World

MI OPEN BOOK PROJECT

History

Stefanie Camling, Mike Halliwill, Troy Kilgus, Anne

Koschmider, Adam Lincoln, Mark Pontoni, Anthony
Salciccoli, Tom Stoppa, Nick Vartanian, Melissa Wozniak,
Kymberli Wregglesworth, Rebecca Bush.
About the
Authors
 The text of this book is licensed under a Creative Commons
NonCommercial-ShareAlike (CC-BY-NC-SA) license as part of
Michigan’s participation in the national #GoOpen movement.

This is version 1.3 of this text, released August 2018

Information on the latest version and updates are available on the project
homepage: http://textbooks.wmisd.org/dashboard.html

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike CC BY-NC-SA
ii
 The Michigan Open Book Stefanie Camling
Project Coopersville High School
Coopersville Area Public Schools
Stefanie has been teaching for twenty two years. She received her Bachelors of
Arts in Social Studies as well as her Masters in Education Leadership from Grand
Project Manager: Dave Johnson, Wexford- Valley State University. She is currently teaching at Coopersville High School in so-
Missaukee Intermediate School District ciology, world history, and AP world history. Stefanie has served has the student
council advisor, junior class advisor, coach, and Vision Team chair. Stefanie was
one of the writers for Performance Assessments of Social Studies Thinking
HS World Team Editor: Rebecca Bush, Ottawa
(P.A.S.S.T) for World History. Stefanie resides in Grand Rapids, Michigan with her
Area Intermediate School District husband Tom and son Tommy Jr.

Authors Mike Halliwill

Shepherd High School
Stefanie Camling - Coopersville Public Schools
Shepherd Public Schools
Mike is the High School World History teacher at Shepherd High School in Shepherd Michi-
Mike Halliwill - Shepherd Public Schools
gan. He has a Bachelors degree in history education from Saginaw Valley State University
with minors in Political Science and Sociology. During his time at Shepherd Mike has
Troy Kilgus - Standish Sterling Public Schools
served as the Model UN and boys golf coach. Mike has also been an item writer for Per-
formance Assessments of Social Studies Thinking (PASST).
Anne Koschmider - Cadillac Area Public
Schools

Adam Lincoln - Ithaca Public Schools

Mark Pontoni - Boyne City Public Schools

Anthony Salciccoli - Clarenceville Public Schools Troy Kilgus

Standish-Sterling Central High School
Tom Stoppa - Alpena Public Schools Standish-Sterling Community Schools
Troy Kilgus serves as the high school social studies chair at Standish-Sterling Central
Nick Vartanian - Holland Public Schools High School. In his eight years of teaching, he has taught various social studies courses
including AP US History and multiple levels of French. Mr. Kilgus earned his undergradu-
Melissa Wozniak - Rogers City Area Schools ate degree in French Education and his Masters in Teaching from Saginaw Valley State
University.
 Anne Koschmider
Cadillac High School
Cadillac Area Public Schools
Anne has been a social studies teacher at Cadillac High School since 2005. She has
taught World History & Geography, AP World History, Psychology, AP Psychology, and
History of the Rock and Roll Era with a particular interest in using instructional technology
to engage students and promote literacy. In addition, she has served as the social studies
department chair and a student council adviser. She holds a Bachelor of Arts degree from
Alma College and a Master of Arts degree in Curriculum, Instruction and Assessment
from Walden University. Beyond the classroom, Anne enjoys traveling, reading, and

Adam Lincoln
Ithaca Jr/Sr High School
Ithaca Public Schools
Adam began his teaching career at Cadillac High School in Cadillac, Michigan where he
taught US History, Global Studies, and AP World History. After 7 years, he moved back home
to central Michigan to teach at Ithaca Public Schools. While his main charge has been
teaching World History and starting the AP World History program, Adam also teaches 8th
Grade History, US History, History in Popular Culture and all sorts of computer science
classes. Adam coaches Model United Nations, and runs the Jumbotron at Ithaca Community
Stadium during events. Adam has served as a member of the Michigan Council for the Social
Studies for over a decade and has worked to unite his twin passions of Social Studies and
effectively integrating technology into the classroom. Outside of school, Adam has served on
the Content Advisory Committee, as a Social Studies item writer for the Department of
Education, and worked for the PASST project. Adam teaches History and Social Studies
methods classes at Alma College as adjunct faculty. Apart from the world of education, Adam
enjoys spending time with his family especially traveling on new adventures.

Mark Pontoni
Boyne City High School
Boyne City Public Schools
After a long career running a business, I returned to the University of Michigan
for my Masters and Certification and began teaching in Owosso 11 years ago. A
marriage, a move north, and a couple of job changes later, I now teach at Boyne
City. I run a state-wide Model United Nations program attended by over 1000 stu-
dents annually. I have also been an AP Reader in US Government and Politics,
Comparative Government, and World History.
 Anthony Salciccioli
Clarenceville High School
Clarenceville Public Schools
Salciccioli has been teaching since 2001. Throughout these years, he has taught students
from grades 6-12 U.S. History, Government, Sociology, Law, Big History, Philosophy and
his present course in World History. During his tenure he coached football, wrestling and
track and field. He received his B.A. in political science-prelaw from Michigan State Univer-
sity in 1996, a second B.A. in History from the University of Michigan-Dearborn in 2001 and
his Master in the Art of Teaching from Marygrove College in 2006. Salciccioli served as the
President of the Michigan Council for the Social Studies from 2012-2014 and has been
awarded the McConnell History Educator Award in 2014, the Fishman Prize Honor Roll in
2015 and the Gilder Lehrman Michigan History Teacher of the Year in 2016. He is a lifetime
resident of Metro Detroit where he attempts to live with joy and purpose along with his wife

Tom Stoppa
Alpena High School
Alpena Public Schools
Tom earned his Bachelors of Science in Education from CMU and his Master in Education
from Marygrove. Tom taught at Orchard Lake St. Mary’s before moving to Alpena. Tom has
worked in the Alpena district for the past 20 years teaching World History, Advanced Place-
ment European History, Current Events, Michigan/Alpena History., and United States His-
tory. During his tenure in Alpena, Tom has served as School Improvement Chair, Social Stud-
ies Department Chair, and History Club Adviser. He is a member of the National Council for
the Social Studies. Outside of the school day, Tom volunteers with the Water and Woods
Boy Scout Field Service Council and the Northeast Michigan Youth Advisory Council

Nick Vartanian
Holland High School
Holland Public Schools
I teach World History and A.P. World History at Holland High School. I earned my bachelor’s
degree in History from Alma College in 2001 and earned my master’s degree in Educational
Leadership from Grand Valley State University in 2011. I am the SLIC (Student Leaders Initiat-
ing Change) Coordinator at Holland High and serve as Chairperson of the Reading Now Net-
work for Holland High. I am very interested in Project Based Learning and technology integra-
tion in the classroom. I was a writer for the Performance Assessments of Social Studies
Thinking (PASST) Project. In addition, I have participated in the IChallengeU program, work-
ing with students, civic, and community leaders to develop solutions to real problems as
posed by area businesses in the greater Holland area.
Melissa Wozniak
Rogers City High School Te Michigan Open Book Project Team would
Rogers City Area Schools like to thank the following individuals for their
A proud graduate of both Posen High School and Saginaw Valley State Univer- help in reviewing some content in the book and
sity. #WECARDNIALS I have a love of teaching, learning, reading, family time, guiding the development process.
traveling, and of LIFE! I love using technology to keep my students engaged,
and to keep track of my family members escapades. I hope to someday achieve
my ultimate goal of competing on Jeopardy, winning at least one day and mak- Eric Hemenway - Director of Repatriation, Ar-
ing Alex Trebek say my name!! chives and Records, Little Traverse Bay Bands of
Odawa Indians

Jim Cameron, Michigan Department of Educa-

tion

Kymberli Wregglesworth Melissa Kieswetter, Michigan Department of

Onaway Secondary School Civil Rights
Onaway Public Schools
Kymberli has a BA in history and political science from Alma College, a MA in education
from Michigan State University, and a MA in American History and Government from
Ashland University. She was named a James Madison Fellow in 2011, was chosen as
the Michigan Council for the Social Studies High School Educator of the Year in 2015,
and is a two year member of the iCivics Educator Network. Kymberli teaches at her high
school alma mater where her courses include Civics, World History, Current Events,
Women’s Studies, and World Cultures, as well as serving on the school’s technology
committee and school improvement team. Additionally, she teaches Intro to American
Government at North Central Michigan College, and will be expanding to teach a history

Rebecca Bush
Instructional Consultant
Ottawa Area Intermediate School District
Rebecca Bush is currently the Social Studies Consultant at the Ottawa Area Intermediate
School District (OAISD), where she assists K-12 social studies teachers in developing cur-
riculum, modeling instructional strategies in social studies literacy, and designing district-
level formative and summative assessments. Additionally, as Project Director, she has
written and received multiple Teaching American History grants, working with teachers
throughout an eight-county radius. She has presented at various national conferences on
multiple topics surrounding social studies instruction as well as innovative techniques and
topics in formative and summative assessment design. Currently she is Co-Project Direc-
tor of The Performance Assessments of Social Studies Thinking (PASST) Project and as-
sists with the professional development of teacher writers for the MI Open Book Project
where she serves as an editor of several of the project’s texts. Rebecca currently leads
Chapter 1

Would the World

Have Been Better
Off Without the
Mongols?
What is a primary source? Secondary source?


How do bias and point of view impact sources?


How does evidence support or refute arguments?


Section 1

Historical Thinking Skills

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY It is one thing to study historical events; it is another to engage in historical
1. What is a primary source? Secondary thinking. A much more complex endeavor, historical thinking involves the reading,
source? analysis, and writing that is necessary to develop a thorough understanding of the
2. How do bias and point of view impact past.  While studying the logistical details of a historical event or a series of
sources? historical events increases our knowledge about an event or series of events,

3. How does evidence support or refute historical thinking requires engagement in the process of historical inquiry.
arguments?

Engaging in the process of historical inquiry that results in an understanding of the
broad picture of the past, is a repetitive process. The first step involves developing
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
historical questions that are relevant to the inquiry at hand and help guide the
Historical thinking investigation of research.  Step two requires locating and analyzing historical
Historical inquiry primary and secondary sources  (Remember: primary sources are the raw
materials of history.  They are original documents and objects which were created
Summarizing
at the time under study.  Secondary sources are accounts or interpretations of
Contextualization
events created by someone without firsthand experience.) The process of
Inferring analyzing historical sources in order to help answer guiding historical questions
Monitor results in the development of historical evidence which is step three in the
process.  It is this evidence (which upon comparison, can sometimes be
Corroborate
contradictory) that leads to the constructing of claims about the past, which are
Interpretation of sources often referred to as historical interpretations which is the final step in the process.
 Often historical interpretations answer the original guiding questions; however, at

8
times, interpretations can lead to further historical questions the source will prove helpful during later phases in the process.
which initiate the cyclical process all over again. A visual example  The next part of the strategy involves contextualization--
of the process is provided below: examining a source in detail to “place” it in time and space.
 When contextualizing a source, asking questions such as:

• From a time period standpoint, where and when was this

source produced?

• Why was it produced?

• What was happening when the source was produced that is

similar to the present time?

• What was happening when the source was produced that is

different than the present time?


• How might the circumstances in which the document was

created affect its content?

Often the way a source has been created requires deeper

exploration and examination of its perspective.  Determining what
In order to fully engage in the historical thinking process, the information can be implied or concluded from looking closely at
following strategy can be helpful. Summarizing is the first part of the evidence in the source is known as inferring. Once inferences
the strategy and involves quickly examining documents to locate have been made, it is important to monitor, or reflect upon
information that is explicitly stated in a source.  At this beginning whether or not there are questions that still exist about the initial
point, identifying the subject of the source, its author, purpose, assumptions or interpretations made about the source. If
and audience are important.  Identifying key facts, ideas, additional questions remain, the discovery of additional
opinions, dates, and perspectives that are readily apparent within information may alter conclusions that have already been drawn.

9
The next step is to corroborate, or compare the evidence that
has been gathered and analyzed. Are there similarities between
sources that are in agreement with one another?  What
differences exist and are those differences significant?   Once
corroboration has occurred, interpretation of sources that results
in the development of claims and drawing conclusions answers
compelling questions and ends the historical thinking process. Interactive 1.1 Historical Thinking

Throughout this world history text, several opportunities have

been developed to strengthen historical thinking skills.  Presented
as “performance tasks” each inquiry poses a compelling question
to initiate the process of historical inquiry.  Historical reading
strategies such as sourcing, contextualization, inferring,
monitoring, corroboration, and interpreting should be utilized to
investigate historical questions and make historical claims.  The
first performance task is presented below and is designed for the
practice of historical thinking with world history content, and
serves as a review of ancient history content from the time period
of 300 to 1500 C.E.
Want a little more on what it means to “think
historically?” - View this brief video.
Remember that just like all inquiry-based questions designed to
stimulate strategic and extended thinking in history, this question
is open ended.  As you engage in the process of historical
thinking with respect to each of the provided documents,
remember the overall objective is to develop claims and support
them with evidence from the provided documents.

10
Section 2

Introduction to Performance Task

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY This chapter is designed to “warm you up” for your inquiry based studies of world
1. What is a primary source? Secondary history this school year. It serves as a bridge from our middle school text into the
source? high school content.

2. How do bias and point of view impact What you’re about to undertake is a performance task. By the end of this chapter
sources?
you’ll have read several historical documents which will help you answer the
3. How does evidence support or refute compelling question which guides this chapter: “Would the world have been
arguments?

better off without the Mongols?”

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE This question is open ended. It can be answered in more than one way. By
reading each of the sections of this chapter and answering the questions about
Nomadic
each document, you’ll begin to develop a claim in response to the question. You’ll
Pasture
also be asked to come up with multiple reasons that support this claim, all of
Gobi Desert which include evidence from the sources you will read.
Ethnicities

Eurasia

Contiguous
Right now, as you open this chapter and read this introduction -
what are your initial thoughts? Would the world have been better off
without the Mongols?

11
During the thirteenth century, the Mongols built an empire from grandsons and later descendants. Therefore, the age of Mongol
scratch through remarkable feats of organization, planning, domination continued far into the fourteenth century.
endurance, courage, slaughter, destruction, and terror. The
empire was ruled by a combination of exploitation and protection Movie 1.1 The Expansion of the Mongol Empire
of those conquered. The Mongol peace-keeping and
encouragement of long distance communications, resulted in the
widespread exchange of ideas, goods, and techniques, as well as
in the spread of disease.



In the grasslands and mountains northwest of the Gobi Desert of
East Asia lived a nomadic, tribal, largely illiterate people
numbering 700,000 to 1,000,000. These were the Mongols.

Economically dependent on herds of sheep, goats, horses, and
cattle and on raiding for booty, they were in constant low-level
conflicts with each other. Conflict over pastures, water, and
potential slave captives often resulted in long-lasting, bloody
feuds.


