Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

MODULE 1: OVERVIEW OF NDT

OVERVIEW OF NDT:
An industrial product is designed to perform certain function. The user buys a product with every
expectation that it performs the assigned function well and gives trouble-free service for a stipulated period
of time. Trouble free service given by any product may be termed as „reliability‟.
Reliability comes through improving the quality level of components. The quality of components
depends upon many factors like raw material, design, material properties and fabrication techniques. Quality
is related to presence of defects and imperfections in the finished product. Knowledge of these defects is
required to detect and evaluate to achieve accepted level of quality. An improvement in quality increases its
reliability and in turn safety of machines and equipment. Therefore defect in product must be examined to
achieve good performance. The common types of defects to be found in inspection are cracks, cavities,
dents, grinding burn, hard spots, soft softs, magnetic inclusions (remanences). Components from batches are
tested in a random and destructive manner. Testing of materials can be broadly classified into two groups:
Destructive testing and Non-destructive testing.
Destructive testing is also known as mechanical testing. In this type of testing, the physical and
mechanical properties of material are tested with distortion (destruction) of specimen and the specimen
cannot be used for future work. To overcome this limitation, non-destructive testing is invented.
In Non-destructive testing, the material will be tested without distortion of specimen. Non-
destructive Testing (NDT), Non-destructive Evaluation (NDE) and Non-Destructive Inspection (NDI) are
the terms used in the connection to represent the techniques that are based on the application of physical
principles employed for the purpose of determining characteristics of materials or components or systems
and for detecting and assessing the inhomogeneities and harmful defects without impairing the usefulness of
such materials or components or systems. The Current NDT methods are: Acoustic Emission Testing (AE),
Electromagnetic Testing (ET), Laser Testing Methods (LM), Leak Testing (LT), Magnetic Flux Leakage
(MFL), Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), Magnetic Particle Testing (MT), Neutron Radiographic Testing
(NR), Radiographic Testing (RT), Thermal/Infrared Testing (IR), Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Vibration
Analysis (VA) Visual Testing (VT).

What is NDT
“Non destructive Testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing or evaluating materials, components or
assemblies for discontinuities or differences in characteristics without destroying the serviceability of the
part or system.” In other words, when the inspection or test is completed the part can still be used.-ASNT
(American Society for Non destructive testing)
The other terms commonly used for NDT are Non-destructive Evaluation (NDE) and Non-
Destructive Inspection (NDI). The NDT methods are becoming popular because these can be carried out
without damaging the specimen /parts in use.
NDT can have several objectives which includes material sorting, material characterization, property
monitoring, thickness measurement, defect detection and defect characterization etc. However the major
task of NDT is to detect and identify range of defects. Defects can include production flaws such as heat
treatment cracks, grinding cracks, voids, fatigue cracks etc.
The NDT methods are commonly used to achieve the following purposes

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

Overview of defects or Overview of the Non-Destructive Testing Methods for the detection of
manufacturing defects as well as material characterisation.
The defects catalogue from customers is diverse. For instance, decisive influencing factors are the
application area of the component, the material that is made of, and its dimensions. The most common types
of defects to be found in a surface inspection are:
 Cracks
 Cavities
 Dents
 Grinding burn
 Hard Spots
 Soft Spots
 Magnetic inclusions (Remanences)
Classical component defects are cracks spotted in the material surface. Eddy current testing is
incorporated. This is because even the smallest cracks, which initially do not pose a problem, can become
enlarged and widen under permanent load. In the worst scenario, this can lead to component failure.
Eg: there is a chance that after a certain period of operation the brake disc severely tears while decelerating.
In road traffic, such a defective component can quickly lead to life-threatening situations. For this reason,
customers expect that even the smallest defects with a depth of only a few micrometers is to be inspected.
Design engineers assume some level of structural continuity, homogeneity, and definition of material
properties. However, absolute homogeneity and continuity never exist in any engineering component.
During the inspection of any test, inspector must look for “discontinuities”.
A discontinuity is defined as an imperfection in the normal physical structure of an object. Spatially
sharp departures from material homogeneity and continuity inside a component at any level of magnification
are called discontinuities. Examples of these discontinuities include voids, inclusions, laps, folds, cracks,
chemical segregation, and local changes in microstructure.
The discontinuities are categorized according to the shape of the manufacturing process. It has four groups
1. Inherent Discontinuities
Inherent Discontinuities are the discontinuities originated during initial casting process. The initial casting
discontinuities are usually removed by chopping the ingots but some of them are still change their shape and
nature during subsequent operations. The inherent discontinuities are Porosity, blowholes, shrinkage
cavities, hot tears, cold shuts, inclusions, segregation etc.

