Environmental Management 0680

Chapter 1
Rocks and Minerals and their exploitation

 Earth is the third rock from the sun.

 It is made up of rocks and metal ores.
 It weighs about 5.97 x 1026 kg.
 It has the highest density of 5.2 gcm-3 of all planets because it contains iron in its
mantle.
1.1 Formation of rocks:
 4.5 billion years ago, the force of gravity pulled the heavier elements together first
forming the core.
 2-3 billion years ago, lighter elements then formed on the earth’s crust.
 The mantle developed between dense core and light crust.
Layers of Earth:
1. Crust: outer layer (0 to 100 km)
It ranges from 5 km thick under oceans to 100 km thick below mountains
2. Mantle: middle layer about 2400 km, contains magma (molten rocks), its temperature
reaches 4000oc
3. Core: divided into 2 parts
a) Outer core: 5100 km, contains molten rocks.
b) Inner core: 6370 km, contains solid rocks due to high pressure of other rocks.

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Igneous Rocks:
 These rocks are formed by fire.
 Molten rock is called magma when it is below surface, when it comes out due to
volcanic eruptions is called Lava.
 Magma is found in the outer mantle is hot, liquid rocks move under pressure from
the rocks above it.
 When it cools it turns into solid rock.
 Crystals found in rocks are formed when solutions of minerals cannot absorb any
more dissolved minerals.
 Examples: Granite and Basalt

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Sedimentary rocks:
 These rocks are formed by the weathering of existing rocks on the earth’s surface.
 The accumulation and fossilization of the living material, or the precipitation of
dissolved materials out of the solutions in water.
 The sediments include different sized particles. The smallest is the clay followed
by silt then sands.
 These particles are transported by streams and rivers and then deposited as
sediments.
 Each layer of sediment becomes harder and more compact because of the newer
deposits above it.
 Examples: limestone, sandstone and shale.

Metamorphic rocks:
 These rocks are created from existing rocks when heat above exceeds 150oc or the
pressure is more than 1.5 x 108 Pa (1480 atm). Or both heat and pressure, causes
the changes in the structure of the rock without melting.
 These changes in structure may be chemical or physical.

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Igneous Rocks Sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks

Made from liquid magma Made from other rock Made from existing rock
fragments
Magma cools to form solid Rock fragments become The original rock is changed
rocks buried and increased in form by heat and pressure
pressure forms a rock
Mineral crystals may exist, Crystals absent Mineral crystals present
size of crystals depends on
the speed of cooling
No fossils present Fossils may be present No fossils present
Rock Cycle:

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1. Weathering and erosion break off fragments of surface rock.

2. The eroded rock is transported to another location.
3. The fragments of the rock are deposited and build up, the lower layers are compacted
into sedimentary rocks.
4. Sedimentary and igneous rocks subjected to heat and pressure underground form
metamorphic rocks.
5. At higher temperatures rocks melt to form magma.
6. Magma cools to form igneous rocks.
7. Movements in the Earth raise rocks to the surface via a process called uplift.

1.2 Extraction of rocks and minerals from the Earth

 Minerals provide us with a wide range of materials.

 Coal and oil provide us with energy.
 Metallic ores provide us with metals and alloys used in many industries such as
computers, mobile phones, wires and nails.

Searching for minerals:

1. Prospecting:
Looking carefully at the surface of rocks, that found nearly all the surface deposits of
minerals worldwide.
2. Remote sensing:
By photographing an area on land from the air and images are carefully analysed for
signs of minerals, as aerial photography can cover much more ground than a walking
person.
Imaging from satellites can also be used to analyse very large areas.

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3. Geochemical analysis:
Occurs by taking samples from the ground and analysed in a laboratory, the area were
the samples are taken can be overlayed on a grid on a map of the survey area, location
can then be detected by Global Positioning System (GPS)
4. Geophysics:
A series of vibrations are sent through the earth’s surface (seismic waves), several
sensors at different distances from the source of vibrations are laid down on the
ground, vibrations create shock waves that are reflected back to the sensors of the
surface. The shock waves record different patterns depending on the minerals present.
Explosives can be used instead of vibrations, but it is more dangerous.

