ARTICLE IN PRESS

Physica E 40 (2008) 2521–2525

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New dimensionality classifications of nanostructures

V.V. Pokropivny, V.V. Skorokhod
Frantsevich Institute for Problems of Materials Science of NASU, Kiev, Ukraine
Available online 08 January 2008

Abstract

Various all possible kinds of nanostructures are classified using dimensionality of the nanostructures themselves (k ¼ 0, 1, 2, 3) and
their components (l, m, n ¼ 0, 1, 2, 3). Designation of the nanostructures is proposed, namely, kDlmn y, k4l, m, n. Some restricted set of
nanostructures classes was found possible to build from the constituting elementary blocks, namely, the zero-dimensional (0D) clusters
and particles, one-dimensional (1D) nanotubes and nanowires, 2D nanoplates and layers. Tables of 36 main classes of nanostructures
with more than 30 size effects are presented, that in couple with materials characteristics enable us to predict qualitatively the possible
properties of nanostructured materials and nanoarchitectured nanodevices. Concept of the ‘‘nanostructured forms engineering’’ is
suggested extending a concept of the ‘‘impurity’’, ‘‘structure’’, and ‘‘grain-boundary’’ engineering in nanotechnology.
r 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

PACS: 61.46.+w; 81.07.b

Keywords: Nanostructures; Classification; Dimensionality; Size effect; Nanotubes Nanotechnology; Nanomaterials; Engineering

1. Introduction classes of NSMs and four kinds in each of them rather than
12 classes.
Nanostructured materials (NSMs) as a subject of NSs should be classified accurately by a dimensionality,
nanotechnology are low-dimensional materials comprising as being a general natural attribute integrating a size and
building units of a submicron or nanoscale size at least in shape of NSs. Abundance of the forms for bulk 3D
one direction and exhibiting size effects. Development of materials in macroworld is infinite. In nanoworld neglect-
any science needs in classification. First classification ing any distinction between the NSs of the same
scheme of NSMs was proposed by Gleiter [1] and further dimensionality and shape one can regard these NSs as
was extended by Skorokhod et al. [2]. In last decade, the the same forms due to their low dimension. Hence, one can
hundreds of new NSMs and abundance of novel nanos- conclude that a number of NS classes become to be finite.
tructures (NSs) have been obtained so the need in their This poses a problem of modern NSs classification that is a
classification is ripen. purpose of the paper.
Crystalline forms and chemical composition was as-
sumed by Gleiter as a basis of its classification scheme of
2. Dimensionality classification
NSMs where the low-dimensional nanocrystallites equally
with intercrystalline grain boundaries were regarded as
building blocks. However, this scheme appear to be not full Nanostructure is defined formally as the structure at
least one size of which d is less or equal to a critical one d*,
because of zero- and one-dimensional (0D, 1D) NSs such
dpd*E102 nm. The value of d* have not certain magni-
as fullerenes and nanotubes (NTs) were not taking into
tude because it is dictated physically by a critical
account. Therefore, in his scheme there are actually three
characteristic of some physical phenomena (a free path
length of electrons or phonons, length of de Broglie wave,
length of external electromagnetic or acoustical waves,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +38 044 4243081; fax: +38 044 4242131. correlation length, penetration length, diffusion length,
E-mail address: pokr@[Link] (V.V. Pokropivny). etc.) giving rise to the size effects.