2. Primary Processing Discontinuities

Primary Processing Discontinuities originates during hot or cold forming process. Some of the inherent
discontinuities in the material can propagate further. The Primary Processing Discontinuities are Seams,
lamination, Cooling cracks, forging and rolling laps, Slugs etc.
3. Secondary Discontinuities
Secondary Discontinuities originate during grinding, machining, heat treating, plating and related finishing
operations. The Secondary Discontinuities are grinding cracks, heat treatment cracks, machining cracks,
plating cracks etc.
4. Service Discontinuities.
Service Discontinuities originates while component in service. The service conditions like loading,
unloading, material handling etc. this may develop even in maintenance conditions. Service Discontinuities
are fatigue cracks, creep cracks, stress corrosion cracks, hydrogen cracks etc.
5. Welding defects:
Welding defects are originated from irregularities in the welding process. Improper welding leads to more
defects. Hence welding requires skilled labor. Some of the welding defects are cracks, porosity, inclusions,
swell, imperfect shape etc.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

NDT versus Mechanical testing,

Mechanical testing
Mechanical testing specifications have been developed by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) and many of these specifications have been adopted by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI). Typically mechanical testing involves such attributes as hardness, strength, and impact
toughness. Additionally, materials can be subjected to various types of loads such as tension or compression.
Mechanical testing can occur at room temperatures or in either high or low temperature extremes
1. Hardness Test : (Brinell Hardness test, Rockwell Hardness test, Vickers Hardness Test)
2. Impact Test: (Charpy impact test, izod impact test)
3. Tension test, Compression test, Shear test, Bending test (Universal testing Machine)
4. Fatigue test, fracture test
5. Creep
1. Hardness
The resistance to indentation and to scratching or abrasion. The two most common hardness tests are
the Brinell test and the Rockwell test.
 In the Brinell hardness test, a known load is applied for a given period of time to a specimen surface
using a hardened steel or tungsten-carbide ball, causing a permanent indentation. Standard ball diameter
is 10 mm or approximately four-tenths of an inch. The diameter of the resulting permanent indentation
is then measured and converted to a Brinell hardness number (BHN).
 The Rockwell hardness test involves the use of an indentor for penetrating the surface of a material
first by applying a minor, or initial load, and then applying a major, or final load under specific
conditions. The difference between the minor and major penetration depths is then noted as a hardness
value directly from a dial or digital readout. The harder the material the higher the number.

2. Impact
Impact tests measure resistance to shock loading or impact by determining the amount of energy
absorbed by the test specimen. There are two basic types of impact tests: • Pendulum • Drop Weight
 Most common pendulum impact tests are the Charpy notched-bar impact test and the Izod notched-bar
impact test. In both tests, the specimen is fractured and the energy absorbed is documented. The chief
differences between these two impact tests are the way the test specimen is held and in the pendulum
hammer design. (Charpy -1350 -1400 and Izod -900)
 In the dropped weight test, a known weight is dropped from a specified height. Such tests have
advantages in that the impact is unidirectional with failure beginning at the weakest point and
propagating from there.

3. Tensile and compression

Force is applied perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the test item. Two of the primary material
properties that tensile tests determine are:
 Yield Strength, which is the stress required to permanently elongate, or deform, a material a specific
amount, commonly 0.2% of total elongation.
 Ultimate Tensile Strength, which is the maximum stress a material can withstand prior to fracture.
Compressive loads are applied to a point just beyond the yield strength of the material and measured at
that point or continued to the point of failure if required.

4. Fatigue Test
Measures material failure under repeated loading below the yield strength. Stresses measured below failure
is referred to as the „endurance limit‟ while the number of repeating cycles the material can withstand above
this limit is known as „fatigue life.‟
Fracture Toughness: Measures a material’s resistance to brittle fracture and can be quantified by linear
elastic fracture mechanics.