Mining rocks and minerals:

There are 2 types of mining:

Surface mining Sub surface mining

• open-cast
• deep mining
• open-pit
• shaft mining
• open-cut
• strip mining

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Surface Mining Sub surface mining

 Rocks and minerals are easy to find and  If the mineral is only a little below the
extract when they outcrop on or near surface, it may be possible to dig into the
earth’s surface, these steps are followed: deposit by making tunnels into the
- Clear vegetation and soil from the surface. hillsides.
- Break down and loosen the rock by using  The deeper the mineral is the difficult to
explosives. discover and the more expensive to mine.
- Use diggers to remove the loose rock.  Deep mining involves:
- Tip the rock or mineral into trucks or rail - Sinking a vertical shaft down to the rock
way wagons. layer containing minerals.
 A large hole is left in the ground by this - Making a horizontal tunnel following the
type of mining. mineral layer.
- Extracting the minerals by digging done by
miners and machines.
- Bringing the loose from the rock from the
mine and piling t up on waster heaps on
the surface.
Bringing the minerals to the surface, to be
transported away in trucks and trains
 Deep mining is very dangerous. The roof
of the tunnel needs to be supported with
high safety standards, from time to time
the walls of the tunnels collapse and
miners are trapped, injured or killed.

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Uses of rocks and minerals in industrial processes:

 Many rocks are useful, some are used for construction and road building.
 These include nearly all igneous and metamorphic rocks as marble and slate.
 Other rocks are used as industrial raw materials. Rocks widely used in manufacturing
process include:
- Chalk for cement.
- Gravel for concrete.
- Clay for bricks and pottery.
- Sand for glass.
 Iron is widely spread mineral, making up about 5% of the earth’s crust.
 Steel is needed in the manufacture of machinery, for making transport vehicles and
equipments.
 Steel is also used for support the structures in buildings, especially in areas of
earthquakes.

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Factors affecting the viability of extraction of minerals:

Once a mineral deposit has been located, a mining company has to decide whether it should
mine the deposit or not, taking into consideration a lot of issues:

1. Cost of exploration and extraction

2. Geology
3. Climate
4. Accessibility
5. Environmental impact
6. Supply and demand
 The probable cost of extracting one tonne of ore has to be calculated. Deposits near
the surface can be extracted by open-pit mining.
 There are usually fewer technical dificulties to mining on a large scale using this
method, which leads to a low extraction cost per tonne.
 Deeper deposits can only be extracted by shaft mining. This is more costly to set up
and maintain, so the cost per tonne will be higher than open-pit mining.
 Only deposits of high value can be mined economically in this way. The size of the
deposit and the planned rate of extraction. If a mine is projected to have a short
working life
 How the extraction can have a positive or negative impact on the environment,
pollution level released due to extraction.
 The changes in the supply and demand can increase or decrease the profits from
working mines

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1.3 Impact of rock and mineral extraction

Environmental impacts

1. Habitat destruction.
2. Pollution of the atmosphere.
3. Land and water.
4. Those living near the site are also affected by noise and visual pollution..

Ecological Impacts:

 Any mining activity will involve the loss of habitat for some species of plants and
animals. .
 The plants removed have lost a place to grow, and so have the animals that depend on
the plants for food and shelter.
 Deep mining means that shafts have to be dug down to the seams of valuable minerals.
 At the beginning of deep mining operations, only a small area of land is cleared of
vegetation.
 After this type of mine has been working for several years, more habitats will be

destroyed as the amount of mine waste stored aboveground increases.

 When a company applies for a license to start working, an environmental impact
assessments carried out.
 The license application is usually approved if the company has a plan to keep the loss
of habitat as small as possible and then to restore the land after mining has finished.
 This can take the form of noise, water, land, air and visual pollution. Noise
pollution is a problem when large-scale surface mining takes place.
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 The overburden is loosened by explosive charges and then removed by large

