FLEXIBLE

COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
in Architecture,
Construction and Interiors
 René Motro (Ed.)

FLEXIBLE
COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
in Architecture,
Construction and Interiors

Birkhäuser
Basel
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Principles CONSTRUCTION

1. flexible composite materials: 2. Textile Architecture 4. Textile Façades

production and modern uses by BERNARD MAURIN and RENÉ MOTRO by STEFANO BERTINO, ANDREA GIOVANNI MAININI
and TIZIANA POLI
of a polymorphic material
26 Conceptual design process
by INES DE GIULI and ROMAIN FERRARI
28 Basic engineering principles 56 Textile envelope: performance and
28 Equilibrium of cables and membranes application fields
9 Introduction
under load 60 Textile building envelope systems for
9 Textile: a polymorphic material
29 Curvature diffuse architecture
9 Traditional textiles
30 Pretension 63 Textile building envelope limitations
11 The textile in technical applications
30 Combination of pretension and curvature 63 Performance checklist for building designers
(TTA, technical textiles)
31 Form-finding 64 Environmental performance
13 Textile technology used in architecture
31 Analogue methods 65 Technical performance
14 Material production
32 Numerical methods 68 Textile envelope’s future for low
14 Producing the yarn
33 Patterning environmental impact buildings
15 From yarn to textile
33 Seams
15 Refining the textiles: shaping the material
34 Flattening
17 Nature: a laboratory for advancing
35 Compensation 5. Solar Protection
textile development?
36 Load analysis by MARK COX, TIM DE HAAS, ROEL GIJSBERS,
17 Textiles as a contribution to
37 Calculation under snow ARNO PRONK, IVO VROUWE and JEROEN WEIJERS
sustainable construction methods
37 Calculation under wind
19 Biodegradability and limiting the use of
38 Additional loadings 70 Introduction
chemical products
38 Conclusion 71 Key terms on solar protection
19 Recycling
20 The concept of sustainability 72 Basic heat transfer principles
72 Radiation emission and radiators
21 Textiles as they contribute to energy savings
24 Conclusion 3. Design details for successful 75 Radiation
implementation 75 Convection
by BERNARD DORIEZ and RENÉ MOTRO 77 Transmission
79 Membrane façade categories
40 Introduction 79 Double-layer construction
41 Implementation challenges 79 Transparent membranes
41 Classification of textile membranes 79 Non-transparent membranes
41 Inflatable systems 79 Semi-transparent construction
42 System based on edges and peaks 80 Airtight membranes
42 Types of application 80 Air-open membranes
43 Connection details 80 Ventilated cavity
44 Lacing cords 80 Examples of technical textile applications
44 Membrane corners 80 Second-skin façade
44 Design requirements for the 80 Climate façade
technical details 80 Roofs
46 Simple corner 80 Shelters
46 Adjustable corner 81 Typology of building constructions
47 Membrane corner – mast fixing 81 Transparent membrane on the inside
47 Non-adjustable edge cables 82 Non-transparent membrane on the inside
48 Simple mast connection 82 Transparent membrane on the outside
48 The poles 83 Non-transparent membrane on the outside
49 Central supporting masts 83 Case study
50 Variants and specific technical solutions
50 Structural choices: form and connection
50 Façade canopies
52 Grandstands and shelters
53 Innovative detail
54 But also ...
55 Conclusion
 CASE STUDIES

6. From raw material to the 8. Architectural textiles 10. Solar protection

finished product: interior
textiles Seine-Aval water
114 186 Riffa Views
by ANAIS MISSAKIAN, KHIPRA NICHOLS purification plant international school
and LILIANE WONG Achères, France Manama, Bahrain

87 Fibre Development 118 Colmar Outdoor Theatre 192 Shade – Shadow Courtyard
89 Finishing Colmar, France Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
90 Applications in the interior environment
90 Strength
122 Puerto Madero Terrace 196 office building
93 Acoustics
Puerto Madero Docks, Buenos Aires, Argentina Basel, Switzerland
94 UV resistance/light control
95 Future Potential
126 Octahedron 200 THE dolder GRAND HOTEL
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Zurich, Switzerland

7. The new lightweight

128 Giant Rugby Ball 204 paul klee center
structure: Tensairity Bern, Switzerland
Paris, France; London, Great Britain;
by ROLF H. LUCHSINGER
Tokyo, Japan; Sydney, Australia

100 Introduction
102 The technology
134 CENTURY LOTUS STADIUM 11. Interior textiles
Foshan, China
104 Research and development
107 Realised structures 210 Chantereyne Pool
111 Conclusion 138 Omnilife stadium Cherbourg-Octeville, France
Guadalajara, Mexico
214 Gonfreville martial arts
144 AP&P church centre and Chess CLUB

Maassluis, The Netherlands Gonfreville-l’Orcher, France

150 le lido – circus arts center Kremlin-Bicêtre

218
Toulouse, France
Aquatics Centre
Paris, France

9. Textile façades 224 vhv group headquarters

Hanover, Germany
156 Stücki Business Park
Basel, Switzerland

Appendix
160 yendi office building
Bulle, Switzerland 228 Bibliography
229 Acknowledgements
166 deichmann flagship store 230 About the authors
Essen, Germany 232 Index
232 Illustration credits
170 German Pavilion “balancity”
at EXPO 2010 Shanghai
Shanghai, China

176 Keramikland Showroom

and Office Building
Cham, Switzerland

178 sede iguzzini illuminazione

españa
Barcelona, Spain
 1

flexible composite
by INES DE GIULI
and ROMAIN FERRARI

materials:
production and
modern uses
of a polymorphic
material

One of technical textile’s many forms.

8
Introduction
Textile – coming from the Latin word textilis, derived from the verb texere which means, “to
weave or warp a cloth or a woof, to plait or to interlace” – appeared very early in the history
of humanity. Archaeologists have discovered pieces of fabric dating back to at least 8000
years BC. They were found in Mesopotamia where flax was grown. In Egypt, the country
also known as “the land of flax”, there are some fabric relics that were produced around
4500 BC. It was certainly a time when textiles were uniquely made of natural fibres. Today
they are characterised by a large and ever increasing variety of types and uses.
Technological advances have not only allowed the development of new generations of
fibres – synthetic, in addition to natural – but also of new manufacturing processes, which
multiply the properties and lead to a diversification of application fields.
Whilst initially, and for a long period, used almost exclusively for clothing, today’s textiles
are present in aeronautics, electronics, medicine and construction. They are the object of
constant innovation, which seeks to adapt them to meet increasing demands from newly
discovered fields. By integrating the concepts of durability and energy efficiency, the textile
industry has proven that it can tackle these issues that confront all main industrial sectors
today. Thanks to university networks and institutions, research centres and laboratories,
multidisciplinary expertise is used to create new generations of highly specialised prod-
ucts. As shown by the historical evidence of several thousand years of civilisation, textiles
continue to evolve with the challenges faced by our modern society.

Textile:
a polymorphic material

Traditional textiles
Textiles today cover an extremely wide field of materials. While defined by the manufac-
turing process, the weave (as the etymology of the word “textile” itself suggests), a large
part of its properties come from the principal material with which it is fabricated: the fibre.
Moreover it is very often and significantly the textile’s fibre itself, such as “linen”, “silk” or
“cotton”, which gives the name to the final product. The first distinction that is made when
seeking to categorise textiles is both modern, since it draws upon history, and related to
the manufacture of the material; this is the distinction between a traditional, and a tech-
nical textile. The former, whose manufacture and use are the oldest, is associated with
concerns of appearance and comfort, and thus covers clothing and also furniture; from
bed sheets to tapestry, from tablecloths to draperies. By contrast, a technical textile can
be defined as any other textile, where the technical features and functional properties
prevail over the esthetical and decorative characteristics. This category, however, appears
less a separate industrial branch than an extension and diversification of the traditional
textile industry. The distinction comes from the intensive development of the industry at
the beginning of the last century, following scientific progress and the emergence of new
generations of fibres derived from chemical processes.

9
Above: Extrusion process.  Below: Weaving process.

10
The Textile in technical applications
(TTA, technical textiles)
From the 1980s the Western European textile industry suffered constant decline, resulting
mainly from the strong competition of low-wage countries such as China or several Eastern
European countries. This heightened competition led to the loss of thousands of jobs and
to the closing of numerous factories in what was once a key European business sector.
A lot of manufacturers traditionally involved in the clothing industry are endeavouring to
move into high value-added markets, less affected by labour costs and offering better
profit margins. Today new technical fibres represent an increasingly large part of the textile
markets in Europe, notably in Germany, France and Italy, but also in the USA and Japan.
In the move, already well underway, toward functional textiles for technical applications,
the new constraints are the physical, mechanical and chemical performance requirements.
Manufacturers of state-of-the-art textiles today employ the most modern production pro-
cesses, fulfilling extremely precise specifications and including rigorous quality control.
The manufacture of technical textiles involves four major steps. The first step concerns
forming the yarn using an assembly of filaments that vary in number from one to several
hundred; usually they are obtained by the extrusion of melted polyester granules or glass
beads. The heated material is introduced and pushed through a spinneret (a metal piece
serving as a mould), which gives it an elongated form before being stretched. The second
step, the weaving of the yarn, gives birth to the actual fabric, at this stage still termed
“raw”, as it has not been bleached or otherwise treated. The third step consists of apply-
ing a “conditioner” to the raw fabric, usually of a PVC, silicone or PTFE base, enriched with
chemical components such as dye, softeners, thermal stabilisers, antifungal agents or
others. This coating may be applied to one or both sides of the fabric, a process that may be
repeated several times. The application of a surface varnish, the fourth step, completes the
manufacture of the textile, for which one final step remains: packaging in the form of bolts.

In the case of coated textiles, the raw fabric undergoes a certain number of pre-treatments
before being coated on one or both sides, as mentioned, with PVC (polyvinyl chloride), with
silicone in the case of polyester fabrics, or with PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene). The varnish
itself usually consists of a fluoridated lacquer that waterproofs the surface, in the manner
of polyester fabrics coated with PVC, in order to make them more resistant against stains,
mould and ultra-violet rays.
It is the combination of different functions that define the technical character of the textile.
Thus the final product has qualities variously adapted to the intended use: a weight, or
grammage, ranging between 250 and 1500 g/m², a thickness varying from 0.5 to 1.5 mm,
a width measured in centimetres, a breaking strength in traction and tearing resistance
between 150 and 1500 daN/5 cm (in other words the rupture of a 5 cm band occurs at a
traction that corresponds to a load ranging from 150 to 1500 daN according to the fabric).
The range of qualities may also include: stretching under static load, a greater or lesser
porosity, fire-resistance (some textiles are even rated non-combustible), a resistance to
micro-organisms, plus other mechanical resistances such as abrasion. Textiles can be
produced with colours that withstand heat, humidity and ultraviolet rays, that are either
able to transmit or to reflect light, even solar energy, or that exhibit certain acoustic and
thermal properties (very thin materials can absorb up to 60% of acoustical waves – textiles
for blinds can block 70% to 96% of solar heat).

11
Above: Weaving factory set-up.  Below: Final flexible composite.

12
Textile technology used in architecture
Three types of membrane make up 90% of those used in modern architectural designs: glass
fibre – a composite material reinforced by glass filaments usually associated with polymers
– coated with PTFE, PVC-coated polyester, and ETFE (Ethylene-Tetrafluoroethylene) sheet.
Glass fibre coated with PTFE (Teflon), is the material that has been most used for pneu-
matic structures. Coated fabrics require practically no maintenance and are quite easy to
replace. PTFE has only been used in buildings since the 1970s, while transparent high-per-
formance ETFE sheet became established in the middle of the 1990s. Today PTFE-coated
glass fibre is much more expensive. It is less elastic and has a low degree of flexibility,
making it more susceptible to crazing and auto-abrasion of the coating.
Apart from these three principal membrane materials there exist, as mentioned by Philip
Drew in his publication New Tent Architecture (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2008), many
others: non-coated, perforated and micro-perforated membranes with good sound
absorption capacity, non-coated or impregnated textiles with a looser or denser weave for
indoor uses, polyester fabrics with inner coating for low flammability, low emissivity glass
fabrics with fluoridated polymer coating and a structure that absorbs noise. According to
Drew, the fabrics used in architecture constitute a highly specialised field.
Researchers continue to create new, more robust, and more resistant fibre materials.
Consequently architectural textiles today can serve as filters to remedy undesired envir-
onmental effects such as direct sunlight. They can also produce electricity thanks to the
integration of thin photovoltaic panels. In 2005 when Royal Philips Electronics presented
textiles with integrated luminous diodes and without compromising the material’s soft-
ness, the company gave birth to the photonic textile.
In the construction industry, textile and polymer technology is even now weaving its way
into concrete structures. Fibres help to improve concrete’s fire resistance by channelling
steam to the surface, thereby preventing the explosive spalling that results from rapid
intense heating. Polymers may be applied to coat metal reinforcement, and fibres can
increase concrete’s impermeability, two factors which effectively reduce the concrete
thickness normally required for reinforcement corrosion protection, which in turn leads to
lighter more efficient structures and savings in construction costs. Fibres can be added to
concrete as reinforcement against cracking, allowing the conventionally used steel mesh
reinforcement to be omitted. There are even treated fibres that, when added to the mix,
enable concrete to conduct electricity.
Unlike traditional textiles, a sector showing little dynamism in Europe, technical fabrics are
a rapidly expanding field. However their development requires expertise in new technolo-
gies that allow further cost reductions such as automation, and the improved reliability
of both components and processes. The future of TTA not only depends on improving the
flexibility of the manufacturing system, but also on the creation of products with very
high added value such as intelligent fibres, also called smart fibres; these are interactive
or adaptive products, namely textiles with information “sensors” and fibres that react to
specific information. The manufacture of materials used in textiles for technical applica-
tions depends on research and processes that far exceed the simple assembly of yarns,
in itself the result of a very specific experimental protocol.

13
 Material production

Producing the yarn

Technical textile fibres are, per se, functional products with specific properties determined
by their intended use. They can be woven, knitted or plaited, but also exist in a non-woven
form. The resultant material normally has to undergo additional treatments before becom-
ing a finished or half-finished product.
The fibres are obtained by extrusion of a chemical preparation, a procedure that offers
the possibility of incorporating additives to change the material’s properties according to
the desired requirements. Continuous yarns are made of only a handful to several thou-
sand fibres, with a diameter less than a micron in the case of microfibres or nanofibres,
or about a millimetre in the case of monofilaments. Afterwards the spinning process allows
fibres possessing different properties to be combined, e.g. aramid with pre-oxidised
fibres for the production of hybrid yarns. The latter can be enriched by means of various
modifications with the aim of giving the yarns new properties, either by coating, impreg-
nation or adhesion of resins. Finally comes the sheathing process, which designates
the wrapping of a core of usually elastomer yarns, e.g. made of elastane, by other yarns
made of polyamide, polyester or cotton, or the twisting process, which can provide new
mechanical properties.

An array of textile bolts awaiting post treatment.

14
From yarn to textile
The actual fabric production, the weaving, results from the interlacing of yarns that are
placed in the direction of the fabric length (warp) by yarns that follow the direction of the
fabric width (weft). Three fundamental types are distinguished in the traditional textile
business: plain weave, obtained by lifting alternately the even or the uneven yarns of the
warp to give way to the weft yarn, twill weave characterised by the presence of diagonal
ribs on the front and flat ribs on the reverse side, and satin weave, fine and lustrous on
the front and matt on the reverse side, thus forming the richest fabric from an arithmeti-
cal point of view. Indeed weaving offers an infinite variety of surfaces, from cloths with a
unidirectional nap, to open weave fabric with only a few threads per square metre, or very
heavy fabrics of several kilograms per square metre. Their properties essentially depend
on the direction of the yarns or on the fibres with which they are made. One can create
textile or fabric surfaces where the constituent yarns are woven to create a flat surface,
or voluminous 3D textiles, where the yarns occupy three dimensions. In each category the
orientation of the yarns on the flat surface can be axial, biaxial or multiaxial.

Refining the textiles:

shaping the material
Refining techniques have the objective of modifying the properties of raw textiles to provide
them with specific characteristics, and to ensure they meet the functional requirements of
the intended application. The textiles are first prepared according to various procedures
such as, in traditional manufacturing, buckling to eliminate fibres sticking out of the fab-
ric, desizing with the aim of removing previously applied components from the warp, and
finally, thermal fixation to ensure the structural stability of the fabric. After preparation,
the main refining operations are usually dyeing, printing or flocking, the latter being a
spray procedure that produces a coating with a fibrous, velvety or fluffy surface. The use
of chemical and mechanical finishing is also common, such as emerizing, which describes
the softening of a fabric by putting it on a fast turning cylinder, also known as grinding.
Sizing, a treatment specific to glass fabrics, is intended to make them compatible with
resins to be later applied. To make a textile flameproof, hydrophobic, antistatic, antibac-
terial, anti-abrasive or uv-resistant, chemical finishes in the form of polymer resins are
applied by coating. For this process the textile is immersed in a bath. There must be a
high degree of compatibility between the fibre and the different formulations of polyvinyl
chloride, polyurethane, acrylic, natural and synthetic elastomers that comprise the fabric
treatment. Adherence requires, for example, the creation of chemical links between the
macromolecules of a textile using a treatment called “Resorcine Formol Latex” that fixes
a rubber-reactive component to the fibres. The adding of softeners, mineral substances
or other additives further modifies the textile’s properties, as required for its intended
use. The resulting product may undergo additional treatment during which films, foams or
microporous membranes made of polyurethane or PTFE are made to adhere to the textile
support by lamination, thus adding barrier functions (breathability, waterproofing) to the
finished material. There are also pre-impregnated textiles made of fibres associated with
thermo-hardening or thermo-plastic resins. The raw material is then processed: in solu-
tion, when molten, in powder form, by hydridisation or transfer. While undergoing thermal
treatment the pre-impregnated material is shaped in a mould.

15
The hydrophobic lotus leaf surface ... ... and its textile homologue.

Conventional façade coating: the sur- How the Lotus-Effect works in façade The surface is additionally ultra-
face is less hydrophobic and thus more coating: the microtextured surface hydrophobic. The rain drops roll off the
susceptible to wetting with water. Dirt reduces the available contact area for surface immediately, taking the loosely
particles adhere more easily. dirt and water to a minimum. deposited dirt particles with them.

16
The large diversity of materials and the very high complexity of manufacturing procedures
require expertise and specific qualifications, especially in chemistry or mechanical physics,
which underlines the importance of R&D in the textile sector. One of the great trends today
is towards biomimetics, which takes inspiration from the functioning of living organisms.

Nature: a laboratory for

advancing textile development?
Research into nanotechnologies is seen as of fundamental importance in technological
innovation. Work is also focussing on the analysis of interesting biochemical behaviour
found in the natural world. The challenge while observing such properties is to reproduce
them artificially, an operation which has already led to some concrete results.
The lotus leaf has properties that have served as a model for dirt-repellent surfaces, also
called self-cleaning surfaces. Its special nanometric structure traps air and makes the
surface hydrophobic. Dirt cannot stick to it and any grime deposited on the surface is eas-
ily removed by rain. The company Sto has developed an external coating called Lotusan,
based on the same microstructure principles, that uses rainwater to wash the surface
clean. By reproducing the texture of the lotus leaf on a nanometric scale, it is possible to
make a textile dirt-repellent. This can help to reduce the use of toxic detergents that until
now have been used to clean surfaces exposed to the elements.
The fact that nature is a source of inspiration is accompanied by a parallel concern regard-
ing the use of nature’s resources. Beyond the accelerating technical advances of materials
demanded by the requirements of the industrial sector and the necessity of technological
innovation, the concept of sustainable development has begun to affect new textiles by
placing restrictions on their composition. It has even become one of the priority goals of
textile research centres in Europe, regardless of the area of application, resulting in larger
investments for researching: recyclable properties, the biodegradability of fibres, decreas-
ing waste in connection with chemical treatments, and energy reduction.

Textiles as a contribution
to sustainable
construction methods
Regarding architecture, Philip Drew admits that today the terms lightweight and renew-
able are the two key words of a responsible architecture from an ecological point of view.
Sustainable development has become a major concern for all industrial sectors, and
represents one of the main goals of textile research centres. Independent of the area of
application, the range of sustainable products is characterised by two main tendencies
related to the protection of the environment and a reduction in the use of energy. Research
concentrates on the biodegradability of fibres, on the wish to limit the number of different
materials used in one product, and on recyclability.

17
Above: Recycled fibres.  Below: Granules of recycled plasticised vinyl.

18
Biodegradability and
limiting the use of chemical products
The use of natural fibres of plant origin is currently being explored to create new materials.
New generations of disposable bags, but also surgical stents (tubes placed in arteries)
have come on to the market. They are composed of polymers extracted from corn, such
as polylactic acid (PLA).
Increasing attention is being paid to hemp, which can produce very good quality textiles
and is recyclable. It is capable of providing efficient noise and thermal insulation, has
non-flammable properties, strongly resists humidity, repels certain organisms and can
store CO2. For these reasons, in France for example, the plant has been included in the
parliamentary bill on renewable biomaterials in the building sector, adopted by the French
National Assembly in October 2008.
The development of polypropylene is a further example. It is easily recyclable and has
attained high quality through advances in eco-design in the plastics industry.
Research into waste reduction in connection with the chemical treatment of fibres and
textiles concerns moreover, all possible avenues. Great effort is being made to decrease
the amount of pollution from this activity or to render the emitted waste more easily treat-
able. This translates, amongst other things, into incentives to limit the use of formalin,
and to promote the adoption of new manufacturing technologies such as the develop-
ment of gas processing for textiles, which limits the number of environmentally harmful
chemical baths.
Other significant actions, such as the recovery and recycling of constituent elements
of PVC, have been possible since 1998. The recycling of materials is one of the founding
stages of sustainable construction.

Recycling
The central element of the sustainable development policy of the French company Serge
Ferrari is the invention, development and application of a procedure – Texyloop – intro-
duced in 2000, to allow the recycling of composite textiles. This procedure not only enables
membranes to be recycled, it also aims to create new materials, which can then in part be
reintroduced into the membrane fabrication process: thus the Texyloop cycle is created.
The company opened an industrial recycling plant in Italy in 2002 and today more than 90%
of its product range can be recycled. These recycled materials enter into the composition
of a range of diverse products.
To promote this technology the company also took the initiative to create “Relais Textiles
Techniques”, the first European network for the collection of fabrics whose working life is
exhausted, and of which it is a participating member. The network, operating since 2007,
also encourages recycling initiatives established by other companies, such as Freitag in
Switzerland and Reversible in France. The implementation of this systematic recycling loop
involves a Lifecycle Analysis (LCA), a standardised method (ISO 14040-14043) consisting
of a group of indicators that measure environmental impact. This provides information
on all exploited resources; it measures the pollutants that are emitted during the pro-
duction of a textile and makes it possible to determine the product’s utilisation period,
the method of its disposal and the recycling of its waste products.

19
 Resources Production of raw
extraction material

t e r i a l 
ma
w

pr
ra

od
New

uc tion
Incineration
Recycling

Landfill Composite material Other manufacturing

manufacturing facilities

Product Making up
life & installation

The LCAs, which are double-checked by independent international organisations such

as the EVEA (France) and the CIRAIG (Canada), have systematically shown that the main
environmental impact (on average 80%) is associated with the extraction and the produc-
tion of raw materials. The recycling of products and the creation of new raw materials from
this is therefore a decisive factor in significantly reducing the extent of environmental
impact. The LCA established for the product Batyline gives clear evidence of the efficiency
of the Texyloop initiative. It shows that recycling is extremely profitable in terms of limiting
harmful effects and in contributing to sustainable development. Of course, the lifetime of
materials also has a direct influence on energy savings.

The concept of sustainability

The sustainability of a product has to be considered in terms of its structural integrity and
contractual guarantees, but also in terms of its aesthetic characteristics over the years.
The long-term performance of the mechanical characteristics of a composite membrane
is directly proportional to the thickness of the coating layer and the crest of the yarns.
It is no longer the aim to produce very large quantities of disposable and renewable prod-
ucts, which will be buried, incinerated, dumped or burned in the open air at the end of their
lifetime; the focus is rather on increasing the lifespan of the material, to make it modifi-
able and transformable. The Serge Ferrari group has also proved to be an innovator in this
respect, especially with its range of Précontraint membranes which have a considerably
extended lifetime due to an extremely efficient protective layer. During the coating process
a fabric is normally kept under tension only in the direction of the warp. The Précontraint

20
 Composite PVC membranes and textiles

Crushing

Selective
Regenerated solvents
dissolving

Solvent
regeneration
Fibre
separation

PVC
PVC + solvent Additives
precipitation

Polyester fibres Supple PVC

technology, on the other hand, aims to keep the yarns of the fabric under tension in both
directions, warp and weft. Holding it very flat at the moment of coating, the fabric attains
an excellent level of protection of the yarns at both peaks and troughs of the surface profile,
with a controlled thickness, a characteristic that has a direct impact on the weight. These
performance enhancements facilitate the implementation of the textile in architecture,
its deformations are easier to calculate, and they help improve the product’s environ­-
mental quality, particularly concerning energy savings.

Textiles as they contribute

to energy savings
The particular properties of textiles integrated into buildings can also contribute to sus-
tainable construction by influencing the total energy balance. The quality of certain textiles
concerning transparency, translucence, insulation and solar protection are additional
benefits for low energy buildings. At Serge Ferrari, the function (LowE) is obtained by the
calib­rated application of an aluminised treatment to the fabric. This acts as a thermal bar-
rier: in winter the textile retains heat and in summer repels heat, helping to reduce climate
control costs. This function reinforces the thermal solutions already afforded by flexible
membranes used notably to provide permanent or removable solar protection to building
façades. In addition, the fabric’s translucence is not reduced, thereby not impeding the
transmission of natural light.
The international exhibition in Shanghai in 2010 showed different examples of sustainable
architecture based on the use of textiles. For instance, there was the “Bamboo House”,

21
presented by the Madrid Pavilion at the exhibition and accessed through the “Air Tree”,
a bioclimatic building designed by the Madrid architectural office Ecosistema Urbano,
which uses wind and solar energies for its operation. The awnings, made of Serge Ferrari
screens Soltis 86 and 92 fabric, tilt with the changing light intensity, thereby imitating a
plant’s phototropic response to its surrounding environment. When night falls, they retract
to reveal a previously hidden “bark” of screens Soltis B92 endowed with insulating thermal
characteristics and which can partially conceal the exterior, thus creating a new interme-
diate space. The translucent and luminous quality of the centre of the “tree” is created by
an additional shell made of Serge Ferrari Précontraint 402 fabric. The roof is composed
of an opaque Précontraint 702 S membrane with a motif imprint facing the sky, and on the
reverse side a perforated screens Soltis 86 fabric, which offers a view of the motifs while
screening visitors from the sun’s rays.
The German pavilion tackled the problem of sustainable construction head on: with an
image of dynamic town-planning, this pavilion reflected the diversity of life in the German
cities and countryside. The four large exhibition buildings, intertwined with each other,
provided a symbol of solidarity. Individually each structure would be in precarious equi-
librium, by interacting they attain perfect harmony. This interdependence highlights
the connections between the interior and exterior spaces, the play of light and shade,
of building and nature, of urban and rural landscapes. Such equilibrium is a necessary
environmental responsibility. The choice of Stamisol, an eco-designed, sustainable and
100% recyclable textile, as the textile for the façade, is a decisive element for the pro-
ject’s coherence.

Madrid Pavilion at EXPO Shanghai 2010.

22
German Pavilion at EXPO Shanghai 2010.

23
Conclusion
Textiles underwent a revolution in the 20 th century from purely domestic use, more or
less widespread, towards industrial use, thus giving birth to a wide range of application.
The subtle and complex ways of synthesising and manufacturing fibres has undoubtedly
turned this into a high technology sector, to the point where textiles provide solutions in
the most unexpected places. Just as they are increasingly becoming useful materials to
civil engineers, alongside concrete or steel, the concerns of our time reinvest textiles with
an essential ingredient: that of nature. Whether in imitation or respect, textile research
closely observes our natural world and at the same time honours it. If we are to believe
Philip Drew, who places textiles at the heart of the debate of modernity in architecture,
and if we recognise the efforts of manufacturers to make this material the central element
of a new urbanism, one that takes account of its environmental impact, then this material
has every opportunity of seeing its identity evolve from being our second skin to being our
building’s second skin, at the same time protective and inspiring.

24
The “Tubaloon”, a temporary stage for the musical festival in Kongsberg, Norway.
 2

Textile
by BERNARD MAURIN
and RENÉ MOTRO

architecture

Conceptual design process

The basic idea for a textile architecture project originates during early meetings between
the architect and the engineer. The morphologic richness of such projects is provided by
the varying curvatures of shapes, in contrast to the classical straight lines of orthogonal
architecture. However the rules of construction are quite different in terms of realisation
and of mechanical behaviour: textile membranes are subjected to a pre-stress confer-
ring them their rigidity, and a major objective is to manage the coupling between internal
forces and curvatures for a given material. This explains the necessity of collaborative
work between architects and engineers from the early stages of the conceptual design
process, in order to offer the best morphological expression while ensuring the feasibility
of the project.
The first drawings are progressively formalised by the architect so as to define the overall
shape and the main components, such as principal masts (2.1).

2.1 

Membrane in the style of a “double Chinese hat”.

Standalone solution. First drawings and models.

26
 2.2 

Form-finding process
with dedicated software.

On the basis of these first drawings the engineer has to model the project, determining
the shape using a so-called “form-finding process”, based on numerical methods. Several
commercial or proprietary software applications are available: all the fixed points have to
be defined during this form-finding stage (2.2).

The sizing of the membrane is determined by a mechanical study under external loads
that are defined by reference to current design rules. It must be underlined that climatic
loads (wind and snow) are taken into account by combining their effects with those of
the membrane pre-stress. A very important stage of the engineering study relies upon
the so-called “cutting pattern”: the designer has to geometrically define the flat strips
that will, once assembled, constitute the curved surface. Many criteria are taken into
account, aesthetics, durability, but also those related to the orthotropic character of the
textile. Several methods are used in order to reach a shape in accordance with the initial
morphology, not forgetting the importance of reducing the size of the strips. This size
reduction facilitates the pre-stressing of the strips during assembly, in agreement with
the level fixed during the mechanical behaviour calculations (2.3).

2.3 

Cutting, welding and

assembling the strips
inside the factory.

The membrane can then be transported to the site, positioned, fixed to main masts and
other anchoring points, before implementation of the calculated pre-stress allows the
desired morphology to be realised (2.4).

2.4 

Final realisation.

27
2.5  2.6 

Cables and beam: V-shape as elementary

tension T would be curved geometrical
impossible possible infinite for cables. model.

Basic engineering principles

Architectural textiles, when used for achieving shaped membranes, are under tension
before the action of any external loads; this tension is known as initial pre-stress (also
referred to as pretension). The overall membrane rigidity is further conditioned by its cur-
vature at any point. Curvature and pre-stress are characteristic of membrane design. When
compared to classical engineering studies, two specific main stages apply for membranes:

– the form-finding process enables the geometrical definition of their surfaces,

which is closely coupled with the pre-stress distribution;
– the patterning stage is a geometrical definition of flat strips that will be assembled
so as to realise the curved surfaces previously defined by the form-finding process.

Standard engineering analysis is then undertaken with a specific criterion; compression

is not possible since it creates wrinkles. It should also be noted that the resultant effect
of climatic actions and pre-stress is not an addition of their separate incidences but a
combination, whose level is generally lower than their strict addition.
The membrane fabrication is also of great importance; how to design and size the plane
strips so as to realise the designed shape when they are welded together and erected on
site, is a major issue to solve.

Equilibrium of cables and

membranes under load
Since it is possible to model a membrane using a cable net, it is useful to study the beha­
viour of a cable, which can only resist tension (the case of a rope in a tug of war). Without
tension the cable is in a slackened state, losing its straight shape, which would give rise
to wrinkles in the modelled membrane.
Theoretically speaking, straight horizontal cables cannot resist a vertical force (F) while
beams can do so by flexion (2.5).