 Look at this map showing the expansion of the Mongol Empire. Image
source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/
Suddenly, the Mongols exploded onto the world scene by Mongol_Empire_map.gif
conquering the territories of both nomadic and settled peoples,
including urbanized, agrarian societies from China to Syria and During that time, Mongol rulers, called khans facilitated contact
Russia to Korea in about half a century. They created the world’s and war between themselves and various cultures within Eurasia.
largest empire and managed to hang onto their conquests for The empire nearly stretched from the Mediterranean Sea in the
nearly two centuries. The founder of the empire was Chinggis west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, creating the largest
Khan. The unified empire that he forged between 1206 and 1227 contiguous land empire in the world. During Mongol rule,
broke up around 1260. It did not shatter, however. Rather it was interaction between peoples of many different ethnicities,
divided into four large Mongol kingdoms ruled by Khan’s religions, and cultures was promoted. It was these interactions

12
that enabled the exchange and spread of ideas, goods,
technologies, and unfortunately, disease.

What's in a name? The name Chinggis Khan, meaning something

like “universal lord, has been spelled in European languages
many different ways: Genghis, Chingiz, Djingis, Djenghiz, and
Jankiz, also Qan, Kaan, Qhan. Our alphabet can only approximate
the sounds of Mongolian, a language in the Altaic family which
also includes Turkish. (If you say these different spellings aloud,
how different do they sound?) For a while, Genghis was the most
popular spelling, but today Chinggis or Chingiz is preferred.
Europeans also called the Mongols “Tatars” or “Tartars.” Before
Chinggis demolished them, the Tatars were the most powerful
Mongol tribe, but that name was later loosely applied to all
Mongols. In Europe, the form “Tartar” became current, after the
Latin name for Hell, “Tartarus.”

Excerpted and adapted from World History for Us All


http://worldhistoryforusall.sdsu.edu/




13
Section 3

Document 1: Pope Innocent IV Letter to The Great

Khan
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Background: Pope Innocent IV was leader of the Roman Catholic Church from 25
1. What is a primary source? Secondary June 1243 to his death in 1254. Popes of the Middle Ages served as both religious
source? and political leaders.
2. How do bias and point of view impact
“It is not without cause that we are driven to express in strong terms our
sources?
amazement that you, according to what we have heard, have invaded many
3. How does evidence support or refute countries belonging both to Christians and to others and are laying waste in a
arguments?

horrible desolation, and with a fury still unabated you do not cease from breaking
the bonds of natural ties, sparing neither sex nor age, you rage against all
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
indiscriminately with the sword of chastisement.” -
desolation
Source: Pope Innocent IV, 1245 CE
unabated

chastisement Document 1 Questions:

1. Is this source primary or secondary? How do you know? Why does it matter?

2. Based on document, did the author believe the world would be better or worse
without the Mongols?

3. Are there key pieces of evidence from the document that support your claim?

4. Why might this letter from the Pope be considered by many as powerful?

14
Section 4

Document 2: History of the Mongols, written by

Rashid al-Din
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
Background: Rashid al-Din was a Persian historian. This history book was written
at the request of the Mongol Emperor after 1241. This book serves as a record for
1. What is a primary source? Secondary
source? Mongol and Asian history.

2. How do bias and point of view impact “At every opportunity, he (the son of Genghis Khan) allowed his sublime thoughts
sources?
to overflow lavishly into the most just and charitable of good deeds, into the
3. How does evidence support or refute eradication of injustice and enmity, into the development of cities and districts,
arguments?

as well as into the construction of various buildings. He never neglected any
measure designed to strengthen the framework of peace, and to lay the foundation
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE of prosperity. “ - Source: Rashid Al-Din, 1241 CE
sublime
Document 2 Questions:
lavishly
1. Is this source primary or secondary? How do you know? Why does it matter?
eradication

enmity   2. Based on document, did the author believe the world would be better or worse
off without the Mongols?
prosperity

3. Are there key pieces of evidence from the document that support your claim?

4. Which document--1 or 2--seems to be the most reliable? Why do you think

this?


15
Section 5

Document 3: Mongol Empire and Religious Freedom

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

Document 3: Mongol Empire and Religious Freedom

1. What is a primary source? Secondary The History on the Net was founded by Heather Wheeler a historian and former
source?
history teacher
2. How do bias and point of view impact
sources? The Mongol people were Tengerians, which is a shamanist belief system.
Tengerism means to honor the spirits. Shamanism is a form of animism, which
3. How does evidence support or refute
arguments?
 holds that everything has a spiritual essence, including rocks, water and plants—
everything. Humans are living spiritual creatures in a world of other spirits/forces/
gods, with the Greatest Spirits being Koke Mongke Tengri, the Eternal Blue
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
Heaven, and Mother Earth…
imperial
Genghis, the man, was interested in all religions. In fact, many Mongols were
shamanists at the same time they practiced other religions…Genghis Khan and his
descendants employed Buddhists and Muslims in their administration of the
empire. Genghis even had close advisors who held to other religions. To the
Mongols, then, religious tolerance wasn’t only an imperial policy, it was the way
they lived. Mongol leaders occasionally invited religious leaders to come and
debate each other as a way of exploring and learning about the various religions
under their rule. Source: http://www.historyonthenet.com/mongols/mongol-
empire-and-religious-freedom, 2014 CE

16
Document 3 Questions:

1. Is this source primary or secondary? How do you know? Why

does it matter?

2. Based on this document, did the author believe the world

would be better or worse off without the Mongols?

3. Are there key pieces of evidence from the document that

support your claim?

4. Does document 1 or 2 better corroborate the evidence

provided in document 3?


17
Section 6

Document 4: The Narrative of Gabriele De’ Mussis

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

Document 4: The Narrative of Gabriele De’ Mussis

1. What is a primary source? Secondary Gabriele de' Mussis was a lawyer of Piacenza who died in 1356. His Historia de
source?
Morbo is the main source for the arrival of the plague in Europe, although it is not
2. How do bias and point of view impact true, as his first editor believed, that de' Mussis was actually a passenger on the
sources? ship which brought the plague to Genoa — he is now known to have remained in
3. How does evidence support or refute Piacenza throughout the epidemic. Background excerpted from The Black Death
arguments?
 By Rosemay Horrox, pg 14

Gabriele de’ Mussis, Historia de Morbo

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Tatars “Oh God! See how the heathen Tartar races, pouring together from all sides,

besieged suddenly invested the city of Caffa and besieged the trapped Christians there for
almost three years. There, hemmed in by an immense army, they could hardly
coagulating humours
draw breath, although food could be shipped in, which offered them some hope.
putrid But behold, the whole army was affected by a disease which overran the Tartars
and killed thousands upon thousands every day. It was as though arrows were
raining down from heaven to strike and crush the Tartars’ arrogance. All medical
advice and attention was useless; the Tartars died as soon as the signs of disease
appeared on their bodies: swellings in the armpit or groin caused by coagulating
humours, followed by a putrid fever.

“The dying Tartars, stunned and stupefied by the immensity of the disaster brought
about by the disease, and realizing that they had no hope of escape, lost interest
18
in the siege. But they ordered corpses to be placed in catapults 4. Which of the first three documents best corroborates with
and lobbed into the city in the hope that the intolerable stench document 4?

would kill everyone inside. What seemed like mountains of dead
were thrown into the city, and the Christians could not hide or flee
or escape from them, although they dumped as many of the
bodies as they could in the sea. And soon the rotting corpses
tainted the air and poisoned the water supply, and the stench was
so overwhelming that hardly one in several thousand was in a
position to flee the remains of the Tartar army. Moreover one
infected man could carry the poison to others, and infect people
and places with the disease by look alone. No one knew, or could
discover, a means of defense.”

Source: http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/8/9/01-0536_article,
quoting The Narrative of Gabriele De’ Mussi, 1348-1349?

Document 4 Questions:

1. Is this source primary or secondary? How do you know? Why

does it matter?

2. Based on this document, did the author believe the world

would be better or worse off without the Mongols?

3. Are there key pieces of evidence from the document that

support your claim?


19
Section 7

Document 5: Empires of the World (Square Mileage)

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

Document 5: Empires of the World Square Mileage

1. What is a primary source? Secondary

source?

2. How do bias and point of view impact

sources?

3. How does evidence support or refute

arguments?


TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Source: Compiled from numerous sources

Document 5 Questions:

1. Is this source primary or secondary? How do you know? Why does it matter?

2. What does the chart tell you about the Mongols?

3. Are there key pieces of evidence from the document support your claim?

20
Section 8

Document 6: Women in Mongol Society

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

Document 6: Women in Mongol Society

1. What is a primary source? Secondary Giovanni DiPlano Carpini, 1245-1247:

source?
“Girls and women ride and gallop as skillfully as men. We even saw them carrying
2. How do bias and point of view impact
sources? quivers and bows, and the women can ride horses for as long as the men; they
have shorter stirrups, handle horses very well, and mind all the property. The
3. How does evidence support or refute
arguments?
 Tartar (commonly used term for Mongols) women make everything: skin clothes,
shoes, leggings, and everything made of leather. They drive carts and repair them,

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE they load camels, and are quick and vigorous in all their tasks. They all wear
trousers, and some of them shoot just like men." Source <http://
stirrups
womeninworldhistory.com/silk-road-114.html>
vigorous
Document 6 Questions:

1. Is this source primary or secondary? How do you know?

2. According to this source what role do Mongol women have in Mongol society?

3. Which document best corroborates document 6?


21
Section 9

Document 7: The Status of Merchants Under Mongol

Rule
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
Document 7: The Status of Merchants...Under Mongol Rule

1. What is a primary source? Secondary Source: Taken from Columbia University's Asia for Educators website. http://
source?
afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/history/history4_a.htm The website is the work of
2. How do bias and point of view impact
sources? Morris Rossabi a Professor of Chinese and Inner Asian History. He has published
many works on the topic of Asian History at the prestigious Columbia University.
3. How does evidence support or refute
arguments?

Under Mongol rule, merchants had a higher status than they had in traditional
China. During their travels they could rest and secure supplies through a postal-
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE station system that the Mongols had established.

The postal-station system was, of course, originally devised to facilitate the

transmission of official mail from one part of the empire to another. Set up
approximately every 20 miles along the major trade routes and stocked with
supplies of food, horses, and lodging, the stations were an incredible boon to all
travelers, whether they were traveling for business or otherwise.

Under the Mongols, merchants also had the benefit of not being faced with
confiscatory taxation, as was the case during the rule of the traditional Chinese
dynasties.

Support for trade characterized not only Mongol policy in China but their policy
throughout their domains. In Persia the Mongols granted higher tax breaks and
benefits to traders in an effort to promote commerce. The Mongols even tried to
22
introduce paper money into Persia — though this would become Writing in World History: Would
merely a failed experiment. Nonetheless, the attempt indicates the world have been better off
the desire of the Mongols to provide additional assistance to without the Mongols?
traders.
Task: You have now received
Source: <http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols/history/ instruction on historical thinking and
history4_a.htm> read seven different documents from
seven different points of view. Some
Document 7 Questions:
were primary sources, some were
1. Is this source primary or secondary? How do you know? secondary. All were carefully
selected to provide you enough
2. Based on this document, did the author believe the world
opportunities to take a stand on the major question and support
would be better or worse off without the Mongols?
your stance with relevant historical evidence.
3. What key pieces of evidence from the document support your
After each resource you answered some questions. Your answers
claim from above?
to these questions may help you in writing your answer to the
4. Is Morris Rossabi a reliable source? Why or why not?
 main performance task question. You may go back to these
sources and your answers to each question as often as you need
to complete your research.

Your teacher will determine the best place for you to write your
  essay. It may be on an app saved on this device or written by
hand. Remember to keep all your notes and readings from this
chapter handy! You’ll come across more performance tasks like
this one embedded throughout this resource.

23
Chapter 2

How Was the World

Altered When the
Four World Zones
Connected?
What were the Four Zones of the world and what
geographic advantages did Afro-Eurasia have over
the rest of the world?  

How were indigenous peoples affected by

exploration?

What were the Gunpowder Empires and how did

they compare to their European and Asian
Section 1

What were the four zones of the world?

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY From Hunters and Gatherers to Global Explorers:

1. What were the Four Zones of the world and
Today we live in a world that is extremely and irreversibly global. Our marketplaces
what geographic advantages did Afro-
Eurasia have over the rest of the world?   offer seemingly limitless products from around the world. People utilize the Internet
in order to connect to a body of collective learning previously unseen in history.
2. How were indigenous peoples affected by
exploration? This is in stark contrast to the origin of small hunting and gathering bands of Homo
sapiens on the plains of East Africa. that existed close to 200,000 years ago. From
3. What were the Gunpowder Empires and
how did they compare to their European
these origins, Homo sapiens gradually migrated throughout the world. This lengthy
and Asian counterparts? journey culminated 14,000 years ago, with the human colonization of the last
region of the earth, the Southern Cone of Argentina. At the end of this lengthy
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
process of migration, the earth was divided into four distinct areas called world
the Four World Zones
zones.
Agrarian Era
Interactive 2.1 The Four
World Zones

Learn more about the four world

zones here.
25
About 10,000 years ago, the seas were raised to high
levels as a result of the melt of the last ice age. This
divided the world into four non-connected, geographic
world zones. Isolated from each other, these four regions
developed distinctive cultures and ways of survival. Each
of these zones had advantages and challenges that made
them each distinct. Many historians have recognized the
two largest world zones as Afro-Eurasia, (often referred to
as the “Old World”) and the Americas, (often referred to
as the “New World”).   The problem with this historical
perspective is that it fails to recognize the remaining two
zones. In his book, Maps of Time, Professor David
Christian describes the division of all four world zones:

1. Afro-Eurasia: Africa and the Eurasian landmass,

including offshore islands like Britain and Japan
Image source: https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/big-history-project/expansion-interconnection/expansion/a/the-four-
world-zones
2. The Americas: North, Central, and South America, plus
Interactive 2.2 Ancient Cities
offshore islands like the Caribbean Islands

3. Australasia: Australia and the island of Papua New Guinea,

plus neighboring islands in the Pacific Ocean

4. The Pacific: Island societies such as New Zealand, Micronesia,

Melanesia, Hawaii

(Antarctica is not considered a world zone because until very

recently no people lived there.)
This interactive, from the work of Dr. Phil Gersmehl, will
help you visualize where ancient cities sprang up. As you
turn on layers using the buttons, what connections do you
see to thinks like average temperatures and the location of 26
cities?
The Agrarian Age:

When Homo sapiens reached all the lands of the inhabitable

world by the end of the Little Ice Age, the Agrarian Era
began. Agrarian life was quite different from nomadic hunting
and gathering as means for survival. In agrarian societies,
humans remained sedentary or stationary and relied on
farming and raising animals in order to survive. After close to
9,000 years of living in Agrarian societies, cities emerged,
leading to the first civilization, Sumer along the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers. Soon after, the Egyptians founded their
civilization along the Nile River, the Indus Valley People along
the Indus River and the Chinese along the Yellow River.
Collectively, these are known to historians as the Four River
Valley Civilizations.