1386-9477/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2007.11.023
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2522 V.V. Pokropivny, V.V. Skorokhod / Physica E 40 (2008) 2521–2525

Since nanoworld is bounded above formally by the 3D structures can be considered as NSMs if they involve
critical size d*, then all objects restricted in size by this the 0D, 1D, and 2D NSs. This is just the case that Gleiter
value dod* fall into the category of NSs. Neglecting their considered in his classification of NSMs.
internal structure one can sort out all NSs by the In addition, the set of combined NSs consisting of these
dimensionality as being their most general feature. elementary classes must be taken into account.
Hence, we constitute our classification of NSs on their Let us introduce the notation of NSs as follows:
dimensionality [3]. It may be one of the fourth, namely, 0D,
kDlmn . . . ,
1D, 2D, and 3D. All NSs can be built from elementary
units (blocks) having lower dimensionality 0D, 1D, and where k is a dimensionality of NS as a whole, while the
2D. The 3D units are excluded because they can’t be used integers l, m, n denote the dimensionality of the NS
to build low-dimensional NSs except 3D matrix. However, building units of different types. Each integer l, m, n refers

Fig. 1. Dimensionality classification of nanostructures.

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V.V. Pokropivny, V.V. Skorokhod / Physica E 40 (2008) 2521–2525 2523

to different type unit, so the number of these integers transmits and scatters these waves. This puts on forefront
must be equal to the number of the different constituting the indexes of refraction, absorption, and transmission for
units. From the definition of NSs, it is evident that kXl, m, all these waves as main peculiar characteristics of NSs.
n, and k, l, m, n ¼ 0, 1, 2, 3. Power of any classification is verified by an ability to
It follows from this conditions that restricted number of predict some general properties. With this aim the general
NSs classes exists, namely, three sorts of elementary units representative properties should be related for each NS
(0D, 1D, 2D), nine single classes of kDl type built of one class. Then determining a class of NS we would be capable
sort units, 19 binary classes of kDlm type built of two sort to predict its general properties. However, at present time
units, and variety of ternary, quarternary, etc., classes. the properties of NSs were studied insufficiently with rare
Restricting the classification by five main ternary structures exception. In particular, a general dependence of density
of kDlmn type built of three sort units, we obtain in the of electron states (DOS) on pffiffiffithe
ffi NS dimensionality is
result 3+9+19+5 ¼ 36 classes of NSs shown in Fig. 1. well known,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi namely, rðEÞ E , rðEÞ ¼ const:, rðEÞ1=
All kinds of NSs known in the literature belong to one of E  E 0 and rðEÞdðE  E 0 Þ for the 3D, 2D, 1D, and 0D
these classes. However, some of the classes still remain to NSs, respectively. Hence, we can predict the general
be thin demonstrating a predictive ability of the suggested behavior of DOS for each class of NSs combining the
classification of NSs. On this basis, the combined classi- known DOS of their building units with a class of NS as
fication of NSMs can be further developed with account of whole. For instance, the DOS pof 2D1 NS class may
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
the second sign, namely, the kind and composition of predicted to be rðEÞconst: þ 1= E  E 0 .
materials, such as polymers, metals, dielectrics, semicon- Materials possess the variety of physical effects; some of
ductors, ceramics (carbides, nitrides, borides, oxides, etc.), them are shown in Table 1 relating the input (electric field,
cermets, etc. magnetic field, stress, heat and light) with the output
For instance, all NTs in dependence of their wall (charge/current, magnetization, strain, temperature and
structure is suggested to classify on three kinds [4]: (1) light) of material device. Materials possessing the effects
usual layered NTs with rolled layers such as carbon NTs; placed diagonally of Table 1 are sometime called ‘‘trivial’’
(2) polycrystalline NTs, the polynanograined walls of materials. Materials with the off-diagonal effects possess
which consist of linked nanograines, like bark; (3) the sensing, actuating and other ‘‘intelligent’’ functions
monocrystalline NTs with perfect bulk crystalline walls. called as ‘‘smart’’ materials. These effects appear to be
sensitive to the proposed dimensionality class of NSs.
3. Concept of surface form engineering In addition to the dimensionality and the materials
properties, the size of NSs is known to be the main factor
Concept of ‘‘grain boundary engineering’’ was derived influencing the properties of NSs under its size reduction.
from Gleiter’s classification in which accordance the In usual case of big bulk 3D material dblinternal, a size and
properties of NSMs strongly depends on the grain a shape do not affects interaction with internal waves of
boundaries. In similar manner a new concept of ‘‘surface linternal length and do not essentially changes the material
form engineering’’ follows from the proposed classification characteristics. In opposite extreme case of small nano-
in which accordance the NSs properties strongly depend on particle d5linternal, a size and a shape strongly influence on
the free surface shape of nanoparticle. Our concept is based the materials characteristics but do not affect interaction
on essential difference between intercrystalline grain with external electromagnetic field.
boundaries and free surfaces. The former (boundaries) Only in case of dl, the restriction of NSs size leads to
give rise to the inner classical (IC) size effects, such as quantum confinement and causes the inner quantum (IQ)
diffusion enhancement, decrease of melting point, lattice size effects manifesting themselves in optical spectra.
parameter, etc. The last (surfaces) determine the form, Electron reflection from NS surface, when an electron free
shape, dimensionality, and thereby class of NSs. Sharp thin path length becomes greater than NS size lelXd, may lead
free surface can serve as a mirror for reflection of electro- to decrease of electroconductivity, etc. Phonon reflection
magnetic, acoustic, de Broglie matter waves, in contrast to from NS surface, when a phonon free path length stands
the thickened diffusive grain boundaries, which only out NS size lphXd, may lead to cut of a long wave phonon