However it is possible to resist a vertical force with cables using a so-called “V shape”. This
V shape for cables is equivalent to the curvature of membranes. Curvature is dependant on
the value of the initial angle α. If α increases, the tension decreases (T2 < T1) and since the
associated cable deformation decreases, the stiffness increases (2.6). By analogy a flat,
or nearly flat, membrane has zero or very low stiffness. Curvature is therefore necessary
for stiffness, and in consequence local codes impose minimum values.

28
Curvature
The definition of a single curvature for a plane curve Cp is based on the properties of the
circle defined by three points M, M’ and M’’ on this curve. Geometrically speaking it can be
established that when M’ and M’’ get closer to M there is a unique circle of radius R that
shares the same tangent line with the curve (2.7).
R is the radius of curvature of the curve at point M and ρ = 1/R is the curvature. If R
increases, ρ decreases (e.g. a flat curve has a zero curvature, R is infinite). The curvature
is defined for each point of Cp.

2.7 

Curvature of a curve
Cp at a point M.

For a spatial case like membrane surfaces, it is usual to define their “double curvature”
at every point.

2.8 

Double curvature of a
surface at any point M.

a b

If we consider a curved surface S intersected by a plane P1, it is possible to define the

curvature of the resulting curve Cp (radius R being defined as previously at point M for a
single plane curve) (2.8 a).
According to the theory of geometry, there exist only two orthogonal planes P1 and P2 for
which R1 (in P1) is maximal and R2 (in P2) is minimal (2.8 b). Planes P1 and P2 define the
directions of the main curvatures; R1 and R2 are the corresponding main radii of curvatures.
The parameter K = 1/R1 · 1/R2 (= ρ1 · ρ2) is the total curvature at point M. If the centres of
circles of radii R1 and R2 are not on the same side of the surface, it is an anticlastic shape
(double negative curvature with K < 0). If the centres of circles are on the same side of the
surface, it is a synclastic shape (double positive curvature, K > 0).

29
2.9 

Pretension:
cable 1
force
case of a bi-cable.

stiffness
divided by 2

cable 2

displacement

2.10 

Anticlastic surface
and modelling of double
curvature at any point. 

Pretension
Let us consider two cables of initial length equal to l0. One of their ends is pinned and they
are joined at their other end, having now a length l. Since l is greater than l0, it is neces-
sary during assembly to introduce a deformation in the cables by lengthening them, con­
sequently introducing a pretension in the cables. When a force F is applied at the junction
node, both cables initially contribute to the equilibrium, until a critical value of displace-
ment v equal to l-l0 (situation A in 2.9) is reached. After this specific value the lower cable
slackens and no longer contributes to the equilibrium (situation B in 2.9). The stiffness
(force divided by the displacement, i.e. the slope of the line) in situation B is half that of A.

Combination of pretension and curvature

For every point on an anticlastic membrane, it is possible to model the double curvature
with two inverted V shapes (AMB and CMD in 2.10) under pretension with the stiffness
ensured in every direction.
A coupled action of curvature and pretension is then possible in order for efficient beha­
viour when combined with the effects of climatic actions. Local codes can impose a min­
imum value for the level of pretension. However, since it will be the only permanent action
in the membrane, a maximum value should be considered in accordance with the fabric’s
tensile and fatigue strength. In practice, tension ranges from 100 to 300 daN/m.
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to give more information on the relationship between
pretension values and radii of curvature, but interested readers can refer to scientific
literature (see bibliography on page 228).

30
2.11 

Form finding with soap

films (ILEK Stuttgart,
Germany).

Form-finding
How to determine the surface shape of a membrane fixed at prescribed points and/or lines
remained a difficult question for many years.1 It is simultaneously necessary to introduce
a pre-stress, whose level must be managed so as to avoid wrinkling or excessive tensions,
while providing sufficient stiffness against climatic actions. The designer wishes also
to dissipate water and has to verify the effective slope everywhere, keeping in mind the
desired aesthetic.
The first step is to specify the anchoring points and lines: the top of a mast, fixed points
(on the ground, on a wall…), straight lines, circular lines (top ring) and the perimeter for
pneumatic membranes. Once these boundary conditions are defined, the form-finding
process is performed with two main objectives: the surface definition and the pretension
distribution, while not forgetting the design constraints.
Designers began to use known morphogenesis methods based on classical geometry and
physical models (“historical models”). Nowadays, even if physical models are acceptable
for preliminary studies, “numerical methods” are currently used.

Analogue methods
Since the main constraint is to have a double-curved anticlastic surface for classic mem-
branes (synclastic for pneumatic ones), designers can use geometrical strategies:

– combination of known surfaces;

– displacement of curves (one called the “director line”, the other the “generator line”);
– analytical methods (e.g. equation of the sphere or use of “splines” – curves that
were used for naval architecture or the car industry).

Pioneers like Frei Otto worked with physical models, mainly with soap surfaces existing
in a boundary frame2 (2.11). These films under surface tension are of great interest since
they are of minimum area and a quasi-homogenous state of pre-stress, consequently
meeting the design constraints. It must however be underlined that the geometrical repro-
duction of the soap films was difficult (photogrammetry was used for some models) and
that the associated morphological register was restricted, leading designers to look for
other approaches.

31
2.12 

Physical models
with Lycra.

Another method used is to create physical models using textiles (2.12). Even if they are quite
impossible to transfer into a precise geometrical definition, they offer advantages like direct
visualisation and the possibility of directly patterning on the model. They are still commonly
used in the very early stages of design.

Numerical methods
Several numerical methods were then developed to overcome the drawbacks of physical
models. K. Linkwitz, who was involved in the Munich Olympic stadium project with Frei Otto
(1972, 2.13) proposed the “Force Density Method” (FDM) that he developed with H.-J. Schek.3
He modelled the membrane with a tensile cable net and designed it using FDM, which makes it
possible to solve equilibrium equations using a prescribed linearisation: the engineer chooses
the “force density coefficients” (tension/length ratio for each cable element connected to a
net node).
For identical boundary conditions, different choices of these coefficients result in various
shapes. This user-friendly method was quickly imported for tensile membrane form-finding,
even though there are some key differences: distinction between the geometry of a tensile
cable net and a tensile membrane, sensitivity to anchoring conditions, tension calculation in
cable elements but not in a membrane. Further improvements followed such as the “surface
density method”.

2.13 

Force density method for

cable nets form-finding.
Left, form-finding pro-
cess; right, realisation.

32
Another popular method, introduced by M. Barnes, is that of “Dynamic Relaxation” (DR)4 in
which equilibrium equations are solved by calculating a damped geometry in a dynamic pro-
cess considering so-called “kinetic damping”. A key feature of this method is that it is based
on a surface modelling of the membrane and it gives the designer control of the pre-stress,
for example to specify a uniform tension state (soap film).
A more classical method, the “Finite Element Method” (FEM), can also be used for surface
modelling .5, 6 Two strategies are available:

– an initial shape “close to” the target one is prescribed and progressively modified by
displacement of anchoring conditions. It is however difficult to evaluate the obtained
form and tensions (the resulting shape is not always satisfactory: for instance, the
existence of compressive areas) and this may require large calculation times;
– an initial shape is prescribed with a specification of the tension distribution. Here also,
it is difficult to evaluate the obtained form and it is necessary to assess whether the
tensions are compatible with an equilibrated shape.

Another efficient approach, also based on a surface modelling of the membrane, called the
“Update Reference Strategy”, has been developed more recently by K.-U. Bletzinger.7

Patterning
Like clothes that are the result of the assembly of cut flat pieces of fabric, the realisation
of the membrane resulting from the form-finding process requires the definition of flat
cut pieces. This definition is complex since many parameters must be taken into account.
The first one is relative to the spatiality of the form: cutting lines are prescribed on a tridi-
mensional shape to generate intermediate “strips”. These strips are however not planar, and
must be “flattened”, since the fabricator has to cut them out of manufactured fabric rolls.
Moreover, to satisfy the required pre-stress, they must be reduced before the final assem-
bly by thermo-welding. This size reduction requires a very good knowledge of the geometric
parameters and the mechanical characteristics of the fabric, itself an orthotropic material.
An incorrect pattern definition may lead to wrinkles and areas of insufficient pre-stress.
Even if several software applications are helpful in this operation, the designer’s skill and
experience remains the main guarantee of its success. Three operations are included in the
patterning process: choice of the seam lines, flattening of a curved strip, and tension com-
pensation by size reduction.

Seams
In order to manipulate seams and cutting lines the designer has to consider many parameters
that can be classified as follows:

– technology: size of textile rolls (1.8 m wide for example), manufacturer’s equipment
(welding devices);
– cost: a higher number of seams will result in better accuracy but also in greater fabric
cutting wastage;
– geometry: the total curvature represents the difficulty of mapping the surface onto
a plane. A zone with high curvature may lead to smaller panels;

33
2.14 

a Radial strips.
b Membrane for
a dolphinarium
(Parc Astérix,
Paris, France).

a b

– mechanics: a good knowledge of the main stress directions under loading is necessary
to guide the positioning of the warp and weft directions (higher strength and rigidity
in warp). Particular zones, mainly at boundaries may also govern the choice (con-
nection to membrane edge cables or rigid rings, etc.). A common configuration uses
radial strips (2.14 a);
– fabric behaviour: it is characterised by its orthotropic composition;
– aesthetics: a consistent visual rhythm is generally central for the architect
(2.14 b).

The final choice is the result of compromises between all these parameters. Practically speak-
ing, two main strategies are used to determine the seam lines:

– the use of geodesic lines (shortest path between two points, the equivalent of a
“straight line” on a curved surface);
– the use of intersecting planes (e.g. vertical cut of surfaces).

The designer also has to be careful when larger sections are assembled as the number and
size of strips on the connecting lines have to be equal.

Flattening
The objective is to determine the planar unfolded form of the strip (2D strip development)
corresponding to the tridimensional strip defined on the surface after form-finding.
The variation of the total curvature K, previously defined as a geometric characteristic of
surfaces, implies that there is no theoretical exact solution for double-curved membranes.
The difference of K values shows the difficulty of transforming a curved surface into a planar
one and vice-versa. With a flat sheet of paper it is possible to generate a cone or any other
developable surface but it is impossible to create a sphere. The solutions proposed to map the
Earth demonstrate this impossibility. Since there is no exact solution, different maps exist:

– equivalent flattening (preserves areas);

– equidistant flattening (preserves distances);
– conformal flattening (preserves angles: as with Mercator’s map).

Nevertheless, it is impossible to simultaneously preserve the areas and lengths of a non-

developable surface. The designer is therefore faced with the difficulty of transforming curved
strips into planar surfaces in an operation known as “flattening”. Several approaches based

34
2.15 

Flattening by simple
triangulation.

on various optimisation techniques can be used (different approaches to minimise errors).

It can be said that flattening causes more errors than form-finding. The simplest way is to
use a simple triangulation (2.15).

Compensation
If the strip sizes were strictly equal to the dimensions measured on the surface, the assem-
bly of strips would not be in pretension after installation on site. It is consequently neces-
sary to reduce the size of the strip in a “compensation” stage, which requires taking into
account many factors:

– knowledge of the tension distribution (values defined in the form-finding) and textile
behaviour (mechanical parameters in warp and fill directions: use of bi-axial tests);
– warp and weft compensation (0.2 to 5%) may be not identical and the orientation
of the fabric relative to the seams is important;
– possible local compensation and de-compensation (depends on the context).
– long term behaviour and associated deformation: variation of tension in-situ
(re-tensioning is generally necessary after several months).

From this it is clear that the patterning stage is critical for the design. It may produce errors
in terms of seam determination, strip flattening and compensation, possibly resulting in
difficulties in the erection and appearance of un-aesthetic wrinkles, but can also induce
bad mechanical behaviour due to an inappropriate state of pretension.

35
2.16 

Schematic equilibrium
Snow
of climatic actions
according to the double
curvature.
Wind
Wind

Load analysis
As for any construction the engineer has to proceed to a mechanical analysis of the mem-
branes under load. The main external loads are climatic ones (wind and snow) and they
will be combined with the effect of the internal pre-stress. Several indications result from
this analysis:

– membrane deformation: governs the maximum deflection (generally limited

by local codes);
– maximum membrane stress: determines the minimum fabric strength
(and consequently validates the textile “type”);
– direction of membrane stresses: important cue for seam line positioning
and contiguous strip welding;
– maximum internal forces in the edge cables: allows choice of the minimum
cable diameters;
– forces exerted on supports: required to dimension and design the main structural
components (compressed masts and stays, loaded beams, anchorages, etc.).

The interaction between double curvature and pretension is taken into account at the
design stage. The two directions of curvature play a role in balancing either wind or snow
loads. The deformation of the membrane under a specified load induces variations in the
pretension (2.16):

– the tension increases in one direction and decreases in the other one;
– if the membrane remains tensioned along these two directions, they both
contribute to the stiffness;
– problems occur when the lower tension reaches a zero value: wrinkles appear
and lead to membrane instability.

Normally, the pre-stress level ensures the absence of wrinkling. It could however occur
for the case of high climatic actions (storm).

A textile membrane’s stiffness is, of course, inferior to those of steel or concrete compon­
ents. It is also dependent on the pre-stress level. Moreover, since displacements can be
of high value, it is necessary to proceed to a “geometrical” non-linear analysis. The non-
linear behaviour of the textile also necessitates adapting the stiffness to the deformation
(“material” non linear analysis).

Consequently a non-linear analysis is always required, using a numerical iterative process

(load is applied “step by step” in an incremental fashion).

36
Calculation under snow
Snow is considered as a vertical load, uniformly distributed on the surface if there is no
interaction with wind (no movement of snow over the membrane). The minimum values to
be considered are prescribed by local codes.

It is not especially difficult to numerically calculate the behaviour under snow provided
that there is no membrane wrinkling to generate instabilities.

2.17 

Study of wind effect

(wind tunnel and cable
net model).

Calculation under wind

The effect of wind, considered as a fluid, is always perpendicular to the surface, but the
interaction between the wind and the shape of the structure generates zones under pres-
sure and zones under suction. As for a conventional building, it is necessary to have a
cartography of the external pressure coefficients Ce for the outside faces of the build-
ing; that will be combined with the effect of the wind inside the building (e.g. wind uplift)
characterised by internal pressure coefficients Ci.

It is however generally difficult to evaluate the interaction between the membrane and the
wind. Various approaches are available to evaluate the coefficients Ce and Ci:

– wind tunnel testing on models (2.17) (a good but laborious solution;

scale effects can be sources of errors);
– empirical estimation of the resulting membrane coefficient Ce-Ci
(depending on the engineer’s experience);
– constant Ce-Ci values on the membrane (only acceptable if it results in
a secure situation: the most unfavourable situation);
– computer calculation of Ce-Ci using dedicated software (this, however,
necessitates careful assessment of the result).

37
 Additional loadings
Other load cases are sometimes studied, such as dynamic earthquake analysis or nat­
ural wind vibrations. Specific assumptions are also necessary for the design of inflatable
membranes (constant pressure or constant volume, etc.). The erection procedure may also
require a specific study if it generates dangerous mechanical situations; this is mainly
dependent on the local context.

Conclusion
Textile membrane design requires specific expertise from the designers at all stages: first
sketches, form-finding, patterning and load analysis require close collaboration between
architects and engineers. This partnership generally provides satisfying results in terms
of architecture and cost.

1 Motro, R.; Maurin, B., “Mem- 3 Linkwitz, K.; Schek, H.J., 5  Haug, E.; Powell, G.H., “Finite 7  Bletzinger, K.U.; Ramm, E.,
branes textiles architecturales. “Einige Bemerkungen zur Element Analysis of Nonlinear “A General Finite Element
Comportement mécanique des Berechnung von vorgespannten Membrane Structures”, in: IASS Approach to the Form Finding
systèmes tissés”, in: Trompette, Seilnetzkonstruktionen”, Pacific Symp. on Tension Struc- of Tensile Structures by the
Ph. (ed.), Comportement méca- Ingenieur-Archiv 40, 1971, tures and Space Frames, Tokyo Updated Reference Strategy”,
nique des tissés, Cachan and p. 145-158. and Kyoto, 1972, p. 124-135. International Journal of
London, Hermès-Lavoisier, 2006, Space Structures, vol. 14, 1999,
p. 17-70. 4  Barnes, M.R., “Applications of 6  Haber, R.B.; Abel, J.F., “Initial p. 131-246.
Dynamic Relaxation to the Design Equilibrium Solution Methods
2 Otto, F., Tensile Structures, and Analysis of Cable, Membrane for Cable Reinforced Membranes
vols. 1 and 2, Cambridge, MA, and Pneumatic Structures”, in: – Part I and II”, Computer
MIT Press, 1973. 2nd International Conference on Methods. Applied Mech. Eng.,
Space Structures, New York, vol. 30, 1982, p. 263-89 and p.
Guildford, 1975. 285-306.

38
 3

Design details for

by BERNARD DORIEZ
and RENÉ MOTRO

successful
implementation

Introduction
Compared to traditional coverings, a tensioned technical textile structure transfers forces
more directly to its fixings, concentrating the total force generated by the structure to its
points of attachment.
Due to the tensile strength of reinforced fabrics, a textile structure can cover large spans
without additional supporting frames. The membrane structure will thus concentrate all
forces arising from climatic conditions, its self-weight and tensioning, onto the points of
attachment. This concentration of forces requires that the design engineer and the fabric
manufacturer must have detailed knowledge of the performance of the components used
to make the anchorages.
The behaviour of the anchorages and the mechanisms that hold them in place is a key
issue, and certainly the most important consideration for any technical textile application.
Full-scale trials and practical experience gained during the construction of new projects
can truly broaden the skills of the builders and engineers involved. The fittings, i.e. the
mechanical components of the anchorage points, together with a suitable membrane
tensioning system, must be designed to a size and specification that delivers the required
strength and the necessary tension adjustments.
The examples presented, non-exhaustive by definition, show some possibilities of anchor-
ing a membrane to its supporting structure. One should note that the range of possibili-
ties is extensive, rendering standard solutions somewhat impractical. Each project, each
membrane with its particular form, its integration into the actual site and the nature of
the structure which will receive it, implies a new concept from the architect; and then
from the engineer, who must adapt the detail and the dimensioning of the anchorage to
the particular constraints.

40
Implementation challenges
Given the aforementioned conditions it is important to ensure precise design of the anchor-
ages, which in turn provide a secure connection between the membrane and the rigid
structural components. There are two requirements that designers need to focus on:

– ensuring conceptual and geometrical continuity between the membrane

and the anchorage elements and,
– designing the anchorage elements to include, in most cases, mechanisms
for tension adjustment.

The pretension comes from the characteristic shaping of an inverse double curvature
and the modification of this form (in other words, stretching) by the anchorage elements.
The adjustment mechanisms allow the level of tension to be attuned to the required level.
It is this prestress that gives the membrane its rigidity.
Bad design and implementation of a textile membrane structure will result in a loss of
rigidity, and in the occurrence of unattractive folds. These folds reveal the existence of
compression zones in a membrane that should be in tension. They remain for the whole
lifetime of the structure, whereas folds resulting from climatic conditions (wind and/or
snow) are temporary. It is for this reason that a lot of care should be invested in the design,
dimensioning and manufacture of the anchorages.

Classification of textile
membranes
The choice of a textile membrane’s shape leads one to identify two classes according to
their double curvature. Further choices concern the tensioning devices and especially the
nature of the structures for which they are intended: peaks (mast heads or/and spars) and
lines (rigid edges, flexible edges).

Inflatable systems
Morphologically these correspond to systems with positive double curvature. After the first
applications of the principle of inflatable envelopes by the Montgolfier brothers and Jean
Baptiste Meusnier in 1783, there was no further important development until the 1940s.
One can differentiate between airborne systems comprising a low-pressure double skin,
and those that use tubes inflated to high pressure. The latter are not covered by this text;
their anchorage methods are very specific.

41
 Systems based on edges and peaks
Morphologically these correspond to systems with negative double curvature. The pre-
stress of these systems can be achieved either:

– with linear style boundary conditions, rectilinear or curvilinear (made with rigid
sides and/or flexible sides reinforced with “stiffening cables”). One thus obtains
varied forms that allow the membrane to merge with other systems (for example,
suspension from existing structures). The advantages of this type of solution
include the possible division of the membrane, the attachment of partitioning
elements, high durability for a low cost of ownership, ease of disassembly, as well
as better sound insulation than that of inflatable systems. However, the necessary
calculations are more difficult than for the class of systems based on positive
double curvature. The pretension and its control require particular care. In certain
cases it is necessary to provide lifting devices for adjacent constructions such as
for example, three-dimensional arches;
– with point type boundary conditions through the use masts or spars, and related
devices (load rings, rosettes, etc.). This type of solution allows larger spans and a
larger range of shapes while retaining the ability of suspension from existing struc-
tures. The equilibrium surfaces are relatively complex and are subject to detailed
calculations. The adjustment of pretension during the installation requires great
care. In architectural terms, the closure solutions sometimes pose difficult prob-
lems. Careful control of pretension is therefore essential. From an architectural
point of view it is sometimes very difficult to find solutions for membrane closure.
As a consequence, careful checking of the prestress is essential.

Types of application
Tensioned technical textile membranes can be adapted to a wide variety of supporting
structures. They can be specific to the application type, as in the case of the “Chinese hat”
type project in 3.1. In this example the membrane is connected to a circular metal girder
and to a central mast that generates the peak.

3.1 

Membrane in the style of

a “Chinese hat”.
Standalone solution.

42
 3.2 

System of metal and

fabric: view from the
outside and inner
metal frame supporting
the apex. 

3.3 

Membrane anchored
onto existing
buildings. 

Architectural compositions also encourage the inclusion of combined metal - textile com-
ponents combining metal frameworks and membranes. In the case shown (3.2) one or
more height adjustable masts connect to a metal framework and form the peaks, while
the membrane is laced over a tubular metal ring at its edge. The geometry of the contours
is chosen by the designer; the choice determines the fabric panel cutting width.

One notes that in the first two projects presented, the design of the anchoring framework
takes place in parallel with design of the membranes. This is not always the case; it is
possible to anchor the membrane onto existing buildings (3.3). Of course, one must ensure
that the forces thus generated can be balanced and dissipated by the existing structures .

Connection details
The modeling and research of shape that the engineer undertakes using software designed
to analyse the very specific behavior of tensile structures, defines the geometry of the
membranes and their attachments to the anchorages. It is then necessary to develop the
appropriate manufacturing detail for the membrane’s attachment points.
In accordance with the technical and architectural specifications of each anchorage,
the engineer develops the appropriate solution and designs the attachment detail.
The ma­nufacturer then applies his specialist knowledge of the fabric characteristics to
realise membrane attachment points specific to the anchorage requirements.

43
Lacing cords
This is a classical procedure (taken from sailing ship construction) for connecting the
edges of a fabric membrane to a straight or slightly curved element. Holes are made in
the fabric and reinforced by eyelets or metal plates; the cord goes through the eyelets
and is laced to an element that is generally also made of metal (e.g. a plain circular rod),
connected to the frame (3.21).

Membrane corners
Not all the edges of the textile membrane are straight, and in many cases stiffening cables
are inserted into guides fixed along the textile borders. At a membrane corner, the tail ends
of the two adjoining stiffening cables are connected to a carefully designed metallic plate,
the “membrane corner plate”. The corner plates must be precisely machined, as they fre-
quently need to allow tensioning of the stiffening cables that support the membrane edges.
The tension levels must be calculated such that the forces transmitted by the membrane
corners are absorbed by the supports that receive them. All constituent parts must be
correctly dimensioned: metal plate thickness, diameter of the threaded parts, bolts and
shackles. The design of these fittings also contributes to the general appearance: if under-
sized it can result in a rupture (with catastrophic consequences), if oversized it detracts
from the visual slenderness synonymous with technical textile-based structural systems.

Design requirements for the technical details

The technical design of the membrane corner plates requires particular expertise. In the
example show in figure 3.4, the coincidence of alignment of the two cables and the threaded
central adjustment rod is ensured. In this case the forces in the two cables are not identical,
resulting in a slight asymmetry concerning the plate angles, and also concerning the
connection of the plate with the membrane, as indicated by the openings introduced
for access to the tensioning bolts. One of the design difficulties lies in the requirement
that the force lines should coincide. The engineer will be aware of this when designing
the membrane corners, and must ensure this criterion in calculating the “in-service”
tension conditions.

44
 3.4 

Membrane corner.
Technical details and
dimensions.
Tmax 3.4 t (2.4 t)

2 “reinforcements” below and

on top, welded seams a = 5 mm
In un-tensioned condition 10 mm for 2, 3, 7, 8
5 mm for 5, 10

Plate 5 mm

Tmax 3.4 t (2.4 t)

Cutting line of membrane Counterplate 5 mm with

screw M6 for 2, 3, 7, 8 below
and on top
Screw below for 5, 10

In semi-tensioned condition

Washer for M24 5 mm embossment for placing

the washer

Stainless steel tube length 100 mm welded seam below/on top a = 5 mm

42.16 x 2.77 1’1/4 SCH10
or 42.4 x 3.2 DN32

Threaded terminal Jakob M24

for cable Ø16 mm

3.5 

Simple membrane corner.

45
 Simple corner
When the cable forces are weak it is possible to use a membrane corner without a complex
tensioning mechanism (3.5). Assembly is simplified by directly attaching the two edge
cables to the anchorage pole. Adjustment of the membrane tension is achieved by varying
the tension of the guy “cables” securing the anchorage pole to the ground.
It is also possible to fix the membrane corner directly to the mast using an anchorage that
comprises a shackle, a plate and a counter-plate (3.6). Fixing is made to a ring welded to
the mast. It is nonetheless necessary to remember that such a connection at the central
part of the mast induces internal bending forces where the mast is already anchored at the
top. This solution is not suitable when large tension forces are required; not least because
it is difficult to control the membrane tension, itself a function of the mast position.

Adjustable corner
A suitable adjustable solution would be a final design such as that seen in 3.7. In this
example the two edge cables are provided with threaded end-pieces that pass through
two twin tubes at the edges of the membrane corner plate before being secured by bolts.
The metal plate itself is connected to the anchorage (pole or other) by a bolted threaded
rod that passes through a third central tube integral with the plate.

3.6 

Connection at a central
part of the mast.

3.7 

Membrane corner plate –

Hollow section ø26.9x2.6 lg50mm fabrication detail.

Hollow section ø26.9x2.6 lg30mm

46
In figure 3.8 one can see the realisation of such a membrane corner. Also visible is a runoff
pipe for rainwater. This is shown as an example of careless detailing. The rainwater will
run directly over the metal plate and more particularly, over the screw threads giving rise
to durability concerns, notwithstanding the use of corrosion resistant stainless steel.
A simple solution is to extend the tube such that it passes through the metal plate to where
the run-off water can be directed so as not to cause deterioration.

3.8 

Membrane corner
plate – installed.

Membrane corner – mast fixing

In this design (3.9) the edge cables are of a fixed length without a system of adjustment. They
are directly connected to the suspension plate that is fixed to the mast by shackles. Two chain
plates (metal straps) provide the connection of the counter-plate to the plate. The arch-
shaped counter-plate is bolted to the end of the membrane fabric. Tensioning the membrane
is achieved by pulling the two guy cables that are fixed by metal lugs to the top of the mast.

3.9 

Membrane
corner  – mast
fixing.

47
 Non-adjustable edge cables
A second more rugged system with non-adjustable cables is illustrated in figure 3.10: two
non-adjustable cables are connected to the traction plate, and a fabric strap sewn around
a “delta” ring ensures that the membrane remains tight in the traction axis. In this system,
as in the previous illustration, the membrane is also tensioned by one or several guy cables
fixed to the mast.

3.10  3.11 

Non-adjustable edge Connection by shackle

cables. at the top of the mast.

Simple mast connection

A classic system of connecting a membrane corner to the top of a mast (3.11) consists of two
edge cables that can be adjusted with threaded end-pieces, and a plate that is fixed to the
mast by a shackle (here with a swivel to allow some rotation). Once again, the principal tension
is regulated by adjusting the mast’s guy cable; the tension of the membrane fabric is adjusted
by the edge cables (by tightening the bolts holding the threaded cable ends). The membrane
fabric has been reinforced by applying a double layer at its outer edges.

the poles
In the case of membranes secured by peripheral connection points, poles represent
a classical choice for the lower connections (3.12).

3.12 

The Dolphinarium
covering at Parc Astérix,
Paris, France.

48
 3.13  3.14 

ø15 for axe ø13

Simple pole. Tripod.
Top t10

Transverse plate t10

Holes for
galvanisation

ø14 for axe ø10

ø18 for axe ø16

Mast ø60.3x2.9
Holes for galvanisation

Disc ø70 t10

ø18 for bl M16 8.8

Foot plate t10

The poles can be simple metal tubes (3.13). They are equipped with welded components that
allow, at one end, a pin-joint connection, and at the other, lugs for connection of the membrane
corner plates. The foot plate forms one of the two elements of the joint.

The poles are stabilised with two ropes that also serve to tension the structure. In some cases
more complex solutions are used; combining three tubes together to form a tripod (3.14).

Central supporting masts

Elevated membrane supports can be achieved by the use of metal fixings and rosettes (rings)
suspended from a mast, as is the case of the Dolphinarium at Parc Astérix (3.12). The mast
must then be stabilised by guy cables. Central supporting masts are a solution for the crea-
tion of internal peaks. Generally used for structures in the style of “Chinese hats”; they are
semi-hinged at the base with a threaded assembly allowing length adjustment (3.15). At the
mast head, the membrane is secured by bolting the fabric between a circular plate and ring
assembly (3.16).

3.15 

Central
supporting
Tree like HS ø26x2.3 mast.
6 elements

Ø48.3x2.9
HS ø76.1 cap (Fond GRC ø76.1x2.9)
With central hole for galvanization

Ecrou M30 + rondelle / Nut M30 + washer

Internal disc ø69 / ø33 continuous welding a=4
Internal disc ø69 / ø33 4 external welding points Disc ø421/341 t5mm welded
on ring for fixing membrane
+ dismontable same disc t10
for clamping

ø 10 for blocking axe ø8 Mast ø76.1x2.9

Tige filletée M30 lg600 /Threaded rod M30 lg600

49
3.16 

Supporting device for

the peak.

The membrane is tensioned by adjustment of the mast height using the screw mechanism
at its base; to avoid overstressing the membrane it may be necessary, at the same time,
to adjust the stiffening cable tensions at the lower corner connections.

Variants and specific

technical solutions
By adapting technical solutions to current projects, the designer can produce a multiplicity
of options. He must keep in mind the general requirements concerning mechanical con-
nections, while proposing shapes and dimensions that are in harmony with the general
architectural principles of membrane structures. A principal requirement of this type
of structural system is achieving the required membrane tension, indispensable for its
rigidity. This is a field where the creativity of the designer is at the forefront: the proposed
solutions will determine not only the ease of construction, but also the resulting costs.
While not exhaustive, selected examples are given in the following section.

Structural choices: form and connection

Façade canopies

Canopy on curved arches

The first example shows a sun-protection canopy over a glass façade. The covering fabric
is associated with a series of gently curved arches. It is bordered at the front edge by
curved cables and laced at the rear to the straight coping while following the profile of the
façade. The arches are grouped in pairs and connected by a horizontal tube, thus forming
a cross-linked system containing two pairs of connected V-shaped crossbars. They are
joined to the top façade panel and also to the tops of beams that are integrated in the
façade. Cables in the form of Saint Andrew’s crosses ensure bracing (3.17).

50
 3.17 

Canopy on
curved arches.

“Flying” struts
The impression of lightness can be underlined by the use of metal tubes of which at least
one end is stabilised by a grouping of a minimum of three cables. These completely com-
pressed tubes are called struts. This solution was adopted for the canopy topping the
façade in 3.18. The tensioning here is ensured by the struts, with toggles and turnbuckles
allowing a connection at the outer corners of the canvas. The struts are tied to the façade
by guy wires.

