter, which changes not only
from lithology to lithology, but also within a particular formation of same lithology.
Apparent resistivity values obtained in the field are not equal to the actual resistivity of the
geologic units which affect the potential measured at the potential electrodes, unless
4
measurements are being made over homogenous ground (Telford and others, 1990). At shallow
exploration depth and at short current electrode spacing, shallow layers through which most of
the current flows mostly influence measured apparent resistivity. As electrode spacing increases,
a greater proportion of the induced current flows into deeper geologic layers, thus the response
measured at the surface is reflective of the resistivity of increasingly deeper geologic units as the
electrode spacing are increased. Hence as the distance between the current electrodes increases,
so does the exploration depth or the depth of investigation of the survey.

Figure 2: Electrical Resistivity versus Lithology

2.2 Electrical Resistivity Tomography Survey Design

Electrical Resistivity Tomography survey is usually conducted following the various
arrangements of four electrodes, two current (A and B) and two potential (M and N) depending
upon the specific purpose (Figure 3). The field operation is presented in photographs.

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 A M N B

Electrodes shifting in this direction Inhomogeneity in the overburden

(A and B are current electrodes and M and N are Potential electrodes)

Figure 3: WENNER Electrode Array for profiling

There are many electrode arrangements, which can be used in the ERT field survey. These
arrays have advantages and disadvantages. In some geological situations one is particularly
better than the other to give better response. To map lateral changes in structures Dipole –Dipole
and Schlumberger are better whereas Wenner seems to have a strong signal/noise ratio and
smoothens the picture more.
The choice of a particular electrode array for the survey in question depends upon many factors.
These are summarized below:

Ease in handling:
As mentioned above, gradient and pole-pole arrays are easier to handle. Only two electrodes are
to be moved along the profile. Three electrodes are to be moved in Pole-Dipole array and all
four electrodes are moved in Wenner, Schlumberger and Dipole-Dipole arrays adding
complications in handling more electrodes. But for multi core cables with takeouts at a fixed
distance and automatic equipments with switchers, there is no need to move once the cable has
been laid out. Our equipment automatically switches between electrodes and data acquisition is
possible for 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, 20 m, 25 m, and so on till 95 m of spacing between two electrodes
which is almost impossible in manual equipments.

6
Signal to noise ratio:
In a collinear electrode arrangement, signal to noise ratio (SNR) depends on whether the
potential electrodes M and N are placed within or outside of the current electrodes A and B. The
voltage between M and N and SNR will be higher for the former than for the latter case. In this
regard, Wenner array rates higher followed by Schlumberger and Dipole-Dipole arrays. Wenner
array has the highest SNR among the conventional arrays. The Pole-Pole, Pole-Dipole and
Dipole –Dipole arrays are more sensitive to near surface variations. Hence, even in very noisy
areas, the Wenner array measurement is the most reliable.

EM coupling:
Frequencies of source signals used in DC resistivity surveying are usually very low (from DC to
50 cycles per seconds) to avoid electromagnetic effects. Most commercial instruments use
square waves or pulsed direct currents as source signals. Such signals yield high harmonics,
which may result in coupling between the two dipoles and the wires connecting them to the
recording instrument. The coupling increases with the frequency, electrode configuration and
conductivity of the medium of the flowing current. In this regard, pole-dipole, gradient,
Schlumberger and Wenner arrays are progressively more susceptible to coupling. However, the
coupling can be reduced taking special care while laying the current and potential cables in the
field.

Lateral resolution:
The resolving powers of these arrays are different. It is found that the gradient array has better
ability to resolve the steeply dipping inhomogeniety. Coggon, (1973) and Dey et al (1975)
establish that Schlumberger array ranks with Wenner array in its lateral resolving power.

Vertical Resolution:
A better vertical resolution helps to demarcate the boundary between different lithology/geology
more accurately. The experiment showed that (Loke, M. H. 1999) the vertical resolution is best
exhibited by Wenner array. The Dipole Dipole and Wenner-Schlumberger arrays come only
after Wenner array.

7
Anomaly Pattern:
Pole-Dipole is an asymmetrical array and gives rise to somewhat more complicated anomalies in
the pseudo section. Signal strength or anomaly strength measured with Pole-Dipole array
decrease less rapidly compared to Dipole-Dipole array.