Table 1
Various physical effects in materials

Input/output Charge current Magnetization Strain Temperature Light

Electric field Conductivity, permittivity Electro-magnetic effects Converse piezoeffect Electro-caloric effect Electro-optic effect
Magnetic field Magneto-electric effect Permeability Magneto-striction Magneto-caloric effect Magneto-optic effect
Stress Piezo-electric effect Piezo-magnetic effect Elastic constants Internal friction Photo-elastic effect
Heat Pyro-electric effect Magnetic phase transitions Thermal expansion Specific heat Thermo-luminescence
Light Photo-voltaic effect Photo-magnetic effect Photo-striction Photo-caloric effect Optic indexes
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2524 V.V. Pokropivny, V.V. Skorokhod / Physica E 40 (2008) 2521–2525

spectrum, and to decrease of thermal conductivity, heat photonic crystal built of nanowires can acts as light
capacity, Debye temperature, hypersound generation, and waveguide and left-handed metamaterials, in which unu-
other IQ size effects. Variety of external size effects both sual unique phenomena were predicted, namely, negative
classical (EC) and quantum (EQ) type is known possible to refraction index, inverse Doppler and Cherenkov effects. In
arise under interaction of NSs with external field, when its Table 2, the variety of known size effects has been
wavelength becomes to be compatible with NS size, summarized.
lemEd. In this case, a condition of total internal reflection Beside size effects the variety of resonance effects was
or Bragg reflection d sin y ¼ nlem/2 may be fulfilled. For shown to be possible in NSs, in particular, Aaronov–
instance, the NS of 2D11 class such as an imperfect Bohm, magneto-acoustic, photogalvanic effects, in which
NS serves as resonator for the acoustic, electronic, and
electromagnetic waves. In special nanotubular crystals at a
Table 2 special sole super-frequency, a unique photo-acousto-
Various size effects in nanomaterials electronic super-resonance between microwave, hyper-
sound, and matter waves was predicted [5]. The crystal in
Property Influence of size reduction on properties of Type
nanoparticle this state may be regarded as novel nanostructured state of
matter, in which a lossless repumping and converting of the
Structural Decrease or increase of lattice parameter IC electromagnetic, acoustic and electronic energies, one to
Structure transformations IC each other, was suggested to be possible [5].
Mechanical Enhancement of hardness, strength, fracture IC One can conclude that in accordance with suggested
ductility ‘‘surface form engineering’’ a geometry shape becomes to
Arise of superplasticity IC be a dominant factor determining the properties of NSMs.
Raising of wear resistance IC
In comparison with our 36 classes of NSs, there are only
Thermal Decrease of melting point IC three classes in Gleiter’s scheme of NSMs where 33 novel
Decrease of phase transition temperatures IC classes are absent though there are just the new precise low-
Decrease of melting entropy IC
Softening of phonon spectra IC
dimensional classes that belong to the new excited field of
nanotechnology.
Thermo- Increase of heat capacity IC Geometry was playing always an exceptional role in
dynamical Increase of thermal expansion IC
Decrease of Debye temperature IQ
physics. Generalizing Einstein principle of general relative