What do you notice about the geographic locations of the first four
Expansion from a Regional to an Interregional World:
civilizations? Recall what discerns agrarian societies compared to
These first civilizations gave way to major empires and trading civilizations. What is the criterion on what constitutes a civilization?
networks that lasted for centuries. These visuals below
encompass more than 2,000 years of human history. During this Interactive 2.3 Ancient
time, interactions increased substantially when people mixed
Empires
along trade routes and through the creation of empires. What all
of these major empires and trade routes have in common is that
they were geographically located in Africa, Europe, and/or Asia.
This created a dynamic region of the world known as, Afro-
Eurasia. This long of history of interaction gave Afro-Eurasia an
advantage economically and politically.   These advantages were
so significant that globalization in the early 15th century would Take a look at these maps of
occur. ancient empires and trade routes.

27
Section 2

How were indigenous peoples affected by

exploration?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY October 12, 1492: The Birth of the Global World
1. What were the Four Zones of the world and
When Christopher Columbus and his crew stepped upon North American soil on
what geographic advantages did Afro-
Eurasia have over the rest of the world?   October 12, 1492, the course of human history would be forever changed. For the
first time, the four world zones were connected and the effects of this day still
2. How were indigenous peoples affected by
exploration? resonate today. Below is a primary source of Christopher Columbus’ letter to King
Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain on his account of his trip. Read this letter
3. What were the Gunpowder Empires and
how did they compare to their European
and answer the questions that follow.
and Asian counterparts?
Christopher Columbus’s letter to Ferdinand and Isabella, 1493. (Gilder
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
Lehrman Collection)

I have determined to write you this letter to inform you of everything that has been
done and discovered in this voyage of mine.

On the thirty-third day after leaving Cadiz I came into the Indian Sea, where I
discovered many islands inhabited by numerous people. I took possession of all of
them for our most fortunate King by making public proclamation and unfurling his
standard, no one making any resistance. The island called Juana, as well as the
others in its neighborhood, is exceedingly fertile. It has numerous harbors on all
sides, very safe and wide, above comparison with any I have ever seen. Through it
flow many very broad and health-giving rivers; and there are in it numerous very

28
lofty mountains. All these islands are very beautiful, and of quite they see that they are safe, and all fear is banished, they are very
different shapes; easy to be traversed, and full of the greatest guileless and honest, and very liberal of all they have. No one
variety of trees reaching to the stars...  refuses the asker anything that he possesses; on the contrary they
themselves invite us to ask for it. They manifest the greatest
In the island, which I have said before
was called Hispana, there are very
lofty and beautiful mountains, great
farms, groves and fields, most fertile
both for cultivation and for pasturage,
and well adapted for constructing
buildings. The convenience of the
harbors in this island, and the
excellence of the rivers, in volume and
salubrity, surpass human belief, unless
on should see them. In it the trees,
pasture-lands and fruits different
much from those of Juana. Besides,
this Hispana abounds in various kinds
of species, gold and metals. The
inhabitants…. are all, as I said before,
unprovided with any sort of iron, and
they are destitute of arms, which are
entirely unknown to them, and for
which they are not adapted; not on
account of any bodily deformity, for
they are well made, but because they
are timid and full of terror…. But when

29
affection towards all of us, exchanging valuable things for trifles, That then was the katun period When the Spaniards first arrived
content with the very least thing or nothing at all…..I gave them Here In these lands. On the seventh measured tun Of 11 Ahau
many beautiful and pleasing things, which I had brought with me, Was also the katun period that began Christianity, In the year or
for no return whatever, in order to win their affection, and that they our lord fifteen nineteen, 1519 V [1546 M]. At that time there was
might become Christians and inclined to love our King and Queen Zulim Chan; At that time there were western Chontal. Hungering
and Princes and all the people of Spain; and that they might be were the trees; Hungering were the rocks. The destroyer hunger
eager to search for and gather and give to us what they abound in Was during the katun of the lord of 11 Ahau. 11 Ahau was the
and we greatly need. beginning of the count Because this was the katun when the
foreigners arrived. When they came, They arrived from the east.
1. Columbus described the Natives he first encountered as “timid
When Christianity began also, In the east was its word completed.
and full of fear.” Why did he then capture some Natives and
Heaven Born Merida Was the seat of the katun. This is the
bring them aboard his ships?
account of what occurred, Of what they did….When misery came,
2. Imagine the thoughts of the Europeans as they first saw land in When Christianity came From these many Christians.
the “New World.” What do you think would have been their
most immediate impression? Explain your answer.

3. Which of the items Columbus described would have been of

most interest to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella? Why?

4. Why did Columbus describe the islands and their inhabitants

in great detail?

Although there are no written accounts from the indigenous

perspective of the arrival of Columbus, the Mayan Account of the
Spanish Conquest (1540-1546) in the Chilam Balam of Chumayel
gives insights on how the indigenous peoples viewed the Spanish
arrival.

Create a T Chart like the one pictured above to compare 30

the two perspectives
Section 3

What were the Gunpowder Empires?

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The New Global World

1. What were the Four Zones of the world and
There is considerable debate in historical circles on how Columbus should be
what geographic advantages did Afro-
Eurasia have over the rest of the world?   portrayed. Some view Columbus as a brave hero who ushered in a better world.
Others perceive his arrival as a negative event that ruined indigenous cultures.
2. How were indigenous peoples affected by
exploration? Debates aside, there are four major changes that took place from the time of
Columbus’ arrival to the rise of the Industrial Revolution. These four are the:
3. What were the Gunpowder Empires and
how did they compare to their European
• Growth of trans-oceanic contact by all major regions leading to global
and Asian counterparts?
transformations
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
• Expansion and consolidation of Eurasian empires - “gunpowder empires” – that
Trans-Oceanic travel
unified large areas of Afro-Eurasia
Gunpowder empires
• Growth of new European state system and naval-based economy
Mercantilism
• Adversity and destruction of indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere and
Oceania.

These 300 years accelerated human interactions significantly. It was the human
interactions that began during this time that lead to significant levels of
industrialization and modernity that began in the 19th century. We will explore four
of these six developments in this chapter.

31
The Growth of Trans-oceanic contact Expansion and consolidation of Eurasian empires :
“Gunpowder Empires”
Christopher Columbus began the era of European Exploration.
For centuries, the crowns of several European kingdoms sent Columbus’ arrival marked changes across the Atlantic Ocean.
ships around the world. Some feel this a positive event in world Changes were also taking place in the Middle East and Central
history, others see it as rather negative. Regardless of historical Asia. Three empires emerged that effectively utilized gunpowder
perspective, there is no doubt Transoceanic travel changed the to create weapons that resulted in them taking over large areas of
world. Language is illustrative of European exploration and its land. These three amassed tremendous wealth and solidified
subsequent imperialism. Islam as a fixture in these regions that remains today. They are
sometimes referred to as the Gunpowder Empires

Interactive 2.4 Language Patterns

What language patterns do you see in this clickable

map?

32
OTTOMAN EMPIRE
 hereditary sovereign, and a strong military organization. Ottoman
The Ottomans were a Turkish dynasty, which started out on the power began to decline after the reign of Selim II. This was due to
borders of a declining Byzantine Empire. Founder, Othman I, rose military corruption, governmental decentralization, maritime
to prominence in the 14th century, as a ghazi or fighting lord. He setbacks, commercial and agricultural failures, and cultural and
won many victories and picked up numerous followers while religious stagnation. After 1683, the Ottomans were driven out of
repeatedly raiding what was left of the Byzantine Empire. Almost Hungary and never again posed a serious threat to Europe. By
the only thing left of the Byzantine Empire was the fortified city of 1774, the Ottoman Empire became a weak and crumbling empire,
Constantinople itself, surrounded by huge walls. It took the which staggered along until its eventual fall in 1918, in the wake
Ottomans 150 years to take Constantinople, from the days when of W.W.I.
Othman first set out to capture it. The Ottomans first conquered
SAFAVID EMPIRE 

all the Byzantine territory outside the city on both sides, and then
The Safavid Empire was east of the Ottoman Empire. The
in the 1450s moved against the city itself. Led by Mohammed II,
Persians, their core population, had experienced 2,000 years of
the Ottomans knocked down Constantinople's walls with the
rule under various empires by 1500. The area had become
biggest cannons ever seen. The 80th Byzantine Emperor died
Muslim in the 7th century, and was in many ways the cultural
fighting on the walls, and the city fell. Under Mohammed and his
heart of the Islamic world. Persia had been ruled by outsiders and
early successors, the Ottoman Empire spread into other parts of
had been politically fragmented for centuries when in 1500 the
Europe. They used the new technology of gunpowder and artillery
Safavids, a Persian Shi’ite group, seized power under the
to create devastating effects. The greatest Ottoman leader,
leadership of their 13-year-old leader Shah Ishmail I (1500-1524).
Suleiman the Magnificent, was born at peak of Ottoman power in
The Shi’ites and Sunnis were a long-standing division in Islamic
the early 16th century. He ruled from 1520-1566. Under him, the
world, which would get worse under influence of these two rival
Ottomans became a world power. They absorbed new territories
empires. Shi’ite Muslims rejected the traditional Islamic
in Europe, Africa and Asia, and dominated the Muslim world.

leadership, which traces its succession back to the caliphs, the
By the 1540s, Ottoman military might was unmatched by any
acknowledged successors of Mohammed. Shi’ites insisted that
state in the world (with the possible exception of China). Their
only someone directly related to Mohammed could be the head of
empire extended over Egypt, Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, most of
the Islamic world. Such a real leader would be an imam, a
North Africa, western Arabia, Mesopotamia, Iraq, Kurdistan,
spiritual leader, rather than merely a secular or non-religous
Georgia, and Hungary. The state was held together by a strong
33
leader. The Shi’ites were a religious minority in the Islamic world,  Ottoman pressure eventually forced the Safavids eastward. After
and had been persecuted for centuries until they gained a 1722, the empire gradually declined because of Ottoman and
homeland in the Safavid Empire. The religious division drove a Afghanistan pressures, economic decline in the empire as a
wedge into the heart of the Islamic world. The Safavid Empire whole, and the increasing religious intolerance of the more
was surrounded on all sides by Sunni Islamic powers. Shi’ite conservative Shi’ites. The lasting legacies of Safavid rule were the
Persia was full of religious zeal, and stirred up the Shi’ite firmly established Shi’ite character of the whole Iranian region,
minorities of other lands. This resulted in a period comparable to and the Persian culture that was established under their
the Christian wars of religion, in which both the Ottomans and the patronage in literature, theology, philosophy, painting, and
Safavids destroyed large numbers of minority religions in their architecture.

areas, and the two armies fought repeatedly throughout the MUGHAL EMPIRE 

century. In the early days, the Ottomans generally won. They were The Mughals were Cathay Turks descended for Tamerlane, the
better prepared, with better artillery. Around 1600, however, the legendary warrior. Mughal India comprised most of modern-day
Safavids got a capable leader. Shah Abbas I (1587-1629) was the Pakistan, northern India, and Bangladesh. Two towering figures in
greatest of all the Safavid leaders. He came to the throne at 17, Mughal India were its founder, Babur (1483-1530) and Akbar the
and ruled for over 40 years, presiding over one of Persia’s golden Great (1556-1605), the empire’s true architect.

ages. Abbas replaced the army of religious enthusiasts with an Babur was half-Turk, half-Mongol, and claimed descent from
army of paid soldiers trained in the Western European manner, Tamerlane. At 11, he inherited an unstable central Asian kingdom.
and got cannons from the English as well. Under his reign, the He was an exceptional leader who, with the use of new
Safavids finally pushed the Ottomans out of their Western lands. gunpowder technology, took most of North India by the end of his
Abbas streamlined the Safavid administration along Western lifetime. The Mughals firmly established their empire in northern
lines, received European traders, and opened diplomatic India during the 16th century under the direction of Akbar the
negotiations with the West. Abbas also poured money into Great (r. 1556-1605), Babur’s grandson. Akbar completely
infrastructure — he built roads, canals, and shrines and improved reorganized the central and provincial governments and
pilgrimage roads to stimulate pilgrimages through his territories. rationalized the tax system. Under his leadership, the Mughal
During the four decades of his rule, the Safavids were prosperous Empire became a true Indian empire. Akbar was a religiously
and Persian culture flourished.
 eclectic, open-minded man, who showed tolerance to all faiths.

 He never learned to read himself but surrounded himself with
34
learned scholars and books. He was a pacifier and conciliator, REASONS FOR DECLINE 

married Hindu women, gave Hindus equal rights in his empire, 

and placed them in high administrative positions. He also tried to All three empires had prolonged periods of economic and military
institute other social reforms to liberate women from the harem successes, followed by sharp declines. Islamic societies were
isolation, and to stop child marriages. He provided India with its generally conservative, and did not undergo the kind of radical
first strong centralized leadership since the Guptas 1,000 years changes that occurred in Western world politics and culture.
before. He invited members of all religions to come and debate in Islamic societies produced a great deal of scientific work, but not
his presence, and designed his own religion, which was a mixture enough to spark a scientific revolution.  Those same societies
of Muslim and Hindu. He hoped to bring the two main religions were responsible for commercial prosperity, but not enough to
closer together to help unite India, but did not force religious spark an industrial explosion. The European colonialism of 19th
beliefs on anyone, and respected both Hindu temples and Islamic century went hand in hand with the relentless advance of Western
mosques. His efforts were appreciated by Hindus, and viewed industrial, commercial and military power, which began in the
suspiciously by Muslims, but he converted no one to his new early modern world. The Shi’ite/Sunni division of Islamic world
religious admixture.
 was also an enduring separation that caused in-fighting in lieu of

 unity.
The 17th century was the golden age of Mughal culture,
especially in architecture and painting. The Mughal Empire Growth of new European state system and naval-based

eventually saw a general political decline, however, due to the economy

burdens of new building projects such as the Taj Mahal, a giant
Columbus sailed for Spain and subsequently made three more
mausoleum for a ruler’s favorite empress; military campaigns, and
trips to North America. Portugal, England, France, and the
the erosion of Akbar’s administrative and tax reforms. Religious
Netherlands soon followed suit attempting to establish colonies
intolerance and subsequent infighting also contributed to the
and profit off what they perceived to be a new world.
decline. The dominance of the British East India Company had
Commodities from both sides of the Atlantic Ocean flowed and
utterly eclipsed Mughal power by 1819, although the dynasty
new economic opportunities were created. However, disease and
officially ended only in 1858.

pathogens were also exchanged that resulted in death on a scale
that historians accurately coin, “The Great Dying”.

35
 Columbian Exchange, commodities from both hemispheres were
exchanged resulting in increased economic opportunities and an
opportunity to vary and improve diets.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism is a set of economic ideas and corresponding

government policies that emerged to support the economies of
Europe. It was adopted by European monarchies that possessed
political absolutism. Typical mercantilist goals were the
acquisition of bullion, a positive balance of trade, and economic
self-sufficiency. Political, economic, foreign and military policies
were enacted in order to encourage mercantilist policies. All of
Looking at this map, how many of these items do you consume on a regular basis? From these worked in conjunction in a manner that would make it
where did they originate? What modern industries exist based on these commodities?
easiest for European countries to adhere to and benefit from
How does the Colombian Exchange affect today’s World? mercantilist policies.