5. Creep
Measures a material‟s continuing dimensional change while under timed stress load. Creep tests are usually
performed at elevated temperatures and can last for a thousand hours or longer.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

Non-Destructive Testing
All non-destructive tests include several basic elements:
 A source that distributes a probing medium
 A modification of the probing medium in reaction to discontinuities or variations in the material‟s
properties
 A sensitive detector responsive to changes in the distribution of the probing medium
 A means of indicating or recording of the detector‟s signals
 An observer or devise capable of accurately interpreting the test object‟s material properties or
discontinuities4

Non-Destructive Testing Methods

Non-destructive testing methods require a trained and competent inspector. Moreover, the inspector must be
trained in the specific testing method. the most common non-destructive testing methods include:

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

1. Visual – Most simple, quickly and easily performed method. Most often performed with special
illuminations and magnification aids. Limited to detecting only surface defects.

2. Liquid Penetrant – Able to detect pits, porosity, and seams. A liquid penetrant dye is applied for a
specific time. Later a developer is applied which causes the dye to be drawn out from the defect and mark
the flaw‟s location.

3. Magnetic Particle – While dry or suspended in a liquid, magnetic particles are applied to a test surface
area. When a magnetic field is created within a test part, a discontinuity, perpendicular to the induced
magnetic field causes a leakage field to form on the parts surface and hold the rearranged particles in place
at the flaw for inspection.

4. Eddy Currents – Using a testing coil, a small circulating current called an eddy current is applied to any
electrically conductive part. Any change in the eddy current pattern results in a change in the coil signal.
While sensitive and versatile, the process requires the use of accurate reference standards.

5. Ultrasonic – High frequency sound waves are sent by a transducer into an object. The energy of the
ultrasonic waves is reflected back to the transducer by any discontinuities, indicating their presence and
location. Ultrasonic testing can be accomplished using either: • Immersion Testing • Contact Testing
 In immersion testing, sound waves are transmitted through a water path or column.
 In contact testing, the transducer is in direct contact with the test specimen. A thin liquid film couplant
is required to ensure efficient transmission of the ultrasonic energy. .

5. Radiographic – Based on the ability of x-rays and gamma rays to penetrate all materials and thicknesses
differently. The radiation is directed through the part and imprints on a film stock or an electronic device.
The resulting image reveals the internal characteristics of the part, with possible imperfections showing up
as density changes in the image. This process is used primarily on welds and is difficult to use on complex
shapes. The process is costly and involves certain health risks for process operators. Additionally, high
interpretive skills in reading the x-ray images are required.

Comparison of destructive and Non-destructive Testing

Destructive Tests Non-Destructive Tests
1. Destructive tests are usually quantitative measurements 1. NDT is qualitative and rarely quantitative. They
for loads for failure and significant distortion or damage do-not usually measure load for failure indirectly and
or life to failure on specimen under loads. will not damage the specimen.
2. It is used to find out property of materials 2. It is Used for finding out defects of the materials
3. Most destructive test specimens cannot be used 3. NDT test specimen is not changed or altered and
once the test is complete can be used after examination
4. Special equipments are required 4. No requirements for special equipments
5. Skill is required 5. Less skill
6. Preparation of test specimen is costly 6. Very little preparation is sufficient
7. Parts cannot be examined while in service 7. Parts can be examined while in service
8. Destructive testing is expensive 8. Nondestructive testing is cost effective
9. Test method consumes time 9. Most test methods are rapid
10. Eg: Hardness Test, Impact Test, Tensile Test, 10. Eg: Dye penetrate test, Ultrasonic test,
compression test, bending test etc Radiography etc

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

RELATIVE MERITS AND LIMITATIONS

Merits of destructive Testing
 Reliable and accurate data from the test specimen
 Extremely useful data for design purposes
 Information can be used to establish standards and specifications
 Data achieved through destructive testing is usually quantitative
 Typically, various service conditions are capable of being measured
 Useful life can generally be predicted

Limitations of Destructive Testing

 Data applies only to the specimen being examined
 Most destructive test specimens cannot be used once the test is complete
 Many destructive tests require large, expensive equipment in a laboratory environment

Merits of NDT
 The part is not changed or altered and can be used after examination
 Every item or a large portion of the material can be examined with no adverse consequences
 Materials can be examined for conditions internal and at the surface
 Parts can be examined while in service
 Many NDT methods are portable and can be taken to the object to be examined
 Nondestructive testing is cost effective, overall