3.18  3.19 

“Flying” “Flying
struts. masts”.

If the two ends of the compressed tube are connected to the suspension system, this
gains even greater freedom in space, and can even be regarded as a “flying mast”. In the
case shown in figure 3.19 the upper tensioning system is simply the membrane itself. It is
necessary to provide a metal collar reinforcement in order to distribute the force and to
avoid penetrating the fabric.

51
 Grandstands and shelters
Having a completely unrestricted view or unilateral access to a building in one unbroken
line are imperatives of classical architecture. In this context Eduardo Torroja contrib-
uted a masterful solution with his concrete shells for the La Zarzuela horse racecourse
in Madrid. Textile membranes offer structural and morphological solutions that mirror
Torroja’s example. In these two structures, the grandstand of a stadium (3.20) and a bicycle
shelter (3.21), the scales may be different, but in both cases you can find an inclined sup-
porting frame supplied with two parts that serve as suspension lines holding the tubes to
which the membrane is laced. The stability of the construction requires the installation
of tie bars at the rear to counteract the cantilever forces.

3.20 

Stadium grandstand:
“horse saddle” membrane
laced at the edge.

3.21 

Bicycle shelter.

52
 Innovative detailS
The relevance of the choice of solutions connecting the membrane to the support often
depends upon the coherence of the design: it is necessary to combine the separate connec-
tion elements to a homogenous unit in terms of dimensioning as well as from an aesthetic
point of view (3.22).

3.22 

Design for the connec-

tion of fabric, corner
plate and concrete pole.

The open design of the fabric corner plate offers a lighter visual impression that offsets
the imposing dimensions of the concrete support.
It is always the task of the designer to propose innovative solutions; for example, creating
a tensioning system that is in harmony with the project being undertaken. The following
two suggestions were made and developed for tensioning a continuous edge cable (3.23
and 3.24).

An ingeniously simple tensioning system, placed at the ends of an arch, allows the use of
one single length of stiffening cable extending from one end to the other, with intermedi-
ate tension adjusters.

3.23  3.24 

Simple tensioning Continuous edge

system for continuous stiffening cable retained
stiffening cable. at the end of the strut.

53
 3.25  3.26 

Creating tension by Construction “lightened”

weighting the membrane. by thin cables.

But also …
Particular project specifications can generate very special technical solutions. A unique
system: ballast bags filled with sand create the required tension through their own
weight applied to the gantries at the membrane’s extremities. This solution was devised
in response to the impossibility of ground anchorages at this archaeological site (3.25).

The delicacy of textile construction also places demands on the other elements. In order
to avoid the use of massive arches to support the membrane, the designer established an
intermediate supporting system similar to that historically developed by Polonceau, and
whose name it bears. This design makes use of practically invisible cables attached to two
slender “deltas” that together contribute to the structure’s lightness (3.26).

And after that, it only remains to let the sails join the realm of the birds by reducing to an
absolute minimum their connection to the supporting masts (3.27). Here the contrasting
colours between the membranes and masts contribute greatly to this impression.

3.27 

Sails suspended by
wind-braced masts.

54
Conclusion
It is clear that the use of technical textiles provides architectural solutions that offer sig-
nificant savings in material resources. The design of the technical details for their imple-
mentation requires specific skills on the part of the engineer: imagination, a mechanical
background and technological experience. The engineer’s role is to ensure the transition
from concept to final construction; economy of material set against expenditure of grey
matter.
 4

Textile
by STEFANO BERTINO,
ANDREA GIOVANNI MAININI 
and TIZIANA POLI

Façades

Innovation is a prerequisite for every project. Textile façades are born of such an objective;
far from ephemeral they represent a means of realising durable and high performance
architectural solutions. The main goals for the designer are assessing the different and
complex “surface tensile stresses”, checking sophisticated frame details and developing
new structural concepts and shapes. Textile architecture and textile building envelopes
are the result of continuous study aimed at balancing many different constraints.

 T extile envelope:
performance and
application fields
Independent of the chosen technical solutions and the structural design criteria, the addi-
tional architectural considerations are:

– optimal comfort conditions for end-users of the indoor living space (hygrothermal,
acoustic and visual comfort, air quality);
– the resistance to static loads self-weight, snow and dynamic loads
(wind, earthquake and shock);
– fire resistance;
– impermeability under the combined action of rainwater and wind;
– the control of vapour diffusion and condensation phenomena;
– the required thermal insulation;
– control of light transmission to indoor spaces;
– control of solar radiation (control of solar heat gain);
– sound reduction index;
– the integration and installation of service plant;
– the required service life;
– reduction of the environmental impact.

While the above considerations are all resolved by a textile envelope structure it is neces-
sary to consider a range of additional performance issues related to: the maintainability
(surface cleaning), the substitutability, the surface interface forces between different
textile components and its behaviour under load transfer to primary and secondary struc-
tural support elements.

56
4.1  4.3 

CONI, Sport Center Building, Artificial Ivy in Tefzel with PV cell

Bergamo, Italy. Textile envelope as (ETFE modified by DuPont).
an architectural skin.

4.4. 

4.2  Enlargement of the Santa Giulia Museum,

Brescia, Italy. Example of a full textile envelope.
New Tensoforma Trading Srl office The approach of mimesis deceives the observer
building, Entratico, Italy. Textile until he or she comes into contact with
components as a solar shading the surface.
device.

4.5 

Energain DuPont.

Furthermore it is important to control:

– component deformations under dynamic wind action;

– maximum thermal expansion for each component;
– strain of every structural component (including primary and secondary components)
under applied loads;
– load concentrations on lower mechnically resistant facade areas;
– moisture absorption and thermal stress endurance;
– mechanical and geometrical compatibility of the elements in every assembly
or interface;
– dimensional tolerances.

The level of control undertaken depends upon the type of application. Textile building envel-
opes can be realised as static systems (finishes), as adaptable systems (full textile envelopes)
or to enhance façade performance (adaptive active second skin) according to the environment.
We can thus differentiate between the following applications:

– air and water permeable layer (skin) applied in adhesion to the structure’s outer insu-
lating layer working as an external surface finishing system (textile-coated façade);
– textile layer applied as an external surface finish using a mechanical fastening
system. The inter-layer cavity ventilation level can vary from none to high (4.1);
– textile layer variously permeable to light and air with a solar protection function (solar
transmission control, luminous flux control, thermal resistance increase) (4.2);
– textile layer that can transform or produce energy (amorphous photovoltaic [PV]
integration) (4.3);
– a building envelope system, resilient, adaptive and multilayer (full textile envelope)
(4.4, 4.5).

A more precise classification is given in terms of the specific performance enhancement for
each type of application.

57
 densation on surfaces
Control of vapour con-

Architectural solution
Energy recovery, pro-
Control of total solar
Control of thermal

Noise absorption
Figure (see p. 59)

transformation
Added thermal

Soundproofing
Control of light
transmittance

transmittance
transmission

duction and
Categories

resistance

behaviour
Textile layer (skin) adhesion with outer •
insulating layer Breathable,
1 •
waterproof
membrane
Second textile layer mechanically fixed to inner • •
wall surface Breathable, Coupling
2 • • • •
waterproof with PV
membrane cells

Second textile layer as solar protection •

Second textile layer

Coupling
3 • • • •
with PV
cells

Second textile layer coupled with OLED

4 • •
(Organic Light-Emitting Diode)

Two coupled textile layers enclosing an air gap

5 • • • • • •
or cavity

Two coupled textile layers covering an

6 • • •
insulating layer

Two coupled textile layers enclosing a cavity.

One or two internal surfaces of the cavity have a 7 • • • •
low-emissivity coating

Three textile layers, enclosing two cavities filled with

8 • • •
insulating material

Two coupled textile layers enclosing a cavity. The

9 • • • • •
external surface is covered with PV cells

Three textile layers, enclosing two cavities filled with

insulating material. External surface covered with PV 10 • • • •
cells

Three textile layers, creating two cavities filled with

11 • • • •
air or high insulating gas

Three textile layers, creating two cavities filled with

air or high insulating gas.
12 • • • •
Internal cavities surfaces have a low-emissivity
coating.
Textile envelope/façade

A twin layer pneumatic cushion filled

13 • • • •
with air

A two layer pneumatic cushion filled with

14 • • •
an insulating material

A three layer pneumatic cushion filled

15 • • • •
with air

Building textile envelope type and performance. (Source: T. Poli)

58
1  2  3 

4  5  6 

7  8  9 

10  11  12 

13  14  15 

59
 T
  extile building envelope
systems for diffuse
architecture
Textile envelope solutions can have great scenic and architectural impact, such as the
UBPA B3-2 Pavilion at the EXPO 2010 in Shanghai or the Juventus FC Arena in Turin, where
“ad hoc” architectural designs have been adopted. The range of textile envelope applica-
tions is enhanced by greater flexibility when compared to glass façade technology. Glass,
a rigid and fragile material, is replaced with a flexible and high strength textile element;
verification of structural internal forces now involves different variables, particularly in
relation to the behaviour of the textile envelope.

For example, Tensoforma has developed and patented TEXO, a structural system based
on the use of an elastomeric edge detail interposed between the textile and the chassis,
usually constituted by a hot extruded aluminium profile equipped with a thermal break
and a system of seals and gaskets that provide waterproofing and the control of air flow.
The elastomeric edge detail (4.6, 4.7) produces a uniform and smooth textile surface while
its elasto-plastic behaviour allows the redistribution of applied loads. The textile mem-
brane is connected by sewing to the elastomeric edge detail, which is then inserted into
an appropriate slot in the aluminium profile. The elastomer acts as a “spring”, providing
uniform modular elements and the redistribution of applied loads, while allowing the pos-
sibility of future changes to the textile envelope.

4.6, 4.7 

“Diffuse” technology of
textile building compon­
ents.

The modularity of this type of building envelope is not synonymous with standard forms
or sizes; many different forms and functions may be attained using the textile panels.
The lack of constraint imposed by a textile building envelope system allows free reign to
the designer’s architectural sensitivity, providing a wide variety of individual technical
solutions (4.8 – 4.13).

60
4.8  4.9 

Deichmann Store,
Essen, Germany.

Private house, Vienna, Austria. The textile envelope has a double

function: architectural skin and solar shading device.

4.10  4.11 

Centro Italmoda, Endine-Bergamo, Italy.

PRADA Store, Quingdao, China.

61
4.12 

3M, Sensitive Space

System, Salone interna-
zionale del mobile, Milan,
Italy. Texo system for
interior.

4.13 

Fabbrica – les yeux

ouverts – Centre Pompi-
dou, Paris, France. Texo
system for interior.

62
4.14, 4.15 

UBPA B3-2 Pavilion at

EXPO 2010, Shanghai,
China. Archea Associati.

America’s Cup Base

Lunarossa, Valencia,
Spain. Renzo Piano
Building Workshop.

 T extile building envelope

limitations
The low weight, good strength and high-performance versatility of textile envelopes
does present some important issues in relation to the design, construction and main-
tenance phases. The design of textile envelopes requires a good knowledge of materials
science and technology. Not all textiles behave in the same way (i.e. elongation resistance)
and not all textiles retain their physical integrity and performances over a long period.
Furthermore, the installation of textile envelopes cannot be done by unskilled workers.
The low fire resistance of textile materials must also be balanced by a high fire resistance
of load-bearing elements and elements that link the membrane to the main structure (i.e.
polycarbonate). Textiles facades have additional safety problems due to a low resistance
to local mechanical stresses if the fabric is not reinforced.

Performance checklist for

building designers
The use of textiles as a whole building envelope system, or as an external second skin,
is increasing. Due to the importance of the building envelope, being responsible for the
most significant characteristics affecting the building’s use, checklists of the required
environmental and technical performance characteristics are given. The use of textiles
as intermediate layers for lightweight walls is also an option; as such they are included in
the range of possible applications.

63
 Environmental Performance
A checklist for environmental performance and user comfort

INTERMEDIATE SECOND TEXTILE

LAYER LAYER ENVELOPE

LIGHTWEIGHT TRANSPARENT OPAQUE MULTILAYER

WALL WALL WALL TEXTILE WALL

REQUIRED PERFORMANCE Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles

ENVIRONMETAL COMFORT Acoustic

•
PERFORMANCE insulation4

Light control • •
Night time
• •
privacy

Visual
contact with • •
the outside
Glare control • •
Rendering
• •
of colours

Water
• • • If requested • If requested • •
tightness 1, 3

Water
imperme- • • • If requested • If requested • •
ability 1, 3
Natural
ventilation • • •
capability 2

Intermediate layer Second layer 3 Combined water tightness Textile envelope

1  Water tightness and water 2  Natural ventilation capabil- and water impermeability are 4 Acoustic insulation is critical
impermeability protects inter- ity is recommended to avoid generally not obtined by the for textile envelopes, especially for
mediate and internal layers of green house effects in the gap external second skin alone but in multilayer pneumatic structures.
the wall from degradation by between the second textile skin conjunction with the traditional The absence of a massive layer,
water. The intermediate layer and the wall (transparent and transparent or opaque wall beyond a low sound reduction
can also be used as a vapour opaque). Natural ventilation of behind. index, could give rise to low sound
barrier to prevent vapour diffu- the gap also reduces solar gain insulation and tiresome noise from
sion in a lightweight wall. and cooling loads. the impact of raindrops.

64
 T echnical Performance
A checklist for technical performance

INTERMEDIATE SECOND TEXTILE

LAYER LAYER ENVELOPE

LIGHTWEIGHT TRANSPARENT OPAQUE MULTILAYER

WALL WALL WALL TEXTILE WALL

REQUIRED PERFORMANCE Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles

TECHNICAL THER- Solar factor • •

PERFORMANCE MAL Direct solar
• •
transmittance

Secondary heat
• • •
transfer factor

Solar radiation
• • •
reduction factor

Solar gain
• • •
control 3, 4

Thermal loss
If requested • • • • • •
reduction

Air
If requested If requested If requested • •
permeability 1, 2

Air tightness 1, 2 If requested If requested If requested • •

U-value 6, 5 • •

Intermediate layer Textile envelope

1 In well-insulated buildings 3 Solar gain through the win- 4  Translucent materials may be low emissivity surface treatment.
the major thermal loss in winter dows dominate cooling loads in used to control solar gains. If 98% Metal frames should incorporate
depends upon ventilation and air air-conditioned buildings. The sunlight-transparent membranes thermal breaks (insulation), to
infiltration. A continuous airtight use of a textile second skin can are used, it is necessary to reduce reduce conduction losses through
layer could reduce air infiltration reduce solar gains, reducing cool- solar gain using adaptive or passive the system.
from the outside. ing loads and energy consump- shading systems. Diffuse serig-
tion. The amount of the reduction raphy of one or more layers of the 6  The use of a textile layer with
Second layer depends on the glazed portion of envelope is also a useful strategy low emission surfaces in a cavity
2 In well-insulated buildings the façade and on the solar factor for controlling solar gain. between two different wall sur-
(average wall and roof U-value of the textile. A very low solar fac- faces, increases thermal resist-
< 0.3 W/m2 K) the major amount tor for textile surfaces adjacent to 5  Thermal transmittance U con- ance of the cavity and reduces
of thermal loss in winter depends a transparent wall could reduce trol is critical for multilayer textile thermal transmittance of the wall
primarily on ventilation and air solar gain while also reducing envelopes. This kind of envelope
infiltration. A continuous external light transmission, with resultant has a thermal transmittance U
textile skin could reduce wind reduction in daylight autonomy between 3.3 W/m2 K (2 layers) and
pressure on the transparent or and consequential increase in 1.9 (5 layers). The thermal trans-
opaque wall behind, reducing air energy use for internal lighting. mittance value can be reduced by
infiltration from the outside. using membranes or textiles with a 

65
 INTERMEDIATE SECOND TEXTILE
LAYER LAYER ENVELOPE

LIGHTWEIGHT TRANSPARENT OPAQUE MULTILAYER TEX-

WALL WALL WALL TILE WALL

REQUIRED PERFORMANCE Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles

TECHNICAL DURABILITY Colour

• • • • • •
PERFORMANCE fastness

No degrada­tion
• • • • • •
of appearance

Resistance to
• • • • • •
breakage

Corrosion
• •
resistance

Ultraviolet light
• • •
resistance

Biological agent
• • • • • • • •
resistance

Ageing resistance • • • • • • • •
Fire
• •
resistance 1

Moisture
• • • • • • • •
resistance

Water resistance • • • • • • • •

Textile envelope
1  Fire resistance is critical The resistance to fire is low,
for multilayer textile envelopes. hence it is important to define
The materials are generally adequate separations of
treated to prevent burning, enclosed volumes and struc-
with toxicity levels guaranteed tures to prevent rapid spread of
for different degrees of fire fire through the building.
exposure. The toxicity for the
user depends on the amount
of burning material because
all plastics release dioxin and
other toxic substances when
they burn.

66
 INTERMEDIATE SECOND TEXTILE
LAYER LAYER ENVELOPE

LIGHTWEIGHT TRANSPARENT OPAQUE MULTILAYER TEX-

WALL WALL WALL TILE WALL

REQUIRED PERFORMANCE Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles Frame Textiles

TECHNICAL MECHANICAL Impact

• • • • • •
PERFORMANCE resistance

Wind
• • • • • •
resistance

Tensile stress
• • • • • •
resistance

Intruder
• •
resistance 2

Cutting
• • •
resistance 1

Second layer Textile envelope

1 Cutting resistance is critical 2 Intruder resistance is critical
for a textile second layer, and in for textile second layers and in
particular against vandalism. particular against vandalism.
To provide cutting resistance the
textile may be coupled with plexi-
glass or other plastics. Textiles
with added metal fibres may also
be used.

67
 T extile envelope’s future
for low environmental
impact buildings
The long-term environmental impact analysis of a product is complex and needs to
acknowledge that the analysis of sustainable textile architecture, purely in terms of recy-
clability and a low emission of toxic substances is no longer adequate.
Nowadays sustainable materials have to respect the environment during their whole life
cycle, for which the constraints are:

– use of natural resources

– water use and consumption for production Commonly defined as
– energy consumption for production the standard of the
– energy consumption for transport and execution material

– greenhouse gasses for climate warming emissions

– toxicity for humans and the environment
– common and hazardous waste

The definition of all sustainability indicators is complex because of: lack of information,
and the inter-disciplinary nature of the study necessary for a thorough analysis.

However, products are available that, while maintaining the characteristics of high durabil-
ity and mechanical strength, are “purged” of toxic chemicals.
The major components of a textile building envelope system may be recycled, reducing
the consumption of natural resources and energy:
New industrial processes for separating textile components from coatings makes it pos-
sible to recycle of a wide range of textiles (Texyloop system, developed by Ferrari S.A.).
At the end of the service life the materials may be re-used in a virtuous cycle, re-using raw
materials to make new products.
Notwithstanding the high energy, material and water consumption during production, steel
and aluminium frames have a high recycling index enabling them to be molten and re-used.

The use of lightweight materials for textile envelopes also reduces the energy consumption
for transportation; textiles can be easy rolled for packaging hence optimising the use of
space on trains, planes and trucks.

68
The sustainability of a textile building envelope system when equipped with a second layer
may also be enhanced, depending on the application, by a secondary effect. The build-
ing’s envelope is responsible for the major cost of heating and cooling the interior, the
main loads being:

– building envelope infiltration (winter);

– conduction losses (winter and summer) and;
– solar gain (summer).

Depending upon the building’s shape factor, average wall insulation level, and the ratio
between transparent and opaque wall areas, the application of a well-designed textile
second layer can substantially decrease these annual costs.

69
 5

SOLAR
by MARK COX, TIM DE HAAS,
ROEL GIJSBERS, ARNO PRONK,
IVO VROUWE and JEROEN

Protection
WEIJERS

Introduction
Textile applications can be used in different ways to establish climate control, for example:

– by the use of special materials (phase-changing materials) or coatings;

– by the use of multiple layers of textile;
– by heating or cooling of the membranes;
– by cooling through ventilation of air through the membrane.

A membrane can function in different ways. It can be used as a means of solar protection
or for the purpose of thermal and acoustic insulation. Solar protection devices are used
to prevent solar heating. Non-transparent membranes and multiple-layer membranes are
suitable for this purpose. The thermal insulation value of the construction depends on the
thickness of the membranes and of the spaces between the membranes. Better insulation
can be achieved by using transparent material or reflecting layers.

Heat transfer has become a key issue in building design. In this contribution the basic heat
transfer principles will be discussed and the relations between them explained. On the
basis of these principles we will describe the different methods of climate control with
regard to membrane constructions.

70
Key terms on solar protection
Single-layer textile
Material woven or knitted into one single layer, with poor acoustic and thermal insulation
properties.

Multi-layer textile
Material woven or knitted into double or multi-layers, with potential acoustic and thermal
insulation properties.

Multi-layer insulated membrane roof

Cushions consisting of two or more layers of ETFE membranes with encapsulated air.
The heated air contained between the layers provides thermal and acoustic insulation.
The air inside the cushion is heated by solar energy. It can be extracted and used to heat
the building.

Air-open membrane
A membrane through which air can move freely.

Air tightness
The resistance of the building envelope to inward or outward air leakage. Low air tightness
will result in the increase of energy consumption to compensate for air leakage. Therefore,
air tightness is a major factor in current building design.

Transparent membrane
A membrane through which visible light can pass.

Ventilation
The use of air as a transport medium for cooling or heating. The air can be preheated while
contained between membranes.

Solar transmittance
The percentage of incoming solar radiation that passes through a transparent material.
Single-pane glass has a solar transmittance of approximately 0.8, i.e. 80% of the solar
radiation is transmitted through the glass.

Visible light transmittance

The percentage of incoming visible light that passes through a material, weighted by
the sensitivity of the human eye. Single-pane glass has a visible light transmittance of
approxim­ately 0.9.

Black body
A theoretical radiation source that absorbs all radiation, thus reflecting and transmitting
none.

71
 Basic heat transfer
principles
Heat transfer is an important factor when textiles are used for solar protection. There are
three main heat transfer principles: radiation, convection and transmission.

Radiation emission and radiators

Any material with a specific temperature acts as a radiation source. The emitted radiation
equals the absorbed radiation according to Kirchhoff’s law (5.1).

5.1 

ελ = α λ
Emitted radiation (ελ )
by a material.

The emitted radiation differs according to wavelengths, thus forming a spectrum. This
spectrum is related to the temperature of a black body, a theoretical radiation source,
and is defined by radiation Planck’s law.

2hv3 1
I(v,T) =
c2 ehv/kT-1

I(v,T) = emission for frequency and temperature [Wm-2SrHz]
v = frequency [Hz]
T = temperature [K]
c = speed of light 2.99792458 · 108 [m/s]
k = Boltzmann constant 1.386505 · 10-23 [J/K]
h = Planck constant 6.6260693 · 10-34 [Js]

The spectrum of emitted radiation can be visualised in an intensity curve. The surface
under an intensity curve equals the total emitted radiation of the material and will be
larger at a higher temperature. The total emitted thermal radiation is defined by Stefan-
Boltzmann’s law:

ET = ελ · σ · T4 [W/m 2]
ελ = emission coefficient for wavelength λ [-]
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant = 5,669 · 10-8 [W/m 2K4]
T = temperature [K]

72
There are three principles to describe a radiation source: a black body, a grey body or a
selective radiator (5.2).

– A black body has an emission coefficient of 1. It absorbs all radiation,

thus reflecting and transmitting none.
– A grey body radiator has an emission coefficient which is lower than 1
and is constant for every wavelength.
– A selective radiator has different emission coefficients for every wavelength
and is lower than 1.

5.2 
Radiation emission of
different radiators; black

Intensity
Blackbody
body (black), grey body
(grey) and selective
radiator (green).

Greybody

Selective radiator

Wavelength

The spectrum of the sun is slightly different from the spectrum of a black body with a
temperature of 5800 K. Also, the atmosphere of the earth filters out some light in various
wavelengths, resulting in gaps in the spectrum. Stefan-Boltzmann’s law, which defines the
total emitted thermal radiation, refers to a perfect black body, so that the value acquired
by employing this formula is higher than what will occur in reality (5.3).

5.3  5.4 

Visible
Intensity curves of
Light
Intensity curve of radia-
emitted radiation of
tion showing the filter
Intensity

the sun and of a black

incoming radiation effect of the atmosphere.
body with a tempera-
ture of 5800 K.
Sun’s curve radiation through atmosphere
Intensity

Blackbody curve at 5800K

Wavelength

Wavelength (μm)

The mean total radiation, i.e. the total of direct and diffuse radiation at a vertical sur-
face in the summer, taking the example of the Netherlands, is approximately 400 W/m2
[Knoll, 2002].

73
 Membranes in general and textiles in particular are not perfect black body emitters
because they reflect light. As a result not all light is absorbed, and in the case of trans-
parent materials, light can pass through them. Non-transparent membranes and textiles
act more like grey body radiators, while transparent membranes act more like selective
radiators. These properties can be used to block the infra-red radiation – heat – while
allowing visible light to pass.

Non-transparent materials
A non-transparent material absorbs and reflects incoming radiation. The material acts
as a grey radiator, in this example, with a temperature of 80°C on the inside of the build-
ing (5.5).

5.5 

Schematic representa-
T = 80˚C

tion of solar radiation

So
la
rr
ad on a non-transparent
iat
ion
material and intensity-
Intensity

T = 80˚C
wavelength graph of the
situation.

Wavelength
Material

Transparent materials
A transparent material allows solar radiation to pass though it causing heat generation,
usually called passive solar energy. Here one can clearly discern the importance of solar
protection (5.6).

5.6 

Schematic representa-
tion of solar radiation on
T = 80˚C

So
la
rr
a transparent material
ad Sun
iat
ion and intensity-wavelength
Intensity

T = 80˚C graph of the situation.

Wavelength
Material

Coatings are important in the radiation-heat transfer process because they can provide
selective radiator properties. The amount of reflection and emission is influenced by sur-
face properties like roughness and colour. Rough surfaces reflect less radiation than
smooth surfaces and dark colours have a higher emission coefficient than light colours.
Transparent membranes have a high transmitting coefficient because they allow light to
pass through easily.

74
Radiation
Radiation can be divided into the visible and the invisible spectrum. The visible spectrum
comprises radiation with wavelengths ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 μm. Radiation occurs at
smaller wavelengths, called ultraviolet light and larger wavelengths of 0.8 to 800 μm,
defined as infrared light. Radiation heat transfer is mainly caused by infrared radiation
because of the larger intensity of these wavelengths in the solar spectrum (5.3 and 5.4).

Three material properties are important factors with regard to the incoming radiation with
wavelength λ: absorption αλ, reflection ρλ, transmission τλ. The sum of these three compon-
ents is always 1, representing the amount of incoming radiation (5.7). A non-transparent
material does not transmit radiation.

5.7 

α λ + ρλ + τλ = 1
Incoming radiation (1);
absorption (α λ ), reflec-
tion (ρλ ), transmission
(τλ ).

Example Solar radiation on a single layer of transparent PVC membrane

Incoming radiation 800 W/m2

Absorption (αλ) 20% 160 W/m2 leading to an increase of the
temperature of the membrane
Reflection (ρλ) 10% 80 W/m2
Transmission (τλ) 70% 560 W/m2

Convection
In the case of air flowing over a surface, heat is transferred by convection (5.8). An air flow
can be produced by mechanical installations or originate from temperature conditions or
pressure differences. The energy flow by convection depends on the heat transfer coef-
ficient at the surface, which equals the size of the surface in contact with the air and the
difference between surface temperature and air temperature. The heat transfer coefficient
at the surface is related to the dynamic viscosity of the air, the air speed and the property
of the airflow, either laminar or turbulent. Convection is used in façade construction with
multiple layers of textiles for extracting the heat between the different layers.

75
 Q = α x A(Ts-Ta) [W]
Q = heat current by convection [W]
α = convection coefficient [W/m 2K]
A = surface [m 2]
Ts = surface temperature [K]
Ta = air temperature [K]

5.8 

Q = α · A(Ts-Ta)
Heat transfer by
convection.

Example Convection along a surface in a single-membrane construction

Q = α · A(Ts-Ta) [W]

Solar irradiation will make the membrane warm up, thus causing a higher surface tem-
perature. When using multiple layers and an air cavity, the surface temperature and con-
sequently the heat current by convection will be lower.

α = convection coefficient 7.7 [W/m 2K]

A = surface 1 [m 2]
Ts = surface temperature 80 [°C]
Ta = air temperature 20 [°C]
Q = heat current by convection 462 [W]

76
Transmission
Heat can be transferred through a material by transmission (5.9). The size of the heat cur-
rent that is generated by heat transmission depends on the heat transmittance proper-
ties of the material. The higher the thermal transmittance coefficient (λ), the higher the
heat current allowed to pass through the material. A single membrane is not able to keep
heat outside or inside the building because of its lack of thickness. The thermal transmit-
tance coefficient of the membranes of ETFE cushions is relatively high compared to the
encapsulated air.

Q = A · (λ / d) 
· (T2-T1) [W]
Q = heat current by transmission [W]
A = surface [m 2]
λ = transmission coefficient [W/mK]
d = thickness [m]
T2 = outside surface temperature [°C]
T1 = outside surface temperature [°C]

5.9 

Q = A · (λ/d) · (T2-T1)
Heat transfer by
transmission.

Example
The heat transmission through the construction can be visualised as a series of resist-
ances. The external resistance is 0.04 m2K/W, the internal resistance is 0.13 m2K/W and the
resistance of a cavity of approximately 5 cm with standing air is 0.17 m2K/W. The thermal
transmittance coefficient (λ) of PVC is 0.15 W/m2K. The thermal resistance of one mem-
brane, with a thickness of 1 mm, is 0.001 / 0.15 = 6.67 · 10 -3 m2K/W. The scale between the
thermal resistances of the membrane and the standing air inside the cavity is 6.67 · 10-3:
0.17 or 1 : 25. It can be concluded that a single membrane does not have a high thermal
resistance compared to the thermal resistance of the air cavity.

exterior exterior air interior interior

membrane cavity membrane

Rj = dj/λj = thermal resistance [m 2K/W]

d = thickness of membrane [m]
λ = thermal conductivity [W/mK]
U = 1/(Re + R me + Rac + R mi + Rj) = thermal transmittance coefficient [W/m 2K]

77
In order to clarify the relation between the different heat transfer processes (radiation,
convection, transmission), an example is provided of a non-transparent single-layer mem-
brane façade construction. The conditions in the summer in the Netherlands result in a
temperature difference along the façade of 10K: outside temperature 30°C and inside
temperature 20°C.

Radiation
The mean total solar radiation on a vertical surface in summer in the Netherlands is
approximately 400 W/m2.

Radiation of the surface of the façade can be calculated with the Stefan-Bolzmann law.

ET = ελ · σ · T4 [W/m 2]
ελ = emission coefficient for wavelength λ = approx. 0.90 [-]
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann’s constant = 5.669 · 10-8 [W/m 2K4]
T = temperature [K]

A surface with temperatures of 10°C, 20°C and 60°C respectively emits 328 W/m2, 376 W/ m2
and 430 W/m2..

Convection
Considering a temperature difference of 60K between the air temperature inside and the
temperature of the membrane on the surface, the heat flow by convection is 462 W/m2.
A temperature difference of 10 K will result in 77 W/m2.

Transmission
The thermal resistance of the double-layer façade is approximately 0.34 m2K/W. The tem-
perature difference along the construction is 10 K, resulting in a heat current by transmis-
sion of approximately 29 W/m2.

Conclusion
It can be concluded that façade design preference will be given to a low heat transmit-
tance and a high visible light transmittance. As solar radiation is the most important fac-
tor in the physical mechanisms of the façade. It needs to be blocked to prevent internal
overheating in the summer.

The infrared part of the solar spectrum causes the greatest amount of heat, consequently,
it is this part of the spectrum that should be blocked. The visible light transmittance
depends on the degree of transparency of the construction, much desired where transpar-
ency in façade construction is sought after.