This (Wenner) array is a robust array, which was popularized by the pioneering work carried out
by the University of Birmingham research group (Griffiths and Turnbull 1985; Griffiths,
Turnbull and Olayinka 1990). Many of the past and present 2 D surveys are carried out with this
array.

Based on these considerations, it is found that Wenner array has the advantages of i) ease of
field operation, ii) high signal to noise ratio, iii) symmetrical array and hence symmetrical
anomalies, iv) good lateral resolution, v) good vertical resolution etc. Hence this array method
was employed in the present study program. The schematic diagram of this array is shown in Fig
No. 3.

2.3 Data acquisition

A continuous coverage of the subsurface along the line of investigation is essential to gather a
quality data in the field. In 2D-electrical resistivity tomography data are usually collected by
using any one of the conventional or non-conventional electrode arrangements. It is an
established fact that different electrode arrangements have different degree of sensitivity,
resolution and depth penetration. The selection of electrode arrangement for data acquisition
mainly depends on the geological and topographical setup of the area, requirements of the depth
of investigation and resolution, sensitivity of the selected electrode arrangement, and voltage
resolution and noise rejection capacity of equipment, field logistics, and data processing facility.

Field data were gathered to obtain a continuous coverage of the subsurface along the line of
investigation. As mentioned above Wenner electrode configuration was employed in the present
study. Geologically the area under investigation lies in the Lesser Himalayan Meta-sedimentary
rocks. Bed rock exposed at the study area are quartzite and shale.

8
2.4 Data quality

Data collected in the field are influenced by different types of noises of different origins. The
degree of influences depends on the method of data acquisition, quality of the equipment and
accessories, and geological setup. Selection of proper equipment with accessories, and data
acquisition system helps to gather reliable field data, data which has high signal to noise ratio
(S/N ratio). Proper selection of the orientation of the profiles or an additional cross profiles helps
to recognize noise due to the geological and morphological setup of the area. The selection of
the electrode arrangement is based on the requirement of depth of investigation and resolution of
the subsurface. Moreover, it is related with the power of the transmitter and signal resolving and
processing capacity of the receiver of the equipment and quality of the peripheral parts and
accessories. Some electrode arrangements produce high level of signal but poor resolution
whereas some produce low level of signal but higher resolution of the subsurface. As the
distance between transmitting and the receiving electrodes increase the level of the noise also
increases dramatically. The type of the noise are capacitive coupling, induction and of telluric
and cultural origin. To avoid this adverse effect on the signal it is necessary to have high quality
accessories and digital signal processing facility of the receiver electronics.

It is important to know that the geophysical methods cover not only along vertical and lateral
along the profile but also look sideways. Geological variations that come within the radius of
influence in sideways also influence the data. Such influences could disorganize the section and
make difficult to make meaningful interpretation. So the noises introduced into the data due to
the geological setup that are not easily interpretable are known as geological noises. For 2D-
ERT variation caused due to the off line bedrock topography and other materials that are off of
the profile introduce effect that is not easily interpretable. In addition to geological setup the
quality of the data and results depends on following factors:
1. Type of the equipment and accessories used
2. Field crew (geophysicists, assistants, surveyors, laborers)
3. Code of inversion of the field data
4. Interpretation capacity of geophysicist

Type of equipment and accessories used

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In the survey works the data acquisition was made using the state of art technology equipment
known under the brand name GD-10, SUPREME, manufactured by Geomative Co. Ltd.,
Shenzhen, China. Following are the set of instruments used in the survey.
▪ Multi-function digital DC Electrical Resistivity and Induced Polarization meter.
▪ Multi electrode converter (multi electrode switching equipment)
▪ Multi core cable with each take out at every 10 m (60 take outs in total)
The equipment has been designed to make high precision and high productivity measurement of
electrical current and voltages (primary and decay). The electrical voltages are measured during
the current pulse transmission and after the switch off of the current pulse. These measured
current and voltages are used to calculate resistivity of the subsurface. The equipment has
receiving channels and automatic switching capacity of 60 groups of electrodes (60 take outs in
total). Number of channels available and switching capacity makes instrument ideal for use in
imaging of subsurface. Specially designed multi electrode converter (multi electrode switching
equipment) multicore cables are connected between the instrument and the electrodes. Stainless
steel electrodes each of 40cm long were used for both current transmission and voltage
receiving. These electrodes were grounded in each profiles and were connected with the
GEOMATIVE, GD-10 by specially designed shielded multi core cables.