machines. The noise can disturb the behaviour of many animal species near the
m i n e a nd cause health problems for people.
 Deep mining usually produces less noise than surface mining. Mining licenses set
limits on the levels of noise and working hours in mines.
 Water pollution from any type of mining can be a major problem that can continue
for many years after a mine has stopped working.
 The water that drains through mine waste, or comes directly from mine shafts, can
cause dramatic changes to the populations of living organisms in streams and rivers.
 Drinking water supplies may also be polluted by drainage from mines, making it
unsafe for people to drink
 This pollution is caused by chemical reactions between water and exposed rocks and
mine waste. The water may become acidic and then dissolve toxic metal ions.
 The combination of acidic water with a high concentration of toxic metal ions kills
many aquatic organisms.
 Some of the metal ions exist only in low concentrations in bodies of water. However,
organisms absorb these ions and retain them in their body, reaching concentrations
much higher than that in the water. This is called bioaccumulation..
 The concentrations increase further in organisms that are higher up the food
chain. This can cause biomagnifications and can cause the death of top
consumers.
 There are other metal ions that are toxic in high concentrations that do not
bioaccumulate.
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 The land surrounding mine will become polluted by mine waste. In some cases the
area will be quite small but the toxic nature of the waste means that only a few plants
can grow, even many years after mining has stopped.
 When mine waste is stored above natural water courses, the waste pile may collapse

and cover more land..

 The choice of site for mine waste is an important factor to consider in plan to limit

the effects of pollution.

 Many mining activities release dust particles, which will settle on the vegetation near

the mine.

 Dust reduces plant growth: the leaves of plants need to absorb light energy to perform

photosynthesis. If light cannot penetrate a layer of dust on a leaf surface, then the rate
of photosynthesis is reduced.

 Dust from mining activities may also have toxic effects depending on the chemical
components present in the dust.
 This can also reduce or stop plant growth, and the particles can be dangerous to human
health.
 The biggest risk is breathing in dust that then remains in the lungs. Long-term
exposure can lead to serious lung diseases that can cause death.
 The lungs of children are very easily damaged by breathing dust particles. Some
harmful substances can also be absorbed through human skin.
 Mining companies provide safety clothing and breathing masks to protect the health
of mine workers However, many people living near from small-scale mining without a
license. This is often called informal mining and it is illegal.

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 Health problems as a result of toxic substances are common among these

miners.
 Landscape is damaged. This is pollution of large scale of surface m i n i n g will create
the most obvious visual pollution during the working life of a mine. This type of
pollution may only be temporary because careful restoration of the landscape is possible.

Economic impacts

 Extracting valuable minerals provides employment for people and provides taxes for
the government. Modern mining is carried out using machines so only a small
number of people will be directly employed to extract minerals. However, if the
mineral is then refined and processed in the same country, further jobs are created.
 In many cases minerals are exported from one country to be used in manufacturing
processes in another country..

 This can create jobs in the country importing the mineral. Overall, mineral extraction
does provide employment.
 Mineral extraction usually benefits both local and national economies. Jobs are
created directly to extract minerals and further jobs to supply transport and mining
equipment.
 More jobs are created when the mineral is refined to make products. If all these
activities occur in the same country, this will generate the most income for buying
goods and services as well as investing in infrastructure projects.

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 Some improvements to transport and services, such as healthcare and education, will be
required to supply any mining industry as well as support the mineworkers and their
families.
 Taxes paid by mining companies and individual workers can provide a country with
enough revenue to invest in infrastructure projects to benefit the whole population of
the country.

1.4 Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction

 Management of a mining operation should start with plans for safe waste disposal

and end with plans to return the land to its original state when mining is over.

Safe disposal of mining waste

 Mining waste was usually been put in piles near the point of extraction. In some
cases, stable waste piles were placed on top of water courses, which then become
polluted with toxic chemicals.
 In other cases, waste piles were unstable and collapsed. Apart from the possible
loss of life caused by a collapse, collapsed waste piles increase land and water
pollution.
 Today, safe storage and disposal of mine waste is one of the most important aspects
of any mining license application.
 In a well-regulated system, applications must provide a detailed plan to show how
mine waste will be stored to prevent collapse. The site of the mine waste must also

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prevent the possibility of water pollution. The plan must include details of how the

waste will be monitored to detect any movement or water pollution.

Land restoration and bioremediation

 When mining has finished. The land needs to be restored. Sometimes mine

waste can be reshaped to blend in with the surrounding landforms.. The

waste can then be covered by a layer of soil, which may be enriched with

fertilizers.
 Such an area can then be planted with trees. This will help other plants

and animals to colonise the area. As time passes, the area will be improved

by the addition of organic matter from plant and animal wastes.

 Some mine waste does not allow the growth of tree roots, so other

methods of restoration have to be used. Contaminated waste can be

treated where it was left (in situ treatment) by bioremediation.

Alternatively, waste can be removed from a site to a treatment plant

(ex situ treatment).