78
Membrane façade
categories
5.10 

Heat transfer principles

and construction.

radiation

transmission

convection

Membrane façade constructions have important properties that impact the physical func-
tion of the spaces they enclose, in relation to the three main heat transfer principles (5.10)
discussed on the preceding pages. They can be categorised as follows:

Double-layer construction
A construction made of two layers with a cavity containing standing air in-between.
The standing air leads to a lower heat transfer through transmission. The cavity can also
be ventilated in order to further control energy flows.

Transparent membranes
Transparent membranes allow for visible light and infrared light to pass through at a
high rate. When applying a transparent membrane on the outside of the construction,
the internal heat generated in the façade construction by solar radiation must be taken
into account. When a transparent membrane is applied on the inside of the building, the
internal heat production when sunlight hits construction elements, such as the floor and
walls, must be taken into account.

Non-transparent membranes
Non-transparent membranes block direct sunlight and can, therefore, be used as sun-
screens. When used on the outside, they prevent sunlight from entering the construction.
At the same time, they absorb sunlight and gain warmth but no passive solar heating on the
inside of the building results. However, when using a non-transparent membrane on the
inside of the construction, the energy-emitting properties of the membrane must be taken
into consideration because the membrane will warm up as a result of solar irradiation.

Semi-transparent construction
The problem with regard to a semi transparent construction is that direct solar radiation
causes internal heating. With a solar transmission of 10% in the summer in the Netherlands
100 W/m2 will directly enter the building causing possible overheating.

79
Airtight membranes
Airtight membranes are impenetrable for air. The airflow through the construction is
reduced.

Air-open membranes
Air open membranes allow air to move freely. They are used as a windbreaker and as solar
shading. Outside air can enter the air cavity.

Ventilated cavity
A ventilated cavity has a forced airflow between the inner and outer layer. This airflow is
created with a mechanical installation or by temperature or pressure differences along
the construction. The airflow is used to minimise the internal heat production by solar
irradiation or to obtain hot air for heating the building by passive solar heat gain.

Examples of TECHNICAL TEXTILE APPLICATION

S
econd-skin façade
In the case of second-skin façades, the textile surface is on the exterior of the building.
A ventilated space is created between the textile surface and the façade itself. The textile
structure is used for sun protection and is an important element for the overall appear-
ance of the building. The external textile surface can be single-layered, multi-layered
(cushions) and insulated.

Climate façade
Behind the curtain-wall façade a second textile surface is applied. The textile surface
is used for sun protection in combination with installations to control the climate of the
building.

Roofs
There are many examples of textile roofs for permanent buildings using single-layered,
multi-layered (cushions) and insulated textile structures for sun protection and climate
control of the building.

Shelters
The climate control of non-permanent or semi-permanent buildings and pavilions depends
on the type of construction: pre-stressed membranes and inflatables.

80
Typology of building
constructions
The different methods of climate control with regard to membrane constructions can be
divided into four categories:

– transparent membranes on the inside of the construction;

– non-transparent membranes on the inside of the construction;
– transparent membranes on the outside of the construction;
– non-transparent membranes on the outside of the construction.

Additional membrane properties result in air-open, airtight membrane constructions,

with or without ventilation.

Transparent membrane on the inside

This façade construction type has one or multiple layers with a transparent membrane
on the inside of the construction. The transparent membrane can be used as an airtight
layer (5.11).

5.11 

single-layer membrane
POSITION Inside

multi-layer membrane TRANSPARENT Yes

LAYERSingle Multi
air-open membrane
AIR TIGHTNESS Yes No Yes No

air-open membrane
VENTILATION Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

PRINCIPLE
>

>

>
>

transparent membrane

transparent membrane

façade / structure
>

ventilated

exterior  interior

An air-open and transparent membrane provides neither shading nor insulation. It can be
used for aesthetic purposes. This applies also to multiple layers of air-open and transpar-
ent membranes.

81
 Non-transparent membrane on the inside
A non-transparent membrane on the inside of the construction can be used for solar
radiation protection (5.12).

5.12 

POSITION Inside

TRANSPARENT No

LAYERSingle Multi

AIR TIGHTNESS
Yes No Yes No

VENTILATION Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

PRINCIPLE

>

>
>
>

Transparent membrane on the outside

A transparent membrane can be used for façade constructions where a clear view is
required (5.13). The use of solar heating is possible, especially combined with ventilation.

5.13 

POSITION Outside

TRANSPARENT Yes

LAYERSingle Multi

AIR TIGHTNESS
Yes No Yes No

VENTILATION Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

PRINCIPLE
>

>

>

>

As with the former construction types, an air open and transparent membrane, be it single
or multi-layer, has no technical function and can not provide either shading or insulation.
It serves only aesthetic purposes.

82
Non-transparent membrane
on the OUTSIDE
A non-transparent membrane on the outside of the construction prevents the solar radia-
tion from reaching the construction so that less heat is produced internally (5.14).

5.14 

POSITION Outside

TRANSPARENT No

LAYERSingle Multi

AIR TIGHTNESS
Yes No Yes No

VENTILATION Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

PRINCIPLE

>

>

>
>

5.15, 5.16 

Pilot project
Boogstal for dairy
cattle in Dieteren,
the Netherlands.

Case study
The following example is part of a research project in building physics by the Product
Development Research Group at the Department of Architecture, Building and Planning
(ABP) at Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands. It demonstrates the phys­
ical properties and passive climate control qualities of a membrane façade construction.
At Eindhoven University of Technology a low-cost and flexible building system for dairy
cattle has been developed in cooperation with a coalition of leading consultancy compa-
nies [Gijsbers, 2005]. The Boogstal (Arched Stable) was created within the SlimBouwen©
approach for building technology and product development [Lichtenberg, 2005] and intro-
duced as a pilot project in 2006 in Dieteren in the south of the Netherlands. The building
has been developed to deliver a stable indoor climate of 0°C to 20°C, which is the thermo-
neutral zone for dairy cattle (5.15, 5.16).

83
5.17

Roof detail: truss struc-

ture, upper and lower
membrane and ventila-
tion openings.

The construction consists of a series of steel truss arches. Between each two adjacent
arches a double-layered membrane serves as roof covering and also to create a natural
ventilation system which can be adjusted depending on the amount of ventilation needed
(5.17).

The roof is primarily designed to keep the indoor temperature low in case of high outdoor
temperatures. Dairy cattle are able to withstand cold temperatures easily; therefore, the
building is not insulated. By contrast, dairy cattle are highly sensitive to temperatures
above 25°C, which causes heat stress and lowers the production of milk drastically.

The double-layered roof consists of an outer layer of 55% open windbreak mesh which
tempers the wind speed, but more importantly blocks the major part of sun radiation.
Subsequently, part of the collected heat in the membranes is dissipated by the air buffer
between the two layers because of convection. Heat from inside the building can get
out through the many ventilation openings by buoyancy-induced flow (stack effect) and
because of air movement at wind speeds over 3 m/s (5.18).

5.18 

Roof detail: a windbreak open membrane

mesh on top and a semi- closed membrane

1000 W/m2
transparent foil below. closed white foil

AIR BUFFER

ventilation opening ventilation opening

84
The lower layer of white foil keeps the rain out. Underneath the truss elements, which
are closed on top, small open strips for ventilation have been attached, which cover the
total length of the structural arc. This results in a homogenous and sufficient ventilation
flow through the building, avoiding condensation and providing stable of indoor temper­
ature and humidity levels, as verified during the one-year monitoring phase [Gijsbers et al.
2007]. The white foil prevents direct sunlight from entering the indoor space and creates
a diffuse and natural transmission of daylight. As a result, the light intensity achieved is
generally comparable to outside conditions on a cloudy day all year round, which is an
enormous improvement on indoor comfort compared to traditional housing for dairy cattle.
In comparison, for a normal single-layered roof without insulation (for example sheets
of corrugated iron, Fibre-cement corrugated sheeting or a single layer of foil), there is
approxim­ately 75% less heat flow in the inside of the building during a sunny day (Ta = 30°C;
sun load = 1000 W/m2). The surface temperature of the roofing material is also significantly
lower: 85°C with a single-layered roof and 35°C with a double-layered roof. These figures
result in a large increase of indoor comfort during hot outdoor temperatures.

Cox, M.D.G.M.; Gijsbers, R.; Haas, rence on Passive and Low Energy Knoll, W.H.; Wagenaar, E.J.; Pronk, A.D.C.; Haas, T.C.A. de;
T.C.A. de, “Applied Design of an Architecture, 22-24 October 2008, van Weele, A.M., Handboek Cox, M.G.D.M., “Heat-Adapting
Energy-Efficient Multi-Layered University College Dublin, 2008. installatietechniek, Rotterdam, Membrane”, in: Proceedings of
Membrane Roofing System Stichting ISSO, 2002. Structural Membranes 2007
for Climate-Control of Semi- Haas, T.C.A. de, Boogstal voor de Conference, Barcelona, 2007.
Permanent Shelters”, in: Kenny, varkenshouderij – Graduation Lichtenberg, J.J.N., Slim­
P. et al. (ed.), Proceedings of the Report, Eindhoven University of bouwen©, Boxtel, Æneas, 2005.
25th PLEA International Confe- Technology, 2008.

85
 6

From raw
by Anais Missakian,
Khipra Nichols
and Liliane Wong

material
to the finished
product:
interior textiles

Technical textiles are distinguished by their performance or functional properties, rather

than their aesthetic and decorative ones. The distinction between the aesthetic and the
functional reflects a century of major developments in the field of textiles. Fuelled by dra-
matic technological advancements, the modern textile and its characteristics have led to
equally dramatic and innovative uses in the interior environment. More recently, the field
of nanotechnology has led to hitherto unknown possibilities in the application of textiles.
With great promise of future potential that expands the performance capabilities of tex-
tiles its role in the interior environment will reach new heights, extending its domain well
beyond the drawing rooms of history and the modern office to the interiors of emergency
rooms and space capsules.

The historic use of textiles in the interior environment is most significant in the forms of
drapery, tapestries, carpets and upholstery. While these applications served the simple
and timeless functions of providing warmth, privacy and protection from solar gain, they
were selected primarily for their aesthetics. Subsequent developments in fibre content,
weaving technology and chemical treatments have improved the functional qualities
of textiles, transformed their performance capabilities and enabled them to transcend
their decorative role. The path to becoming “technical textiles”, the very name alluding to
integ­ration with technology, is distinguished by a spirit of experimentation that led to the
discovery of new fibres and novel production processes. These advancements, however,
also resulted from an evolution in interdisciplinary pedagogy, one that would ultimately
reflect the input of the fields of textiles, product design, science and interior architecture.

86
6.1  6.2 

Creation of a 100% Aramid fabric.

stainless steel weaving
for acoustic panels by
Sophie Mallebranche at
the Museum of Nature
and Hunting, Hotel de
Guénégaud des Brosses,
Paris, France. Specifiers:
Jouve-Sazerat Vignaud
Architectes.

FIBRE DEVELOPMENT
The spirit of experimentation defines the development of the age-old art of textiles both
in enhancing the capabilities of natural fibres as well as in the creation of new, synthetic
ones. Fibres are classified into three main types: natural, synthetic-polymer and natural-
polymer. Natural fibres including wool, cotton and silk provide strength, sound absorbency,
moisture absorbency, thermal properties, elasticity, dye affinity and reaction to chemicals.
Natural fibres such as rayon and metallic are considered man-made because they must be
highly processed in order to produce textiles. Metallic textiles are durable, non-flammable,
corrosion-resistant and flexible (6.1).

Synthetic fibres are products manufactured from polymer-based materials such as poly-
amide (nylon), polyester, acrylic, polypropylene, polyethylene, and fibres of the meta-
aramid and poly-aramid groups, a class of strong heat-resistant fibres. Lightweight and
flexible, the aramid fibre’s greatest feature is its strength. Stronger than fibreglass it is,
pound for pound, five times stronger than steel (6.2).

Advancements in fibre and yarn development are ongoing not only for synthetic materials
but also for those found in nature. Scientists are studying methods to promote greater
production of fibres such as dragline silk spun by spiders, a protein fibre with impressive
natural strength and tensile properties.

Pioneered by the research of chemical giants such as Dupont for the military, fibre develop-
ment is among the most innovative of technological research. Technical textiles originate
with particular fibres that are spun and constructed into fabrics with function as their
primary requirement. Technical textile characteristics must meet criteria requirements
that include strength or tenacity, flexibility, resilience, abrasion resistance, absorbency,
flammability, heat sensitivity, chemical reactivity and resistance. Fibre research and
development, as well as textile construction techniques and technology are at the fore-
front of advancements in technical textiles for interior applications.

87
 Technical textiles are usually woven but can also be produced by knitting, felting, lace making,
net making, non-woven processes and tufting, or a combination of these processes. Most
fabrics are two-dimensional, but an increasing number of three-dimensional woven and
knitted technical textile structures are being developed and produced.

Woven fabrics generally consist of two sets of yarns that are interlaced at right angles
to each other. The threads that run along the length of the fabrics are known as warp
ends while the threads that run from selvedge to selvedge are weft picks. Woven techni-
cal textiles are designed to meet the specific requirements of a particular application.
Their strength, thickness, extensibility, porosity and durability can be varied and depend
on: the weave structure, thread spacing, raw materials, filament or staple, count and twist
of yarns. Woven fabrics have the potential for greater strength and stability than any other
fabric structure.

While there are many variations of weave structure, most technical fabrics are constructed
from simple weaves. The majority are plain weave structures where one warp thread is
alternately lifted and lowered across one weft thread. An example of one of many vari-
ants is the Leno weave structure, in which paired warp yarns are intertwined in a series
of figure of eights, and filling yarn is passed through each of the interstices; the fill yarns
are trapped tightly between the twisting warp yarns, giving excellent performance char-
acteristics. Structural superiority is also achieved in triaxial weaving where the structural
elements run in three directions. This weaving process provides the flexibility of multiple
weaving patterns and/or materials, resulting in a thin, lightweight, uniform and highly
efficient product.

Until recently, the Jacquard loom designed by Joseph-Marie Jacquard in 1801, was one
of the most important innovations in textile production. The mechanical Jacquard loom
utilised a system of punch cards and hooks in which the hooks and needles were guided by
the holes in the punch card. Intricate patterns and structures were achieved by employing
a number of cards in a sequence, arranged one after the other and/or used repeatedly.
The Jacquard loom was revolutionary as a precursor to computer-programmed looms in
its ability to follow an algorithm and its capability to store information on punched cards.
The first electronic Jacquard loom was introduced in 1983, eliminating the need for repeats
and symmetrical designs and allowing almost infinite versatility. Three-dimensional weav-
ing technology, with a dual-directional shedding operation, has recently been developed.
The flexibility inherent in this technology allows for experimentation with all types of fibres
and fibre combinations in order to weave solid, shell and tubular structures. One such
technology is Jacqform, a patented process that integrates Jacquard-woven designs with
a product’s geometry, producing components with built-in seams that are product-tailored
and part-specific (6.3).

6.3 

Jacqform.

88
6.4  6.5 

Cut, sewn and finished by A.H.I.T., A Hole in

hand, the textiles of Anne Textile, lasercut textile
Kyyrö Quinn transform by Camilla Diedrich.
two-dimensional fabric
into three-dimensional
textures.

FINISHING
Advancements in science and technology complement those in fibre development in
the transformation of technical textiles. Finishes can add a multitude of performance
capabilit­ies to textiles, including increased durability and water repellence; together with
resistance to shrinkage, wrinkles, creasing, mildew, soil, stains, static and fire. The finish-
ing treatment of a textile is increasingly important, and both fibre and fabric manufacturers
are investing in research and development in this area. To accommodate diverse appear-
ances, designs, textures and performances, finishes have become increasingly versatile
and can be applied at various stages of textile manufacture. The processes vary widely
from high-tech versions of existing treatments, such as coatings and laminates, to print-
ing, embossing, moulding and sculpting, a recent development in which thermoplastic
ultra-microfibres are used to create high-relief surfaces or three-dimensional structures
(6.4, 6.5).
Building upon a starching process commonly used in the 19 th century to make stain- and
wrinkle-resistant cloth, soaking fabrics in various solutions is now a common textile fin-
ishing process. Since the 1990s, finishing agents have been used to achieve various fabric
characteristics. These possibilities are seemingly limitless, from formaldehyde finishes for
crease resistance to biocidic finishes. Another type of finishing is achieved through lamina-
tion, either with a visible polymer membrane or even an invisible one. Visible lamin­ates can
create striking visual effects by using materials that reflect or refract light, or even create
holographic, three-dimensional effects. Invisible laminates can create high-performance
fabrics, such as Gore-Tex, which uses a polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) layer that is perme-
able to air while preventing the penetration of water.1

A major breakthrough for interior applications is the development of fire-retardant finishes

that comply with global non-flammable classifications. Textiles for indoor use are soaked
in fire-retardant solutions primarily formulated from boric acid and borax. Textiles for out-
door use are soaked with chlorinated paraffin, chlorinated synthetic resins or chlorinated
rubber. The standard for effectiveness of these treatments is determined by the weight
of chemicals remaining after the materials dry. These treatments, however, offer little
resistance against severe fire exposure. As an alternative to post-manufacturing treat-
ments, non-flammable classifications can also be achieved through the use of fibres and
yarns that are permanently flame-retardant. This produces a fabric with flame-retardant
properties firmly anchored in the fibre, where they are not affected by external influences.

89
In general, there is a shift from finishing fabrics with coatings and laminates, to enhancing
fibres on the nano-level, thus enabling them to better serve specific functional require-
ments. In addition, fabrics are being developed where the yarns and threads are combined
with stain-, water- and bacteria-resistant blockers during the weaving process.

In response to increasing demand for environmentally friendly textiles that conserve

resources without posing health hazards, tests on finishing additives are underway at a
number of commercial laboratories. This work is undertaken in compliance with several
international standards. The Oeko-tex Certification standard limits the levels of certain
chemicals in textile products. The Bluesign standard places a reliable and proactive tool
at the disposal of the entire textile production chain, from raw materials and component
suppliers to textile manufacturers, retail and brand companies, and consumers. Other
standards include: the Intertek Eco-Certification, the Global Organic Textile Standard
(GOTS) and the WRAP (Worldwide Responsible Apparel Production Principles) Certification.

APPLICATIONS IN THE INTERIOR

ENVIRONMENT
These developments in fibre and finish have led to enhanced textile attributes that broaden
their function in interior environments. Key attributes such as load-bearing capabil­­­­­­-
ities, augmented acoustical properties, UV resistance and light control have inspired
new applications.

Strength
Increased strength is a primary factor in the transformation of technical textiles. It has
enabled textiles to take on a structural role in which both the fabric membrane and its
supporting frame carry loads. Structural fabrics are of a woven cloth base, stabilised and
protected by a coating applied on both sides to ensure the integrity of the fibre while giv-
ing it flexibility. The structural fabrics most commonly used for interior applications are:
laminated or PVC-coated polyester, silicon-coated woven fibreglass and PVC- or PTFE-
coated glass cloth. Typical values of tensile strength are between 300 and 1100 daN/5cm
depending on the type of fabric.

Tensile forms have the structural integrity to create interior partitions, half-walls and
ceilings but also complete rooms. For example, a continuous, curving fabric ribbon made
of fire-rated Lycra and installed at the J.S. Bach Chamber Music Hall, functions as wall,
half-wall, handrail, ceiling and acoustic reflector, enhancing the acoustics while delineat-
ing the various performance spaces (6.6).

90
6.6  6.7 

J.S. Bach Chamber Music At the MiNO Hostel in

Hall, Manchester, Great Migliarino, Italy, tensile
Britain. Zaha Hadid structures serve as
Architects. individual rooms. Antonio
Ravalli Architetti.

Comprising textile tensioned around a frame, such structures are self-supporting and in
many instances, free-standing (6.7).

As highly tensioned membranes, these forms are not limited to a construction vocabulary
of orthogonal components and can assume complex curves and unconventional forms.
Complex forms are realised through the use of three-dimensional computational model-
ling techniques in which fabric, tautly stretched to maximum design loads, is subjected
to a series of complementary stresses (6.8, 6.9).

6.8, 6.9 

The Cloud Pod and Spiky

Pod seminar rooms in
the Queen Mary Hos­
pital School of Medicine
& Dentistry in London,
Great Britain, are ex-
amples that demonstrate
the possibilities of com-
plex tensile forms.
Will Alsop.

Air-supported or pneumatic structures may be formed from textile membranes. They are
tensile structures in which constant air pressure forces the fabric into surfaces of double
curvature. These structures are inspired by high-performance applications, originally
found outside the building industry, such as inflatable military combat rafts or automotive
airbags. Due to the extreme pressure imposed by the air as well as the heavy-duty bonding
required at the membrane seams, these structures require textiles woven from reinforced
fibres. Fabricated from airtight textile, such structures have the ability to serve as interior
standalone elements such as exhibition pavilions and office cubicles (6.10).

91
 6.10 

Inflatable structures
used as office cubicles,
“Office in a Bucket”, by
Inflate Design.

Forms constructed of a single-membrane layer, such as the automotive airbag, rely on the
air itself as part of the support (6.11). Pneumatic structures are, in general, lightweight and
require less energy for construction and transportation than conventional structures. They
are pertinent in adaptive re-usable applications where, as lightweight rooms, they can be
easily inserted within the infrastructure of an imperfect host building (6.12).

6.11 

The Cloud Inflatable

Meeting Room by Monica
Förster depends, in part,
on the air for support.

6.12 

The MYU Bar designed by

Paul Kaloustian, which
is situated within an old
liquor factory in Beirut,
Lebanon.

92
Acoustics
When used in dense layers, fabrics have traditionally served an acoustic role by vir-
tue of their intrinsic absorptive qualities. Recent work demonstrates less conventional
approaches to designing sound-absorbing surfaces, using not only new materials but
re-thinking traditional ones. Utilising natural materials and novel approaches, traditional
two-dimensional wool is transformed from its use over flat acoustical panels, to three-
dimensional highly absorbent surfaces (6.13, 6.14).

6.13, 6.14 

The work of Anne Kyyrö SCI-Arc Auditorium in

Quinn’s acoustical wall Los Angeles, USA. A wool
at the Bovis Lend Lease ceiling baffle design was
Office in London, Great created by Hodgetts and
Britain. Fung Architects.

A further innovative approach to sound absorption uses new textiles that are differenti-
ated from traditional ones by thickness. While such applications formerly required mass
(traditional fabric-wrapped acoustic panels are 25-50 mm thick), new textiles, due to the
use of synthetic fibres and coatings, can achieve higher levels of sound absorption at thick-
nesses as small as 0,18 mm. These high-strength, flame-resistant PVC-covered polyester
fabrics are perforated with varying aperture sizes and spacings. Such micro-perforated
acoustic material absorbs sound by resonance as the micro-perforations convert sound
energy into heat. The viscous friction of air passing through the perforations is reinforced
by resonance in the volume of air trapped between the material and the rear wall, generat-
ing impressive acoustic properties. In such applications, these textiles are often stretched
at optimal angles below ceilings and along walls. Absorption rates differ by fabric type and
by the depth and content of the plenum behind the fabric.

Technical textiles also have the ability to function as reflective surfaces. The ability to
reflect sound and enhance its distribution in a given space is well served by material rigidity
provided by the tightness of the woven fibres in combination with fabric coatings such as
Teflon or vinyl. Characterised by curvature, tensile structures permit infinite permutations
for reflective strategies (6.15).

6.15 

Experimental Media and

Performing Arts Center
(EMPAC), Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, USA. Nicholas
Grimshaw.

93
 UV resistance/light control
Today’s synthetic textiles have a heightened ability to provide solar protection through
the fabric characteristics of solar transmittance, reflectance and absorption. Fabrics
commonly used in this application are coated fibreglass and coated glass mesh in which
glass fibre yarn is coated with vinyl (PVC) either as individual strands or after it is woven.
The composite fabric provides strength and stability in conditions of extreme temperat­
ures, weather and UV exposure. Fabric screens, blinds and shading devices made of these
materials can block up to 90%2 of incoming UV rays while preventing heat loss in the winter.
Solar protection devices are common applications for interior spaces enclosed by large
areas of glass and skylights (6.16).

6.16 

The sun-tracking device

at the Jardine Insurance
in London, Great Britain,
was enhanced by an
integrated intelligent
operating system that
enables it to rotate with
the movement of the sun.

Light control is determined by the fabric’s optical values. These include the openness fac-
tor, a function of the percentage of openings in the fabric. Visible light transmittance is
also determined by the fabric’s colour and its visible light reflectance. Through different
combinations of these characteristics, the designer can control light levels and produce
the desired effects for each interior space and its intended use (6.17, 6.18).

6.17, 6.18 

A curved, translucent Translucent membrane

membrane ceiling pro- ceiling panels provide
vides a diffuse, ethereal a homogeneous,
atmosphere of introspec- white light; Brandhorst
tion at St. Franziskus Museum, Munich,
Church, Regensburg, Germany.
Germany.

A textile’s light control function extends beyond the realm of natural light to that of artificial
light and its fixtures. Textile ceilings can easily incorporate many types of lighting. While
conventional incandescent and fluorescent fixtures are accommodated in generic ceil-
ings, fibre optics and LEDs can be suspended above or even embedded within the textile
for special effects and colour (6.19).

94
 6.19 

The sea floor is projected

on and lit from within the
textile ceiling; Cabrera
Islands National Park
Visitors Centre, Spain.
Álvaro Planchuelo.

Free-standing textile-wrapped forms containing a light source function as light fixtures

and, with the addition of printed graphics, as signage.

FUTURE POTENTIAL
The increased performance potential of textiles has inspired inventive approaches to their
use in interiors. The high strength and light weight of new synthetic materials such as car-
bon fibre have given rise to many uses, from furniture (6.20) to interior partitions. While this
spirit of innovation is inspired by the new, its reach also encompasses the old, in re-thinking
both means and methodologies. Through simple connection details or high-tech moulding
procedures, the traditional piece of fabric may be transformed into a three-dimensional
object, resulting in interior elements of rich and unique textures (6.21, 6.22, 6.23).

6.20  6.21 

The innovative use of Three-dimensional soft

carbon fibre in the inte- forms created by the
rior ranges from chairs attachment of fabric tiles
to walls. to each other; Kvadrat
Showroom, Copenhagen,
Denmark.

95
6.22  6.23 

Foam and fabric building Textiles are three-dimen-

blocks form walls and sionally shaped to form
provide sound absorp- lightweight, buttressed
tion; Kvadrat Showroom, combs that can serve as
Stockholm, Sweden. walls and screens.

The technological advancements in the last decades of the 20 th century have enhanced the
natural attributes of fabrics, resulting in textiles that respond to specific design require-
ments of today’s innovative interior environments. In the 21st century the role of technology
has shifted. Once considered a tool, technology is now integrated into and expressed as
part of design. In textiles, “fibres, fabrics and textile techniques are becoming seamlessly
integrated with technology”,3 providing surfaces that respond to more than one require-
ment. They are multi-functional with applications across many disciplines. With this blur-
ring of boundaries, in particular between textiles, product design and interior architecture,
there is a new future for the role of technical textiles.

This trend began in the late 1990s in the fashion industry with the incorporation of equip-
ment – cameras, microphones and speakers – into clothing. These embedded textiles
allowed the wearer of the garment to manually trigger an interface with an information
portal. Such innovations inspired an entirely new category of textiles: electronic textiles,
or e-textiles, fabrics woven with fibres capable of conducting electrical impulses and
transferring information. Conductive fibres and textiles have important applications not
only in medical and military fields, but also in engineering and architecture. They are pro-
duced by adding different forms of carbon or metals to fibres and yarns, ultimately yielding
textiles with electrical properties. Scientists working with nanofibres manipulate atoms
and particles to produce fibre as small as 0.001 micrometre. Working with very small units,
fibres can be made that have specialised performance characteristics, from improved
colour fastness to increased moisture resistance.

Recent developments have also led to the creation of surfaces with a nanolayer coating of
“multifaceted molecules [that] enable the fabric to sense and respond to a wide range of
conditions it encounters.”4 Through nanotechnology, finishing takes place at the molecular
level by permanently attaching nanoscale particles to individual fibres. The use of nano-
technology enables manufacturers to improve functionality, add powerful performance
capabilities and use fewer additives, while maintaining the qualities of a fabric. Based
on nanoparticle behaviour, this research has increased the potential of fabric finishes,
resulting in improved resistance to water, stains, wrinkles, and even to pathogens such
as bacteria and fungi.

With the ability to sense and respond through relayed impulses, textiles can now emit
light, react to touch or heat, and interact with technology. These e-textiles have greatly
broadened the possibilities of technical textiles. While many are in the research or proto­
type phase they herald future promise for the interior environment, with new functions
arising from the seemingly limitless possibilities of fibre development.

96
With these new possibilities, the attributes of strength, acoustical properties and light
control have increased future potential. Enormously strong fibres, such as nickel and
silver, heat-resistant para-aramid or plated metal, result in textiles that are, respectively,
bullet-proof (Kevlar), resistant to dog bites (Twaron), tear-resistant (Polyment) and have
possible applications in high-security environments and heavily trafficked spaces. Glass
filaments woven into fabric are able to detect and produce sound, extending well beyond
acoustical applications of absorption and sound enhancement. Retro-reflective textiles
woven with microscopic glass pellets have the ability to reflect light even in environments
with low levels of illumination and have potential applications in windowless or low-light
spaces. Fabrics woven with fibre optics, coloured LEDs and electroluminescent wires
have the ability to emit and even produce light. They have current applications ranging
from light-emitting tapestries (6.24) to glowing furniture slip-covers (6.25) and from light-
producing fibre-optic wallpaper (6.26) to fabric woven with LEDs integrating digital imagery
and colour.

6.24, 6.25 

Woven with fibre optics, Slip-covers of

Astrid Krogh’s electronic light-emitting textiles;
textile has the ability Luminex.
to change colours con-
stantly.

6.26 

Luminescent wallpa-
per lit by fibre optics,
designed by Camilla
Diedrich.

97
6.27  6.28 

Touch activates the Slow Furl, pioneered by

panel’s colour-changing Ramsgard Thomsen &
properties and allows the Bech, is a responsive
user to leave behind an textile system that
imprint. reacts to the movement
of the occupant of the
space.

The performance of this future wave of textiles extends well beyond enhanced capabilities
to multi-functionality within a broader sphere. Applications are no longer directed only
towards issues of spatial function but include ones that range from the emotive to med­ical
diagnosis, from surveillance to energy production. Technical textiles have the ability to
capture, but also to make tangible, the human experience within its interior environment.
Thermo-sensitive fabrics incorporating colour-changing crystals, for example, allow a user
to interact with a textile, bringing a richer sensory experience to interior objects such as
walls and furniture (6.27). Pioneers of robotic membranes are experimenting with embed-
ding information technology and digital systems within textiles that can then move, open,
close and flow in response to human presence (6.28).

Possibilities also exist for interactive experiences of a different nature, experiences

that enhance the human condition. Fabrics with nanoparticle coatings of silver dioxide
on nylon yarn or in combination with titanium dioxide result in antimicrobial textiles
that are self-cleaning, stain- and odour-resistant, all of which could impact global
health. Weaving with electronic modules and electrodes serves a diagnostic function
in which textiles have the ability to measure vital signs and transmit such data to dif-
ferent devices ranging from radios and phones to the Internet. Weaving with sensory
cilia fibres integrated with radio modules and proximity sensors allows textiles to track
movement. Used in hospital rooms or assisted-living housing, these textiles have the
ability to react and save lives (6.29).

6.29 

Using microelectron-
ics, sensors and a radio
module, Sens Floor © by
Future-Shape GmbH is
a flooring system using
intelligent pattern recog-
nition that can detect the
presence, number and
movement of people.