According to a 2014 study, there are 35,372 products in any given Calamity and destruction of indigenous peoples of the
American grocery store. These products come from all over the Western Hemisphere and Oceania: “Guns, Germs, and Steel”
world and range from the everyday to the exotic. People of the
In 1997, Jared Diamond wrote his seminal work, Guns, Germs,
past were limited in their purchasing and consumption to only
and Steel. This book provided an explanation on why indigenous
local and regional commodities along the trade routes they were
people died in such high numbers when Europeans arrived in the
near. Produce was in particular limited because the relatively slow
Western Hemisphere. Diamond goes on to explain that
speed of trade would result in spoilage.
geography, immunity to germs, food production, the
Economically, people were also limited in commodity trading domestication of animals, and use of steel were the factors that
because they could only make money with the commodities that allowed European nations to achieve hegemony when the
could be produced in their region. With the advent of the colonized people outside of Afro-Eurasia.

36
Image source: https://c1.staticflickr.com/3/2614/4171886550_7f7cd9b120_b.jpg

USING THIS CHART, ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1. How many Indigenous people were alive in the Western

Hemisphere in 1520 compared to 1550? 4. Smallpox was the disease that caused the most deaths. Are
there any pandemics today that could have the same effect?
2. Hypothesize why people in the Western Hemisphere got ill, Which ones and how would they be spread?
whereas it wasn’t the other way around? What historical
antecedents may explain this.   5. How did the 16th century differ from modern times?

3. What year had the lowest population of Indigenous people? 6. Imagine what would happen if such a disease hit America?
Describe what would happen to this country and your life. 


37
Indigenous People of Oceana Looking at the different maps below, you see that traditional
maps place Polynesia on the sides of the map looking like a
This video was from a rugby match between the Polynesian
frame of the rest of the world. Looking at the second map, it
nations of Tonga and New Zealand. Many of the New Zealand
shows that Oceania covers one-third of the world’s surface.
team is comprised of players who a Maori, the indigenous people
People who reside in this world region do so on thousands of
of the island and the Tongan team was entirely Polynesian. They
islands, scattered across thousands of miles of ocean. Recent
performed this pregame ritual as a homage to their cultures and
research from University of Hawaii anthropologist Terry Hunt
showing pride of who they are.
indicates human colonization of Polynesia began during the
Polynesian peoples were part of Interactive 2.5 Rugby Paleolithic Age, using advanced naval and navigational tools.
the Pacific world zone, otherwise Match
known today as Oceania. Look at
Oceania using three maps and
ask yourself how they are
portrayed in each and why
cartographers made the maps as
they did.

Image source: https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0071/5032/products/

upside_down_2.png?v=1357282201

Image source: http://geology.com/world/world-map.gif 38

Image source: https://mapswire.com/maps/australia/australia-political-map-
large.jpg
 Oceania can be divided into four main culture areas: Australia, has monuments made to honor him in Britain, France, and
Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Each cultural area features Australia. Images such as the following below were disseminated
distinct forms of subsistence, art, and religious practices. These adding to his hero status:
four divisions are shown below:
However, like the majority of European exploration, there were
significant losses to
indigenous
populations. Using
Tahiti as a case study,
you will see the loss
in human lives
stemming from
European arrival to
Polynesia.

Image source: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3c02238/

Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Pacific_Culture_Areas.jpg/800px-

Pacific_Culture_Areas.jpg

Europeans gave name designations of these people based upon

their observations and are not shared by the indigenous people of
these areas. The native peoples of Melanesia and Australia are
quite dark-skinned, while the peoples of Micronesia and
Polynesia are generally lighter in complexion.  Captain James
Cook was credited as the first European to make contact with
Polynesian people. He was revered as a hero for his courage and

39
Writing in World History:

How was the world altered when

the four world zones connected?

In this chapter you have learned

about the Four Zones of the world
and the geographic advantages that
Afro-Eurasia had over the rest of the
world. You spent time learning
about how indigenous peoples were
affected by exploration, and what
the Gunpowder Empires were.

Using your new knowledge, answer this chapter’s Compelling

Question: How was the world altered when the four world zones
connected?

40
Chapter 3

Did the Benefits

of Exploration
Outweigh the
Costs?
Why do people explore?

What were the motives of European Exploration?

What factors encourage exploration?

Section 1

What were the motives for European Exploration?

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Potato chips without salt! Spaghetti sauce without spice! Doritos without the
1. Why do people explore? “tang!” Why do our foods taste better with salt, pepper, and other spices?

2. What were the motives of European

Exploration?

3. What factors encourage exploration?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE:

astrolabe

sextant

magnetic compass

Mercator map

Cartographer

caravel

lateen sail

Potato Chips. Image source: http://www.getnews.info/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/a1465983958.jpeg

42
 Interactive 3.1 The World
In the Ancient World, African civilizations prized salt as a Early Explorers: The Impact of
GeoHistoGram
commodity, sometimes trading the precious spice for gold and Crusades, Mongols, and the
other merchandise. Salt was so valuable that Romans even used Renaissance
it as a form of payment with the word “salt” being an ancient
 derivative for “salary.”  Hence, the modern day saying, “not The Crusades began in 1096 and
worth his salt” comes from this ancient time. lasted until 1291.  During two
centuries of atrocious fighting
between Christians and Muslims
to control the Holy Land, the end Turn on the layers “All Empires”
result was the establishment of a and “Empire Names” - use the
Internet to research what one or
bitter hatred between the two two of these empires traded.
religions.  From an exploration
standpoint, however, the result was not as dismal.  Crusading in
the areas of northern and eastern Europe led to the expansion of
some kingdoms and the creation of new political units.  While
religious fighting was occurring, traders moved into the area and
started to profit economically from
use of the land.  When the Interactive 3.2 The
Crusades
Catholic Crusaders returned from
the Middle East in the 12th and
13th Centuries, they brought back
Salt: http://factslist.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/salt.jpg
with them tales of new lands and
By 100 CE, pepper was traded around the Mediterranean from peoples as well as cloth such as
Alexandria into Arabia and over to India.  During the Vandal silk and foods such as sugar--all
attacks of the 5th century, the Romans used pepper as a form of of which they had never
“ransom” to ward off the attacks.  It didn’t work.  During the experienced before.  Dual motives For a “music video” on the
crusades see: Crusades Video
Ancient World a trading network of spices flourished. to spread Christianity to new from Historyteacher above
43
 Interactive 3.3 The Silk
lands and the desire for increased trade spurred motivation for Road - Ancient Trade
many adventurers to seek exploration at a speed like never
before.  

Similarly, from the Travels of Marco Polo, the Venetian fascinated

some of his contemporaries with stories from the far East and the
Court of Kublai Khan.  Polo reported about paper money, coal
(not regularly used in Europe until the Industrial Revolution), and a
Chinese form of pasta.  He is reported to have said on his For more information on Marco
Polo, see Crash Course Marco
deathbed, “I did not tell half of what I saw.” Polo

Early Motives for Exploration

By the 1300s, Mongol leaders could no longer guarantee safe

passage along the Silk Road to their empire.  If people from the
west wanted Asian goods, other routes would have to be found. It
would take until the 15th century for trade to truly become global.

Trade involving the continents of Europe, Africa, and Asia, as well

as the Americas developed at a global level most significantly
between 1400 and 1700 A.D.  For example, during the mid-14th
century in the city-states of Italy, a rebirth or Renaissance began,
part of which focused on the history of classical cultures, the
importance of education, and the expansion of trade.  The desire
to share cultural accomplishments as well as secure luxury goods
were motivations to further trading connections around the globe.
Marco Polo - Venetian Trader, Traveler and Explorer

44
 In 1493, nomadic peoples, called the Ottomans, captured the Technological Improvements
strategic city of Constantinople, now called Istanbul, after a 53
Because of the focus on educational improvements with the
day siege. By doing so, the Ottomans and their leader, Mehmed
Renaissance, the era’s thinkers and scientists improved several
the Conqueror, created a monopoly of trade via the routes
devices that benefitted exploration.
through the city to the Middle East and the Silk Road.  Europeans
needed to look for other routes to the East and bring back the The magnetic compass was
desired products they enjoyed. developed aground 1000 CE by
the Chinese.  Later, a few
medieval Europeans in the 11th
century began to use one, and
muslims in the 13th centuries
developed one to help with
locating the direction of Mecca for
their daily prayers.

This tool had a magnetized needle

floating in a pan of water.  The
needle pointed north and south.
 The magnetic compass proved Different versions of a compass.http://
exploration.marinersmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/
useful if you owned one, but was
Land and water trades routes from Africa, Asia, Europe through Constantinople. https://s-media-cache- 7/2013/12/ G114M25vol1_p185_large-336x400.jpg
ak0.pinimg.com/originals/07/bb/53/07bb530becb76fe56ce53b4354662a2d.jpg not exact since the needle
showed magnetized north and not
true north.

45
Although ancient models existed, a newer version of the An early forerunner to the sextant was developed around 1500
astrolabe was developed in the late 1400s and used for with the first one invented in 1730.  This device helps sailors
determining the angle of the sun and moon and stars above the navigate via a telescope style viewfinder and determine the
horizon. Thus time of day, sunrise, and sunset could be altitude of the heavenly objects (i.e. sun, stars, planets, etc.) and
calculated.  Cloudy days and rough seas made the astrolabe ultimately the latitude of the ship. The sextant was an
inoperable and inaccurate. improvement over the astrolabe since the tool’s accuracy did not
vary as much in choppy seas & rough weather.

A sketch of the workings of an astrolabe. https://openclipart.org/image/2400px/

svg_to_png/92437/astrolabe.png A sketch of the workings of a sextant. https://www.wpclipart.com/travel/sea_travel/
sextant.png

46
 In 1569, a Belgium mapmaker, Gerardus Mercator, developed a A new style of ship, the caravel, improved travel increasing
map which still bears his name.  Mercator maps display a grid distances ships could reach. These ships were crafted with larger
overlay (of horizontal and vertical lines) showing the longitude and hulls increasing the amount of food and other provisions during
latitudes on a flat earth.  These “flat maps” distort the earth’s the trip.  In doing so, longer trips could be taken.  A rudder, a
geography the further away from the equator one travels.  Yet, vertical like blade attached to the ship to help with steering, was
when these maps were used with other navigation tools, such as moved to the back of the boat which made it more maneuverable.
improved charts detailing the positions of the stars, planet, sun  A lateen, or triangular sail, was also added to the front of the
and moon, they helped sailors navigate during their voyages. ships thus allowing for the vessel to sail into the wind via a
process
known as
“tacking.”

A sketch of a Portuguese caravel. http://www.geocities.ws/refuting_kemp/

caravel_kemp.jpg

An example of a Mercator map. http://media.web.britannica.com/eb-media/55/109155-004-B9DE1090.gif

47
 meats.  Silk was valued for its smoothness and porcelain, a type
of dish or tableware, for its strong, yet thin and ornate style.
The Gs:  Goods, Gold, Glory, God!

During the 14th and 15th centuries, demand for Asian products
increased.  Spices from the Moluccas and silk and porcelain from By far, the first European Explorers were not looking for the
China were appealing to the Europeans. Spices, such as Americas.  They were searching for new trade routes to the east
cinnamon and pepper, add flavor to otherwise dull foods.  So, since the Venetians and the Ottomans controlled the routes.
too, was salt important in the drying and preservation process of
Eastern goods were prized and if others could bypass the
monopoly these middlemen held along the east-west trade
routes, greater profits could be made.  First the Portuguese and
later the Spanish sought new ways to bypass the typical
Mediterranean route.

Some people were lured by the adventure — the glory of the trips.
 Viewing the voyage of sailing to unknown places peeked some
interest and the desire increased.  At times, as with Columbus,
prisoners comprised the crew, believing that sailing on uncharted
waters had to be better than spending their lives rotting in a
dungeon.

Once Europeans established a foothold on the Americas, gold

was a
huge But in truth, should I meet with gold or
motivator. spices in great quantity, I shall remain till I
 Lured by collect as much as possible, and for this

the desire purpose I am proceeding solely in quest of

Image source: https://100daysofhoney.files.wordpress.com/2012/07/img_6449.jpg
them (Christopher Columbus, 19 Oct 1492)
for more
48
riches, gold and silver, traders flocked to the Americas with the
desire of becoming rich quick.

Later, Catholic countries such as Portugal, Spain and France sent

missionaries to West Africa (Portugal) or to the Americas (Spain
and France).  Prompted by their vision of spreading Catholicism
and halting Islam, priests ventured to these lands to convert the
Africans or set-up missions in the colonies trying to convert
natives.  Subsequently, Pilgrims, Anglicans, and Catholic
missionaries  would venture to the new world in the 17th century.

Combined, these motives encourage Europeans to venture into

uncharted waters, improve their navigational technologies,
establish new trade routes, spread their religion, establish new
markets, escape the prison or pordum at home, and lower the
price for cherished goods.  A new era of exploration was at hand.

Your Highnesses, as Catholic Christians, and princes who love

and promote the holy Christian faith, and are enemies of the
doctrine of Mahomet, and of all idolatry and heresy, determined
to send me, Christopher Columbus, to the above-mentioned
countries of India, to see the said princes, people,
and territories, and to learn their disposition and
the proper method of converting them to our holy
faith.- Columbus (1451-1506) Journal.