Stabilization of high temperature phases IC theory one can say that ‘‘physics is geometry plus physical
laws’’. This is in Universe. Applied to nanoworld this
Kinetic Increase of diffusion coefficient IC
Sharp drop of thermal conductance under some IQ
principle can be reformulated as follows: ‘‘nanophysics is
critical size d* geometric forms of NSs plus critical characteristics of size
Oscillation of kinetic coefficients IQ effects in nanomaterials’’.
Electrical Increase of conductivity for nanometals IQ
Promising idea arises of theoretical design of novel size
Arise of conductivity for nanodielectrics IQ effects and resonance phenomena combining diversity of
Increase of dielectric inductivity for ferroelectrics at EC NS forms with the critical characteristics of materials.
d* Varying theoretically the different geometric forms of NS,
Electronic Increase of band gap IQ a type of material with possible size effects we are able to
Arise of phonon generation IQ predict novel physico-chemical phenomena in the NSMs.
Raising of conductivity under low temperatures in IQ Assuming the proposed 36 classes of NSs and 10 critical
semi-metallic Bi characteristics one can obtain the limited number (360) of
Magnetic Increase or decrease of coercive force at d* IQ the size effects and resonance phenomena. In the result the
Decrease of Curie temperature IQ nanoworld one can image as ‘‘multi-room (360) house’’
Rice of paramegnetism in ferromagnetics at some d* EQ of size effects and resonance phenomena. Paraphrasing the
Rice of gaint magnetoresistance EQ
Rise of maximal temperature of magnetoresistance EQ
well-known Feynmann’s aphorism (‘‘There are plenty
Increase of magnetic permeability in ferromagnetics EC rooms at a bottom’’), we can say ‘‘There are plenty rooms
at d* of restricted classes at a bottom’’.
Optical Diffraction and interference EC
Increase of absorption in ultraviolet range (blue IQ 4. Conclusions
shift)
Oscillation of optical absorption EQ Proposed classification may be continued further with
Arise of nonlinear optical properties EQ account of symmetry, a size, a type of materials, an internal
Chemical Increase of catalytic activity IC structure, etc.
Increase of velocity of physico-chemical interactions IC Principally new result of the proposed NS classification
Swap of solubility IC is a possibility of a priori prediction and theoretical design
Designation of the size effect category: I, inner; E, external; C, classical; Q, of novel NSMs with unique properties based on the size
quantum. effects and resonant phenomena.
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‘‘Engineering of surface forms’’ of NSs is brings to the References

forefront in addition to the ‘‘grain boundaries engineering’’
extending paradigm of NSMs science and nanotechnology. [1] H. Gleiter, Acta Mater. 48 (2000) 1.
[2] V.V. Skorokhod, A.V. Ragulya, I.V. Uvarova, Physico-
Chemical Kinetics in Nanostructured Systems, Academperiodica,
Acknowledgments
Kid, 2001.
[3] V.V. Pokropivny, V.V. Skorokhod, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 27 (2007)
The work was supported by the National Ukrainian 990.
Academy of Science (Projects C2-02 and Nanomaterials) [4] V.V. Pokropivny, P.M. Sylenko, Theor. Exp. Chem. 42 (2006) 1.
and RAK/ESF MEEDE1.1 Project. [5] V.V. Pokropivny, Mater. Sci. Eng. C 25 (2005) 771.