The measurement sequences were created by using software. Measurement sequences can be
created manually or automatically for conventional and non-conventional electrode
arrangements. For shallow depth of investigation sequences were created to make measurement
along forward and reverse direction. All the sequences were uploaded to the memory of GD-10.
During the measurement data are automatically stored in the memory of GD-10. After the
measurement has completed data are downloaded from the memory of the instrument to the
computer by the help of software GEOMATIVE STUDIO. GEOMATIVE STUDIO is designed
for data transfer, data visualization, editing and preliminary processing and data export into the
format of the code of inversion.

Field crew

The crew members involved in the geophysical field are geophysicist, geologist, and laborers.
The main responsibilities should be borne by the geophysicist who involved in all stages starting
from planning to report submission. Present field survey was carried out by an experienced
geophysicist who was also involved for all stages of geophysical survey. Without good
10
knowledge of the field condition it is difficult to make reliable interpretation of the model.
Experienced assistants were involved during the field work and they were responsible for
checking of the field layout and connection between shielded multicore cables and the
electrodes, preparation of the station for good grounding and supervising to laborers. Surveyor
was responsible to fix the profile direction preferred by geophysicist and to make topographic
leveling needed for data inversion. Detail topographic leveling of the profiles is important in the
study of slope.

Data inversion code

Another main component of 2D-ERT survey is data inversion code. There are numbers of
commercially available inversion code designed for the data processing of 2D-ERT. The
inversion code must be bug free and licensed. Unauthorized versions of the inversion code
usually produce errors and misguides. The limitation of the inversion code is that even if one has
fully Authorized Version, it is not free from artifacts of the data processing. A geophysicist
involved in the data processing must work based on the geological/hydrogeological concept
worked out during geophysical fieldwork, geological observation and further discussion with the
field geologist.

The code RES2DINV Ver. 4.05.37 designed by Geotomo Software, Malaysia, was used for the
inversion of 2D-ERT field data. The finite-element processing technique was used for both
inversion and topographic modeling. To recognize the possible processing-artifacts of the code,
inversion was carried out by choosing different processing parameters.

Interpretation capacity of geophysicist

Interpretation capacity of a geophysicist largely depends on his/her understanding of the applied

methods of investigation and its limitation, his/her knowledge about the sites, formulation of the
geological concepts based on the surface geological observation and geological concepts formed
during geophysical data processing. There is no meaning of computer output unless there is
reliable interpretation based on geological/hydrogeological concept. So, geophysicist who is
responsible for interpretation is necessary to take part in fieldwork.

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2.5 Data processing

Tomographic processing

Measured apparent resistivity values in the field were fed into the computer. The raw field data
for a profile represents a pseudo section of the apparent resistivity. Pseudo sections show the
variation of apparent resistivity in the subsurface, which have been affected by the electrode
arrangement and relative apparent resistivity distribution in the subsurface. The inversion of the
pseudo section was carried out to get an approximated model of the true resistivity distribution.

For inversion of the pseudo section it is necessary to input processing parameters. The input of
the processing parameters largely depends on the geological concepts and data quality. The
software calculates a two-dimensional resistivity model for the subsurface using the apparent
resistivity measured along a profile and the processing parameters suitable for the geological
setup of the area. The depth of the bottom row of blocks is set to be approximately equal to the
equivalent depth of investigation (median depth) of the datum points with the largest electrode
spacing. A finite-element forward modeling subroutine is used to calculate the apparent
resistivity values, and a non-linear least-squares optimization technique is used for the inversion
routine. The optimization method basically tries to reduce the difference between calculated and
measured apparent resistivity values by adjusting the resistivity of model blocks. The end
products of processing by this software are refined tomograms (images) of resistivity
distribution in subsurface. Finite-element method was used for inversion and topographic
correction.