98
Present developments and the future potential for technical textiles are making a great
impact on the interior environment and beyond. In the main performance hall at the Casa
da Música in Porto, the solution to a unique acoustical challenge was solved, in part,
by layered curtains, each serving a specific function; an acoustic curtain, a blackout curtain,
a transparent sun-reflective voile and a “view filter” consisting of a loose mesh of hand-
tied knots. Petra Blaisse’s curtains have now become synonymous with the project, noted
for both its functional and its poetic impact (6.30).

Blaisse notes that the concept of curtain “… was influencing the architecture.”5 This can
be seen in recent research that projects future possibilities of technical textiles in con-
junction with extreme interfaces. One such project advances the concept of curtains by
replacing the façade of a house with a technical textile curtain – a curtain that has the
ability to harness solar energy. In so doing, one observes the full transformation of textile
from its age-old form of drapery, historically selected for its decorative role, to the highly
functional role of a future energy source. In the interior environment, there is promise of
a new frontier for the role of technical textiles.

6.30 

Petra Blaisse’s layered

curtains in the main
auditorium of the Casa
da Música by OMA in
Porto, Portugal.

Special thanks to research 2  Products such as the Mermet logy, New York, Berg Publishing,
assistant Patricia Lomando. product E-Screen provides up to 2010, p. 5.
90%, while those like the Koch
1  Braddock Clarke, S. and Membrane PVC/pes product 4  Ibid., p. 70.
O’Mahony, M., Techno Textiles 2: provides up to 75%.
Revolutionary Fabrics for Fash- 5  McGuirk, J. and Blaisse, P.:
ion and Design, London, Thames 3  Quinn, B.: Textile Futures: ICONEYE Icon Magazine Online,
and Hudson, 2007. Fashion, Design and Techno­ ICON 038, August 2006.

99
 7

The New
by ROLF H. LUCHSINGER

Lightweight
Structure:
Tensairity

Introduction
Technical textiles have been used in architecture and construction for many decades. With
the realisation of large buildings with roof structures and claddings made of high-tech
fabrics, technical textiles have gained increasing importance and are sometimes called the
sixth building material next to stone, wood, steel, concrete and glass. One of the reasons
to use fabrics in large structures is their light weight. Fabrics operate completely under
tension, which is the most efficient way for a structure to carry loads. The widespread
use of technical textiles in architecture and construction has mainly been possible due to
improvements in fibre material properties, paralleled by improvements in computational
techniques. Indeed, the price for saving weight with a fabric structure is a more involved
design and construction procedure that relies on the power of today’s computers.

Among fabric structures, pneumatic structures have always played a special role.1–3 They
are used as air-houses for seasonal coverings, e.g. of tennis courts (7.1), and as beam
elements for special applications. These so-called air-beams have found, here and there,
a niche, e.g. as tents (7.2) or structures for advertisements (7.3). In 1996 the company Festo
presented, an air-beam-based hall called “airtecture”. 4 These ephemeral applications take
advantage of the most prominent properties of pneumatic structures such as compact
transport and storage volume, fast and easy set-up, as well as low weight. Nevertheless,
the potential application of air-beams in architecture and civil engineering is very limited;
the main reason being their very poor load-bearing capacity. The fabric of the air-beam can
only support compressive forces up to its level of pre-stress, as given by the air pressure.

100
 7.1 

The air-house as an
example of an air-
supported structure.
The whole volume is
filled with air under very
low pressure.

7.2  7.3 

Air-beams as primary Air-beam as primary

structural elements for structural element for
small tents. advertisement purposes.

Even a relatively high air-pressure of 1 bar (105 N/m2) is still three orders of magnitude
smaller than the yield strength of a metal such as steel. Thus, air-beams operate in a dif-
ferent load and deflection category compared to conventional structures and can only be
used when large deformations, even for very moderate loads, are tolerable. It is tempting
to increase the load capacity of air-beams by applying a very high air pressure. However,
a high air pressure leads to high tensional stresses in the fabric structure that can only
be resisted by expensive fibres with high tensile strength. Furthermore, the stored energy
in the beam increases, raising severe safety and air tightness issues. Therefore, highly
pressurised air-beams are only feasible for dedicated applications such as army shelters,5
and cannot be considered as a valuable solution for civil architecture.
It is the goal of the new structural concept Tensairity 6 to overcome the load deficiencies
of air-beams and thus make inflatable structures useful as primary structures for archi-
tecture and civil engineering applications. This article gives an overview of the technology.
The basic concept of Tensairity is presented together with a discussion of recent results of
ongoing research. Initial applications, e.g. the parking garage in Montreux, are highlighted
and conclusions drawn regarding the state of the technology.

101
 The technology
The basic concept of Tensairity is to increase the stiffness of an air-beam by the integration
of cables and struts. The fundamental beam consists of a cylindrical air-beam, a compres-
sion strut tightly connected with the air-beam and two tension cables spiralled around the
air-beam and attached at each end to the compression strut (7.4). The compression and
tensional forces under bending load are taken by the strut and the cables respectively.
The air-beam’s role is to direct the load transfer between compression and tension ele-
ments, and to stabilise the compression element against buckling.

7.4 

compression element The basic elements of a

Tensairity girder.

air-beam

cable

Simple analytical expressions have been developed for dimensioning the hull, the com-
pression and tension elements for a Tensairity girder under bending load. According to
the basic Principles of Tensairity,7 the bending moment for a given applied load makes it
possible to determine the forces in the compression and tension elements. For a homo-
geneous distributed load q, the force in the tension element T is estimated by

(1) 
q ∙ L ∙ γ
T =
8

with L the span and γ the slenderness of the girder, defined as the ratio of span over
diameter. As the cables are connected to the compression element, the tension forces
are transferred to the compression element; therefore buckling has to be considered.
The compression element is tightly connected with the hull of the air-beam and one can
consider the air-beam as an elastic foundation for the compression element; the modulus
of the elastic foundation is a function of the air pressure. A simple estimate of the buckling
load is given by

(2)

P = 2 ∙ √ π ∙ p ∙ E ∙ I

with p the air pressure and E ∙ I the bending stiffness of the compression element. Thus,
for a given pressure, the bending stiffness of the compression element can be determined
in order that the buckling load capacity is higher than the compressive load transmitted by
the cables (Equation 1). Typical air pressure values for Tensairity girders with distributed
loads are of the order of 100 mbar.

102
7.5 

Properties of the Tensairity

synergetic structure
Tensaririty.
light weight
heavy loads
low pressure (~100 mbar)
compact transport volume
pneumatic deployable cable &
structures temporary strut
thermal insulation structures
transparent
lighting options
floating
adaptable
safe

The hoop tension force in the hull of the air-beam n is given by

(3)

n = p ∙ R

with R the radius of the hull; to a good approximation, n is independent of the applied load.
Equations 1, 2 and 3 allow for a first dimensioning of the compression and tension element
as well as of the hull of a Tensairity girder, and have proven to be reliable for the many
structures built during the last few years.
Shapes of Tensairity girders other than cylindrical have been considered. It was found
that the spindle shape leads in general to stiffer structures.8,9 In consequence this has
become the most commonly used shape. Another important finding is that the air pres-
sure is determined by the load per area and is independent of the span and slenderness
of a Tensairity structure. This is interesting especially when wide-span structures are
considered. The name Tensairity derives from a combination of tension, air and integrity,
or alternatively, the combination of tensegrity and air.10
The alliance of flexibility and stiffness, of weakness and strength in Tensairity leads to a
multitude of interesting properties (7.5). Each property can be related to the underlying
air-beam or cable-strut structure. Light weight and small transport volume are properties
of both the pneumatic structure and the cable-strut structure. The capacity to carry heavy
loads is ensured by the cable-strut structure, while fast set-up, the temporary nature,
thermal insulation, lighting options, the floating option and adaptivity, have their roots in
the pneumatic structure. The low air pressure is an emergent property of the combina-
tion of both structures. It is the sum of all these properties that make Tensairity such a
unique structure and ideal applications are always those that benefit from several of them.
A number of permanent Tensairity structures such as roof structures and a bridge have
been realised so far (see “Realised structures" later in this chapter). Tensairity is also very
well suited for temporary applications given its low weight, compact transport volume, the
option for fast and easy set-up, all combined with a high load-bearing capacity.

103
7.6 

Biaxial tension machine

at Empa for the deter-
mining of the mechanical
properties of fabrics.

Research and developmenT

Tensairity’s combination of materials and components having completely different properties
– low air pressure, fabric hulls, cables and struts – leads to an involved structural system.
Simultaneous research and development were essential to understanding the structural
behaviour, the strengths and limitations of the concept, as well as for further improvement of
the system. The ultimate goal is for the technology to be widely used and applied by engineers.
Thus, simple formulas for the fast pre-design of Tensairity structures, numerical calculation
methods and application guidelines are important. To this end, spindle-shaped girders were
studied under local bending loads9,11 and distributed loads9,12 using a test rig (7.7). The invest-
igation of Tensairity columns under axial compression (7.8) revealed that their stiffness and
load-bearing capacity are comparable to those of a conventional truss structure.13,14 An ana-
lytical model based on a circular arch supported by an elastic foundation was able to predict
the axial stiffness of the column, although an analytical model to determine the buckling load
has not yet been established.
While some of the basic features of Tensairity structures can be reasonably approx­imated
with simple analytical models, the detailed structural behaviour requires study using numeri-
cal methods. Finite Element Method (FEM) calculations have proven to be an important tool
for this task.8 FEM predictions were compared to experimental results for a spindle-shaped
girder under bending load. 9,11 The forces in the compression and tension element as well
as the displacement of the compression element were accurately determined, although a
significantly lower deflection was predicted at the tension side compared to the measured
value. This difference was attributed to an over-simplification when modelling the fabric hull
material. For simplicity this was modelled as being linear isotropic whereas in reality fabrics
behave in a non-linear orthotropic manner. In order to measure the Young’s modulus, the
Poisson’s ratio and the shear modulus, biaxial tensile tests with various load ratios need to
be undertaken. Such biaxial tests are currently under way on PVC-coated polyester fabrics,
using a purpose-built machine recently installed at the Center for Synergetic Structures at
Empa, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Mater­ials Science and Technology (7.6). To improve
the estimation of fabric properties for FEM modelling, a simple and computationally effi-
cient non-linear orthotropic fabric model has been developed.15 The major goal of this line of
research is to scrutinise the role of the fabric in Tensairity structures.

104
7.7 

Test rig at Empa for

investigating spindle-
shaped Tensairity beams
under bending load.

7.8 

Test rig at Empa for the

investigating of the axial
stiffness of Tensairity
columns.

105
 Alongside fundamental research, further development of this new technology is an import­
ant task for the Center for Synergetic Structures. To illustrate the potential of Tensairity for
temporary applications, a demonstration 8 m span bridge was recently built and featured
in a television programme.9, 16 The two girders of the bridge were sufficiently compact (7.9)
that they could be easily stowed in the boot of a car. Each girder weighed less than 70 kg
and was assembled in under 30 min by two people who then carried and positioned them.
Finally the car drove over the bridge (7.10), giving an elegant demonstration of the four most
important properties of Tensairity: compact size, fast and simple set-up, lightweight and
high load-bearing capacity.
A further development was a transparent Tensairity girder (7.11). As the tensile strength
of currently available transparent foil is limited, a cable net is used to reduce the tensile
stress resulting from the air pressure. The cables of the net are so thin that they have
little impact on the structure’s transparency. The relative stiffness of the cable with
respect to the transparent fabric produces an appealing “bubble wrap” surface to the
structure. Interestingly, stabilisation by such equilibrium net configurations is also com-
monly found in nature and hence gives the structure a somewhat organic appearance.
An inflated lamp prototype was also built which highlights this peculiar surface structure
(7.12). In another project, in collaboration with the Vrije Universiteit Brussels, deployable
Tensairity structures are being investigated.17 The goal is to develop Tensairity structures
that can be set up without assembly and solely by inflation, as with conventional pneu-
matic structures. The potential of Tensairity for inflated wing structures is also being
studied.18

7.9  7.11 

A single girder of the Transparent Tensairity

demonstration car bridge girder reinforced with
with 8 m span in the a cable net.
dismantled state.

7.10 

Demonstration of the
load-bearing capacity of
the Tensairity car bridge
in a TV-show.

106
7.12 

Inflated lamp.

Realised structures
In recent years, several initial applications of Tensairity have been realised, mainly in the
field of civil engineering. The driving force behind all these applications is the Swiss com-
pany Airlight, responsible for their engineering. Possibly the most impressive one to date
is the parking garage roof in Montreux, Switzerland, conceived by Luscher Architectes
in 2004.19 This membrane roof is supported by 12 spindle-shaped Tensairity girders with
spans of up to 28 m (7.13). Steel has been used for the upper and lower chord of the Tensair-
ity girder. The same silicon-coated glass fibre fabric is used for the covering membrane
as well as for the Tensairity girders. The air pressure in the girders is about 100 mbar.
The architects have made extensive use of the beams’ intriguing lighting possibilities
(7.14–7. 17). Variable colour spotlights are mounted at each end of the Tensairity beams.
The light shines into the pneumatic structure through translucent end plates, illuminating
the girders internally in a surprisingly homogeneous fashion. The colour of each beam can
be controlled by software and dynamically changed to provide vibrant lighting possibilities.

7.13 

Tensairity roof structure

with up to 28 m span
for a parking garage in
Montreux, Switzerland,
Luscher Architectes SA
& Airlight Ltd., 2004.

107
7.14-7.17 

Illumination of the
roof structure at
night.

108
7.18 

Tensairity bridge with

52 m span in Lanslevil-
lard, France, Charpente
Concept SA, Barbeyer
Architect & Airlight Ltd.,
2005.

A 52 m bridge at a ski resort in the French Alps, supported by two asymmetric spindle-
shaped Tensairity girders, was completed in 2005 (7.18) and is, to date, the largest structure
of its type. In the winter, a ski slope runs over the bridge and the deck is covered with a
thick layer of snow giving rise to high loads. Outside the winter season it is used as a pedes-
trian bridge. The compression element of the structure is made of wood while the tension
element is made of steel. This bridge is an impressive demonstration of the potential of
Tensairity for heavily loaded wide-span structures.

109
7.19  7.20 

Tensairity canopy in View inside the canopy.

Pieterlen, Switzerland,
Airlight Ltd., 2005.

While the examples shown rely on Tensairity beams, the concept can also be used for
shell-like structures. An example for this approach is a canopy in Pieterlen, Switzerland
(7.19). Two grids of steel profiles form the upper and lower layer of the structure. The grids
of the two layers are connected by tension elements in order to preserve the thickness of
the structure under inflation. An upper and lower fabric layer keeps the structure airtight.
The air pressure pre-tensions the fabric and stabilises the two metal grids. As there is
essentially only air inside the structure, light is used to enhance the optical appearance

7.21  7.22 

Tensairity advertisement Exhibition stand with Ten-

pillar with 20 m height, sairity elements, Breitling
Airlight Ltd., 2004. SA & Airlight Ltd., 2004.

of the canopy at night. It is possible to look through the structure via a window, from the
stairs inside the building. Figure 7.20 shows the tension connections between the upper
and lower layer as well as the fabric bulging between the steel grid.

A realised temporary application of Tensairity is an advertisement pillar (7.21). The pro-

totype had a height of 20 m and could withstand wind speeds up to 100 km/h without
any bracing. These advertisement pillars can be used for mobile marketing, e.g. at fairs,
open-air festivals or sport events. A further temporary application was demonstrated in
an exhibition stand for a Swiss watch manufacturer. Four cylindrical Tensairity girders
provided the structural support to a hanging platform where a sports car was exhibited
to visitors (7.22).

110
Conclusion
Pneumatic structures are a special type of fabric structure with interesting properties. The
hybrid Tensairity concept overcomes the strength deficiencies of pneumatic structures
and thus opens up new options for technical textiles in architecture and engineering.
Ongoing research and development are leading to a better understanding of the system’s
structural behaviour while revealing new applications. A number of initial projects, mainly
architectural, demonstrate the feasibility of the technology in terms of cost, safety and
structural integrity. The know-why and know-how increase with every project under-
taken. This is especially true for the detailing, which is of great importance for this type
of structure. The underlying strengths of Tensairity – conceptual simplicity, synergetic
interactions leading to enhanced structural behaviour, the efficient use of different mate-
rials, its suitability for temporary structures – are all becoming increasingly important in
today’s global, fast-growing, fast-moving world. It will be interesting to see what place
this technology will find in it.

1  Topham, S., Blow up: inflat­ synergetic structures, especially Light weight structures with Ten- 15  Galliot, C.; Luchsinger, R.H.,
able art, architecture and design, of Tensairity structures. sairity, in Motro, R. (ed.), Shell “A simple model describing the
Munich, Prestel Verlag, 2002. and Spatial Structures from non-linear biaxial tensile beha­
7  Luchsinger, R.H.; Pedretti, A.; Models to Realizations, Mont­ vior of PVC-coated polyester
2  Otto, F.; Trostel, R., Zug- Steingruber, P.; Pedretti, M., pellier, Éditions de l'Espérou, fabrics for use in finite element
beanspruchte Konstruktionen“ “The new structural concept 2004. analysis”, Composite Structures
Frankfurt, Ullstein Fachverlag, Tensairity: "Basic principles", in: 90(4), 2009, p. 438-447.
1962. Zingoni, A. (ed.), Proceedings of 11  Luchsinger, R.H.; Crettol, R.,
the Second International Confer- “Experimental and numerical 16  Luchsinger, R.H.; Crettol, R.;
3  Herzog, T,; Minke, G.; Eggers, ence on Structural Engineering, study of spindle shaped Tensair- Plagianakos, T.S., “Temporary
H., Pneumatische Konstruk- Mechanics and Computationg, ity girders”, International Journal structures with Tensairity”, in:
tionen, Stuttgart, Gerd Hatje, Lisse, Balkema / Zeitlinger, of Space Structure 21(3), 2006, International Symposium IASS-
1976. 2004, p. 323-328. p. 119-130. SLTE 2008, 3rd Latin American
Symposium on Tensile-Struc-
4  Schock, H.-J., Soft Shells. 8  Pedretti, A.; Steingruber, P.; 12  Teutsch, U., Tragverhalten tures, Acapulco, 2008.
Design and technology of tensile Pedretti, M.; Luchsinger, R.H., von Tensairity-Trägern, Zurich, vdf
architecture, Basel, Birkhäuser “The new structural concept Hochschulverlag, 2011. 17  De Laet, L.; Luchsinger, R.H.;
Verlag, 1997; p. 102-105. Tensairity: FE-modeling and Crettol, R.; Mollaert, M.; De Tem-
applications", in: Zingoni, A. (ed.), 13  Plagianakos, T.S.; Teutsch, mermann, N., “Deployable
5  Vertigo Inc., www.vertigo-inc. Proceedings of the Second Inter- U.; Crettol, R.; Luchsinger, R.H., Tensairity structures”, Journal
com, 2009. national Conference on Struc- “Static response of a spindle- of the International Association
tural Engineering, Mechanics and shaped Tensairity column to for Shell and Spatial Structures
6  The Tensairity technology Computation, Lisse, Balkema / axial compression”, Engineering 50(2), 2009, p. 121-128.
was developed by the company Zeitlinger, 2004, p. 329-333. Structures 31, 2009, p. 1822-
Airlight Ltd. in close collabora- 1831. 18  Breuer, J.M.C.; Luchsinger,
tion with the firm Prospective 9  Luchsinger, R.H.; Sydow, A.; R.H., “Inflatable kites using the
Concepts AG. Recently, the Ten- Crettol, R., “Structural behavior 14  Wever, T.E.; Plagianakos, concept of Tensairity”, Aero-
sairity activities of Prospective of asymmetric spindle-shaped T.S.; Luchsinger, R.H.; Marti, space Science and Technology
Concepts AG were transferred to Tensairity girders under bending P., “Effect of fabric webs on 14(8), 2010, p. 557-563.
the Center for Synergetic Struc- loads", Thin-Walled Structures the static response of spindle-
tures, a public private partner- 49 (9), 2011, p. 1045-1194. shaped Tensairity columns”, 19  Pedretti, M.; Luscher,
ship between Empa and Festo. Journal of Structural R., “Tensairity-Patent – Eine
The main objective of the Center 10  Luchsinger, R.H.; Pedretti, Engineering 136(4), 2010, pneumatische Tenso-Struktur”,
is to strengthen the R&D of A.; Steingruber, P.; Pedretti, M., p. 410-418. Stahlbau 76(5), 2007, p. 314-319.

111
8

architectural
textiles
Seine-Aval water purification plant 114
Achères, France

Colmar Outdoor Theatre 118

colmar, France

Puerto Madero Terrace 122

puerto madero docks, buenos aires, argentina

Octahedron 126
Riyadh, saudi arabia

Giant Rugby Ball 128

paris, France; london, Great britain;
tokyo, japan; sydney, australia

CENTURY LOTUS STADIUM 134

foshan, china

Omnilife stadium 138

guadalajara, mexico

AP&P church 144

ma assluis, the netherlands

le lido – circus arts center 150

toulouse, France

113
Seine-Aval
Location: Contractor for fabrica-
Achères, France tion and installation:
Building type: Esmery Caron Struc-
Enclosures for water tures, Dreux, France;

water
filtration tanks Project manager:
Client: SIAAP Philippe Bariteau
Architects: Adrien Membrane type:

purification
Fainsilber and AAE, Woven polyester fibre,
Fribourg, Switzerland formulated vinyl/PVDF
(Jean-Michel Capeille) coating on both sides
Membrane/metalwork Membrane area:

plant
design: ARCORA, 17,300 m2
Arcueil, France Completion: 2006

Following the successful use of tech- design that was both sober yet modern, Nonetheless, the textile membrane has
nic­al textiles for covering the upstream and one that harmonised well with the excellent durab­ility against UV exposure.
water treatment plant at Valenton, a sim- surrounding environment. The second textile was used for the ver-
ilar approach has been adopted for the tical side and spandrel panels. While fab-
downstream nitrate treatment plant at The chosen technical textile solution not ricated from materials and processes
Achères. only meets the requirements but was similar to the roof membrane textile, this
easy to install. Fastening and tension- material is lighter in weight and has an
The Achères site is the largest water ing the textile membrane panels was open weave, thereby allowing air circula-
treatment plant serving the Paris region undertaken by a team of four installers tion and adequate transparency for quick
and one of the largest in Europe. Approx- working from the plant’s concrete walk- visual inspection of the treatment area.
imately 1,700,000 cubic metres of waste- ways or from light moveable scaffold Both textiles have the required fire resist-
water are treated daily. This case study towers. Each of the 84 filtration tanks, ance rating.
concerns the tensioned textile mem- each measuring 16 by 11 metres in plan,
brane structures (1) enclosing the 84 has a separate membrane roof covering. The water purification site at Achères,
Biosty filtration tanks. The membrane panels are fixed by lac- constructed according to sustainable
ing them to the stainless steel super- development objectives, is dedicated to
The tanks contain the wastewater dur- structure (2). cleansing and recycling, and not only of
ing the final stages of treatment before wastewater. The pumps that return the
it is released back into the river Seine. Two different textiles were chosen for purified water to the Seine are powered
The Biosty process, which results in the the tank enclosures. The largest textile by “green” electricity, generated from tur-
removal of nitrogen compounds and the surface was that of the tank roof. This bines powered by river water. Furthermore,
return of nitrogen gas to the atmosphere, was formed from a tensioned fabric of raw materials needed in the treatment
requires that the tank surfaces receive woven polyester fibre, coated on both processes are transported to the site by
good natural ventilation. Further require­­ sides, with formulated vinyl and then river barge to reduce road pollution. The
ments are that the tank surface be with a finishing varnish coat of PVDF. chosen technical textile enclosures not
shaded from the sun to avoid unwanted The membrane is coloured silver grey on only provide the necessary envir­onment
algae growth, and in addition, can be one side and blue on the other. The silver for the treatment processes, while
quickly inspected by technicians as they grey colour was chosen for the outside to ensuring the site’s harmonious integra-
pass. While satisfying these technical reflect a max­imum amount of radiation tion with its environment, but are made
needs, the architect sought an enclosure for the benefit of the treatment process. from fully recyclable materials. rp

114
1 – Biostyr tank enclosures.

2 – Membrane fixed by lacing to the superstructure.

115
3 – Translucent side and spandrel panels.

116
117
Colmar
Location: Contractor for fabrica-
Colmar, France tion and installation:
Building type: Esmery Caron Struc-
Outdoor theatre tures, Dreux, France

Outdoor
General Contractor: (Philippe Bariteau);
Direction architecture Everest
Ville de Colmar Membrane type:

Theatre
Engineers, membrane: Polymer-coated
ARCORA, Arcueil, polyester fibre
France Membrane area:
Architect and project 1,800 m2
manager: Christian Completion: 2009
Bignossi

Inaugurated at the 62nd Alsace Wine and pollution. The textile achieves a mini- of the roof structures was completed in
Festival in August 2009, the Colmar out- mum 15-year lifespan. three weeks by a team of six to seven
door theatre displays its dramatic tex- operatives.
tile roof (1). The membrane analysis confirmed
higher levels of stress around the cent- Aesthetics and multiplicity of forms,
The east and west stands, each protected ral anchorage points, which were there- lightness and transparency, strength,
by a textile membrane 900 m² in area fore reinforced with a double-mem- speed of implementation, sustainab-
and weighing 2.2 tonnes, protect theatre­ brane layer (2). Each roof membrane ility and protection of the environ-
goers from the elements. While the fab- was designed to span between two high ment are all strengths of this technical
ric provides diffuse natural light and points and multiple corner anchorage textile solution.
optimum indoor comfort during the day, plates, the edges of the membrane being
as night falls, its translucence adds to stiffened by edge cables in accordance “This is the first such architectural textile
the palette of lighting effects. with normal practice. project of this importance mounted on a
funicular type cable in France. The tech-
The textile chosen for this application is The two central high points of both roof nical prowess of this solution lies in the
a fabric made from woven polyester fibre, membranes are fixed to two paral­lel fact that there is no central mast. It is thus
coated on both sides by a PVDF polymer. cables on a single axis (4). The paral­ all about large spans giving unencum-
The textile is coated using a patented lel cables are strung between the bered space providing visual comfort,
process that pre-tensions both warp mastheads of two tubular steel tripod while also conveying a structural slen-
and weft fibres such that the fabric is structures, themselves braced by steel derness to the concept” (3), concludes
held flatter, enabling the application of a guy cables anchored to the ground. Philippe Bariteau of Esmery Caron.
thicker, more uniform coating. The result- The membrane’s corner anchorage In spring, summer and autumn, the out-
ant fabric has greatly enhanced dur­ability plates are fixed to shorter masts, simil­ door theatre can now accommodate
through resistance to weathering, soiling arly anchored to the ground. Installation spectators and visitors in comfort. rp

118
1 – A most original costume.

119
2 – Central anchorage stiffening with a double-layer membrane.

120
3 – No mast equals visual comfort.

4 – Parallel cables on a single axis.

121
Puerto
Location: Puerto Engineer, membrane:
Madero Docks, Buenos WAGG Soluciones
Aires, Argentina Tensadas
Building type: Membrane type:

Madero
Roof over restaurant Formulated vinyl-
and bar terrace coated polyester fibre
Structure type: textile, PVDF finishing

Terrace
Single-membrane varnish
canopy Membrane area:
Client: Private client 580 m2
Architect: WAGG Competition:
Soluciones Tensadas, June 2009
Buenos Aires

The next case study is located at the to obstruct the view, and to leave max- service kiosk is located at the centre of
historic Puerto Madero Docks of Buenos imum space for the circulation of people the canopy between the two cross-bars.
Aires, where the “Fragata Sarmiento” is and equipment (4). WAGG Soluciones Tensadas was respons-
moored. The focus falls on two technical ible for all membrane development and
textile canopies for sheltering visitors as These requirements are achieved by the realisation processes, from the primary
they pause for refreshment on the terrace use of a tensile textile roof suspended conceptual sketches, the structural and
in front of the mooring. from a primary steel support structure. membrane calculations, the fabric cut-
This comprises two principal masts with ting patterns and anchorage details,
The nautical setting invites the use of a collector cable spanning between them through to the installation.
the masts and rigging supporting this and supporting two suspended central
membrane structure. Both blend per- cross-bars. An additional six steel hang- The installation process was an interac-
fectly with those of the historic frig- ing cables from each mast provide sup- tive sequence between membrane and
ate and are reflected in the form of the port points for the canopy ends, and brac- structure. The masts were passed through
adjacent “Woman’s Bridge” designed by ing back to the two cross-bars (2). the membrane before achieving their final
Santiago Calatrava (1). geometric position, an action that caused
The membrane material is a single layer of the pre-installed collector cable to start
The project entailed creating outside vinyl coated polyester fibre textile with a raising the membrane. The peripheral
refreshment areas that include two finishing PVDF varnish, covering a rectan- masts were then installed and the mem-
canopies covering seating areas, one for gular zone measuring 10 × 30 metres. It is brane attached to them at its fixing points.
food and the second for a gelato-cafe. anchored by fixing points at the ends of Once all of the peripheral masts and stiff-
The canopies are constructed of textile the hanging cables and cross-bars, rising ening cables were in position, a mechan-
membranes tensioned across a steel sup- to supporting arcs, two of which are hung ical screw ring gave the definitive position
port structure. from the masts and two from the collector for the mast-supported metal arcs and
cable. The supporting arcs give the mem- thereby provided final membrane ten-
The design brief required consideration brane its double curvature form and act sioning (3). The approximately rectangular
of the surrounding aesthetic, hence the as slender hanging ribs. All the peripheral canopy is stabilised at its edges by stiff-
“nautical language” of masts and sails end points are anchored to the ground by ening cables spanning between the fixing
so clearly evoked by a tensile architec- stiffening cables to resist the uplift forces points. These give the structure its final
ture solution. It was also important not that can act on the membrane. A masonry external shape. rp

122
1 – Masts and rigging.

2 – Canopy structure. 3 – Final membrane tensioning.

123
4 – Unencumbered space.

124
125
Octahedron
Location: Riyadh, Engineer, membrane:
Saudi Arabia Smaili Contracting
Building type: Mobile Membrane type:
publicity display Formulated vinyl-
Structure type: coated polyester fibre
Single-membrane textile with PVDF
canopy finishing varnish
Client: Private client Membrane area:
Architect: Ali Smaili, 109 m2
King Saud University, Completion:
Riyadh 2010

Membrane structures have a long history Octahedron succeeds in providing an respectively, gives a good example of a
in Saudi Arabia stemming from Bedouin elegant display area while promoting a tensegrity system.
tents, traditionally made of fabric woven structural form that is both modern and
from goat hair. Such tent structures culturally relevant. The Octahedron struc- Having selected the final form, an ana-
remain culturally symbolic and many pri- ture (2) was designed to meet the local lysis was undertaken with applied loads
vate houses retain a traditional tent in environmental conditions (wind loads, UV in order to define the required steel cross
their inner courtyard; the structure pro- intensity, high temperature). sections, the fabric type and the end
vides a comfortable retreat during the point detail (3 and 4). The major load fac-
hot summer season. The shape comprises two opposed cones. tors for fabric and steel design are pre-
From the view of form-finding, the two stress and wind load. The ASCE code was
Recent developments have given rise to cones are interlinked. The cable pre- used to define the C p (aerodynamic coef-
radical departures from the traditional stress was modified according to the ficient) value. A wind load of approximately
Arabian tent structures, with wealthy desired form and many form-finding 100 da N/m2 was adopted.
individuals acquiring “tents” boasting iterations were carried out prior to the
air-conditioning and giant LCD screens. selection of the optimum structural shape. The area factor and hence the amount of
Furthermore today’s requirements for sunshade obtained can be controlled by
sustainability increasingly guide the Structurally, the fabric is supported by a providing a foldable mechanism. Modifi-
development and choice of fabrics. In this central steel column, and at six points: the cation of the steel support elements (1)
context it should be remembered that central mast end points plus four canti- would enable a dynamic structure that
the original goat hair tent fabric was lever end points, shared by each cone. A could open and close according to need.
renowned for its ability to adapt to the single footing supports the shell struc-
local climate. ture. In terms of stability, the structure is Conceptually the Octahedron structure
completely independent of external sup- can be considered as a typical unit that
This innovative membrane structure was port. In addition it can be transported with could form part of a multiple assembly
designed and implemented by a Saudi the membrane pre-stressed. The integra- (5). rp
Arabian company. Designed for a client tion between tension and compression,
requiring a striking exhibition structure, represented by the membrane and mast

126
1 – The steel support structure. 2 – The constructed canopy.