 Bioremediation is the process of removing pollutants from waste using

living organisms..

 Many organisms are able to break down toxic substances into less

hazardous substances. This often happens slowly on natural

environments.

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 Some microorganisms, such as bacteria found in soils, are able to absorb

pollutants and process them via metabolic pathways into less harmful

substances.
 When bacteria take in pollutants they usually gain either energy or nutrients.

 Microorganisms can remove and process pollutants at a faster rate if their

environment provides a source of oxygen and nitrogen.

 Some plants are also naturally able to bioaccumulate toxic metals, and

this process can be speeded up with the addition of fertilisers.

 These plants are grown on contaminated waste.. The plant absorb toxic
metals, and later the parts of the plant above the ground are removed so

the waste and the ground becomes less toxic.

 Tree and herb species are introduced and as the plant populations grow they create
habitats for many animal species. These nature serves become valuable green spaces
for human recreation, as well as helping to maintain biodiversity.
 Mineral extraction often creates large holes in the landscape. If the rock lining the hole
is impervious to water and non toxic then it can be allowed to fill with water to form
a reserv oir (create lacks)
 This water could be used for irrigating farm or processed to provide safe drinking
water for sometimes. Sometimes, these holes are filled with household waste until they
are full. The waste covered with soil and planted with trees. This is referred to as
landfill.
 The Society for Ecological Restoration International ( SERI) proposed a number of
ecosystem-related variables to measure the success of a land restoration programme.

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 Some scientists believe that allowing a site to undergo a natural process of

recolonisation and slow change to the environment (process called succession) may
actually be the most beneficial method.
 Active reclamation is important to reduce the indence of such events as landslides and
erosion.

1.5 Sustainable use of rocks and minerals

 The supply of rocks and minerals that are used as building materials and for
industrial production is finite, It is hard to see therefore, how the use of these
materials can meet the deifinition of sustainability.
 Sustainable use means that meets the needs of the present without affecting the ability
of future generations to meet their needs.
 A fully sustainable resource will never run out and this can be achieved in fisheries,
agriculture and forestry where the resource is biological and can be regrown.
Unlike these biological systems, such things as rocks and minerals will not last
indefinitely.
 The aim is a planned and controlled use of any reserve to provide the most benefit to
people to maintain economical growth and stability and prevent widespread
environmental damage.
 On the other hand, it may be possible to find substitutes for the use of relatively

scarce materials. For example, copper is quite rare and is used for among other

things, the conduction of electricity.

 When the purpose is to transmit information, copper wire can be replaced by fibre

optic cables, which are made from the much more common element silica.

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 Several strategies can be used to make the exploitation of rocks and minerals more

sustainable.

Efficiency of extraction

 Increasing the efficiency of extraction seems an obvious starting point. For example,
underground coalmines only remove between 55 and 70% of the coal present i n the
reserve, because of the technical difficulties of extracting the remaining coal in a safe
and cost effective manner.
 Open-pit mining is more efficient at extraction than underground mining but some
wastage still occurs.
 Biological treatment with microorganisms can also be used to extract more product
from the waste.
 Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and processing
a l s o i n c rea s es th e efficiency of extraction. Greater use of data analysis by
computers is likely to lead to improvements as well.
 Surface mining has more potential for an increase in the efficiency of extraction
than underground mining. This is because it is more difficult to predict geological

conditions underground..

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Efficiency of use and recycling

 Recycling materials make an important contribution to the sustainable use of rocks

and minerals. Many manufactured goods from cars to steel cans are recycled in most
countries.
 Most metals can be recovered and refined back to clean metals to be used by
industries again. This uses less energy than processing the ores or concentrates to
make metals.
 It is possible to design steel beams used in buildings to have the same strength but
use less steel in the 1980 as titanium became very expensive and there was an
incentive to design products that used less of this metal.
 Many countries may in the future require car manufacturers by law to take back their
products when they are finished with.
 The major way in which governments are trying to encourage a more sustainable
use of minerals and rocks is to pass laws that require manufacturers to become

responsible for recycling and reuse. For example, the Waste Electrical and Electronic

Equipment (WEEE)
 Directive of the European Union, was passed in 2002. Although some of the items
covered are not mineral rich (for example televisions are only 6% metal) others are

a typical cooker is 89% metal.

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