49
 Section 2

European Exploration
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Why do people explore? As Venice and other Italian states monopolized trade with the Muslim world (as a
result of  gradual and continued control of Byzantium in the eighth century), other
2. What were the motives of European
Exploration?
European states wanted to challenge the Italian states and profit from trade routes.
 As the Italian merchant states gained great wealth from the spice trade via the Silk
3. What factors encourage exploration?
Road, Portugal, Spain, and other western European countries began to search for
quicker trade routes to the Orient that would provide them with an advantage.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE: Explorers would risk their lives in order to bring glory and wealth to their nations. In
ushering in the Age of Exploration,
Prince Henry Hernan Cortes
Europeans established the first
Caravel Noche Triste
global era. By discovering new
Bartolomeu Dias Francisco Pizarro
trade routes to Asia and
Vasco da Gama capitalism
discovering the Americas, the world
Christopher Columbus Sir Francis Drake
became interconnected as
Encomienda
Treaty of Tordesillas Europeans competed for wealth by
Coureurs de bois
Ferdinand Magellan increasing trade and constructing
Patronships
Dutch East India Company empires.  Goods, ideas,
Mercantilism
Zheng He Christianity, peoples, and diseases
Navigation Laws
spread as Europeans crisscrossed
Canton System Seven Years’ War
the globe.
Conquistadors Treaty of Paris
Columbus landing on Hispaniola. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Columbus_landing_on_Hispaniola_adj.jpg/
565px-Columbus_landing_on_Hispaniola_adj.jpg

50
Portuguese Exploration south past Cape Bojador where little or no information had ever
been recorded.  Improvements were made to a caravel--a ship
Situated on the western edge of the Iberian peninsula, Portugal
designed to be maneuverable and move quickly, which aided
spearheaded the Age of Exploration.  With a fascination for sailing
explorers in their voyages.  Sailors were able to discover lands to
and exploration, Prince Henry the Navigator enabled the which Europeans previously had not had contact.
Portuguese to search for new
routes to Asia.  In 1415, he Early discoveries of gold dust and coins, coupled with Prince
helped Portugal gain control of Henry’s goal of spreading Christianity, led to expeditions to the
Ceuta, a Muslim held city on interior of Africa in 1441.  Consequently, the first African slaves
the south side of the Straits of were brought back to Portugal.  In 1444, 235 African slaves
Gibraltar. Prince Henry gained arrived in Lagos, Portugal.  The Portuguese quickly monopolized
a curiosity for Muslims and the slave trade. African slaves were either sold off as captured
saw potential in the wealth of enemies of African tribes or at times were taken by force. The
resources that Africa Portuguese took slaves to colonies at the Cape Verde islands for
contained. In 1416, Henry set sugar plantation labor; those not sent to the Cape Verde islands
up a navigation school in were sold to the Spanish as the demand for slave labor was just
Sagres which comprised of as high.    The slave trade grew exponentially when demands
Prince Henry the Navigator. Source: https://
shipbuilders, cartographers or upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
increased for slave labor upon the discovery of the New World.
map makers, and instrument 0/02/Henry_the_Navigator1.jpg/220px- By the time of Prince Henry’s death in 1460, Portugal had built
Henry_the_Navigator1.jpg
makers.    numerous trading establishments such as Sierra Leone, Cape
Blanco and Elimina to protect their trade routes and trade
By financing expeditions, Prince Henry pushed the boundaries to connections.  
the explore more of the Earth’s surface.  In 1418, Portuguese
sailors blew off course and landed in the Madeira Islands. Some African leaders such as Affonso I, ruler of an area in west-
Subsequently, two years later, the Portuguese returned and central Africa known as  Kongo tried to greatly reduce or end the
established their first colony known as Porto Santo.  Not slave trade in this area by calling on the Portuguese to help
determined to stop there, the Portuguese continued to push developed his area of rule as a Christian state upon his coming to

51
power in 1505.  His efforts failed and the slave trade continued.  Unlike the Portuguese who never ventured too far from the
 Over two hundred and fifty years later the leader of the land coastline, British, French, and Dutch traders were able to
known as Senegal also tried to stop African slave trade by establish permanent settlements throughout the entire continent.
banning the transport of any slave through the land he ruled.  Cape Town, one of the first permanent European settlements
 Again, the effort failed as traders found alternate routes to was established by Dutch immigrants.  As migration occurred,
bypass the area. battles ensued with several African groups.  Additionally, both the
British and French sponsored explorers who were also
New States in Africa Arise
responsible for permanent settlements.  By the end of the 18th
The slave trade had a significant impact on the continent of century, European exploration of the African continent would
Africa.  Smaller states in West Africa disappeared due to the explode.
countless numbers of men and women to the institution of
Dias and Da Gama
slavery.  Simultaneously, new states arose whose way of life
depended on the slave trade.  Powerful new states waged war In 1487, mariner Bartolomeu Dias
against other Africans in order to dominate the slave trade. set sail to explore routes to Asia.
 By 1488, he became the first
In the area known as present day Ghana, the Asante kingdom
European to sail around the Cape
was one such dominant state.  Under the military leadership of
of Good Hope at the tip of Africa.
Osei Tutu, whose military gained control of the trading city of
 By opening up  new possible
Kumasi, the leader united enemy kingdoms that he had
routes, future explorers built upon
conquered.  As the Asante kingdom developed a monopoly of the
his achievement.
slave trade, they often played European rivals against one
another to continue to build the power and wealth of their Ten years later, Vasco da Gama
kingdom. sailed past the Cape of Good
Hope.  Da Gama reached Calicut,
The Expansion of a European Presence
India the following year.  On his
Vasco da Gama.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
By the 1600s, several European powers had been able to first arrival, da Gama failed to Vasco_da_Gama#/media/File:Lisboa-
Museu_Nacional_de_Arte_Antiga-
establish and secure forts along the western coast of Africa. impress the ruler of Calicut but he
Retrato_dito_de_Vasco_da_Gama-20140917.jpg
52
 returned to Portugal as a national hero.  Da Gama returned to Spanish Exploration
Calicut in 1502 and used force to gain control of the Muslim
As Portugal gained wealth and prestige by establishing trade
controlled lands.  Da Gama secured Portugal the rights to trade.
routes to Asia, it’s neighbor on the Iberian peninsula searched for
 He was celebrated as a hero in Portugal while he earned a
reputation as a villain on the Indian subcontinent with his killing of quicker routes to reach it.  Christopher Columbus, a Genoin,

Muslim traders and using force to reach an agreement with the initially attempted to sail west to reach the East Indies for

leader of Calicut. Portugal.  After rejection, he convinced King Ferdinand and

Queen Isabella of Spain to fund his voyage.  Setting sail with
three ships (the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria), Columbus
left Spain in August of 1492.  In October, land was sighted near
present day Bahamas which Columbus believed was the East
Indies.  He continued on and landed in present day Cuba and
Hispaniola.  Intrigued by the Arawaks who offered him gold,
Columbus saw the potential of riches as well as converts for
Christianity. He established Fort Navidad on the island of
Hispaniola and left thirty-nine men to explore the island and
search for gold. Columbus found the settlement burnt down with
no certainty on what remained of those he left behind on his first
voyage.  Columbus made four trips to the New World but did not
recognize the impact of his discovery at the time of his death.

Treaty of Tordesillas

As both Spain and Portugal both believed they laid claim to lands
in the East Indies, the competition between them escalated.
Vasco da Gama’s first route around Africa.  Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/  When it was discovered that Columbus discovered the New
Gama_route_1.svg/2000px-Gama_route_1.svg.png
World, Pope Alexander VI intervened to prevent future conflicts
between the two countries.  He noted that land approximately
53
298 miles west of the Cape Verde islands would fall into Spanish
territory while lands east would go to Portugal in 1493.  Portugal,
realizing how much new land was lost, renegotiated the
agreement to nearly 2,000 miles west of the Cape Verde islands
which enabled Portuguese to claim present day Brazil.  The
Treaty of Tordesillas solved the problem by placing the Line of
Demarcation that allowed the two Iberian nations to explore and
lay claim to lands peacefully as Spain gained the rights to the
Americas to build its empire and Portugal gained trading power in
Colonial demarcation lines between Castile Spain and Portugal in the 15th and 16th Centuries.
Africa and Asia.   Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spain_and_Portugal.png/
400px-Spain_and_Portugal.png

Continued Spanish Exploration

Spain continued to explore the Americas and look for quicker

Questions for Map
routes to the Spice Islands.  Ponce de Leon explored the
1) What modern day country does Portugal maintain control of in
While the Caribbean was explored, Ferdinand Magellan left the Americas?
Spain in 1519 with 270 men.  Magellan became the first explorer
to sail south of South America and into the Pacific Ocean.  By the 2) Why do you think the Treaty of Saragossa was added 35 years
time his fleet completed the first circumnavigational trip around after the Treaty of Tordesillas? Caribbean and the east coast of
the globe, Magellan died in battle and only eighteen of his crew present day Florida in 1513.
remained.  

54
 hijacking of spice ships occurred in the Red Sea, and other
nations sought to gain wealth from the spice trade.

Dutch East India Company

With the apparent decline of the

Portuguese control over the spice trade,
the Netherlands saw their opportunity to
increase their wealth.  In 1602, the Dutch
East India Company (VOC) was founded
Portuguese Discoveries and Exploration.  Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/ as a joint-stock company with the goal to
Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png/500px-Portuguese_discoveries_and_explorationsV2en.png
increase wealth via the spice trade in Asia.
Essentially, the Dutch East India Company Logo of the Dutch East India
Portuguese in Asia Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische
operated as its own nation as it employed Compagnie or VOC in Dutch, literally

After the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Portuguese focused on its own ships and hired its own military.  In "United East India Company").
 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/
expanding their trade network in Asia.  Under the command of 1603, they invaded and controlled part of wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company#/

Afonso de Albuquerque, they established ports in Goa, Macau, the Moluccas Islands and took Tidore and media/File:VOC.svg

Nagasaki and on the thin straits at Malacca in the early 1500s. Ambon from Portugal the following year.
 They also gained control of Moluccas also known as the Spice  In 1641, the VOC seized Malacca, a major trade port, from the
Islands. The Portuguese monopolized the spice trade by bringing Portuguese.  By 1700, the Dutch were in control of the spice
cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, ginger and black pepper back to trade with monopolies in nutmeg and cinnamon. The VOC
Europe.  As Lisbon became flooded with the wealth of spices, the controlled and appointed a governor to Indonesia to rule the
once high priced spices when controlled by Venetians began to islands. If there was a major surplus, they burned the spices to
drop as an abundance of spices became more available in maximize profits. In 1723, the Dutch East India Company created
Europe.  However, the Portuguese trade monopoly was short plantations in West Java to force the production coffee.  By the
lived as Venice increased its importation of spices, the 1750s, it had a vast trading network which included trade with ten
Portuguese could not control spice production and illegal trading, Asian nations and employment of roughly 25,000 people.

55
However, by 1799, due to corruption and competition from the England in Asia
British, it fell into bankruptcy and was taken over by the Dutch
Two years prior to the founding of the Dutch East India Company,
monarchy.
Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter for the East India Company to
enable England to obtain cargos of spices.  Queen Elizabeth I
Interactive 3.4 Crash
Course-Capitalism and the limited the liability for herself and the London merchant investors
Dutch East India Company to create the world’s first limited liability corporation. The first
voyage landed in spice islands in 1601. In 1608, the English
established their first factory or
warehouse in Surat where they
traded for spices and textiles
outside of the Dutch’s control.
 England expanded its factories

View the video above and use it to

in Goa, Madras, Bombay and
answer the questions below. Chittagong by 1668.  England’s
influence would remain mostly
in India until 1780 when
Questions tensions escalated to war.  The

1. Economically, what enabled the Dutch East India English were able to overtake

Company to be successful? the Dutch and gain control over

Coat of arms of the East India Company circa 1700's.  Source:
the trade routes of Southeast https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company#/media/

2. How did the Dutch East India Company act as a and Eastern Asia.
File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_East_India_Company.svg

nation?

3. What role did violence play with the Dutch East India
Company?


56
France in Asia East India Company was dissolved by Louis XV in 1769.  The
French did have a minor presence in India but never played a
The French were not originally successful in creating trade posts
significant role in the spice trade.
and factories in the early 17th century.  By the time of the
founding of the French East India Company (Compagnie des
Indes Orientales), the French had lagged significantly behind the
Dutch and the British.  The French were able to establish a
factory in Surat in 1668 and established a factory in Masulipatam
on the other side of India. The French East India Company moved
its base to Pondicherry in 1673.  While in India, the French were
able to meet the demands of textiles back in France.  However,
the French had difficulties working with Indian middlemen and did
not always secure business transactions, something the Dutch
and British were more
skillful in doing with
their half century
advantage.  The
European Settlements in India (1501-1739 CE):  Source: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/
French and British File:European_settlements_in_India_1501-1739.png

would battle for

control of India.  The
British gained the
upperhand when the
main French governor
of India,Joseph
Dupleix, was captured
and recalled back to
Regiments Flag of the French East India Company.  Source: https://
France.  The French
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_East_India_Company#/media/
File:Drapeau_du_r%C3%A9giment_de_la_Compagnie_des_Indes_en_1756.
57
png
East Asia Exploration Wrap-Up Questions

1. Which nation had the greatest impact on exploration and trade

in Asia? Explain using evidence.

b. Portugal

c. Netherlands

d. England

e. France


2) Which nation had the second largest impact in regards to

exploration and trade in Asia?  Explain using evidence and why
that nation was not selected as the top nation.

3) What goods did Europeans receive from trading with Asia?

58
China Pre-European Contact emperor.  The first voyage took Zheng He to Calicut, India and
back.  In the voyage, he was able to defeat pirates in Sumatra by
Almost a century before Da Gama’s arrival in India and Columbus’
displaying his skill as a maritimer.
discovery of the New World, the Ming Dynasty had dominated
trade and seafaring in Asia.  During this era, agricultural goods Zheng He’s further voyages continued on
such as tea, cotton and indigo became major cash crops for the coastline of southern Asia, the Middle
trade.  The economy expanded with the production of goods East, and to Africa.  Many ambassadors
including porcelain and silk.  With a strong economy, the Mings accompanied him back to China on
saw themselves as the most powerful economic nation in Asia these voyages to pay tribute to the
and the center of the civilized world.  To trade with them, tributes emperor.  Along with people, animals
including a kowtow (a traditional touch of the forehead to ground including giraffes and treasures were
to demonstrate submission), were to be paid to the emperor. By given to the emperor.  On his seventh
tributing, nations gained access to trade with China. voyage, Zheng He died on his return and
was buried at sea.  Afterwards, the
Voyages of Zheng He
emperor stopped the commission of the

The Ming Emperor, Zhu Di, continued the traditions of his voyage for their costs and external

predecessors.  He won battles against the Mongols and wanted threats from the Mongols.   Monument of the Admiral Zheng He located in
Stadthuys, Melaka.  Source:  https://

other bordering nations to be aware of China’s superiority. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zheng_He#/media/

File:Zhen_he.jpg
 Tributes from bordering states such as Japan were common.  To
further demonstrate China’s superiority, Zhu Di commissioned
expeditions to sail to southern Asia and Africa.  Zheng He, Zhu
Di’s director of palace servants, was appointed to lead seven
expeditions. The first expedition in 1405-1407 consisted of 317
ships with approximately 28,000 men.  He possibly had six
treasure ships which measured 400 feet long compared to
Columbus’ Santa Maria of 85 feet long. The treasure ships were
built to demonstrate Chinese power and receive gifts for the
59
European Contact and the Closing of China civilized world and wanted to limit outside contact.  Christian
missionaries were not permitted in China.  The Canton System
Nearly a century after the final voyage of Zheng He, the
was established which only allowed Canton to be used as a
Portuguese arrived at Macao in 1517.  Three years later, under
trading port.  The Dutch followed the rules of the Chinese but the
Tome Pires, the Portuguese made contact with the emperor.  The
British became tired of being limited to one port as their influence
Portuguese viewed this as a diplomatic meeting between two
and trade growth inspired the need for more ports.
nations while the Chinese viewed it as a traditional tribute.
 Missionaries arrived as well with hopes to convert the Chinese to European Contact with Japan and the rise of Tokugawa
Christianity.  Portugal established trade ports in Ningbo and Japan
Canton but were run out as the Chinese viewed them as pirates
because it was claimed that the Portuguese took items with force Heading into the 1500s, Japan had a feudal structure. Daimyo, or

and treated non-Christian lives with lesser value. Eventually, the lords, constantly fought for power.  In this era. Europeans made

Portuguese were allowed to maintain their port at Macao.  While their first contact with Japan. In 1543, a Portuguese ship became

maintaining a port, the Portuguese role in trade with China was shipwrecked off the coast

small compared to the vast size of the Chinese economy.  Only and missionaries would

four more times did the Portuguese pay tribute to the emperor. arrive soon after.  The
missionaries and traders
By 1600, the Ming dynasty weakened due to high expenditures at were well received by the
court, for self defence against the Mongols notably the Great Wall daimyo.  The Portuguese
of China, and Manchus which enabled high taxes.  Rebellions introduce guns into the
occurred throughout China further depleting the Ming treasury Japanese warfare and
and its capability to defend itself from outside invaders.  The some daimyou adopted
Manchus took advantage of the disarray and established the Qing Christianity.  Two of the
Dynasty in 1644.  The Qing emphasized traditional Chinese three daimyos who
culture with ideas of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. helped unify Japan,
Foreign ambassadors were not allowed to approach the Chinese Hideyoshi and Nobunaga,
capital.  The Qing viewed China as the long standing center of the accepted the Europeans.
Tokugawa Ieyasu as Shogunate.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Tokugawa_Ieyasu#/media/File:Tokugawa_Ieyasu.jpg
60
 Interactive 3.5 China/
After their deaths, Tokugawa Ieyasu captured a swift victory at the Japan Comparison
Battle of Sekigahara and established the Tokugawa Shogunate
which ruled Japan for two and a half centuries.  