Limitations of NDT
 It is usually quite operator dependent
 Some methods do not provide permanent records of the examination
 NDT methods do not generally provide quantitative data
 Orientation of discontinuities must be considered
 Evaluation of some test results are subjective and subject to dispute
 While most methods are cost effective, some, such as radiography, can be expensive
 Defined procedures that have been qualified are essential

Conclusion
There are obvious benefits for requiring both nondestructive and destructive testing. Each is capable of
providing extremely useful information, and when used jointly can be very valuable to the designer when
considering useful life and application of the part.

Conditions for effective NDT

There are many variables associated with nondestructive testing that must be controlled and optimized. The
following are major factors that must be considered in order for a nondestructive test to be effective.
 The product must be “testable.”
 Approved procedures must be followed.
 Equipment is operating properly.
 Documentation is complete.
 Personnel are qualified.

Applications of NDT
1. Inspection of Raw products (Forging, casting, extrusions)
2. Inspection following secondary process (machining, Welding, grinding, Heat treating, plating)
3. Inspection for in-service damage (Cracking, corrosion, wear/erosion, Heat damage)

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

Visual inspection/ Testing

Visual testing is the first NDT method which is simple, easy to apply carried out in a low cost. A
simple visual test can reveal gross surface defects thus leading to an immediate rejection of the component
and consequently saving much time and money, which would otherwise be spent on more complicated
means of testing.
With the advent of microprocessors and computers, Visual examination can be carried out very
reliably and with minimum cost. Image processing, Pattern recognition and automatic accept/reject choice
are used when large number of components are to be assessed.
There are 2 methods of visual inspection which are applied to the surface of object to detect flaws
and anomalies. If significant flaws are detected during visual inspection, then the part being inspected can be
rejected on that basis.
1. Un-aided visual inspection(direct visual or by eye)
2. Aided Visual inspection (optically aided inspection)

Basic Principle:
The procedure used in visual NDT method involves illumination of the test specimen with light, usually in
the visible region. the specimen is then examined with eye or by light sensitive devices such as photocells.
the equipment required for visual inspection is extremely simple, but adequate illumination is absolutely
essential. the surface of the specimen should be adequately cleaned before being inspected.

1.Unaided Inspection (eye)

The most valuable NDT tool is the human eye. the eye has excellent visual perception. the sensitivity
of human eye varies for light with different wavelengths. Under ordinary conditions, the eye is most
sensitive to yellow-green light(5560A0). The human eye will give satisfactory vision over a wide range of
conditions. For this reason, eye cannot be a good judge for distinguishing the differences in brightness or
intensity, except under the most restricted conditions.
For visual inspection, adequate lighting i.e about 800-1000lux is of prime importance. the period of
time during which a human inspector is permitted to work should be limited 2 not more than 2 hours
continuous basis to avoid errors due to decrease in visual reliability and discrimination.
The defects which can be detected by unaided visual inspection by an Experienced inspector can
reveal the following information
1. The general condition of the component.
2. The presence or absence of oxide film or corrosive product on the surface.
3. The presence or absence of cracks, orientation of cracks and position of cracks relative to various
zones in the case of welds.
4. The surface porosity, unfilled craters, contour of the weld beads, portable orientation off the
Interface between the fused weld bead and the adjoining parent metal.
5. Potential sources of mechanical weakness such as sharp notches or misalignment etc.
6. The results of visual examination maybe off great assistance to other tests.

2. Aided Visual Inspection (Optical Aids for Visual Inspection)

The use of optimal instruments in visual inspection is beneficial and is recommended to
i. Magnify defects that cannot be detected by the unaided eye.
ii. Permit visual checks of areas not accessible to the unaided eye.
Some of the optical aids for visual inspection are
1. Magnifying Mirror
2. Magnifying glass
3. Microscope
4. Borescope
5. Endoscope
6. Flexible Fibre Optic Borescope (Flexiscope)
7. Telescope
8. Holography

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

1. Magnifying Mirror:
Magnifying mirror is used when the inspecting area is small and not easily accessible. Depending
upon the test specimen, the mirrors can be chosen.

2. Magnifying Glass:
A magnifying glass can be used for closer inspection of test specimen. It consist of simple lens for
low power magnification and multiple lenses or double lens for higher magnification.