3 – Stress distribution without and with wind load. 4 – Membrane element stress and deformation with wind load applied.

5 – Two views of a bi-directional assembly.

127
Giant
Location: Paris, France; Engineer, membrane:
London, Great Britain; Lindstrand Technolo-
Tokyo, Japan; gies, Oswestry, Great
Sydney, Australia Britain

Rugby
Building type: Membrane type:
Single-membrane Formulated vinyl-
pneumatic structure coated polyester fibre

Ball
Client: Tourism New textile, PVDF finishing
Zealand varnish to both sides
Architect: Fabric Membrane area: 832 m2
Structure Systems Ltd., Completion: 2007
Auckland, New Zealand

The Giant Rugby Ball is a single-mem- The designers wished to create the image to protect the membrane and provide a
brane inflated structure, created as a of a ball sitting on a grassed playing field. non-slip floor surface. The ball’s outer
promotional venue for the New Zealand The position of the plane truncating the membrane is continued below the alu-
Rugby World Cup in 2011. The structure ball was chosen in order to attain this minium extrusion to form the skirt and
was designed to be transported from image whilst at the same time maximising conceal the scaffold base.
country to country and as a consequence the internal floor space. After consider-
had to satisfy all national construction, ing several anchorage methods, it was In addition to self-weight and dead load,
health and safety regulations. decided to build a raised platform util- the structural design of the ball consid-
ising standard scaffold elements with ered wind, snow, rain and earthquake
The ball’s outer skin is held in place by some custom pieces, incorporating a loads. Locating the ball in the “shadow”
a large oval ring-frame secured to the trough lined with plywood around the of existing protected structures provides
ground by a heavy water ballast saus- perimeter (7). This trough carries the protection against lightning strikes.
age (3). The interior of the ball accommo- PVC water-sausage ballast. The raised
dates 220 people and includes a stage, platform allows the inflation fans to be Wind load was the most critical. The
bar, toilets, storage, control room and mounted under the floor and incorpor- design wind speed was 23.15 m/s. The
seating areas. The Giant Rugby Ball is ates the membrane fixing detail at its shape factors adopted in the design were
a proven deployable spatial structure perimeter. based on wind-tunnel test data. The ball’s
with successful outings to Paris, Lon- design internal pressure was nominally
don, Tokyo and Sydney (1). The ball membrane is made from a woven 200 Pa for ordinary conditions and 300 Pa
polyester-based fabric coated with for- for stormy conditions. Drag and lift forces
Inside the venue the internal surface of mulated vinyl and finished with an acrylic caused by the wind load are resisted by
the ball is used as a “360-degree” projec- varnish applied to both sides. An edge the weight of the water ballast sausage
tion surface to promote New Zealand as bead in the form of a keder-rail strip with a safety factor of at least 1.5.
a destination. The panoramic surround is bonded to the membrane around its
imagery and the structure’s particular periphery. The keder-rail strip is then This venue is managed like any other pub-
acoustics give visitors a unique experi- retained by an aluminium extrusion lic venue in terms of safety and emer-
ence (6 and 9). attached to the support scaffolding (2). gency, although its unique nature requires
To form the air seal, a plywood deck is first particular solutions.
Visitors enter the ball through an air-lock assembled over the scaffold base. This
door designed to maintain the pressure in turn is covered by a shaped PVC mem- Wind towers with a three-cup anemometer
inside the ball. Specialised monitoring brane extending 50 cm up the inside face on top are situated at the site location to
equipment maintains a constant air pres- of the ball membrane, and also serves as measure peak wind speed. Procedures
sure and quality in the ball by controlling a template for the mezzanine columns are in place for evacuating the people
two large fans concealed under the floor and the door location points. Carpet tiles and, when more than 20 m/s peak gusts
and the air-conditioning system. finish the floor and form a wearing layer are predicted, removing the audio-visual

128
and sound equipment, deflating the ball
and securing the membrane by roping it
to the mezzanine frame (4 and 5).

Smoke alarms and fire-fighting equip-

ment are included; monitoring is under-
taken continuously by the audio-visual
and sound technicians, who are on duty
whenever the venue is open. Japanese
regulations required additional fire exits;
this was solved by the development of
electric heating wires fastened to the
membrane that would melt out door-
ways if required.

Three diesel-powered generators supply

the venue, minimising the risk of total
power failure. Even with the fans turned
off and the doorways open, the occu-
pants have up to 10 minutes to evacu-
ate the structure before air escape allows
collapse.

The Giant Rugby Ball has successfully met

1 – From Paris to Sydney.
all design objectives. It is easily trans-
portable and can be erected on site in
as little as three days. A number of video
sequences showing the erection and
travels of the Ball may be found on the
Internet. This case study introduces the
promotional or entertainment potential
for technical textiles, where the struc-
ture becomes part of the performance,
and in this instance, a veritable saltim-
banque. rp

129
 ANGLE IRON
CURVED MEMBER

FABRIC
FLAT BAR WORK
POINT

INFLATABLE SKIN

DIA FRAME

ALLOY SHOTGUN …

SKIRT FABRIC

GUSSET

2 – Keder-rail strip and fastening detail. 3 – The ballast tube.

4 – Section and plan. 5 – The mezzanine stairway.

130
6 – Panoramic projection over the mezzanine level.

7 – The base platform. 8 – Form-finding.

131
9 – The panoramic surround imagery and the structure’s particular
acoustics give visitors a unique experience.

132
133
 Location: Contractor: Beijing N&L

Century Foshan, China

Building type:
Stadium for track and
Fabric Technology Co.
Ltd., Beijing, China
Membrane type:

Lotus
field events – stadium Polyester substrate
roof, made of a cable with vinyl coating and
tensioning system polyvinylidene flouride
operating from two (PVDF) surface treat-

Stadium
metal rings ment
Client: Foshan City Membrane area:
Council 75,477 m2
Architects: GMP, Completion: 2007
Hamburg, Germany
Engineer: Schlaich
Bergermann und Part-
ner, Stuttgart, Germany

Foshan was chosen as the venue for the consists of three major sub-structural the highest and lowest parts of the roof
12th Guangdong Province Sports Meeting, systems: the outer compression truss, structure, are important for carrying the
enhancing the cityscape of this South an inner ring of tensioned cable, and the load. While gravitational loads, dead load
Chinese trade and industry hub on the tensioned membrane cladding (2). and live load, are supported by the ridge
Pearl River delta, while at the same time cables, the uplift loads from the wind are
adding ultra-modern sports facilities. The outer compression truss comprises resisted by the valley cables. The inner
an upper compression ring, lower com- ring comprises ten single cables arranged
The core of the newly planned sports park pression ring and V-shaped diagonals as two layers of five.
is the central stadium, whose reflection (bracing members). These steel mem-
in the adjacent lake resembles that of a bers are welded at joints to form a truss The roof membrane is made up from 80
lotus flower, encircled by urban and scenic to withstand the vertical and lateral loads. membrane panels fastened between
elements (4). From a distance, the new While 1.4 m diameter steel tubes are used adjacent radial and valley cables, form-
stadium stands out with its distinctive sil- for the upper and lower ring, diagonals are ing 40 uniform roof units. A durable vinyl-
houette and unusual pleated roof struc- made from 1.1 m diameter tubes, which coated polyester fabric was selected as
ture (5). Made of V-shaped membrane carry not only the vertical force trans- the membrane. The fabric is made using
elements, the roof gives the stadium its ferred from the upper ring to the bottom, a patented pre-tensioning technology
striking floral form. but also the horizontal loads from wind called Précontraint that guarantees
and membrane tensile force. To reinforce dimensional stability and homogeneity,
The Century Lotus Stadium serves as the resistance of the lower ring, the steel thus ensuring a longer life span. As a
a venue for football matches and track tubes are supported by cantilevered high- result of the surface stability there was
and field events. It can accommodate strength concrete columns. virtually no difference between the calcu-
36,000 spectators. The membrane roof lated membrane pre-tensioning and the
covers around 50,000 m2 and is the larg- The inner tensioned multi-cable ring actual values required for construction.
est cable-tensioned membrane struc- serves to anchor and tension upper radial The membrane surface is treated with
ture in China, with a maximum outer dia- (ridge) cables and lower radial (valley) PVDF to greatly improve soiling resist-
meter of 310 m and an inner tension ring cables. Each ridge cable is connected to ance. This maintains the appearance of
dia­meter of 125 m (1). The total length of the inner ring through two forked radial the membrane while ensuring its long
cable approaches an incredible 36 km. cables. The ridge and valley cables are lifetime. rp and ws
at different elevations and are intercon-
The roof structure, supported by 40 over- nected by tangential hanger cables (3).
hanging concrete cantilever columns, The ridge and valley cables, respectively

134
1 – High performance.

135
2 – The key elements: inner tensioned cable ring, tensioned membrane
cladding and steel outer compression truss.

136
4 – Century Lotus Stadium: technology reflecting the natural world.

5 – Pleated stadium roof comprising 40 V-shaped membrane units.

137
Omnilife
Location: Guadalajara, Architect and project
Mexico manager: Roberto
Building type: Munoz, Guadalajara,
Soccer stadium Mexico

stadium
Client: Chivas de Gua- Membrane type: 
dalajara/Jorge Vergara Polyester substrate
Architects: Massaud & with opaque formulated
Pouset, France vinyl coating
General Contractor: Membrane area:
ICA, Mexico 47,061 m2
Engineering, fabrica- Completion: 2010
tion and installation:
Lonas Lorenzo

When the Mexican magnate Jorge Ver- A principal requirement was to design “The of 1:300 was developed and subjected
gara took over Mexico’s most famous soc- Cloud” cover without internal structural to tests that measured wind load, while
cer club Chivas de Guadalajara in 2002, columns (8) and in one piece, originally taking into account the local geography.
a new 45,000 seat capacity stadium was spawning the idea of an air-filled, con- As it was impossible to analyse patterns
the new president’s top priority. The La tinuous tube. This concept was rejected for every conceivable wind-load scenario,
Primavera forest was chosen as the ideal for technical and financial reasons. focus was placed on the most dominant,
location. The forest with its mountain- The chosen stadium roof solution was in order to generate the greatest stresses
ous surroundings gave birth to the design planned as a membrane-clad steel truss that the supporting structure would be
of the stadium that was to nestle there. structure, resting on 16 giant concrete subjected to (6).
French architects, Massaud and Pouset, columns, towering majestically up to 40 m
created a design resembling a volcano over the highest stand. The initial design incorporated a translu-
beneath a white cloud (7). The structure cent membrane fabric that was to be illu-
was to be in perfect harmony with its en­- After developing several models, a design minated from inside. This choice was later
vironment, and characterised by the fol- (5) consisting of 64 wing-like steel pipe re-evaluated with regard to the mem-
lowing three elements: volcano slopes trusses took shape. These were placed brane soiling behaviour and the desir-
of natural green vegetation to match its evenly around the pitch with four second- ability of being able to see the structural
surroundings (3); the inner stand area (2); ary trusses to connect them. The design skeleton within. Eventually the decision
a “cloud”, that calls to mind a smoking also generated inner and outer compres- was made in favour of an opaque vinyl-
volcano, designed as a membrane-clad sion rings that add more stability and coated fabric (1) that had a special PVDF
steel structure (4). lightness. finish to encourage a permanently clean,
homogenous look for the membrane.
Due to the large spans, lightweight struc- Extensive wind tunnel tests were carried A textile composite was chosen as the
tural solutions were sought. An architec- out in order to develop the most efficient most durable solution possible and to
tural membrane structure was given pref- and robust stadium roof. The goal was to provide special surface stability for a roof
erence from an architectural and tech- identify the constant and dynamic wind that is subjected to considerable stress.
nic­al point of view. The main challenge load at the site in order to design the sta- The chosen textile is made using patented
was to realise the 55,000 m2 membrane- dium structure and its foundations: wind pre-tensioning technology and gained
clad underside of “The Cloud”: in other loads on the façade and the roof (top face top marks for its minimal expansion
words a ceiling construction in contrast and underside) were required in order to and alteration when subjected to load.
to the usual roof form. Among the innova- work out the correct dimensions for the rp and ws
tive procedures employed was the use of roof structure and membranes. Based on
rope access to facilitate its construction. the architects’ design, a model to a scale

138
1 – The membrane structure’s underside.

139
2 – The inner stand area.

140
3 – The green “volcano” slopes. 4 – “The Cloud” spectator cover.

Playing field outside

Playing field outside

Playing field outside

5 – Roof design with 64 segments arranged in 16

blocks with four connecting trusses.

Playing field outside

Playing field outside

Playing field outside

6 – Testing revealed the highest probable wind loads.

141
7 – Nested in perfect harmony with its surroundings: Omnilife Stadium.

8 – The main requirement: a roof without inner supporting columns.

142
143
AP&P
Location: Maassluis, Main contractor:
The Netherlands De Klerk, Werkendam,
Building type: Double- The Netherlands
layer insulated mem- Contractor, membrane:

Church
brane structure Buitink Technology,
Client: AP&P Parochie Duiven, The
Architects: Royal Netherlands
Haskoning Architecten, Contractor, façade:
Rotterdam, The Neth- Rodeca Systems,
erlands (Mari Baauw, Alphen a/d Rijn,
René Olivier) The Netherlands
Structural design: Royal Membrane type:
Haskoning, Rotterdam Formulated vinyl-
Membrane design, coated woven polyester,
analysis and calcula- PVDF varnish
tion: Tentech, Utrecht, Membrane area:
The Netherlands 1,400 m2
Completion: 2007

Upon entering the village of Maassluis, for semi-permanent coverings, perfectly endpoints secured to steel lugs welded
near Rotterdam, the visitor is soon aware fitted the architect’s concept of a ‘mater­ to the tubes. Edge-stiffening cables span
of the striking design of the AP&P church. ial-less’ building. between these fixing points to maintain
Its futuristic and fluid lines contrast well tension in the membranes. To form the
with the conventional Dutch housing that The Maassluis church is an example of shell’s weatherproof edge detail, an addi-
partially surrounds the building. Main- a double-layered, insulated membrane tional band of textile is wrapped around
taining the traditional language of arches, structure. The church’s shells are sup- the tube surface where it broadly over-
the church was built from several indi- ported by tubular steel arches. The steel laps the main inner and outer membrane,
vidual shells, overlapping to create the framework is covered with layers of trans- to which it is permanently joined by weld-
interior. At the shell overlaps, transpar- lucent membrane. Compared to tradi- ing (3).
ent coloured polycarbonate sheeting tional construction systems, this building
admits daylight in a manner reminiscent method requires the membrane stresses The membrane is a vinyl-coated poly-
of “stained-glass” (1). to be taken into account. In addition to ester fabric. The applied membrane has
the self-weight of the structure, the steel a finishing layer of Teflon. This surface
Notwithstanding the contemporary ex­- arches also carry the loads arising from treatment reduces the attraction of air-
ternal appearance, the organic shell and the tensioning of the membrane. With bound particles and, in conjunction with
“stained-glass” window detail produce a each double-membrane skin complete washing by rainwater, keeps the surface
contemplative and peaceful interior (2). with insulation and fixings weighing up to clean. To ease construction of the double-
3500 kg, the membrane must be tensioned curved roof, the 1400 m2 surface is divided
The unconventional form of the roof shells to ensure a smooth surface. To avoid defor- into 248 separate fabric strips. The strips
required the evaluation of several con- mation of the main steel structure as a are welded together to form the finished
struction techniques. The use of pro- result of tensioning and to support the membrane, which is then fitted with a
filed steel sheets was initially considered wind and snow loads, a steel substruc- steel edge-stiffening cable. Intelligent
as it provided a relatively inexpensive ture interconnects the arches (4). support of the membrane made it possi-
solution. However its coarse edge detail ble to tension the structure during instal-
and irregular interior surface were con- The double-layered arch structure con- lation. Re-tensioning can be carried out
siderations that prompted a search sists of one membrane layer covering during use.
for alternatives. The idea of covering the outer surface of the framework and
the profiled sheets with a textile intro- another covering the inside. The inner A layer of insulation fits between the
duced the structural membrane solution. and outer membrane sheets are first outer and the inner skin. This insula-
This lightweight technique, which is ideal fastened and tensioned using fabric tion is attached above the inner layer.

144
The 400–2000 mm cavity space between
the two layers is ventilated by openings
along the edge of the membrane. In addi-
tion to the insulating effect of the double-
layered structure, it also responds well to
extreme snow and wind loads. Deforma-
tions of the outer skin under these loads
are accommodated in the cavity space
between the two layers. The lightweight
shell is thereby able to retain its insu-
lating properties and support the loads,
without any resulting deformation being
visible from inside the church.

The concept that shaped this church 1 – The church’s strikingly futuristic shape.
was one of maximum space and light
with minimum material. A double-
layer insulated membrane provides a
contemporary solution for creation of
the church’s outer shell (5). Daylight
enters through the modern transpar-
ent polycarbonate windows, which
draw upon an ancient “stained-glass”
tradition and, in combination with the
double-curved ceiling, provide efficient
natural lighting. The cohesion of light
and space, form and structure, creates
an interior that perfectly expresses its
function. rp, ap and iv

145
2 – Shell interior.

146
147
3 – Weatherproof edge detail.

4 – Tubular steel shell frame and principal membrane cover.

148
5 – Maximising the minimum.

149
Le Lido – circus
Location: Toulouse, General Contractor:
France Constructions Saint-
Building type: Eloi, Toulouse
Cable-supported textile Contractor for fabrica-

arts center
structure tion and installation:
Client: City of Toulouse VSO France
Architect: Toulouse City Membrane: vinyl-
Council, Architecture coated polyester base
Management; Pierre- cloth with weldable
Jean Riera, city council PVDF finish
architect Membrane area:
Membrane design 2,000 m2
and engineering: Completion:
Prat Structures 2008
Avancées, Toulouse

Le Lido is a municipal circus school for membrane. The membrane is made of a Eight large textile panels form the outer
amateur and professional artists that high-performance vinyl-coated polyester membrane of Le Lido. These were ini-
provides training in the different discip- textile, manufactured using a patented tially assembled on the ground and then
lines while assisting with development process that pre-tensions the polyester raised in one piece, allowing assembly in
of new circus performances. The suc- cloth during application of the vinyl coat- half a day while avoiding unsymmetrical
cess of the many renowned trainers and ing. This results in a textile with excellent loadings on the steel cable and support
former students has enabled this edu- uniformity of coating thickness, which in structure.
cational facility to build an outstanding turn provides high strength, dimensional
international reputation and today, to stability and durability. Each of the membrane panels are bor-
train over 500 pupils a year. The design dered by an edge stiffening cable (5).
of Le Lido resembles a circus tent or In addition to its primary structural role, Special MagicClamp fastenings at 50 cm
“Big Top”, closely reflecting circus cul- the central ring element also defines the centres, link the membrane to its adja-
ture. This impressive technical textile walls and ceiling of an intimate inner cent catenary cable. The fastenings allow
enclosure covers an area of 1,500 m² (1) theatre that allows both students and fine membrane tension adjustments and
and can accommodate 250 spectators professionals to demonstrate their art to hence ensure a smooth wrinkle-free
while offering a large training area for the public. The use of acoustically effici­ outer surface.
the students. ent walls and ceilings for the theatre
enclosure provide a 35 dB noise reduct- Rain is prevented from penetrating the
The Lido membrane construction is ion between the stage and the outer membrane joints by the provision of alu-
remarkable in that it departs from the membrane shell, thus ensuring the minium flashings that cover the radial
traditional circus tent construction using comfort of residents of neighbouring catenary cables (6), and paired alumi-
one or more central masts. Instead, buildings only 100 m away. nium caps and cones (3) that are fast-
a total of eight masts are located in a ened to stiffening cages to cover the
ring formation around the perimeter of As mentioned earlier, the large span is mast heads (4). This solution comple-
the enclosed area. Each mast is tied to achieved by high tension in the support- ments the overall architectural concept.
a large central ring element by a network ing cables. For efficient transfer of the By attention to detail, simplifying cable
of primary and secondary steel cables. high resultant loads to the eight founda- terminals and avoiding custom-made
An additional outer network of cables tion anchorage points, a newly patented corner plates the designer has not only
provides the necessary tension to sup- connection system is used (6). This new generated cost savings, but has achieved
port the ring element and the tensioned system allows perfect alignment of the a smooth, fluid appearance for this ten-
textile cover while ensuring overall sta- tensioning cables due to the ability of its sioned textile structure.
bility (2). This solution generates high fastening elements to rotate (5). It also rp and ws
stress within the structure, but results in accommodates any additional deforma-
a large uninterrupted span beneath the tion due to extreme climatic stresses.

150
1 – The distinctive architectural form of Le Lido.

2 – Model showing the principal structural elements: a central ring with

concentric surrounding masts and the supporting cable network.

151
3 – Le Lido with its characteristic mast caps and cones.

4 – Mast head before covering. 5– Anchoring system detail (membrane edge cable,
MagicClamp fastening, external catenary cable,
MagicJoint swivel-joint).

152
6 – The corner anchoring system showing weather proofing and fastening details.

153
9

textile
faÇades

Stücki Business Park 156

basel, switzerland

yendi office building 160

bulle, switzerland

deichmann flagship store 166

essen, germany

German Pavilion “balancity”

at EXPO 2010 Shanghai 170
shanghai, china

Keramikland Showroom
and Office Building 176
cham, switzerland

sede iguzzini illuminazione españa 178

barcelona, spain

155
Stücki
Location: Membrane type:
Basel, Switzerland Polyester/glass-fibre
Building type: non-woven base with
Multi-storey office and polyacrylic coating

Business
laboratory complex finish
Client: Swiss Prime Membrane area:
Site AG 10,500 m2

Park
Architect: Blaser Completion:
Architekten AG, Basel 2011
Engineer, membrane:
Typico GmbH & Co KG,
Lochau, Switzerland

Dynamic changes are underway in the triangular prisms formed from welded In order to stay within the perimeter of the
urban district of North Basel. The site aluminium frames. Several different building plot, the south and east façades
of the former Schetty dye mills, in the asymmetrical prisms are fixed end to were manufactured as two-dimensional
meantime converted into Ciba maint­en- end to give an undulating form to the long units, while continuing the same outline
ance warehouses, is currently being façades, which serves to break their lines shape (3).
developed as a prestigious, inspiring and add movement (3).
and attractive “meeting point” for innov- The silver-laminated anthracite-col-
ative life-science, IT and nanotechno- In addition, as the prisms overlap the win- oured membrane fabric was chosen for
logy companies. dow line they also provide visual interest its transparency, self-cleaning proper-
from inside the building. While asymmet- ties, reflective surface and fire resistance.
The long building, which has been tak- rical, the different prisms are repeated The projected service life of the mem-
ing shape since construction started in at different locations along the façade, brane is 25 years.
July 2007, forms the backbone of the simplifying fabrication of the membrane
Stücki Business Park. The building com- frames. The membrane lends the simple rectan-
prises a base level, with access ramp and gular building a strikingly unique appear-
elevated road to the first floor entrance Once the membrane façade system had ance on a macro-scale, and gives rise to
level, and six storeys above it. The innov- been set up, it was first subjected to full- an interplay of reflections and insights (5).
ative, 230-metre-long newly developed scale testing (2). Depending on the viewing angle and the
membrane façade gives the building an lighting, the building has either a ribbed
unmistakeable identity (1). The membrane frames were fabricated skeletal look or the appearance of being
from welded aluminium sections. Com- draped in a light and airy garment, which
The façade is based on a simple but effect- pleted frames were then fastened to the creates an interplay of light and shadow
ive concept; a metallic-colour­e d mem- building’s concrete façade before fixing and lends a sense of lightness to the
brane is tensioned over long asymmetrical the textile membrane covering (4). structure. rp

156
1 – Textile façade.

2 – Testing membrane cladding panels.

157
3 – West façade nearing completion.

4 – Welded aluminium frames.

158
5 – Three-dimensional dynamism.

159
 Location: Inner skin: Breathable,

Yendi Office Bulle, Switzerland

Building type: Multi-
storey office building
polyacrylate surface
coating over non-woven
polyester and glass

Building
Client: Yendi S.A. composite membrane
Architects: deillon del- Membrane area:
ley architectes, Bulle 2,800 m2
Contractor: Progin SA Completion:
Metal, Bulle 2007
Membrane types:
Outer skin: Polyester
mesh fabric with for-
mulated vinyl coating,
100% recyclable, per-
meable.

Yendi, a women’s clothing retailer, was partnered with a coloured polyacrylic- sun’s rays striking the outer façade skin.
founded in 1976, in Bulle, Switzerland. coated inner façade breather membrane As a result the façade provides constant
Today, the company has over 80 outlets in (3) that seals the structure against wind movement, thereby adding visual interest
Switzerland and has become an interna- and rain while allowing vapour permeabil- (8). Horizontal strips mark the level of the
tional player by expanding its business to ity. The result is a multi-function façade different storeys and accommodate the
neighbouring countries. Yendi’s distinct­ system that greatly contributes to climate sunscreens (5), allowing them to disap-
ive philosophy of “thinking outside the control within the building, while giving pear so that only the textile façade and
box” was obvious back in 1999, when it an impression of depth due to the inter- metal profiles remain visible (6). The ident-
built its logistics centre and took the bold play of light passing through the outer ical façade and sunscreen fabrics cre-
step of wrapping the building in screen- mesh layer and striking the coloured inner ate a coherent aesthetic effect, notwith-
printed textile, an innovative façade solu- membrane. standing their different functions (7).
tion at the time.
The new façade design reflects the char- Preferences for the textile façade came
Seven years later, architects Achille acter of the nearby logistics centre, while about as a result of the client’s experience
Deillon and Alexandre Delley designed at the same time offering a completely with the logistics building. Furthermore,
another textile façade for Yendi. This new interpretation. To achieve this aim, the choice was strongly influenced by the
façade concept also impressed the man- the architect partnered with the engin- technical textile’s durability, robustness
agement team as the perfect reflection of eering company BCS to produce a mixture and resistance to tearing. The façade sys-
its business operations (1 and 2). of textile façade cladding and sun pro- tem provides a high level of solar protec-
tection screens, the fabric for which was tion, ventilation and insulation, thereby
The concept, destined for the com­ selected from the same manufacturer to ensuring excellent climate control within
pany’s new administration building, was ensure homogeneity of colour. The com- the building, a function that was further
to include the textile façade system ini- plementary colour of the inner sealing enhanced by this new design.
tially developed by the fabric manufac- membrane provides an effect that comes rp and ws
turer for the logistics building. The façade to the fore when the sunscreens move,
system consists of an outer skin of or when the feeling of depth alters with
vinyl-coated polyester mesh fabric (4), the changing angle of incidence of the

160
1 – General exterior view.

2 – Reception-level floor plan.

161
3 – Breathable inner membrane behind outer mesh fabric. 4 – Detail of outer mesh fabric.

5 – Section: horizontal “strips” house the sunscreen mechanism.

162
6 – Sunscreens raised, façade membrane and metal profiles visible.

7 – Coherent façade elements.

163
8 – Changing sunscreen positions ...

164
... add visual interest.

165
Deichmann
Location: Contractor: Zompras
Essen, Germany Metallbau GmbH,
Building type: Multi- Soest, Germany
storey flagship store Membrane type:

flagship store
Client: Heinrich Polyester mesh fabric
Deichmann-Schuhe with formulated vinyl
GmbH & Co. KG coating.
Architects: Planungs- 100% recyclable.
gruppe Drahtler GmbH, Membrane area: 550 m2
Dortmund, Germany Completion: 2008
Membrane engineer:
Tensoforma Trading srl,
Entratico, Italy

Deichmann’s new flagship store on Lim- above all the availability of the chosen façade system comprises 1.25 x 3.60 m
becker Platz in Essen city centre is a new textile in 27 colours that swung the de- format aluminium frame units, over which
and striking enhancement to the area. cision, the “hammered metal” tone being the textile membrane is tensioned. Fab-
After demolishing the existing building, selected. This tone was a very good match rication details for the curved and flat
used by the client since 1994, a new five- for the mix of construction materials and façade units were similar as are the fast-
storey Deichmann flagship store with floor in addition, blended well with the metal- ening details. The membrane surfaces
space of 2,000 m² was constructed. lic look of the building opposite. are interrupted at floor level by ceramic
panels (5), which also cover the transi-
As a contrast to the huge, dominant build- Another benefit of the textile façade was tion walls to the neighbouring buildings.
ing opposite (a shopping centre with a that curved panels were possible (2); op-
perforated plate façade) greater unity timal use of the site’s land registry bor- The designer’s challenge was to develop
was sought for the new facade (1). At the ders led to design of the building envel­ope a corporate architectural concept that
same time, it was to have a high level such that it would “flow” into the avail- would serve the client as a model for
of transparency in order to ensure the able area. stores at other sites. The brand image
flagship store had a close link to the out- was to be projected externally without
side world. The objective was very clear: The basis of the façade is a post/beam additional illuminated elements or logos
to showcase the inside from the outside. design in a dark grey mica-like tone with that would detract from the harmonious
At the same time, the client also wanted glass elements, some of which can be aesthetic of the façade. The choice of a
a high level of transparency to the outside opened. The ground floor includes a poly­ textile façade enabled the architect to
so that customers could enjoy the view. gonal shop window comprising curved satisfy the client’s requirements with a
glass elements. At approximately 550 m2 high-quality and cost-effective solution.
After considering various approaches, the the textile membrane covers the largest rp and ws
textile façade concept was the most con- area of the façade (3) and has the Deich-
vincing. In addition to the high level of mann lettering and logo digitally printed
transparency and performance, it was onto the textile (4). The Italian textile

166
 1 – Style and transparency at Limbecker
Platz, Essen, Germany.

167
2 – Curved façade for optimum use of floor space.

3 – Elevations showing the relative areas of textile membrane,

glazed surface and ceramic tiles.

168
 5 – Rectangular ceramic panels define storey levels.

4 – Lettering digitally printed onto the textile.

6 – Fixing detail: adjacent flat panels to vertical mullion.

169
German Pavilion
Location: Shanghai, China Media and exhibition
Building type: design: Milla und Partner
EXPO Pavilion GmbH, Stuttgart, Germany
Client: Federal Ministry General contractor: Nüssli

“balancity”
of Economics and Deutschland GmbH, Roth,
Technology Germany
Organisation/Operation: Membrane type:

at EXPO 2010
Koelnmesse International Polyester mesh fabric with
GmbH, Cologne, Germany formulated vinyl coating,
Architects/general plan­ 100% recyclable
ning: Schmidhuber + Kaindl Membrane area: 12,000 m2

Shanghai
GmbH, Munich, Germany Completion: 2010
Concept, fabrication and
installation:
TAIYO KOGYO China

The “balancity” design (1) by Munich silver textile façade fabric that reflects their location, people perceive a succes­
architects Schmidhuber + Kaindl is the the ambient light. For example, the build­ sion of different angles and impressions.
German response to the EXPO 2010 “Bet­ ing is captured by a reddish light at sun­
ter City, Better Life” theme; a city that rise, resembles a silver crystal in bright Another important factor in favour of the
balances innovation with tradition, urban daylight (9), or is highlighted by the stark textile façade was the recycling option at
aspects with nature, and globalisation night-time contrast between the silvery, the end of EXPO 2010. Preparatory work
with national identity. The pavilion (2) textile building shell and the reflected for this was completed at the beginning
illustrates the EXPO’s core theme at a light from the grassed area beneath it (8). of 2011. Under supervision of the gen­
glance; an opposing collection of ele­ eral contractor Nüssli, the full struc­
ments, which unite in equilibrium. Another core theme of the pavilion’s design ture was taken down (7). Some of the
was the blurring of borders between fabric could be re-used at the German
For the architectural design of the pavil­ inside and outside. A particular example School in Shanghai while approximately
ion, Schmidhuber + Kaindl opted for a is the wall of the VIP lounge that develops 11,000 m² remain for recycling. This will
powerful, sculptural character (4). This from the outside façade, segues into the entail the removal of non-textile parts
aspect was to be enhanced by transpar­ tunnel and becomes the stair’s handrail such as metal ropes, eyelets and tubing.
ency; rooms flooded with light, a sense of before eventually losing itself again within The recovered fabric can then be tightly
weightlessness and flexibility. A textile the huge body of the structure (3). packed onto pallets for transportation by
façade fabric was chosen as the mater­ container to the manufacturer’s Texyloop
ial to underscore this aspect in the most The additional design dimension created plant in Ferrara. Here fabrics are fully
sustainable manner. The fabric flexibly by the fabric’s transparency becomes recycled, with 70% used as PVC gran­
covers the building like a second skin. apparent when walking inside the build­ ulate and 30% as polyester fibres, raw
ing. While much of the fabric is opaque, material for many new products.
Constant change was a key theme of the areas of transparent textile reveal strik­ rp and ws
design. Change is emphasised by the ing views of the outside (6). Depending on

170
1 – The “balancity” pavilion.