Japanese Isolationism

Tokugawa Ieyasu and his heirs’ main goal was to rid of any
potential threat and rebellions within Japan.  In 1614, he rid the
nation of Christian missionaries as they posed a threat to
Complete the activity above then
converted daimyo who did not fully support the shogunate. answer the questions below.
 Despite ridding of missionaries, there were approximately
300,000 Christians living in Japan.  However, the shogunate
continued to build trade relations with Great Britain and the Stop and Reflect Questions
Netherlands. In 1633, all Japanese were prohibited from traveling
1) How were China and Japan similar and different with their
abroad as the Tokugawa shogunate preferred to maintain Japan
reactions to Europeans?

under neo-confucian ideas.   Foreign relations would come to a
near end when there was a Christian rebellion on the Shimabara
peninsula in 1637-1638.  By 1639, in order to gain control of 2) In what ways did Europeans influence China and Japan?
foreign relations, the shogunate banned trade except at the port
of Nagasaki with the Chinese and Dutch.  

61
Spanish Empire and Exploration

As Portugal spearheaded exploration and trade in the East, Spain

led the way in the West.  In 1496, the only Spanish settlement in
the new world was Santa Domingo on the island of Hispaniola.
  By 1515, Spain had a strong presence throughout the Caribbean
and was in prime position to take conquest of the New World.
Conquistadors led the way for Spanish victories over the Aztec
and Incan empires.  

Conquest of the Aztecs

The Aztec Empire flourished in present day central Mexico.  Ruled

Expansion of the Aztec Empire.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec_Empire#/media/File:Aztecexpansion.png
from the capital of Tenochtitlan, they created a complex
civilization that ruled over many Hernan Cortes, a Spanish
city states beginning in the 13th conquistador, arrived in Veracruz in
century.  Religion played a major 1519.  His mission was cancelled by
role in Aztec life and required the Cuban governor but Cortes
human sacrifices in order to ignored the orders. Upon arrival,he
appease its gods.  These human was greeted with gifts.  Tenochtitlan
sacrifices were taken from sent a contingent of gifts as they
neighboring city states of whom believed Cortes was their god,
would build of resentment and Quetzalcoatl, which a prophecy of
dislike of the Aztecs.  By the their religion called for his arrival at
time the Spanish arrived, these the time.  To keep with his mission,
Native Americans were ready to Cortes burned downed his ships so Portrait of Hernan Cortes.  Source: https://
help the Spanish overthrow his 500 men could not retreat and set en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s#/media/
them.   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hernán_Cortés#/
File:Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s_(Museo_del_
media/File:Hernán_Cortés_(Museo_del_Prado).jpg
Prado).jpg
62
forth to conquer the Aztecs.  En route to Tenochtitlan, Cortes 2. How would an Aztec viewpoint be different?

aligned with enemies of the Aztecs and murdered unfriendly
Native Americans.   Cortes marched to the Aztec capital and took
Pizarro Conquers the Incas
Montezuma II, the Aztec leader, hostage.  When news arrived that
the Spanish were coming to arrest him for disobeying orders, Two decades after Cortez ended the rule of the Aztecs,
Cortes left the city to fight off the Spanish army while leaving Francisco Pizarro received a commision from Emperor Charles V
eighty of his men to maintain the city.  After defeating the Spanish of Spain to conquer new lands in South America that Pizarro
force, he returned to Tenochtitlan to find the city in rebellion.  On previously explored.
noche triste, Cortez and his men attempted to sneak out on an  Along with 130 men and
open causeway.  The Aztecs sounded alarm and a battle ensued. 70 calvary, Pizarro set
 Two-thirds of Cortes’s men were sail from Panama.
killed and riches were lost in the  Included with these men
Interactive 3.6 Cortes on
lake in their escape.  He made an Noche Triste were Diego Almagro and
alliance with a traditional enemy of Pizarro’s brothers.  In
the Aztecs at Tlaxcalan.  Cortes 1532, Pizarro entered the
returned to Tenochtitlan in 1521 city of Cajamarca and
and defeated the last Aztec came across Atahualpa,
emperor, Cuauhtemoc.  The city the Incan king.  Pizarro
was raised and Mexico city was discovered that
established on its spot.  In 1522, Atahualpa had previously
Cortes is appointed governor of imprisoned his brother,
New Spain. the true king of the Incan
Empire.  Pizarro
Questions for Interactive 3.6
imprisoned Atahualpa
1. How does Cortes describe noche triste? who arranged his own
ransom--rooms filled with Portrait of Francisco Pizarro by Coutain, 1835.  Source: https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro#/media/
File:Portrait_of_Francisco_Pizarro.jpg
63
gold and silver estimated at $15,000,000.  Pizarro made
Interactive 3.7 Crash
Atahualpa murder his own brother before sentencing him to death Course - the Spanish
which left no Incan king.     Empire

After ridding of the Incan kings, Pizarro then defeated Cuzco and
founded the city of Lima.  Tensions rose between Pizarro and
Almagro who took control of Cuzco.  Almagro was defeated by
Pizarro’s brother.  In return, some of Almagro’s followers
assassinated Francisco Pizarro in 1541.  The Incas declined after
the arrival of Pizarro.  Spain plundered and looted its wealth,
Catholicism took over as religion and the Spanish language After viewing this video answer
the questions below.
overtook their language.

Questions:

1. What caused the decline of the Aztecs?

2. How did the Spanish incorporate Incan ways into ruling its
empire in South America?

3. How did the influx of silver hurt the Spanish economy?

4. How did Spain manage to go from the richest country in

Europe to borrowing money?
64
5. How did the silver from the Americas impact the Chinese Spanish ship, Nuestra Senora, of 80 pounds of gold and 26 tons
economy?
 of silver.  He was awarded with knighthood for his successful
missions.  Coupled with raids against Spanish ships and
England’s support of the secession of the Spanish Netherlands,
Rise of Capitalism
Spain deployed its infamous Spanish Armada to defeat England
As European merchants were profiting from trade in Asia, foods in 1588.  England’s navy was led by Lord Charles Howard and Sir
such as corn and potatoes along with cash crops like tobacco Frances Drake and faced off against the armada in the English
also became in demand in Europe.  The greatest economic Channel.  Treacherous storms helped the English navy to defeat
impact however resulted in the massive extraction of gold and
silver from the Americas to Europe.  As these precious metals
were traded for goods, the prices of goods increased as the
amounts of of gold and silver flooded into Europe.  Capitalism,
an economic system where industry and trade are owned by
private industries, grew out of the influx of gold and silver.
 Merchants looked to gain wealth from trade.  Joint-stock
companies were formed in northern Europe to encourage
exploration, increase trading networks, and make profits.

Spanish Downfall and Legacy

As Spain was growing immensely wealthy from exporting gold

and silver to Spain, other European nations, specifically England,
were looking to find its own sources of wealth.  Queen Elizabeth I
of England hired Sir Francis Drake to circumnavigate the globe
and also have the secret mission of pirating Spanish wealth.   Sir
Francis Drake successfully looted up the Chilean and Peruvian The Spanish Armada and English Ships in August 1588.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Armada#/
media/File:Invincible_Armada.jpg
coast.  His most successful mission was when he robbed the

65
 the Spanish Armada as it had to escape north to the North Sea. large amounts of natives, entire tribes were wiped out. It is
 England would take over as the world’s number one naval power estimated that disease killed nearly 90% of the native population
which enabled the rise of English colonization in the Americas. that lived upon the arrival of Columbus.

As England rose up to become the dominating colonial power, Along with unknowingly bringing over viral diseases that erased
Spain left a long standing legacy in its conquered areas including entire populations, the Spanish created a new breed of people.
the disappearance of native tribes, mestizos, and the spreading Mestizos, half Spanish and half Native American, came into
of Catholicism.  When the Spanish arrived in the Americas, they existence.  As the early arrival of Spanish were primarily men,
carried with them numerous diseases new to Native Americans. Native American women were the only females in the Americas.
 The deadliest of the them was smallpox.  As smallpox touched  A first example of a mestizo came from Hernan Cortes himself
who fathered a son with his translator, Malinche.  Cortes named
the boy Martin Cortes after his father.  The mestizo population
would increase throughout all parts of Latin and South America.

Roman Catholicism continued to be the largest of Spain’s legacy

in conquering the New World. Secular clergy and missionaries
flocked to New Spain to teach the fundamentals of Christianity.
 By 1559, there were 300 friars at over 80 missions throughout the
colony.  Many of the friars won over Native American’s trust and
provided them with education. Dominican friar, Bartolome de las
Casas, praised the natives in his debates as he noted: “They are
not ignorant, inhuman, or bestial. Rather, long before they had
heard the word Spaniard they had properly organized states,
wisely ordered by excellent laws, religion, and custom.“ Catholic
missionaries grew to understand the native populations and
helped bridge the gap between the two societies.      
Graph of Population Decline in Central Mexico with Successive Epidemics.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics

66
 While missionaries were working with Interactive 3.8 De las like de las Casas and continues to be the primary religion of
natives, encomienda systems were Casas Letter Latin and South America.
created to convert natives as well.  In
Portugal in Brazil
all reality, these systems were forced
labor where natives had to mine or do When Portuguese explorer, Vincente Pinzon, discovered Brazil
back breaking work on plantations. in 1500, he found a situation different from that of Spain.  There
 At times, some natives preferred were no sophisticated civilizations or signs of precious metals.
death due to the intensity of the work. In 1532, sugarcane was introduced.  African slaves were
Spanish conquistadors or other imported in as the Portuguese had difficulties enslaving the
Read this primary source
officials usually led the encomiendas document and answer the natives as they were primitive and many died due to European
questions that follow.
and justified their rule by cultural diseases. Sugarcane production increased as Brazilian
dominance.   Even with the false sugarcane led European markets for almost a century.  In 1558,
the Portuguese monarchy established a governor position which
lasted until the royal family arrived in 1808.  

New France

While Spain was busy building its empire in the New World, it’s
neighbor to the north, France,  explored new routes to Asia and
would found its own empire as well.  Giovanni de Verrazano was
commissioned by the French monarchy to find a northwest
passage to cut to India in 1532.  Jacques Cartier followed two
years later and claimed the mouth to the St. Lawrence Seaway in
Distribution of Roman Catholics.   Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_by_country#/media/ the name of France.  Cartier founds Charlesbourg-Royal as the
File:Distribution_of_Catholics.png
first French settlement in the New World.  Years later in 1608,
pretence of conversion, Catholicism spread mainly due to the Samuel de Champlain built a fort at Quebec.  New France
missionaries who often argued against the encomienda system expanded to a large size including the St. Lawrence Seaway,

67
 Great Lakes, Ohio River Valley and down the Mississippi River by defeat them in 1609.  The Iroquois remembered this and became
the end of the 17th century.  However, even with its size, a longterm enemy of New  France and would retaliate against the
migration to the region was sparse.  The French had not run out Huron tribes  Along with economic motives, Jesuit missionaries
of land for its citizens to farm and had religious tolerance. Those would flock to New France in hope of converting natives to
who came to New France came primarily for economic motives. Catholicism.  Jesuit missionaries learned languages of the natives
 Fishing and whaling off the coast of Newfoundland was the first but found it quite difficult to convert many of them. With the lack
major economic source for France.  However, the fur trade would of population as the French monarchy supported French
take over as demands for fur increased in France. Coureurs de Caribbean endeavors, it faced future difficulties when territorial
bois (runners of the woods) came to make profit off the lucrative disputes happened between France and England.  As well,
fur trade.  The beavers were nearly wiped out with their high demand in France.
Frenchmen worked
Dutch in New World
well with natives who
were needed to trap Along with the French, the Dutch were interested in finding a
fur.  The French northwest passage to Asia.  In 1609, the Dutch East India
followed native Company hired English sailor Henry Hudson to find this passage.
customs when trading  Instead, Hudson found the present day Hudson River and
and some intermarried claimed from its mouth to present day Albany for the Dutch. The
and became members New Netherland Company received a three year monopoly on the
of the tribes. The fur trade in 1614 and established Fort Orange near present day
French traded guns, Albany.  Facing war with the Mohawk and the Mohican tribes, the
cloth, and metal Dutch at Fort Orange had to flee to safety.  In 1621, the The
cooking utensils in Dutch West India Company was created and thirty families settled
exchange for beaver. on the island of Manhattan in 1624.  In 1626, General Director
 The French sided with Peter Minuit was charged with the purchase of  Manhattan which
the Huron tribes over ended up being 60 guilders of trinkets which has sparked
the Iroquois and controversy among historians on how much the amount actually
Coureur de bois; A woodcut by Arthur Heming. Source: https://
helped the Hurons
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coureur_des_bois#/media/File:Coureur_de_bois.jpg 68
was in contemporary monetary standards.  On the island, New England in New World
Amsterdam was founded.  To help encourage growth within the
England, like France and the Netherlands, lagged behind Spain in
colony, patronships, or land grants if someone brought fifty
claiming lands in the New World.  King Henry VIII hired Italian
colonists over at their own expense.  New Netherland continued
John Cabot to explore the new lands but no colonization came
to grow under this system.  However, the Dutch often clashed
from it.  It was not until Henry VIII’s daughter, Elizabeth I, did
with neighboring natives and the English who viewed the Dutch
England make a presence in the Americas.  Sir Walter Raleigh
as competition.  In 1664, Dutch Director Stuyvesant,
was commissioned to create the first English settlement which in
outnumbered and without reinforcements and provisions,
1584.  The Roanoke colony was established with 117 people who
 surrendered to the British fleet in the Second Anglo-Dutch War.
had disputes with the local natives, the Croatons.  When the
 New Amsterdam and the surrounding areas would be renamed
governor left to obtain more supplies and returned three years
New York after the Duke of York, brother to King James of
later, they discovered the word “Croatan” carved in a fence.  To
England.
this day, it is referred to as the “lost colony” as no historian is
Interactive 3.9 Artistic certain what happened to the colonists.
Interpretations of Dutch
Purchase of Manhatten Not to be deterred by the failure of the first attempt at a long
standing colony, English merchants created a joint stock
company in order to reap financial successes of a colony in the
Americas.  The Virginia Company, named after Queen Elizabeth I,
was granted a charter.  In 1606, three ships set sail for the
Americas and decided on the settlement by the James River
named after the new king.  Known as Jamestown, the triangular
shaped fort became the first English established colony in the
After reading this article, why do
you think there are different artistic New World. The colonists suffered greatly from hunger and
interpretations of the sale of malaria plus faced attacks from the nearby Algonquin tribes
Manhattan?
controlled by Powhatan.  The colonists did receive food gifts from
the neighboring tribe as they suffered from starvation due to a

69
 lack of farming, instead looking for gold.  In 1612, John Rolfe Squanto (a member of the Patuxet tribe), the Pilgrims learned to
brought a new tobacco strain which was the cash crop the grow corn and fish.  Fishing and agriculture became staples of
Virginia Company was looking for. As the English spread out, the Plymouth colony and subsequent, Puritan colonies.  Puritans,
tensions arose with the natives.  A temporary peace ensued after who wished to purify the church unlike the Pilgrims, would
John Rolfe married Pocahontas and trade continued.  However, establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628. Puritan
the peace was uneasy and Anglo-Powhatan wars followed.    settlements soon sprung up throughout New England including
Lexington and New Haven.  Collectively known as the New
England colonies, life revolved around religion and economic
survival dependent upon fishing and lumbering.   Like those in
Virginia, New Englanders had disputes with Native Americans as
well as they encroached on native lands. Metacom attempted to
oust the English.  He was captured and beheaded.  This was the
last major attempt of Native Americans to remove the English
from areas known as the colonies.