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 III ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

3.1 Relation of electrical resistivity with geotechnical parameters

Electrical resistivity depend on moisture content (degree of saturation) and material types (clay
content). The ratio of electrical resistivity between zones of aeration to zone of saturation is 4 to
10. For saturated and clay free materials the relation between the porosity and formation
resistivity is related by Archie’s equation. For saturated granular materials there is direct log-log
relationship between permeability and electrical resistivity. The empirical relationship indicates
that log-log inverse relationship between permeability for low concentration of clay. There is an
empirical linear relationship between internal angles of friction with logarithmic of electrical
resistivity. This indicates that higher the electrical resistivity higher the internal angle of friction.
The rock mass quality also has direct relation with logarithmic of electrical resistivity. However
this relation is valid for rock mass that is below the water table or at greater depth. All these
relations between geotechnical parameters and electrical resistivity vary among different rock
types and for different basins. In the case of Bharbhung (Dolpa) Hydropower Project we can use
these relations between different parameters to make general conclusion.

3.2 Correlation of model electrical resistivity with lithology

Electrical Resistivity
For the interpretation of electrical resistivity model, to extract subsurface geological and
hydrogeological information, we need geological concepts, which correlate physical model
parameters with geology. The detail requirements of the geological concept for electrical
resistivity model interpretation depend on the geological set up of the area, the contrast in
electrical resistivity between different layers and bodies in the subsurface and to some extent
electrode arrangement used for the measurement.

In 2D electrical resistivity methods such as electrical resistivity tomography mathematical filters

are used to avoid effects mostly related to surface and near surface variations caused by
heterogeneity. This increases the reliability of the interpretation of the models for depth
information. In simple geological setup the role of the geological concept is not so important.
Simple geological setup means high contrast in physical properties between lithological zones
13
and large size of the zones of different physical properties in comparison with depth of the zone.
Meaning of the zone here means those, which are of main interest to engineering projects.

In conventional methods of geophysical interpretation boundaries between different lithological

types and formations are considered to be discrete. In such consideration interpretation are value
based. The lithological boundaries and types are differentiated based on the resistivity values
only. However in tomographic methods of geophysical investigation gradient methods are also
used along with the value based interpretation. The values are for guiding purpose whereas
gradients are for the differentiation of geological and hydrogeological boundaries.

Taking into consideration of the factors that have been discussed in the subheadings of this
chapter such as relation between resistivity and porosity and analysis of the model resistivity
helps to form the following correlation ranges of model resistivity values (these values are just
for guiding purpose):

Table: 2 Resistivity of some common geo materials

Lithological type Most likely values
Unsaturated material >2000 Ohm.m
(Coarse material, colluvium, dry alluvium, (Usually much higher)
detached block and open jointed rock)
Bedrock >2000 Ohm.m
(intact bedrock at depth) (Usually much higher)
Jointed rock mass at depth 1500-4000 Ohm.m
Fractured rock mass or joints filled by clay <1000 Ohm.m
Material of recent slide, near the surface >2000 Ohm.m

3.3 Interpretation of model electrical resistivity patterns and values with geology and
hydrogeology

Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) section provides spatial distribution of model

resistivity values providing structural information along the section. This structural information

14
together with surface geological observation information helps to form geological concepts
which is important for 2D-ERT section interpretations.

The main clue for the geological (engineering geological) interpretation of 2D-ERT sections is
the spatial distribution and patterns of distribution of resistivity values with consideration of the
surface geological information. Here are some general discussions, which are useful for the
interpretation of 2D-ERT sections.

Interpretation of surface layers and bodies: Usually surface layers are highly heterogeneous,
porous and have less moisture content, they are usually identified by zones of very high
electrical resistivity. If the surface layer is formed by weathered material, or by fine materials its
electrical resistivity is much lower. Furthermore the distribution of any impermeable beds at
shallow depth may also create a low resistivity surface layer. In most case the surface layer is in
dry environment therefore have high resistivity.

Interpretation of the intermediate layers and bodies: Intermediate layers are indicated by lower
electrical resistivity values than the surface layers. This is due to the presence of higher moisture
content. This layer’s resistivity is highly dependent on the mineralization of the groundwater and
proportion of the fine materials. Coarse-grained materials (below water table), fine-grained
material, weathered and highly fractured bedrock, shear zones, and slip-surfaces are indicated by
lower electrical resistivity zones. The gravitationally deformed slopes are also indicated by
lower electrical resistivity zones.