2 – An elegant equilibrium of opposing elements.

171
3 – The outside membrane becomes the inside.

172
 4 – The building sculpture.

6 – Striking view revealed.

5 – Membrane panel fixing details. 7 – Recovering the membrane for recycling.

173
8 – Stark textural contrasts abound.

174
9 – The building resembles a silver crystal in daylight.

175
 Location: Membrane type:

Keramikland
Cham, Switzerland Outer skin: high-tenac­
Building type: ity glass fibre mesh
three-storey building coated with PTFE

Showroom
Client: Keramikland AG Inner skin: breathable,
Architect: Hans Schwe­ polyacrylate surface
gler, architect HTL/STV, coating over non-woven
Ufhusen, Switzerland polyester and glass

and Office
Façade construction composite membrane
and installation: HP Membrane area:
Gasser AG, Lungern, 1,073 m2
Switzerland Completion: 2011

Building
Membrane manufac­
turing: Mehotex, Burg­
dorf, Switzerland

Keramikland is a retailer and interior the company name and the eye-catching heating of the façade. Hence the breath­
design company for first-class bathrooms entrance area (1). able façade inner membrane contributes
and sanitary products. For the company’s to a solution that provides optimum pro­
new showroom centre in central Switzer­ An advantage of the textile used for the tection from the environment. In addition,
land, a former service point belonging to outer façade skin is its ability to allow the façade complies with strict local fire-
a heating company was to be converted the required level of natural lighting via protection regulations.
and adapted to requirements. the existing windows. Its transparency
ensures a high level of visual comfort Black galvanised consoles were fastened
The chosen site was a disparate collec­ for people working in the offices (3) and onto the sub-structure, which was clad
tion of buildings, comprising a reception, provides good natural illumination of the with the inner breathable membrane to
customer service area, workshop, offices showroom displays. The textile façade support the anodised aluminium profiles
and a warehouse. The architect was con­ acts as a screen to block out sun and glare that provide the mounting for the outer
fronted by buildings of varying floor levels in summer, while ample light enters the skin (4). The components of the outer
and heights. In addition to this challenge, building even when the sky is obscured skin fastenings (c) were customised for
there was also the problem of integrating by clouds. The fabric’s transparency pro­ the project by the installation specialist.
the different windows; the warehouse had vides an additional attractive effect when The stainless steel rope (b) anchors the
none, while the workshops were large and the building’s interior is artificially lit. fabric (a) into the Keder rail (d), and final
the office windows narrow. During the day the building has a mono­ textile post-tensioning adjustments can
lithic character, but at night the transpar­ be made using the stainless steel bolts (e).
The client’s key requirement was for an ency of the textile allows the different-
innovative façade with a prestigious look sized windows to appear, thereby adding The double-skin membrane solution
to reflect the company‘s standards and visual interest. allowed the architect to achieve his cli­
the high quality of its products. The basis ent’s objectives with a façade enclosure
of the building concept was to add height The outer skin – the textile façade cladding that successfully unifies the former build­
to the office and service area in order – comprises a fibre glass composite ing elements, producing an eye-catching
to obtain a unifying cuboid structure. membrane with PTFE surface, the inner renovation that breaths new life into this
To achieve a smooth appearance, archi­ skin – the weather protection sealing – a industrial site (2). rp and ws
tect Hans Schwegler used a double-skin breathable polyester/glass non-woven
membrane solution, of which the trans­ membrane with polyacrylate coating. The
parent outer skin partially screens the double-skin façade solution reduces the
windows. A monolithic structure with energy required for climate control within
sophisticated black textile cladding was the building; solar heated air rises in the
thus created, its principal façade only ventilation space between the inner and
interrupted by the contrasting white of outer skins, thereby avoiding excessive

176
1 – The textile façade with contrasting white signage and entrance areas.

2 – An eye-catching architectural textile façade 3 – High visual comfort for the office staff. 4 – Aluminium profile system for outer-skin fixing
solution. and tensioning.
a: PTFE-coated fibre-glass fabric
b: Stainless steel rope in fabric pocket
c: Stainless steel tensioning bolt
d: Aluminium Keder-rail extrusion
e: Aluminium frame extrusion

177
sede iGuzzini
Location: Membrane type:
Barcelona, Spain Polyester mesh with
Building type: formulated vinyl
Four-storey office coating

illuminazione
building Membrane area:
Client: iGuzzini Illumi­ 1,600 m2
nazione España Completion:

españa
Architects: MiAS 2010
Architects, Barcelona
Engineering/fabrication
and installation:
Iaso, Lleida, Spain

Located at one of Barcelona’s major traf­ textile. The composite material is manu­ high-frequency electromagnetic weld­
fic hubs, development of the new Span­ factured from an open-weave polyester ing to ensure membrane quality (9). The
ish headquarters for the lighting manu­ fabric. A formulated vinyl coating has membrane fasteners comprise bolted
facturer iGuzzini proved quite a chal­ been applied to both sides of the fabric twin metal discs that sandwich and firmly
lenge. The architectural firm MiAS con­ by the Précontraint process, thus ensur­ grip the textile (5). They, in turn, are fixed
trasted the busy industrial reality of the ing uniformity of coating thickness. The to multi-function metal anchorage nodes
project site with an eye-catching ellip­ resultant composite material is dimen­ that connect square section steel tubes
soidal structure that engages the ima- sionally stable, self-cleaning, and has arranged in a triangular form, somewhat
gination. The resultant building rises from a service life of the order 25 to 30 years. reminiscent of a geodesic dome (6). The
a concrete podium, the activity within Its open structure provides ample trans­ resultant lattice forms the membrane’s
shrouded by an outer composite mem­ parency for the required internal day­ supporting sub-structure. The central
brane (8). light levels, while protecting the inner screw fixing of the membrane fastener
glazed façade from solar radiation (1). assembly allows textile tension adjust­
The design comprises a central vase- This, together with protection from wind ment after initial fixing (7 and 10). The
shaped tubular steel structure, which and rain, creats a buffer zone between multi-function anchorage nodes are
entirely supports four floors of work­ the building envelope and the outside themselves bolted to vertical tubular
space arranged as a stack of rings. A sec­ environment. The membrane solution steel frames, of which there are ten uni­
ond skin of high-performance compos­ thus provides a means of reducing the formly spaced around the building’s inner
ite material wraps around the southern energy required for climate control and, façade (3). The composite membrane cap­
façade, providing climate control for the together with the central light shaft, for tures the geometry of the triangular ele­
building’s interior as well as defining its artificial lighting; two important factors ments and lends the façade a particu­
shape. The central steel support struc­ that ensure the comfort of the building’s larly dynamic look, thanks to a diagonal
ture also serves as a light shaft for the occupants. striped design of alternate silver and grey
building’s interior workspaces, creating tones, selected from a broad palette of
a fascinating juxtaposition of natural and The composite membrane is continuous available colours.
artificial light. around the southern façade, opening at
the north face to reveal the building’s The façade solution with composite ma-
Energy saving and sustainability form inner skin (2). A key feature of this project terial thus allowed creation of the build­
an integral part of the building’s design, is the precision of membrane fabrication ing’s eye-catching shape, while enhancing
a requirement made more demanding and installation. This is made possible the efficiency of its internal lighting and
by the inclusion of room-height glazed by the dimensional stability of the tex­ climate control. The building users benefit
façades at all floor levels. In this respect tile. The membrane and its sub-structure from a high level of comfort, a clear view
the decision to add a transparent outer were developed using computer-aided of the surroundings, and an attractive
skin not only creates a striking appear­ design and 3-D modelling to define both structure (4). rp and ws
ance but allows an overall improvement in the textile panel cutting pattern and the
the building’s energy efficiency, a solution node position for membrane fastening.
largely dependent on the performance The components were thus manufactured
characteristics of the chosen technical and assembled to great accuracy, using

178
1 – A membrane for substantial reduction of light and heat transmission.

179
2 – The north face membrane opens to reveal the glass façade.

3 – Tubular steel frames support the membrane sub-structure.

180
4 – Visual comfort combined with glare protection.

5 – Ring-shaped membrane fasteners.

181
6 – The triangular lattice sub-structure awaiting membrane placement.

7 – Initial placement and fastening of the membrane.

182
8 – Textile architecture as modern sculpture.

9 – Precision cutting and welding are essential elements of the 10 – The membrane after tensioning.
membrane manufacture.

183
10

solar
protection
Riffa Views international school 186
Manama, bahrain

Shade – Shadow Courtyard 192

riyadh, saudi arabia

office building 196

basel, switzerland

THE dolder GRAND hotel 200

zurich, switzerland

paul klee center 204

bern, switzerland

185
Riffa Views
Location: Contractor, fabricator
Manama, Bahrain and installer:
Building type: Swim­ Gulf Shade, Manama
ming pool shade and Membrane type:

International
façade solar protection Open-weave polyester
Client: Riffa Views fibre with formulated
International School vinyl coating and acrylic

school
Architect/engineers: lacquer finish
Mohamed Salahuddin Membrane area:
Consulting Engineer­ 2,300 m2
ing Bureau, Architects Completion: 2009
and Engineers, MSCEB,
Manama

A technical textile solution provides of columns, the final fixing being located fabric strips. In this particular case the
solar protection over the pool area of on the main building (3). The façade mem­ best option was for the individual mem­
the Riffa Views International School in brane panels are fastened between sim- brane strips to be oriented perpendicu­
Bahrain, satisfying the principal design ilar “A” frame steel structures, for archi­ lar to the length of the canopy.
objective of maintaining the notion of an tectural design continuity (1).
open sky while protecting swimmers from The membrane design was generated in
the intense sunlight (2). In addition the The chosen fabric was made from an 3D space by the utilization of specific tens-
membrane concept is applied as solar open-weave coated polyester fibre, with ile structure software (4). The generated
protection to the building façade (1). a fabric weight of 820 g/m2. The mater- form was selected in terms of elegance,
ial was chosen for its high resistance shape, and curvature.
A textile membrane canopy was perfectly to solar radiation and its recyclability.
adapted to the geometry of the site. The 45 The projected lifetime of the fabric is The load on the membrane was calcu­
by 35 metre pool area is bordered on two greater than ten years . Before patterning, lated assuming a typical wind speed of
sides by the school building; a reinforced bi-axial testing was conducted to estim- 40m/s and the structural analysis car­
concrete wall screens the remaining two ate the required compensation for this ried out accordingly. Various wind load
sides of the pool. The school building pro­ type of fabric, an important factor needed scenarios were modelled to verify the
vides anchorage for the canopy along one to determine fabric elongation during the stability of the structure. The result of
edge. The opposing edge is anchored by pre-stressing stage. the structural analysis was then used to
corner plates to steel masts. The masts design and size the membrane cables and
are arranged as a reticulated “A” frame, The fabric cutting pattern was carefully fittings, and the supporting steel masts
fixed to and using the concrete wall as planned as this would not only affect the and struts. A range of membrane corner
support. This steel structure comprises visual aspect of the finished structure plates was fabricated to suit each type
eight membrane fixing points at the top but would avoid waste when cutting the of fastening location (5). rp

186
1 – Façade solar protection canopies.

2 – Pool protection canopy.

187
3 – Canopy and composite supporting structure.

4 – Design drawings.

188
 WALL SIDE PLATES

FP2A DETAILS FP1 DETAILS FP2B DETAILS

FP4A DETAILS FP3 DETAILS FP4B DETAILS

FRAME SIDE PLATES

5 – Corner plate details.

189
6 – General view of the textile canopy’s integration with the school complex.

190
191
Shade –
Location: Riyadh, (SLIR), Lebanon and
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia
Client: Saad Ben Laden Membrane type:
Architect/engineer: Polyester fibre fabric

Shadow
Ali Smaili, King Saud with PVDF coating
University, Riyadh Membrane area:
Engineers, membrane: 125 m2

Courtyard
Société Libanaise des Completion:
Industries Réunies 2009

Given the historical impor tance of and channel air currents to the shaded Structurally, the design criteria took
nomadic tent structures in the desert, area beneath them. So while the shape account of the following loads: the mem­
contemporary membrane structures find is simple the deployment of the mem­ brane pre-stress, the wind pressure, and
a ready cultural niche in Saudi Arabia. This brane canopy provides an elegant and the sand load. The membrane corner
case history looks at a modern solution to efficient solar shade. At the far end of plates, edge stiffening cables and their
the need for solar protection as applied to the courtyard a further similar membrane fixings are all made of stainless steel (4).
the courtyard of a home in Riyadh. The cli­ canopy is used to shade an entrance to
mate in Saudi Arabia, intense sunlight the house. The wall anchorages (3) comprise base
with high temperatures, presents consid­ plates made from galvanised steel. After
erable design challenges. The sun’s rays The textile chosen for the sails (5) was bolting to the masonry walls the plate fix­
can damage not only human skin but also selected for its ability to withstand ings are hidden behind a decorative steel
the membrane textile. extreme atmospheric conditions. The tex­ cover. The choice of metals for anchorage
tile’s polyester fibres are formed by the fabrication was made weighing cost and
In terms of the architectural solution the patented Précontraint process which pro­ durability against aesthetics. The climate
shape is simple. For the principal shaded vides exceptional resistance to UV expos- in Riyadh is very dry and hence the cor­
area, three horizontal sails are interlinked; ure. The textile has a highly concentrated rosion risk for this application is low. The
each membrane surface forms a shallow PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) surface anchorages were fixed using standard
hyperbolic parabola (1 and 2). The sails treatment that ensures long-term clean- tools and access materials, after which
are disposed horizontally and partially ability, thereby reducing mainten­ance the membrane installation and tension­
overlapped. As the sun crosses the sky the cost to the owner. Furthermore it is 100% ing operation was swiftly undertaken by
shade pattern changes, becoming most recyclable, an important consideration the specialist installer. rp
protective during the hottest period of given the ever-present need to conserve
the day. The sails are oriented to collect the natural environment.

192
1 – Shade and shadow.

2 – Plan view of the canopies.

193
3 – Connection to the structure of the house.

Fabric membrane
Concrete wall

GRC
Inside pocket cable

End fitting

Fabric Plate-Stainless steel

T-Bolt

U plate

Pin 
Gusset plate-galvanized steel

Stainless steel cover plate

Base plate-Galvanized steel

Anchor bolts

Washer plate

4 – Membrane corner plate and anchorage detail.

194
5 – Textile subjected to aggressive UV exposure.

195
Office
Location: Engineering, manufac-
Basel, Switzerland ture and installation
Building type: Five- of the solar protection
storey office building equipment:

building
Client: Novartis clauss markisen
Pharma AG Projekt GmbH,
Architects: Gehry Bissingen-Ochsen-
Partners, LLP, wang, Germany
Los Angeles, USA Membrane type:
General management/ Polyester mesh sub-
project management: strate with vinyl coating
ANW Arcoplan / Nissen and Low-E treatment
& Wentzlaff General- Membrane area:
planer, Basel 10,000 m2
Climate concept: Trans- Completion:
solar, Munich, Germany 2010

The office building with auditorium, de- façade surfaces was achieved by chang- screening fabric, and partially absorbed
veloped by Gehry Partners, LLP, is dis­ ing alignments of the textile panel’s tubu- by the material. The build-up of heat that
tinctive for the architect’s typical decon- l­ar supports, of which there are 412 in results is dispersed over a large area
structivist way of playing with shapes. It total (5). by two mechanisms: convection of the
stands apart with its free-style shapes heated air and by radiation. Hence, while
that flow into one another and its opul- Sustainable development was the watch- the solar panels are heated due to the
ent transparency and openness. (1) It is word during design; the building’s climate inclination of the façade areas, the Low-E
formed as a glass sculpture representing control is managed by a sophisticated rating suppresses this radiation. The triple
multiple box-like structures with inter- interaction of elements. The external glazing and solar protection systems
locking façades. Design of the solar pro­ facade uses triple glazing with appro- work together to provide a façade of high
tection system was very challenging due priate Low-E coating together with integ­ thermal efficiency. This has a significant
to the irregular angles and curvatures of rated ventilation. The internal solar pro- effect on the feeling of comfort experi-
the façades; this in turn required high per- tection system provides a high level of enced within the building.
formance from the technical textile used screening while remaining transparent,
in its construction. In addition to large and also benefits from a Low-E coating. In addition to the appropriate fire pro-
formats and complex shapes, a range of Even the roof surfaces play a role, incorp- tection characteristics, high perform-
technical specifications such as Low-E orating solar panels for electrical power ance was required of the technical tex-
(Low Emissivity) had to be fulfilled. production and increased solar shading, tile selected for fabrication of the solar
as well as water-cooled white lamella, screens. This structure provides a fur-
Solar protection for the complex, multi- which serve to diffuse sunlight while ther illustration of the diversity of tech-
façade building shell was provided by reducing thermal loading. nical textile solutions. In harmony with the
internally mounted large textile panels building’s architecture, this solar protec-
fabricated in three basic shapes: tri- The solar protection textile was required tion solution provides a very comfortable
angle, rectangle and trapezoid. The text- to guarantee 57% light reflection and and efficient working environment.
ile panels unroll from opposed tubular 22 % transmission and has a Low-E coat- rp and ws
supports and are shaped so that when ing of 0.48 maximum emissivity. The solar
fully extended a continuous solar screen energy striking the building’s solar pro-
is formed (2 to 4). Coverage of the varying tection system is partly reflected by the

196
1 – Striking deconstructivist architecture: the office building in Basel designed by Gehry Partners, LLP.

2 – Interlocking retractable textile screens provide high-level solar protection.

197
3 – In addition to radiating little heat, the material used is transparent and dimensionally stable.

4 – The internal solar screens integrate seamlessly with the architecture while ensuring a generously lit workspace.

198
5 – Screens at point of interlock showing installation detail.

199
THE
Location: Solar protection engin-
Zurich, Switzerland eering/installation:
Building type: Spa Hotel Kästli & Co. AG, Bern,
General Contractor: Switzerland

dolder
Dolder Hotel AG Membrane type: Two
Architects: different weave dens-
Foster + Partners, ities of polyester mesh

GRAND
Riverside Three, Lon- substrate with formu-
don, Great Britain lated vinyl coating
General management/ Membrane area:
project management: approx. 2,000 m2

HOTEL
Itten + Brechbühl AG, Completion:
Zurich 2008

With the refurbishment of the famous the screen location; the designer wished the Précontraint process. It also offered
hotel “The Dolder Grand” in Zurich, Sir to take every advantage afforded by the excellent screening and glare protection,
Norman Foster confidently creates a hotel‘s spectacular views. The textile combined with a high level of transpar-
bridge between tradition and modern- is made by the patented Précontraint ency. Additional stiffeners were added to
ism. The principal design objective was manufacturing process, which not only each vertical screen in the form of hori-
to carefully accentuate the original build- ensures that the fabric’s vinyl coating zontal glass-fibre rods, sewn into the tex-
ing as the central feature. Foster + Part- is uniform but also results in a strong tile. This solution, borrowed from boat sail
ner‘s typical style is above all reflected in yet thin material. This enabled the solar manufacture, ensures that the screens
the extensions grouped around the main screen shutter boxes to be compact and can support the pressures arising from
building: unobtrusive. the high wind loads. The chosen textile
 – an egg-shaped ballroom built into the was also suitable for covering the table
adjacent hillside; A particular characteristic of the façade parasols, thus ensuring a homogeneous
 – a garden level with restaurant and a design is the “Dolder nose”. It reflects the appearance.
large conference area; slightly projecting, distinctive edge to the
 – two extensions that frame the original roof, while integrating the solar screens The balconies of the hotel‘s new spa
building, the golf and the spa wing (1). that shade the south-facing patios. and golf extensions are also equipped
The screen‘s textile panel is fastened with retractable awnings of similar
The hotel occupies a prominent position into a moulded channel in the anodised design to those previously mentioned
on the south-facing slope of Adlisberg, aluminium beam that forms the screen‘s (7). The screen‘s leading-edge support-
a hill overlooking Zurich. This, together rigid leading edge when opened. When ing beam has a cross-section that en­-
with numerous regulations on the pro- closed, the beam‘s surface closely inte- ables it to integrate unobtrusively into
tection of historical buildings, placed very grates with the underside of the “Dolder“ the architectural detailing of the façade.
exacting requirements on the design of nose. During the detailed design, care The design provides the necessary screen
the hotel‘s solar protection screens. was taken to find the right compromise stiffness to resist the region’s high wind
between maximum shading and spacing speeds, and to allow the screen widths to
The first challenge was the wide variety of between each of the awnings while main- be varied in order to follow the façade‘s
screens required: ranging from retractable taining the wave shape of the façade (4). concave and convex curves.
dome awnings, traditional and classic
awnings (5 and 6), to retractable vertical Large vertical screens, 2 x 5 m in size, The high performance of the chosen tech-
and inclined screens (3). Due to the nature are provided to screen the conference nical textile enabled a flexible solution to
of the project and the desire to achieve a area (2). Due to the exposed position, the challenging task of realising the high-
homogeneous appearance, a high-qual- these have to support wind speeds of quality solar protection screens required
ity textile was sought. The chosen vinyl- up to 60 km/h. Here the chosen fabric for this refurbishment project. rp and ws
coated polyester mesh fabric was speci- proved to be entirely suitable because
fied with two different mesh weaves for of its high tearing resistance and dimen-
variation of transparency according to sional stability, properties enhanced by

200
1 – Modernism meets tradition: the golf wing extension in front of the original building.

2 – A demanding challenge for large-format solar protection screens.

201
3 – Fixed inclined awnings over a patio.

4 – Precision engineering allows the solar screens to follow the façade curvature.

202
5 – A panoply of solar screens. 6 – Retractable vertical and inclined awnings of the extension wing.

7 – The retractable inclined awnings seen here in another perspective. 8 – Vertical terrace awnings.

203
Paul Klee
Location: Solar protection manu-
Bern, Switzerland facturing/installation:
Building type: Storama, Burgistein,
Museum building Switzerland

Center
Client: Maurice E. Membrane:
and Martha Müller Polyester mesh sub-
Foundation strates with formulated
Architects: Renzo Piano vinyl coating
Building Workshop, Membrane area:
Paris, and ARB Arbeits- 2,700 m2
gruppe, Bern Completion: 2006
Structural engineering
and planning:
Ove Arup & Partners,
B+S Ingenieure

The art collection of the Paul Klee Centre Although the spectacular roof line is tensioned between cast-aluminium con-
and its 4,000 works is the world’s biggest clearly discernible from the motorway for soles (7). The consoles, indicative of the
of its kind, comprising paintings, water- about 10 seconds, viewed from the park, overall attention to detail, were designed
colours and drawings from all of the art- it is not immediately clear whether the by the architect and implemented by the
ist’s creative periods. In addition to show- three mysterious undulating forms are solar protection installation company.
casing the works, the Centre’s key role artificial or natural. However, when stand- A further challenge lay in the sheer size
is to provide academic analysis of Paul ing in front of the main façade, its impres- of the vertical screens, extending up to
Klee’s artistic, pedagogical and theoret- sive dimensions reveal themselves: the 9 m high. Because of the façade’s exposed
ical work and present it to visitors in a “hills” are up to 19 m high at the ridge (6) position, wind tunnel tests were carried
comprehensible form. with a glass façade that extends 150 m out. The solar protection system was thus
along the line of the motorway. proven for wind speeds of up to 180 km/h,
In planning the new Paul Klee Centre, the well in excess of the worst-case scenario.
famous architect Renzo Piano was con- As the majority of works displayed in the
vinced from the very beginning that this Paul Klee Centre are sensitive to light The search for a suitable fabric was con-
artist had too much depth to be locked and cannot be subjected to more than cluded when the solar protection manu-
into an “ordinary” building. Piano called 80 lux, precise control of light falling on facturer introduced a vinyl-coated poly-
the artist the “poet of silence” and wanted the paintings by solar screening is of para- ester textile with the required perform-
to create a museum that suggested a feel- mount importance. The following com- ance characteristics. The fabric reduces
ing of serenity. parisons illustrate the significance of this light transmission to the levels required
constraint to the designer. On a sunny July while remaining sufficiently transparent
Looking at the site for the first time, Renzo day about 100,000 lux would enter with- to ensure the building’s occupants a clear
Piano was inspired by the surrounding out additional protection, while during a view of the outside. Manufactured using
area. He identified the undulating hills cloudy March day the light intensity would the Précontraint technology, the fabric
and the motorway – a timeline of civili- still be of the order 10,000 lux. Nonethe- has excellent dimensional stability, mak-
sation – as the special characteristics of less, and notwithstanding the essential ing it suitable for large-format applica-
the location that lent it its identity. Based requirement to control light entering the tions (4). In addition, the material has a
on the rules governing the composition building, the designer still wished to cre- low unit weight and a thin section, thereby
of traditional paintings Piano sketched ate a special atmosphere of illumination allowing the solar screen’s fixtures and
three hills, as an expression of the sur- and transparency. fittings to be slender and unobtrusive (5).
rounding terrain, and the new struct- These characteristics, plus an availabil-
ure became a landscape sculpture. The In order to prevent the sun’s rays from ity in a wide range of colours, matched
middle “hill” is dedicated to the Bernese entering directly, the museum is lit from the architect’s requirements perfectly.
artist’s painting collection. A multi-pur­ the western façade (3). This has large rp, ws and jv
pose, concert and event hall, as well as motor-driven exposed awnings, specially
children‘s museum, is located in the north developed for the project (2). Solar pro-
“hill”, while the south hill accommodates tection is completed by additional ver-
a research centre (1). tical textile screens, secured by cables

204
1 – Landscape sculpture by Renzo Piano.

2 – Detail of motor-driven retractable awnings.

205
3 – Complex solar protection comprising vertical screens and retractable sail-like awnings.

4 – Large formats and asymmetrical screen design 5 – The exceptionally thin lightweight textile allows
require good dimensional stability. the use of compact fixtures.

206
6 – The impressive 19 m high façade.

7 – Sunscreen cable runners tensioned at custom-made consoles.

207
11

interior
textiles
Chantereyne Pool 210
cherbourg-octeville, france

Gonfreville MARTIAL ARTS CENTRE

and Chess club 214
gonfreville-l’orcher, france

Kremlin-Bicêtre Aquatics Centre 218

paris, France

vhv group headquarters 224

hanover, germany

209
 Location: Cherbourg- Contractor for fabrica-

Chantereyne Octeville, France

Building type: Covered
swimming pool
tion and installation:
ACS production,
Montoir de Bretagne,

Pool
Client: Town of France
Cherbourg-Octeville Membrane type:
Architects: Thierry Open-weave polyester
Nabères Architectes fibre with formulated
(TNA), Paris, with vinyl coating and acrylic
Bésuelle et Salley, lacquer finish.
Cherbourg-Octeville Membrane area:
1,400 m2
Completion: 2007

Occupying an important position in the together with an open structure allow-

city, between the port and city centre, the ing air circulation, make it ideal for this
Chantereyne pool and sports complex is application given the potentially corrosive
typical of 1960s architecture. The renova- environment typically found within indoor
tion of the original reinforced concrete pool buildings.
building was initiated in 2004. The proj­
ect offers a contemporary enhancement, The alternating bi-planar disposition of
while reproducing the proportions of the the ceiling’s membrane sheets, coupled
original building. This case study looks at with the materials inherent sound-
the use of interior textiles for the internal absorbing qualities, contribute signific-
ceiling surface (1). antly to reducing echo within the pool hall.

The reinforced concrete frame of the ori­ The renovation of this reinforced concrete
ginal building (2) was found to be in good structure has succeeded in transforming
condition and was therefore retained and a structure that was very much a product
completely renovated. of the 1960s into a modern, vibrant and
welcoming local water sports centre (3).
The choice of a technical textile for the The policy of renewable development has
internal ceiling harmonises with the been applied at every level, not least in
clean modern textures selected for other the choice of a technical textile for the
surfaces of the building. The chosen tex- new ceiling; the chosen textile is 100%
tile is a vinyl-coated open-weave polyes- recyclable. rp
ter fabric with an acrylic lacquer finish.
Its properties, dimensional stability in
a humid and high-chloride environment,

210
1 – Interior textile ceiling solution.

2 – Original concrete frame.

211
3 – Structural rejuvenation.

212
213
Gonfreville
Location: Gonfreville- Interlignes Déco,
l’Orcher, France La Chevrolière, France
Building type: Sports Membrane type:
and community centre Open-weave polyester

MARTIAL ARTs
Client: Town of Gonfre- fibre with formulated
ville-l’Orcher vinyl coating and acrylic
Architects: Thierry lacquer finish

CENTRE and
Nabères Architectes Membrane area: 330 m2
(TNA), Paris, France Completion:
Engineer, membrane: 2007

Chess club

The construction of a new martial arts The interior textile hangings serve to
and chess centre led to an inspired use absorb sound while adding light and
of interior textiles. The calm, discipline shade during daylight hours and enhanc-
and concentration required for both these ing artificial lighting at night.
pursuits are aided by the quiet intimacy
brought by the hanging textile screens (1). The textile chosen for this application was
a vinyl-coated open-weave polyester fab-
The centre is designed as a new “city ric with acrylic lacquer finish. In compar-
block”, dedicated to sports and relaxa- ison with a classic ceiling treatment this
tion, with streets, squares and delimited textile solution was economically viable,
spaces of various size positioned between while its translucence and the consequen-
windows or walls of vegetation, defining tial light diffusion arising from this made
a protected interior landscape; a neigh- it the option of choice (2). In addition, the
bourhood of the future. It was decided textile hangings were installed without
to bring together, in the same building, difficulty in a period of two weeks.
two sports that have significant com-
mon traits: discipline, inner work, con- A warm and exciting atmosphere is
centration, anticipation and respect for brought to this space by the lighting qual-
the opponent; thus chess and martial arts ity and careful attention to colours and
meet in a common area. materials (3 to 5). rp

214
1 – Quiet intimacy.

2 – Ease of installation.

215
3 – Light and shadow.

4 – Light diffusion: natural and artificial.

216
5 – Light and illumination.