The most southern of the thirteen colonies continued to grow and

focus on economic motives. Maryland was founded in 1633 as a
safe haven for Catholics. North and South Carolina were founded
Jamestown Fort in Virginia.  Source: https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/80/83680-004-01399CF6.jpg in 1671 with the city of Charleston founded in 1680.  Younger
sons of English elite flocked to the New World to make fortunes
Contradictory to the founding of Jamestown for economic
as only the eldest male would inherit lands from their fathers.
reasons, the Pilgrims sought the new world for religious reasons.
Maryland was founded in The fertile soil and long growing season
The Pilgrims wished to separate from the Church of England
enabled cash crops to become the backbone of their economy.
because it did not break away enough from Catholic Church
 Tobacco, mimicked in Maryland from Virginia; rice in the
practices.  Intended to arrive in New Netherlands, the Mayflower
Carolinas, and indigo were grown and exported back to England.
drifted ashore in Plymouth.  There, they formed the Mayflower
 Georgia, added as a buffer between the Carolinas and Spanish
Compact, an agreement of self government.  With the help of
Florida, served as a debtor’s prison.  Indentured servants and

70
African slaves were brought in to help maintain the high demands became known as the “breadbasket” of the colonies as grain
of plantation agriculture. became their major export.

Meanwhile, the middle colonies grew up out of religious freedom. Mercantilism

Pennsylvania, founded by William Penn, served as a haven for
As the colonies were producing items for trade, England hoped to
Quakers who practiced religious tolerance.  Unlike other English
reap the profits.  Like France and Spain, England firmly held the
colonists, they had peaceful relations with natives and purchased
the land they inhabited.  The middle colonies with their fertile soil belief in mercantilism, a belief that a country’s true power
depended on the amounts of gold and silver it had in its treasury.
 The thirteen colonies provided England with an opportunity to
impose this policy.  England would receive raw materials such as
food, lumber, and tobacco at a lower price.  In turn, it would
manufacture goods with the provided raw materials and sell them
back to the colonies at higher costs.  This created a favorable
balance of trade with England as they were making profits which
increased its treasury.   England passed the Navigation Laws in
the 1660s to only allow British ships to trade with the colonies to

A European View of Mercantilism.  Source: http://s2.thingpic.com/images/ry/FFRP1i5v4KmANzVAeEMyATLd.png

Map of Thirteen Colonies.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Thirteen_Colonies#/media/File:Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.svg 71
increase its profits.  All imported items went through British In 1757, British Minister William Pitt saw the economic potential
merchants who then sold products to the colonies.. The colonists and importance of the North American theatre.  He paid
were discouraged to manufacture goods and trade was limited Prussians to fight the war in Europe so the British could focus on
between colonies.   winning in North America.  His strategy worked as Great Britain
saw its first major victory at Louisbourg in 1758 and Montreal,
Seven Years War

By the 1750s, the British colonies were increasingly growing in

population.  The British colonists, especially those from Virginia,
and the French colonists contested land in the Ohio River Valley.
 In 1754, George Washington, a Virginian, sought to defeat the
French at Fort Necessity.  Washington was defeated which
prompted Great Britain to take action.  The Seven Years’ War or
the French and Indian War began as both countries fought to
maintain lands.  Native Americans aligned with both states.  The
Huron tribes, longtime trading partners with France, aligned with
the French.  The Hurons’ longtime enemy, the Iroquois tribes,
sided with the British. While fought across Europe and other parts
of the globe, the British originally did not emphasize the North
American theatre.The war started off badly for the British as
General Braddock was unable to win against the French while he
alienated native tribes and British colonists.  General Braddock
died while being injured in his failed attempt to capture Fort
Duquesne near present day Pittsburg.

North America pre Seven Years’ War.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War#/

media/File:North_America_1748.PNG
72
France’s strongest foothold, in 1760.  While Britain was increasing
its momentum, Spain joined the war on the side of the French
which did not turn the tide.  The Treaty of Paris was signed in
1763 which marked the end of the conflict.   France lost all of its
North American possessions except islands in the Caribbean.
 Spain lost northern Florida and was given Louisiana.  The British
were now the major power in North America which provided the
colonies security.  As the British colonists no longer worried about
foreign European threats, Native Americans lost the ability to play
European powers off of each other.

73
British gains by the Seven Years’ War.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War#/media/
File:NorthAmerica1762-83.png
Interactive 3.10 Goods
Sort PREDICTION-Based on their
received products from the New Movie 3.1 Growth of European Empires
World, which nation had the
most to gain economically?  Use
evidence to support your point.

Sort the goods from new world

empires to old world nations.

Interactive 3.11 Spread of

Christianity to America
Growth of European Empires 

1. How does this map reflect who benefited from the Age of
Exploration?


One major lasting effect of the

Age of Exploration was the spread
of Christianity.  Click on the map
below and complete the questions
that follow.

74
 Map of Major World Religions in 2011.
 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Major_religious_groups

1. Where has Christianity spread

throughout the world?

2. What conclusions can you make

based on where protestantism and
catholicism spread throughout the
world?


Section Wrap-Up Activity

Using the information from this section and independent

research, provide a list examples of pros and cons from the Age
of Exploration.

Using your list, write a paragraph explaining whether the benefits

outweigh the costs of the Age of Exploration using examples from
your lists.

75
Section 3

The Colombian Exchange

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The discovery of new lands during this age led to many changes in the economic
1. Why do people explore? way of life. The introduction of new metals in Europe, the establishment of
colonies, the transatlantic exchange of goods, all contributed to a new economic
2. What were the motives of European
Exploration?
age.  As Europeans traveled the Atlantic, they transported plants, animals,
diseases, and technology that greatly impacted lives and landscapes on both
3. What factors encourage exploration?
sides of the ocean.  The exchanges that occurred on both sides (the Americas and
Europe/Africa) were known as the Columbian Exchange .  As Europeans
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE: traversed the Atlantic, they brought with them plants, animals, and diseases that
changed lives and landscapes on both sides of the ocean from both a social and
cultural diffusion

Colombian Exchange

Image source: https://historymartinez.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/bankers.jpg

76
cultural standpoint. These two-way exchanges between the
Americas and Europe/Africa are known collectively as the From the diary of Christopher Columbus during his first voyage of
exploration. Saturday, 13 October. [1492]
Columbian Exchange. This exchange was a type of cultural
diffusion--the sharing and spreading of culture (ideas, dress,
language, food, religion, art, technology, etc.) from one people to At daybreak great multitudes of men came to the shore, all young
anothe and of fine shapes, very handsome; their hair not curled but
straight and coarse like horse-hair, and all with foreheads and
heads much broader than any people I had seen; They came
loaded with balls of cotton, parrots, javelins, and other things too
numerous to mention; these they exchanged for whatever we
chose to give them.

Although unintended, Columbus started a new economic age.

 The worldwide voyages of the 15th and 16th centuries led to a
world wide exchange of goods and diseases.

http://columbianexchangeonnorthcarolina.weebly.com/uploads/8/2/5/6/8256922/1194656.jpg?409

77
Plants

Many plants were exchanged during this time.  For example from
Europe came grapes, sugar cane, olives, onions, and coffee
beans.  Furthermore, new grains were introduced such as wheat,
oats, and barley.  From the Americas came pumpkins, squash,
cacao beans, and tomatoes.

However, the main plant products that crossed the ocean were
potatoes, maize (corn), tobacco, and sugarcane.  Maize and
potatoes became a staple of European life.  Potatoes were easy
to farm and grew rapidly in the northern European climate.  Corn,
too, spread across the continent feeding people in Africa and
Asia.  Soon, Europeans would become addicted to the native
tobacco plants in the Americas.  Sugar cane, on the other hand,
was brought by Columbus during his second voyage.  Although
not easily grown in Europe, this plant was soon grown in the
southern colonies.  Sugar from the cane became as addictive to
the Native Americans as tobacco became to Europeans.

A global transfer of animals occurred, too.  Horses, sheep and

pigs came across the Atlantic to the Americas.  Turkey were
loaded and carted to Europe.  The horses used to settle the
American west are the ancestors of the European brand that
came across in the 1500s.  Pigs reproduced so fast and were
mainly immune to the new diseases that within 30 - 50 years, tens Title Page of Acosta: Natural and Moral History of the Indies http://www.ub.edu/geocrit/sn/

of thousands multiplied in the Americas. sn-478_archivos/image002.jpg

78
Diseases smallpox. Since the Indians had not developed any resistance or
immunity to these unfamiliar ailments, they perished in
But not every item that transferred was useful and good.  Disease
catastrophic numbers. (Source: “The Crimes of Christopher
was just as much a part of the transfer as plants and animals.
Columbus” Dinesh D'Souza https://www.firstthings.com/article/
 Smallpox, typhoid,and measles crossed aboard European ships.
1995/11/the-crimes-of-christopher-columbus)
 Without natural immunity like Europeans possessed, millions of
natives died. Known as the “pox,” syphilis was the main
communicable disease contracted by explorers and  transmitted
According to the author, D’SOuza, how did
back to Europe.  Polio was “shipped” to the European continent,
disease impact the New World natives and the
too. Old World Europeans?

The charge of genocide is largely sustained by figures showing

the precipitous decline of the Indian population. Although
scholars debate the exact numbers, in Alvin Josephy's estimate,
the Indian population fell from between fifteen and twenty million
when the white man first arrived to a fraction of that 150 years
later. Undoubtedly the Indians perished in great numbers. Yet
although European enslavement of Indians and the Spanish
forced labor system extracted a heavy toll in lives, the vast
majority of Indian casualties occurred not as a result of hard labor
or deliberate destruction but because of contagious diseases that
the Europeans transmitted to the Indians. The spread of infection
and unhealthy patterns of behavior was also reciprocal. From the
Indians the Europeans contracted syphilis. The Indians also
taught the white man about tobacco and cocaine, which would
extract an incalculable human toll over the next several centuries.
The Europeans, for their part, gave the Indians measles and

79
Interactive 3.12 The Interactive 3.14 How the
Potato Changed the World Writing in World History
Colombian Exchange
In this chapter you’ve continued to
learn about exploration by learning
about the motives for European
exploration and beginning to study
the Colombian Exchange, which
will be examined in further detail in
Review the Colombian Exchange What was the impact of potatoes the next chapter.
with this widget! on the old world?
Using your new knowledge, as well
as your prior learning, answer this
Interactive 3.13 Horses in Interactive 3.15 Chapter chapter’s Compelling Question:
the New world Summary Activity - Who Did the benefits of exploration outweigh the costs? Remember to
Was the Real Columbus?
consider multiple perspectives in answering this question - if
there were benefits of exploration to one group, what might the
cost have been for another?

What was the impact of horses on Review the real Columbus with
the New World? this activity.

80
Chapter 4

How did the Slave

Trade Impact the
World?

Why were African slaves used primarily for forced

labor in the cotton and sugar plantations in the
Americas? (Instead of indentured servants and or
Native Americans)  

Why was the Trans-Atlantic slave trade

transformative to the economic way of life in the
Americas?

How did African slavery in the New World differ

fundamentally from past instances of slavery and
other systems of labor in the same era?

How did the geography of the region dictate the role

of slaves?
Section 1

The Trans Atlantic Slave Trade

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Middle Passage

1. Why were African slaves used primarily for
The Middle Passage was the forced voyage of enslaved Africans across the
forced labor in the cotton and sugar
plantations in the Americas? (Instead of Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. The following quote is from an African captive
indentured servants and or Native during the Middle Passage from Africa to the Americas:
Americans)  
“The stench of the hold...was so
2. Why was the Trans-Atlantic slave trade
transformative to the economic way of life intolerably loathsome,that it was
in the Americas? dangerous to remain there for

3. How did African slavery in the New World any time...The closeness of the
differ fundamentally from past instances of place, and the heat of the
slavery and other systems of labor in the climate….almost suffocated
same era?
us...The shrieks of the women,
4. How did the geography of the region and the groans of the dying,
dictate the role of slaves? rendered the whole scene of
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE horror almost inconceivable” -

Transatlantic Slave Trade

Oluadah Equiano, The
Interesting Narrative of the Life
Triangular Trade
of Olaudah Equiano,1789.
Middle Passage

Image source: http://consciouslyenlightened.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/slave-in-c

82
 Interactive 4.1 Slave Muslim Arabs expanded this trans-Saharan slave trade, buying or
Narrative - Oladah Equiano
seizing increasing numbers of black Africans in West Africa,
leading them across the Sahara, and selling them in North Africa.
From there, most of these slaves were exported to far-off Asian
destinations such as the eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia (in
present-day Turkey), Arabia, Persia (present-day Iran), and India.

In addition to trading in Africa, the Portuguese began to export

small numbers of slaves to Europe, to work in the cities. At the
Listen to Oladah Equiano’s words
read aloud. end of the 15th century, about 10% of the population of Lisbon
(one of the largest cities in Europe) was African. Also, by this time
Europeans had established sugar plantations on the islands off of
The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade
Northwest Africa and the slave trade to those islands had
During the 15th century, the Portuguese sought to bypass Muslim become profitable.  This was the start of the movement to use
North Africans who had held a monopoly on the sub-Saharan slave labor for plantation agriculture and foreshadowed the
trade in gold and spices. As the Portuguese explored and traded development of slavery in the Americas.
in West Africa, they soon realized that money could be made by
Transatlantic Slave Trade
transporting slaves along the Atlantic coast to Muslim merchants.
According to the North Carolina Civic Education Consortium,
More than 500 years before the Trans Atlantic Slave Trade
Europeans began to explore Africa in search of gold. By the
began and Africans made their way across the Atlantic Ocean to
1450’s the Portuguese interest in Africa moved away from gold
the New World, Arabs had been the first to import large numbers
toward a much more available commodity--slaves. It was a trade
of African slaves to work sugar plantations at the north end of the
in which  every stage of the journey could be profitable for
Persian Gulf. By 1,000 C.E. cotton and sugar had become
merchants. This began because European powers in the new
desired crops from Iran to Spain. Muslim Arabs pioneered new
world lacked a work force. Most of the Ameri-Indians were dead
trade routes and discovered new trading goods such as citrus
from diseases brought over by Europe. The Europeans were
fruits, cotton, sugar, silver, and gold from east and west Africa.
unsuited to work because of the climate and suffered tropical
83
diseases. Africans however had experience with keeping cattle By analyzing the images below, explain how the triangular trade
and agriculture, were used to a tropical climate, and were benefitted those in power in Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
resistant to tropical diseases.