Interpretation of the layers and bodies at greater depth: In general below the water table or
material that is at greater depth are related to porosity and rock types. Within the same material
type the decrease in porosity causes the increase in the electrical resistivity. Consolidation and
cementation of the material also increases the electrical resistivity of the material. Unaltered and
undisturbed bedrock in the area are indicated by intermediate to high electrical resistivity zones.
Schist zones and other weak rock mass zones, and gravitationally deformed zones are indicated
by low electrical resistivity values.

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3.4 Pitfalls of the processing and interpretation

Every geophysical method has some limitations. The limitations are usually posed by the power
of the instrument, its signal resolving and processing capacity, geological, hydrogeological and
topographical setup of the area, and by the physics of the particular methods. Data obtained from
the complicated geological and topographical setup, and noise in the data combined with the
processing techniques could result in artifacts. There could be possibility of the over
interpretation of such artifacts.

In the interpretation of resistivity tomograms following factors have been taken into account:

Artifacts of inversion code are usually due to the poor data coverage. To sample a subsurface
target of interest with higher degree of reliability we need to collect data that represents multiple
paths of signal (which is current) transmission and reception (which is voltage). The equipment
used in the present study (GEOMATIVE GD-10) has multi-channel receiving facility which
helps to collect considerable number of data that represents to multiple paths of transmission and
reception. High density data coverage and measurement in forward and reverse direction helps
to minimize and recognize the artifacts which are usual in scanty data coverage.

Proximity of any unusually high or low resistivity and their relative thickness: In our case
fractured and jointed rock mass zone are highly conductive than the intact gneiss. In smooth
model inversion technique which is generally applied to identify the geological boundaries low
resistivity zones (if they are thin) have tendency to inflate in thickness. In the study area
thickness of jointed or highly jointed rock could be distorted. In some cases these jointed and
fractured rock mass zone are indicative rather than their actual spatial distribution. Furthermore,
low resistivity zones that are at the bottom or in the start and end of the profile have smearing
effects which results in unusually large thickness and zones. This is due to the insufficient data
coverage in that part of the profile.

Limitations of the smooth model inversion method to estimate the true resistivity of the
subsurface.

Non-uniqueness of the geophysical interpretations, also called principle of equivalence in

electrical resistivity method. The resistivity and thickness of the thin layers are distorted.

16
Thickness of low resistivity zone is usually inflated than the actual thickness. The resistivity
values obtained for such thin zones are also distorted but they are indicative.

In the present investigation, for bodies and layers of small size, both their size and electrical
resistivity could be distorted if they are resolved separately. These zones could be resolved
separately if they are at shallow depth. On the other hand, if they are at relatively greater depth
(compared to the size of the zone) they may not be resolved separately and cumulative effects of
several zones could be observed. The off line effect could be recognized due to the high density
data coverage and overlapping data levels.

Since there are no sufficient data points in the start and end of 2D electrical resistivity
tomography profiles the reliability of the start and end of the profile largely depends on local
geological variation. Model section could be distorted at the start and end of the profile if there
is significant level of variation in the geology in these parts.

3.5 Resistivity tomograms and interpretative cross-sections

The model sections obtained from data inversion are presented as resistivity tomograms.
Tomograms show the variation of modeled physical properties (electrical resistivity) in depth
and along the line of investigation. These variations in modeled physical properties have relation
with the subsurface geological and hydrogeological set up. Representative resistivity tomograms
for each line and their interpretations are presented in Figure 8 to Figure 10.

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Fig 4a: Resistivity Tomogram of ERT 1

Fig 4b: Interpretative cross-section of ERT 1

ERT 1 runs along the river channel. It shows thick alluvium towards the upstream side and possible bed rock towards downstream side. The
depth of possible bed rock is about 10m from the surface
1
Fig 5a: Resistivity Tomogram of ERT 2

2
Fig 5b: Interpretative cross-section of ERT 2
The ERT profile-2 runs across the river channel. It also shows thick alluvium of thickness 10m at the surface and bed rock at the depth of 10m

3
Fig 6a: Resistivity Tomogram of ERT 3
4
 Fig 6b: Interpretative cross-section of ERT 3
This ERT profile-3 also runs across the river channel. It also shows thick alluvium of thickness 10m at the surface and bed rock at the depth of
10m. The colluvium deposits towards the both end of the profile.
5
6