3. Microscope:
An optical microscope is a combination of lenses used to magnify the image of a small object. The
object is placed close to the lens to obtain magnification as high as possible. The distance from lens to object
is adjusted until the object is at the depth of field of the lens and is in focus.
The simplest form of a microscope is a single converging lens, often referred to as a simple
magnifier. Magnification (M) of a single lens is determined by the equation

where f= focal length of lens ,

10 = constant represents average minimum distance at which lens can be distinctly seen by unaided eye.
The features of microscopes are:
 Minute defects & details of fine structure on a surface can be detected more easily with the aid of
microscope.
 The practical upper limit of the magnifying power of a simple microscope is in the region of 10X.
 Optical microscopes are used to evaluate with respect to shape and orientation of cracks.
 In first case a low power microscope having a magnification of 2 to 20X is used. In the second case a
magnification of 100 to 500X is used and in the later case magnification of 1500 to 2000X is needed.

4. Borescope:
Borescope is an instrument designed to enable an observer to inspect the inside of a narrow tube, bore or
chamber. Borescopes consists of precision built in illumination system having a complex arrangement of
prisms and plain lenses through which light is passed to the observer with maximum efficiency.
The light source located in front or ahead of the object lens provided illumination for the part being
examined. As the length of borescope increases, the image becomes less bright due to loss of light.
The features of borescopes are:
 Borescopes are available in numerous models from 2.5 to 19mm in diameter and few meters in length.
 Diameter of borescopes depends upon the diameter of hole or bore to be inspected.
 The length of borescope is governed by the distance between the available access and the distance to
inspection area.
 In most borescopes, the observed visual area is approximately 25mm in diameter at 25mm distance
from the object. The size of visual field varies with diameter for a given magnification.

5. Endoscope:
It is like borescope except that it has a superior optical system and a high intensity light source. An unique
feature of endoscope is that objects are constantly in focus from about 4 mm to infinity.
When the tip is about 4 mm from the surface being inspected, a magnification factor of about 10X is
achieved. the „no focusing feature‟ of endoscope makes much easier to use rather than borescope, Which
needs to be focus at the inspection area. endoscopes are available in diameters down to 1.7mm and in
lengths from 100 to 1500mm.

6. Flexible fibre- Optic Borescope (Flexiscope)

Flexible fibre- Optic Borescope permit manipulation of the instrument around corners and through passages
with several directional changes. These devices are designed to provide sharp and clear images of parts and
interior surfaces that are normally impossible to inspect.
They all have fibre optic image bundle and are equipped with a focus control to bring the subject into sharp
focus over a wide range of viewing distances. The working lengths are normally from 60 to 365cm with
diameters from 3 to 12.5mm.

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Non –Destructive Testing and Evaluation (18ME823) Module 1: Overview of NDT

7. Telescope
Telescope is used to obtain magnified images of objects at considerable distance from the eye. it is
particularly useful for providing visual examination of the surface which is otherwise in accessible. it
consists of essentially 2 lenses (lens system) called objective and eye-piece. can be used in conjunction with
Periscope for viewing play concealed surface. but Closed Circuit Television(CCTV) is also used for the
purpose.

8. Holography:
Holography is the name given to the method of obtaining an accurate 3 dimensional image of an object. The
process is carried out in 2 stages
 First, a permanent record in the form of 2 dimensional interference pattern is obtained on
photographic plates by means of laser beam.
 The 3 dimensional images then obtained from 2 dimensional record again using a laser beam.
in this way picture having a high definition find free from errors can be obtained without the use of camera.
Holography is used for the NDT of surfaces of highly complicated and precision component without
the limitation of having to use high power microscope. In a simple operation a hologram can provide a
record of image of an entire surface which can be readily compared with that's a standard defect free surface.

Applications of Visual Inspection

 Inspection of plant systems/components for any leakage, abnormal operation etc.
 Misalignment of parts in the equipment.
 Corrosion, erosion, cracks, fractures, etc
 Defects in new/repaired weldments such as gross surface cracks, lack of penetration, tear cracks,
excess reinforcements, porosities, mismatch etc.
 Minute discontinuities with the help of optical aids in pumps, compressors, turbogenerator parts,
instruments etc.

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