217
Kremlin-
Location: Kremlin- Membrane type:
Bicêtre, Paris, France Open-weave polyester
Building type: fibre with formulated
Water sports centre vinyl coating and acrylic

Bicêtre
Client: Civic community lacquer finish.
of Val de Bièvre Membrane area:
Architect: Thierry 2,200 m2

Aquatics
Nabères Architectes Completion: 2008
(TNA), Paris
Engineer, membrane:
Interlignes Déco,

Centre
La Chevrolière, France

Tensioned textiles took on particular In the interests of sustainable devel- Concerning the acoustic properties,
importance in this project. They are used opment, it was decided to renovate particular attention was paid to select-
in two distinct ways; in the gymnasium the existing structure, giving it a new ing materials that would absorb the ech-
where wide tensioned bands of textile suit of clothes and exploiting renew- oes typically experienced in such struc-
are placed horizontally, and over the pool able resources wherever possible. tures. In this respect the textile screens
where tensioned vertical textile screens The preference was for materials and played an important role. The appropri-
are hung beneath glazed skylights to systems that would reduce pollution.  ate choice of materials and colours was
shape the overhead lighting. These ver- For example the pool water is heated essential for lighting and for the acoustics
tical canopies (3) capture light from the by geothermal energy, and the water of the large volumes. All were opportun­
overhead sun and, by virtue of their 50% purification relies primarily on the ities to reveal the building’s architectural
perforation, diffuse it to both sides. This use of ozone sterilisation rather than qualities.
arrangement provides an excellent level chlorine.
of natural lighting (1). One of the major goals in architecture is
The use of technical textile screens rein- to achieve the desired level of lighting.
The Kremlin-Bicêtre water sports build- forces this initiative both by improving The imaginative use of technical textiles
ing was constructed in the 1960s by the the ambient lighting and by being 100% in this renovation has, by relatively simple
architects Henry-Pierre Maillard and recyclable. The textile chosen for this means, enhanced the natural internal
Paul Ducamp, and inaugurated in 1969. application was a vinyl-coated open- lighting and improved the centre’s acous-
The initial aspiration was to create a weave polyester fabric with an acrylic tic qualities. In the pool area, light diffu-
cathedral of reinforced concrete, buried lacquer finish. sion is aided by reflection from the water
between towers of urban habitation. Only surface and from the surrounding walls.
the twin slopes of the swimming pool The textile screens are hung from metal
roof emerge from the ground. Due to anchorage rails and tensioned below by A warm and exciting atmosphere is
public health concerns, the pool closed weighting rods inserted in the hem along brought to this space by the lighting qual-
in 1999 and studies for renovating the the lower screen edge. Installation was ity and careful attention to colours and
centre began. thus relatively straightforward (2). materials (4). rp

218
1 – Enhanced natural lighting.

219
2 – Illuminating the renovated pool.

220
3 – Solar protection and diffusion.

221
4 – Swimming in light.

222
223
VHV Group
Location: Hanover, Membrane engineering
Germany and installation:
Building type: Three Ellermann GmbH,
linked multi-storey Rietberg, Germany

Head­
buildings around an Membrane type:
atrium Fibreglass substrate
Client: Hannoversche with formulated vinyl

quarters
Lebensversicherung AG coating
Architects: Architekten Membrane area:
BKSP Grabau Leiber Elevators 650 m2,
Obermann und Partner, stairwell approx. 300 m2
Hanover Completion: 2009
General Contractor:
Investa Projektentwick-
lungs- und Verwaltungs
GmbH, Munich,
Germany

Due to strong growth in the past, the VHV A high-tech textile was presented that profile provides the socket for the spe-
insurance group’s headquarters in Han- fulfilled the architects’ demands in their cial elastic keder strip, which is fastened
over were spread over three locations in entirety. In addition to a high level of to the membrane textile. The elasticity
the town. The purpose of the new head- translucence and the certified noise- allows for the relaxation of any residual
quarters was, in terms of organisation reduction effect to minimise echo in the tensions that would otherwise be trans-
and communication, to regroup and voluminous atrium, the special fibreglass ferred to the membrane; the fibreglass
enhance working practices of the over membrane also exceeded fire protection textile has material characteristics that
2,000 employees while creating a state- regulations. Its A2 classification (non- render it fairly stiff and hence unable to
of-the-art energy concept. flammable) in line with DIN 4102, gives an absorb elongations.
additional level of safety for this much-
The new headquarters were designed frequented building (6). A secondary focal point is provided by
as three linked, but independent build- the atrium’s stairwell, which is partially
ings and connected by a striking atrium. The design of the two membrane tubes screened by a similar membrane struc-
The atrium symbolises the open and includes an upper steel support ring, ture designed to match the appearance
transparent character of the building installed as part of the initial elevator of the elevator towers (3). The membrane
and forms the central access area and construction, with a series of aluminium solution’s light weight enabled maximum
intersection (1). rings suspended from it (5). These are allocation of the available stairwell width
mounted directly onto wire cables and to pedestrian traffic; the membrane
The architectural focal point within the fixed in position at the base by a support- screen is fixed to metal profiles that wrap
atrium is the impressive twin elevator ing ring that allows overall adjustment around 330 mm diameter support col-
tower, which is responsible for transport to of the tube height with regard to that of umns to occupy only 600 mm of the avail-
the six or seven storeys of the linked build- the structure. This was a vital condition able width. Precise laser cutting of the
ings. The idea behind the twin elevator in order to compensate for movements metal profiles allowed close construction
towers was to lend the atrium “support” caused by thermal expansion, resulting tolerances to be met (4). rp and ws
in terms of proportions and to create a from building settlement, and from forces
particular highlight at night thanks to a generated by elevator motion.
special light installation (2).
In order to ensure a perfectly smooth sur-
During the tendering phase, a company face for the textile tube segments, while
specialising in textile architecture and taking account of flexure and shaft toler-
concepts scored highly with its detailed ances, the membrane designer created a
planning and suggestions for textiles. special fixing detail. The aluminium keder

224
1 – The transparent atrium linking three independent building blocks.

225
2 – Illuminated elevator towers provide the focal point. 3 – The matching stairwell-screen cladding.

4 – The stairwell cladding’s laser-cut fastening profiles. 5 – The elevator tower’s membrane support structure.

226
6 – The membrane, fixed to aluminium rings, minimises echo and is non-flammable.

227
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228
Acknowledgements

After many years of fruitful cooperation between Serge Ferrari group and the research team
“Structures Design” (Laboratory for Mechanics and Civil Engineering, University of Mont-
pellier 2), Françoise Fournier, in charge of textile architecture in the group, suggested that
I could act as editor for a book devoted to “Flexible Composite Materials in Architecture,
Construction and Interiors”. Since I did not know that it was an almost impossible task,
I accepted the challenge! It is my personal pleasure to warmly thank Françoise Fournier for
her proposal; she never appears to the foreground, but without her discreet action, noth-
ing would be possible. That is why I am anxious to grant her symbolically the first place
in these acknowledgements. As researcher I have always had the support of Sébastien
Ferrari and Romain Ferrari. Could they find in these words the expression of my gratitude!

It is a matter of fact that a close collaboration with the editors is a key point. I want to express
my most sincere thanks to the editors who combined their experience, their patience, their
attention to each and every detail so as to produce and realise this book. After my first
meetings with Andreas Müller, I worked mainly with Henriette Mueller-Stahl, helped by
Michael Wachholz during some months. I learned a lot with them on this demanding job,
and I learned also from the assistance of Richard Palmer who acted very actively for the
third part of the book.

During this work I had the chance to meet some people who contributed to thread links to
find the appropriate contacts, who answered a need. I wish that they know that I am grate-
ful to them for it. Among them trying not to forget someone I want to quote John Chilton,
Manfred Grohmann, Harald Kloft, Kazuo Ishii, Nicolas Pauli, Ronald Shaeffer, Ali Smaili,
Jean Vasseur, Bell Warwick and Qiling Zhang.

This publication would not have been possible without the cooperation of all authors, of all
the architects and engineers and whose projects are presented and numerous photogra-
phers who have documented the case studies. I do hope that nobody has been forgotten in
the texts for their active contribution. Among them I had to work more closely with Thomas
Becksmann, Stefano Bertino, Christian Blaser, Bernard Doriez, Nicolas Goldsmith, Rolf H.
Luchsinger, Andrea Giovanni Mainini, Bernard Maurin, Thierry Nabères, Tiziana Poli, Arno
Pronk, Walter D. Runza, Osama Thawadi, Ivo Vrouwe and Liliane Wong.

Last, but not least, I want to thank all those who share my life, either on the professional
part or private one. They will recognise themselves.

229
About the Authors Romain Ferrari was born in Lyon Tim de Haas, born in 1980 in Geleen the author of numerous national and
in 1960. After graduating from high (The Netherlands), studied building some international publications.
Stefano Bertino, born in 1957 in school with a concentration in the technology in Haarlem and architec-
Bergamo (Italy), studied architecture sciences, he studied for the entrance tural product development at Eind- Bernard Maurin is professor at the
at the Polytechnic Institute of Milan examination of the Hydrography hoven University of Technology (2008). University of Montpellier 2 where he
(1983). He has been fascinated by School of the merchant navy, which He wrote his thesis on a tensile heat heads the Conceptual Design in Struc-
lightweight structures ever since his he joined in 1980. He obtained in recovery unit as a part of a translu- tures team of the Mechanical and Civil
graduation, exploring their architec- 1983 his Polyvalent Officer diploma cent tensile roof. Since 2007 he has Engineering Laboratory. His research
tural potential in a constant crossover in civil and industrial engineering been researcher in the Department of interests are directed towards the
of skills, ideas, tools and technolo- (C1NM degree) and became a first Architecture, Building and Planning at form-finding and conceptual design
gies. He is the founder of the company class captain in sea navigation. Eindhoven University of Technology, of innovative structures: lightweight
Tensoforma Trading Srl in Italy. For Mobilised as a reserve officer of the working in a variety of fields such as structures (tensile membranes and
many years he collaborated with AIC navy, he served between 1984 and building physics, building technol- thin concrete shells), tensegrity sys-
Architekten+Ingenieure of Stuttgart 1985 in Lebanon on the Clémenceau ogy, structural engineering, product tems (non-regular shapes, grids and
and worked as a tutor at the European aircraft carrier. After working for development and post-disaster rings), lightweight hybrid deployable
Institute of Design (IED) in Milan. five years as a project engineer for sheltering. In particular, his research structures (space applications), free-
His work and research focus on light- the enginering company TECHNIP, concentrates on the development of form architecture (parametrics, Pas-
weight structures, textile architecture he set up his own business. He has new products and concepts for small calian forms “pForms”) and structural
and architectural applications of been managing director of the firm and medium enterprises and non- morphology (structuration, emer-
textile techniques; he has also pat- Ferrari Textiles, now Serge Ferrari, governmental organisations, focusing gence, self-organisation).
ented several products and fabrica- since 1991. Romain Ferrari is also on increased flexibility, comfort and
tion processes. a member of the association Terre energy efficiency. Anais Missakian, born in Geneva, is a
démocrate (Democratic Earth), for professor at the Rhode Island School
Mark Cox, born in 1968 in Roermond which he has conducted a workshop Rolf H. Luchsinger, born in 1966 in of Design’s Textile Department where
(The Netherlands), studied physics at on eco-friendly production technolo- Aarau (Switzerland), holds a Ph.D. in she also serves as department head.
Eindhoven University of Technology, gies. This association is committed to computational physics. After several A design consultant for the textile
from which he graduated in1995. the implementation of the values of years of scientific research in aca- industry, she has spent the last 25
He worked for several years in the ecology, democracy and humanism in demia and industry, he joined the years designing textile collections for
industry as a consultant for build- the economic realm. Romain Ferrari Swiss company Prospective Concepts the interior market. Anais Missakian
ing physics, building services and has also created Fondation 2019, a AG in 2002, where he specialised in received her Bachelor of Fine Arts in
architectural product development. research foundation promoting stud- fabric structures and inflatable struc- textiles at RISD after attending Michi-
Since 2005 he has been working as a ies in environmental economics. tures. Since 2006 he has been heading gan State University and Central Saint
researcher in the Department of Archi- the Center for Synergetic Structures Martins College of Art and Design
tecture, Building and Planning at Ein- Roel Gijsbers, born 1981 in Boekel at Empa, the Swiss Federal Labo- in London.
dhoven University of Technology. Most (The Netherlands), works as a ratories for Materials Science and
of his current research is done in coop- researcher in building technology and Technologies, with a major focus in the René Motro, born in 1946 in Paris,
eration with Roel Gijsbers, a doctoral product development at the Depart- R&D of new lightweight structures, in devoted his scientific work to light-
researcher on flexible structures, and ment of the Built Environment at particular the Tensairity technology. weight structures: space structures,
Tim de Haas. Their research is focused Eindhoven University of Technology. He is the author of numerous scientific tensegrity systems, structural mor-
on the development of new products He developed the flexible arched shed publications. phology and textile architecture. He
and concepts for the improvement of system Boogstal and co-developed a published in numerous international
flexibility, comfort and energy effi- number of spin-off projects. His dis- Andrea Giovanni Mainini, born in journals, delivered papers at more
ciency, and geared towards various sertation dealt with flexible use and 1980 in Gallarate (Italy), holds a Ph.D. than 150 conferences, wrote and/
smaller and mid-sized companies that adaptability of buildings, with a spe- in building engineering from the Poly- or co-edited five books and partici-
cooperate with academic researchers cial focus on structural adaptability. technic Institute of Milan. Currently pated in many collective publications.
for technological innovation. Other research activities are focused he is a post-doctoral fellow in building Emeritus Professor at the University
on post-disaster shelter solutions. technology and energy simulation. of Montpellier, he is editor-in-chief
Bernard Doriez, born in 1952 in Arras He is a member of the TiSco Group of the International Journal of Space
(France), founded the company SNBBS Ines de Giuli, born in 1981, is an histo- at the Department of Building Envi- Structures and president of the Inter-
in Sète in 1982. From 1990 to 1995 he rian and art historian. She specialised ronment Science and Technology national Association for Shell and
was vice-president of the Architec- in cultural history and worked on the (B.E.S.T.) at the Polytechnic Institute Spatial Structures (IASS). He received
ture Textile Commission at Relais des artistic relationship between the of Milan. His research focuses on the Tsuboi Award three times (1998,
Textiles Techniques, a European net- painters of the post-World War Two energy efficiency of buildings, zero- 2007 and 2009) and the Pioneer
work with members in ten countries. School of Paris and Japan, where she energy houses and the use of renew- Award in 2002.
He is the editor of the book Architec- lived for two years. She has written a able resources, innovation of building
ture Textile (Éditions A Tempera) and local history book commissioned by envelope products, thermal-bridge Khipra Nichols, born in Pennsylvania,
was the organizer of the conference the town of Vaucresson near Paris, optimisation, optical and solar char- is an associate professor and director
“Rencontres de l’architecture textile” and was a project manager for the art acterisation of building skins. He has of the Master’s program in industrial
at Nîmes in 1990. Today, he works as collection of the French bank Société also worked as an energy consultant design at the Rhode Island School
a consultant and technical expert Générale. She joined the team for the building product industry, and of Design. He received his Bachelor
associated with Relais des Textiles of Histoire d’Entreprises in 2010 has taught professional development in industrial design from RISD, and
Techniques and Serge Ferrari. (www.histoire-entreprises.fr). courses on energy certification. He is before joining the faculty full-time

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in 1998, Khipra Nichols was a design of the International Society of Fabric from Vassar College. She is a profes-
director at Hasbro’s Playskool Baby Forming (ISOFF). The main focus of his sor at the Rhode Island School of
Division. During his career at Has- research is on flexible moulding tech- Design where she has taught since
bro, he was awarded 16 U.S. patents niques in relation to fluid architecture. 1998. She currently heads the Depart-
in infant, toy and juvenile product ment of Interior Architecture. She is
design, and over 250 of his designs Wolfgang Sterz, born in 1964 in the co-founder and co-editor of the
have entered the marketplace. Lands­hut (Germany), qualified as a Int|AR Journal on Interventions and
business manager in media produc- Adaptive Reuse. Liliane Wong is also
Richard Palmer, born in 1955 in Read- tion at the Technical College for Pub- a registered architect in the state of
ing (England), studied civil engineer- lishing in Munich. He then embarked Massachusetts.
ing at the University of Manchester, on his career as a layout editor and
becoming a chartered engineer prac- production manager for the architec- Jeroen Weijers, born in 1984 in Roer-
ticing in the UK and worldwide. Today tural magazine AIT. Over the years he mond (The Netherlands), studied
he specialises in the performance has focused increasingly on advertis- building technology and architectural
and preservation of buildings and civil ing and business communication. product development at Eindhoven
engineering structures, working from Since 1997 he has been co-owner of University of Technology (2010).
his base in Southeast France near Lac the advertising and PR agency HTP Since his graduation with a thesis on
Léman. A passion for technology and Communications in Munich. In his a prefabricated component as part
the written word led him to writing and role as a consultant, PR manager and of a smart solar housing renovation
editing technical publications. author of project documentations, concept, he has worked as a façade
he works for international clients, engineer. Focusing on sustain-
Tiziana Poli, born in 1968 in Milan, primarily from the construction, archi- able low-energy building envelopes,
holds a Ph.D. in building engineer- tecture and interior design sector. he integrates product engineering and
ing and is an associate professor in innovation in challenging architec-
architecture and building technology Jean Vasseur, born in 1964, is a former tural designs.
at the Polytechnic Institute of Milan. radio journalist working in France
Since 2003, she has been a member and the United States. He launched
of the scientific committee of the Built his first business, Jean Vasseur
Environment Science and Technol- Communication, in 1990. Since then,
ogy Laboratory (B.E.S.T.) at the same he has created several companies and
institute. Her research is focused on established a mid-size communica-
building envelope performances and tion group that offers a full range of
technologies for low-energy buildings; services, including digital and interac-
the optical and solar characterisation tive communication. Most recently,
of building skins; the innovation of he founded the first magazine devoted
building envelope’s products, com- to business history in France, Histoire
ponents and systems; the mitigation d’Entreprises (www.histoire-entre-
of urban heat island effects and the prises.fr).
effects of building skins on the urban
micro-climate. She has also worked Ivo Vrouwe, born in 1979 in Amster-
as a consultant for the building and dam, studied building technology in
engin­eering industries, and is the Amsterdam and architectural product
author of numerous national and development at Eindhoven University
international publications. of Technology (2006). He worked as
a technical designer and engineer of
Arno Pronk, born in 1967 in Anna membrane structures at Tentech in
Jacobapolder (The Netherlands), stud- Utrecht and as a tutor at Eindhoven
ied architecture at Delft University University of Technology. In 2008 he
of Technology. After his graduation in started his own practice, Workshop IV,
1994, he worked as an architectural as an architectural designer and engi-
product developer and architect, neer. He lectures at the Utrecht School
invented several patented products of the Arts and the School of Architec-
and was an assistant professor at ture Sint-Lucas/LUCA (a partner in the
Delft University of Technology. His cur- KU Leuven Association). His research
rent positions: assistant professor for and work are focused on artistic and
product development at Eindhoven architectural applications of textile
University of Technology, lecturer and techniques and tectonics.
research coordinator for building tech-
nology at the School of Architecture Liliane Wong, born in Hong Kong,
Sint-Lucas/LUCA (a partner in the KU earned a Master of Architecture from
Leuven Association), chief editor of Harvard University, Graduate School
NBD-bouwdetails and co-president of Design, and a B.A. in mathematics

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INDEX guy wire  51  selective radiator  73, 74  ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
heat-resistant para-aramid  97  selvedge 88 
2D strip development  34  heat transfer  65, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, shackle  44, 46, 47, 48  Chapter 1:
3D textile  15  78, 79, 230  simple triangulation  35  P. 8, 10, 12, 14, 18, 20, 21, 22, 25 ©Serge Ferrari; p. 16 Sto AG;
acoustic insulation  64, 70, 71  hemp 19  single curvature  29  p. 23 Schmidhuber & Kaindl, Munich
acoustic panel  87, 93  inflatable  38, 41, 42, 91, 92, 101, 111, size reduction  27, 33 
air-beam  100, 101, 102, 103  130, 228, 230  sizing  15, 27  Chapters 2 to 7:
air-open membrane  71, 80, 81  inflatable structure  92, 101, 228  smart fibres  13  2.1–2.4 Nicolas Pauli; 2.5, 2.6 Bernard Maurin; 2.7, 2.8 René Motro;
air-supported  91, 230  infra-red radiation  74, 75  snow  27, 36, 37, 41, 56, 109, 128, 2.9 Bernard Maurin; 2.10 René Motro; 2.11 ILEK Stuttgart; 2.12.
anchorage  40, 41, 43, 46, 54, 118, 120, insulation  19, 21, 42, 56, 64, 65, 69, 70, 144, 145  Bernard Maurin; 2.13 Bernard Maurin, ILEK Stuttgart; 2.14 René Motro;
122, 178, 186, 192, 218  71, 81, 82, 85, 103, 144, 160  soap film  31, 33  2.15 Bernard Maurin; 2.16, 2.17 Nicolas Pauli
anchoring condition  32, 33  intelligent fibre  13  solar gain  64, 65, 69, 86 
anchoring point  27, 31  Intertek Eco-Certification  90  solar radiation  56, 65, 71, 74, 75, 78, 79, 3.1–3.11 Bernard Doriez; 3.12 René Motro; 3.13, 3.14 Bernard Doriez;
anticlastic  29, 30, 31  inverse double curvature  41  82, 83, 178, 186  3.15 Nicolas Pauli; 3.16–3.27 Bernard Doriez
attachment point  43  Jacquard loom  88  solar transmittance  65, 71, 94 
ballast  54, 128, 130  Kevlar 97  sound absorption  13, 93, 96  4.1, 4.2 Tensoforma Trading Srl – TEXO® system; 4.3 SMIT; 4.4 Tensoforma
bending load  102, 104, 105, 111  kinetic damping  33  splines 31  Trading Srl – TEXO® system; 4.5 DuPont; 4.6–4.9 Tensoforma Trading Srl
bi-axial test  35, 104  laminates  89, 90  stiffening cable  42, 44, 50, 53, 122, – TEXO® system; 4.10 Planungsgruppe Drahtler – Dortmund, Tensoforma
biomimetic 17  LED  58, 94, 97  144, 150, 192  Trading Srl – TEXO® system; 4.11– 4.13 Tensoforma Trading Srl – TEXO®
black body  71, 72, 73, 74  Leno weave  88  stiffness  28, 30, 31, 36, 102, 103, 104, system; 4.14 Archea Associati; 4.15 Tensoforma Trading Srl – TEXO® system
Bluesign standard  90  Lifecycle Analysis  19  105, 106, 200 
boundary condition  31, 32, 42  light control  64, 90, 94, 97  strap 47  5.1–5.18 Mark Cox, Tim de Haas, Roel Gijsbers, Arno Pronk, Jeroen Weijers
buckling  15, 102, 104  light-emitting tapestry  97  stretching  11, 41 
buckling load  102, 104  lightweight wall  63, 64, 65, 66, 67  structural fabric  90  6.1 Jouve-Sazerat-Vignaud Architects, Sophie Mallebranche; 6.2 Wikimedia
cable net  28, 32, 37, 106  limitations  63, 104  strut  51, 53, 102, 103, 104, 186  Commons; 6.3 Anna Zaharakos, Studio Z; 6.4 Anne Kyyrö Quinn; 6.5 Camilla
cantilever  52, 126, 134  load ring  42  surface density method  32  Diedrich; 6.6. Davide Giordano – Zaha Hadid Architects; 6.7 Giuseppe
Chinese hat  26, 42, 49  Lotusan 17  sustainability  6, 20, 68, 69, 118, Crispino, Antonio Ravalli Architetti; 6.8, 6.9 Sophie Smith – Wil Alsop;
CIRAIG 20  LowE 21  126, 178  6.10 INFLATE Design; 6.11 Kurt Tingdal, Offecct AB; 6.12 Paul Kaloustian;
climate control  21, 70, 80, 81, 83, 160, lycra  32, 90  Sustainable development  17, 196  6.13 Anne Kyyro Quinn; 6.14 Hsinming Fung, Architect and Craig Hodgetts,
176, 178, 196  mast, pole  26, 27, 31, 36, 41, 42, 43, 46, synclastic  29, 31  Architect; 6.15 Paúl Rivera/Arch Photo; 6.16 Architen Landrell; 6.17
climatic  27, 28, 30, 31, 36, 40, 41, 150  47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 118, 121, 122, synthetic fibre  87, 93  Wikimedia Commons ; 6.18 Annette Kisling/Cy Twombly, 2009; 6.19 Ricardo
coatings  68, 70, 74, 89, 90, 93, 98  123, 126, 150, 151, 152, 186  Teflon  13, 93, 144  Santonja/Alberto Cubas; 6.20 Marcel Wanders; 6.21, 6.22 Erwan & Ronan
compensation  33, 35, 186  mast head  41, 49, 150, 152  tensairity  7, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, Bouroullec; 6.23 Werner Aisslinger/studio Aisslinger; 6.24 Astrid Krogh;
compressive  33, 100, 102  M. Barnes  33  105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 111, 228, 230  6.25 Cristiano Peruzzi, Luminex®; 6.26 Camilla Diedrich; 6.27 Erin Hayne,
concrete structure  13, 210  mechanical analysis  36  tensegrity  103, 126, 228  Nuno Erin; 6.28 Mette Ramsgard Thomsen; 6.29 Future Shape GmbH;
conduct electricity  13  metallic textiles  87  tensile  30, 32, 38, 40, 43, 56, 67, 87, 6.30 Wikimedia Commons.
convection  72, 75, 76, 78, 84, 196  microfibre  14, 89  90, 91, 93, 101, 104, 106, 111, 122, 134,
corner plate  44, 46, 47, 49, 53, 150, 186, micro-perforated  13, 93  186, 228, 230  7.1–7.22 Empa – Center for Synergetic Structures
189, 192, 194  Montpellier university  228, 230, 231  tension adjustment  41, 178 
curvature  28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 41, 42, morphogenesis 31  tensioning  40, 122, 123  Chapters 8 to 11:
91, 93, 122, 186, 202  multilayer textile wall  64, 65, 66, 67  textile envelope  56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 63,
cutting  27, 33, 43, 67, 122, 178, 183, nanofibre  14, 96  64, 65, 66, 67, 68  P. 115–117 Esmery Caron
186, 224  nano-level 90  textile façade  56, 155, 157, 160, 166, P. 119–121 Esmery Caron
desizing 15  nanoparticle  96, 98  170, 176, 177  P. 123–125 WAGG Soluciones Tensadas
director line  31  nanotechnology  17, 86, 96, 156  textile membrane  36, 38, 41, 44, 60, P. 127 Ali Smaili, Smaili Contracting
distributed load  102  natural fibre  9, 19, 87  114, 118, 156, 166, 168, 186  P. 129–133 Tourism New Zealand (1 top), Cameron Spencer, Getty Images
double curvature  29, 30, 36, 41, 42, negative double curvature  42  Texyloop  19, 20, 68, 170  (1 bottom), Fabric Structure Systems (3, 5, 7), ©Spyglass Group Ltd. (6, 9)
91, 122  non linear analysis  36  thermal insulation  19, 56, 70, P. 135–137 ©Serge Ferrari
double negative curvature  29  Oeko-tex Certification  90  71, 103  P. 139–143 Lonas Lorenzo, Roberto Munoz
double positive curvature  29  opaque wall  64, 65, 66, 67, 69  thermo-sensitive fabric  98  P. 145–149 Tentech
dynamic  22, 33, 38, 56, 57, 75, 126, 138, pattern  27, 33, 98, 178, 186, 192  Three-dimensional  88, 95, 159  P. 151–153 Prat Structures Avancées
156, 178, 230  patterning  28, 32, 33, 35, 38, 186  total curvature  29, 33, 34  P. 157–159 Lilli Kehl (1,3); Archiv Blaser Architekten AG (2, 4, 5)
dynamic relaxation  33, 38, 230  peak  21, 41, 42, 43, 49, 50, 128  traditional textile  9, 13, 15  P. 161–165 Photos: Marc Blessano, drawings: deillon delley architectes
edge cable  34, 36, 46, 47, 48, 53, perforated  13, 22, 93, 166  translucent membrane  94, 138, 144  P. 171–175 Architecture: Schmidhuber & Kaindl/Exhibition: Milla + Partner/
118, 152  performance characteristic  63, 88, transmission  21, 56, 57, 65, 72, 75, 77, Photos: Andreas Keller
Eduardo Torroja  52  96, 178, 204  78, 79, 85, 179, 196, 204  P. 177 ©Serge Ferrari, photographer: Marco Blessano
Eindhoven University  83, 85, 228, photonic textile  13  transparent membrane  65, 70, 71, 74, P. 179–183 Iaso
229, 230  photovoltaic panel  13  79, 81, 82, 83  P. 186–191 Gulf Shade, Manama, Bahrain
elastomeric edge detail  60  pin-joint 49  triaxial weaving  88  P. 193–195 Ali Smaili, Ali Smaili Contracting
electronic textile  96, 97  plain weave  15, 88  tripod  49, 118  P. 197–199 Thomas Mayer archive
emerizing 15  pneumatic  13, 31, 38, 58, 64, 91, 92, TTA  11, 13  P. 201–203 ©Serge Ferrari, photographer: Marco Blessano
Empa  104, 105, 111, 228  100, 103, 106, 107, 111, 128, 230  turnbuckle 51  P. 205–207 Gilles Aymard
environmental impact analysis  68  pneumatic structure  13, 38, 64, 91, 92, Twaron 97  P. 211–213 Paul Kozlowski (1, 3, 4, 5), TNA (2)
environmental performance  64  100, 103, 106, 107, 111, 128, 230  twill weave  15  P. 215–217 Paul Kozlowski (1, 3, 4, 5), TNA (2)
e-textile 96  polyester fibre  21, 114, 118, 122, 126, ultraviolet light  66, 75  P. 219–223 Paul Kozlowski (1, 3, 4,), TNA (2)
ETFE  13, 57, 71, 77  128, 170, 186, 192, 210, 214, 218  Update Reference Strategy  33  P. 225–227 Ellermann GmbH; Fria Hagen
EVEA 20  polylactic acid  19  uv resistance  90, 94 
external load  27, 28, 36  polyment 97  ventilation  57, 64, 65, 70, 71, 81, 82, 83,
eyelet  44, 170  polymer  13, 15, 19, 87, 89, 118  84, 85, 114, 160, 176, 196 
fabric structure  88, 100, 101, polypropylene  19, 87  visible light transmittance  71, 78, 94 
111, 228  polytetrafluoroethylene 11  warp  9, 15, 20, 21, 34, 35, 88, 118 
FDM 32  positive double curvature  41, 42  weave structure  88 
FEM  33, 104  pressure  37, 38, 41, 65, 75, 80, 91, 100, weft  15, 21, 34, 35, 88, 118 
fibre optic  94, 97  101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 110, 128, 192  WRAP  90, 106, 224 
finishes  15, 57, 89, 96  pressure coefficient  37  wrinkle  28, 33, 35, 36, 89, 96, 150 
finishing agents  89  pre-stress  26, 27, 28, 31, 33, 36, 41, 42,
finite element  33, 38, 104, 111, 230  100, 126, 192 
Finite Element Method  33, 104  pretension  28, 30, 31, 35, 36, 41, 42 
fire resistance  13, 56, 63, 66, PTFE  11, 13, 15, 89, 176, 177 
114, 156  PVC  13, 90, 104, 111, 230 
fire-retardant 89  radiation  56, 65, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78,
flattening  33, 34, 35  79, 82, 83, 84, 114, 178, 186, 196 
flax 9  radii of curvature  29 
flying mast  51  R&D  17, 111, 228 
force density  32  recyclability  17, 68, 186 
Force Density Method  32  recycle 68 
form finding  27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35, 38, recycling  19, 20, 68, 114, 170, 173 
43, 126, 131, 230  reinforced  13, 38, 40, 42, 44, 48, 63, 91,
Frei Otto  31, 32  93, 106, 118, 186, 210, 218, 230 
generator line  31  Relais Textiles Techniques  19 
geodesic line  34  Resorcine Formol Latex  15 
glass fibre  13, 94, 107, 176  retro-reflective textile  97 
glass filament  13, 97  rigidity  26, 28, 34, 41, 50, 93 
Gore-Tex 89  rope  28, 138, 176, 177 
GOTS 90  rosettes  42, 49 
grey body radiator  73, 74  satin weave  15 
guy cable  47, 48, 49, 118  seam  33, 34, 35, 36, 88, 91 

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