Triangular Trade

What was the Triangular Trade? Named for the rough outline of
the shape made on a map, the triangular trade represented the
three stages of an extensive trading process involving three
continents.   The first stage of the Triangular Trade involved taking
manufactured goods from Europe to Africa: cloth, spirit, tobacco,
beads, metal goods, and guns. The guns were used to help
expand empires and obtain more slaves (until they were finally
used against European colonizers). These goods were exchanged
for African slaves. The second stage of the Triangular Trade ( also
known as The Middle Passage) involved shipping slaves to the http://todayinsocialsciences.blogspot.com/2012/10/some-interactive-maps-about-triangular.html

Americas. The third, and final, stage of the Triangular Trade

involved the return to Europe with the yield of crops from the
slave-labor plantations: indigo, cotton, sugar, tobacco, molasses
and rum.

84
http://images.slideplayer.com/32/9808242/slides/slide_3.jpg
Interactive 4.2 Crash
Course: The Atlantic Slave What was Where
What type
What was
Trade the How many were they
of work did
the social
economic slaves did getting impact of
the slaves
reason for they use? their slaves slavery to
do?
slaves? from? the region?

Greeks

Romans

Muslim
Arabs
After viewing the following clip, fill
in a chart like the one below American
demonstrating why each group Colonies
used slaves

What was so fundamentally different about the

transatlantic slave trade than from previous forms of
slavery?

85
Section 2

Indentured Servitude and Encomienda in the New

World - Comparing Slavery and Coerced Labor
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY As you read about the different forms of labor used in America, consider the
1. Why were African slaves used primarily for differences in daily life, treatment, length of labor, and the effectiveness of each
forced labor in the cotton and sugar type of labor.
plantations in the Americas? (Instead of
indentured servants and or Native
Americans)  
Interactive 4.3 Indentured
2. Why was the Trans-Atlantic slave trade Servants
transformative to the economic way of life
in the Americas?

3. How did African slavery in the New World

differ fundamentally from past instances of
slavery and other systems of labor in the
same era?

4. How did the geography of the region

dictate the role of slaves?
Indentured servants first arrived in
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE America in the decade following
the settlement of Jamestown by
the Virginia Company in 1607.
Learn more in this interactive.

86
Encomienda/Hacienda type of torture.  Although Spain did in fact pass the New Laws of
the Indies in 1542 which forbade enslavement, the laws were
Once Spain established colonies in the Americas, thousands of
never enforced due to the distance to Spain.  Appalling
Spaniards arrived to build a new colonial empire. To protect
conditions under the system continued.  
Spanish investments, the Spanish empire needed to be profitable;
therefore, the Spanish government realized how important it was
to control its economic activities--especially trade.  Since the
Was this
most valuable resources were silver and gold, the government type of
How long
quickly established that colonists could only export raw materials labor
did they
Daily Life Treatment effective in
to Spain and could only import finished goods from Spain.  (Even have to
accomplish
work?
trade between Spanish colonies was forbidden.)   ing it’s
goal?
Once sugar cane had been introduced to the area of the West
Indentured
Indies and elsewhere, its profitability soared.  However, sugar Servants
cane as a raw material, had to be grown on plantations--large Encomienda/
estates of land usually owned by one individual who employed an Hacienda
overseer.  Obviously, the only way for sugarcane grown on Slavery in
plantations to be profitable depended upon slave labor.  At first, the colonies

Spanish monarchs granted conquistadors or conquerors Interactive 4.4

Encomienda/Hacienda
encomiendas--rights granted to colonists in the Americas to
demand labor or tribute from Native Americans.  To run the
Spanish colonial empire, the encomienda system was established
to force Native Americans to work in mines and on plantations
under the most brutal conditions.  Christian missionaries like
Bartolome de Las Casas, a priest, condemned the essential
slavery that occurred under the encomienda system and
pressured the Spanish government to pass laws outlawing this Learn more about the
Encomienda/Hacienda systems
here.
87
Section 3

The Impact of the Slave Trade

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Societal and Cultural Impacts

1. Why were African slaves used primarily for
The societal and cultural impacts of the transatlantic slave trade were significant
forced labor in the cotton and sugar
plantations in the Americas? (Instead of as the mix of diverse peoples gave rise to a new social class structure in Spanish
indentured servants and or Native America.  Combined with many blended traditions of the Spanish, Native
Americans)   Americans and African peoples, the result was a blended culture that included
2. Why was the Trans-Atlantic slave trade unique styles of architecture, language, farming styles, cooking styles, drama,
transformative to the economic way of life dance, song, and religious practices to name a few cultural aspects.  
in the Americas?

3. How did African slavery in the New World A large part of South America that remained outside of the realm of the Spanish
differ fundamentally from past instances of empire due to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 was Brazil.  Portugal had claimed
slavery and other systems of labor in the this area as its empire with the issue of land grants to nobles who agreed to settle
same era?
the land and share any profits made with the Portuguese crown.  A big difference
4. How did the geography of the region here was that the area of Brazil offered no instant amount of wealth from gold or
dictate the role of slaves? silver.  The exportation of brazilwood and plantation agriculture, along with cattle
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE ranching were the sources of Portuguese profits.  However, as many as four million

diaspora
African slaves were sent to this area, like the Spanish empire, a blended culture
developed.

88
Religion few traditional kingdoms (like Benin, a kingdom in southern
Nigeria) were able to limit the trade or regulate it with local law. In
The need for slave labor in the Americas was accompanied by the
the end, though, few were successful over the long haul: these
religious argument that Africans could be exposed to Christianity
small, centralized kingdoms were not very effective at resisting
through the work of missionaries and would convert from their
the slave trade and their populations dwindled as European
current religious practices which were either Islam or a wide
demand and greed increased.
variety of polytheistic religions.  Ironically, although conversion to
Christianity was one of many justifications for enslaving Africans, During the Transatlantic slave trade, millions of slaves were
very little religious conversion occurred because missionary work transported to the Americas from Africa. The slave trade
got in the way of productivity which equalled lower profits.   benefitted the European economies greatly. However, African
society was completely devastated.
In the southern states of the U.S. the surgence of Protestant
Evangelicalism helped bring about the first substantial conversion View the clip and discuss in what ways African society was
to Christianity during the few decades prior to the Civil War.  After impacted by the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade. Be specific with your
the Civil War, the church continued to exist at the center of the answer.
community for newly emancipated slaves.  By this time, religion
had become one means of helping secure self-determination by
African Americans. Interactive 4.5 What your
Textbooks Never Told You
Economic

The effects of the slave trade on West Africa were daunting--

especially in terms of demographics. West African populations
were greatly reduced so slave traders headed into the interior
portions of the continent in order to obtain slaves. Coastal areas
couldn’t keep up with the European demand for slave labor and
Learn more about the impact of
wars and slave raids within the continent further decimated the
the Atlantic Slave Trade in this
population along with consequences to the environment. Only a video.

89
Geography and Culture Creation of the African Diaspora

As you study the following image, think about the role that The forced migration of the African and Atlantic slave trades
geography played in establishing the need for slave labor.   dispersed Africans to new locations far from their ancestral
homeland. These new locations that enslaved Africans found
themselves living in are known as the Diaspora. The African
Diaspora resulted from forced migrations in multiple directions:
west across the Atlantic, east to the Muslim Middle East, and
throughout the African continent. The demand for slaves was
highest in lands across the Atlantic, where over ten million
enslaved individuals were forced to migrate to during the years of
the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The combined numbers of sub-
Saharan Africans forced to migrate to the Middle East and to
lands other than those of their ancestors within Africa near 14
million. For those Africans leaving the continent, more men
migrated west and more women migrated east. The gender
disparity among slaves travelling in each direction was dictated
by the demands of the slave market in each region. In the west,
more men were required for labor- intensive plantation work,
whereas there was a higher demand for domestic slaves, usually
women, in the east.

The destinations of slaves in the western trade, that is the trans-

Atlantic trade, clustered around European colonies with plantation
systems. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, most slaves were
destined for Spanish and Portuguese mainland colonies, stopping
first at the major transit markets on the Caribbean islands of

90
Curacao and St. While the diversity of regions from which slaves originated makes
Eustatius. In the second it difficult to generalize, and certainly not all regions or Africans
half of the 16th century, can be lumped together, a good many of Africans in the Diaspora
the biggest Spanish- would have shared certain common elements. These elements
American markets were include a shared religious worldview, including healing practices,
Veracruz, Cartagena, and similar deities, ancestor worship, and the practice of divination,
Lima. The preference for as well as the music and dance sensibilities that accompanied
male slaves on religious expression. These common elements often served as
plantations and the the basis of new communities in the Diaspora. In some plantation
resulting gender societies, such as in the West Indies, slaves were required to
imbalance required a build their own houses in the slave quarters and organize the
steady supply of communal work areas. Houses and communal work spaces in
enslaved Africans these instances were African in style, at times reflecting a
through the 18th century, and the origins of these slaves varied. particular region such as the Mandingo-style pointed roofs of
For example, the regions of origin of the majority of slaves in slave houses in the West Indies. It was here, in slave quarters,
Portuguese Brazil included Senegambia, Bight of Benin, Kongo, that Africans in the Diaspora on the western side of the Atlantic
and Bight of Biafra. However, concentrations of Africans from the Ocean formed new networks and communities.
same regions existed in quite a few of the New World colonies. In
the French Caribbean colony of Saint Domingue, records show a
high percentage of slaves from the Kongo. Africans from West
Central Africa were enslaved in large proportions of the British
colony, and later American state, of South Carolina. European
slave traders and owners referred to African ethnicities as nations.
They characterized these nations according to perceived
demeanor, and individual slavers and owners would show
preference for slaves from particular nations.

91
Writing in World History

This Era of world history has Interactive 4.6 Previewing

Era 6 - Using The World
focused on exploration and it’s GeoHistoGram
impact on the world. Over the last
three chapters you have explored
this in depth by looking how the
world changed with the age of
exploration. In this chapter you
have specifically learned more
about the Slave Trade by examining
The last three chapters have dealt
both primary and secondary source
with Era 5 of World History. Turn
documents. on the “Eras” layer on the
GeoHistoGram as well as the
“Empires” layer. Which empires
Using your new knowledge, as well as your prior learning, answer had the greatest influence during
this chapter’s Compelling Question: How did the Slave Trade Era 5? Does their impact appear
to grow or lessen in Era 6? Will
impact the world? new empires take their place?

92
Chapter 5

To What Extent is
Violence Necessary to
Bring About Change?

How successful are political revolutions to bring out

lasting change?

Are revolutions treasonous?

To what extent is violence necessary to bring about

change?

How did the Enlightenment influence the Era of

Political Revolutions?
Section 1

What was revolutionary about the American

Revolution?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY
Interactive 5.1 Crime in the
Middle Ages
1. What were the causes, conflicts, and
consequences of the American Revolution?
2. How did the old social order demonstrate
social inequities and how did those
inequities contribute to the French
Revolution?  
3. In what ways did Napoleon’s leadership
contribute to Enlightened ideals of
revolution?
4. Did the benefits of Napoleon’s political, As you watch the video, answer:
social, and economic policies outweigh the
costs of the French Revolution? 1. What was trial by fire?

5. Were the revolutions that occurred in South 2. What was trial by water?

America more similar to or different than 3. What was trial by combat?

the American and French Revolutions?
 4. What were other types of
medieval punishments and/or
tortures?
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

French and Indian War Battle of Saratoga Drawing and quartering, burning at the stake, tar and feathering, the pillory, the
Stamp Act Surrender at Yorktown wooden wheel, the rack - all were devices or methods used for torturing humans
Townshend Acts General Cornwallis conjured up over the ages. But in 18th Century Europe, a new movement, a new
Boston Massacre Treaty of Paris set of ideas was sweeping through the continent.  A new type of thought, of
Boston Tea Party “enlightenment,” was engaging the philosophes -- French philosophers or
Lexington and thinkers. These thinkers applied methods of science to understand society and to
Concord make improvements in it.  With the application of reason, the philosophes believed
George Washington
94
government, law, and society could be reformed. According to peoples, some educated with Western thought, rebel against their
the philosophes, the role of punishment and torture should be colonial owners? Would the rights of ordinary people win out?
questioned too.
Would these political revolutions be treasonous? Would violence
More importantly, though, was the institution of government and be necessary? Acceptable? Would Enlightened ideals be
how it should be established, organized, and conducted. With implemented? Would they bring about lasting change?
divine right monarchies constituting the norm in 17th and 18th
Ideas of the Enlightenment Spill Over in North America - The
century Europe, the Enlightenment brought a clash of ideas with
new beliefs on constitutional monarchies or republics.  The French and Indian War

writings of Locke, Voltaire and Rousseau contradicted the The rivalry between France and England spilled over from the
centuries old traditions of the political-social order. Specifically, European continent to the Americas.  Known as the Seven Years
amidst the political turmoil in England, John Locke asserted his War in Europe, the French and Indian War pitted the French, the
theory that the people of a government had a right to change that colonial controllers of present-
government if the natural rights of life, liberty, and property were day eastern Canada, against
not protected.  People began to doubt the divine right theory the British, the colonial
responsible for the empowerment of tyrants as kings.  Europe controllers of present day
would be forever changed by these ideas as would the Americas eastern United States -- the
as Enlightened ideas and theories also traveled the oceans along 13 east coast colonies.  After
with explorers, traders, and immigrants.   French expansion reached

Building to a climax, Enlightened ideals were put into practice on into the Ohio River Valley, the

three different continents in the world. In North America -- could a British declared war on the

colonial power take on one of the world’s mightiest sovereign French.  From 1756 until 1763,

nations? Which ideas and whose military would prove to be the the two sides fought with the

most dominant? In Europe -- could the “old regime” be British eventually winning after

overthrown by its own people? Would noble privilege be gone the French lost in the Battle of

forever? In Central and South America -- would indigenous Quebec in 1760.  The war
continued with Spain taking
95
up the French side, but by 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, in 1766, but the damage had been done.  Colonists had stood up
ceding French Territory to the British -- the area of eastern to Parliament and the king and won.  However, this was only the
Canada the land from the Appalachians mountains to the beginning.
Mississippi river.
Townshend Acts
Stamp Act
Still trying to solve the debt caused by the French and Indian War,
Faced with mounting debt and believing that they (the British), Charles Townshend, Britain's Ministry of the Esquecer, a similar
protected their colonists against the French intruders, the British post as a national financial advisor, asked Parliament to pass a
sought compensation from the colonists after the French and law to resolve the debt. They did. And in 1767, the Townshend
Indian War. In 1765, the British Parliament placed a fee on such Acts placed a tax on some goods (not just all paper items like the
printed items such as playing cards, newspapers, and legal Stamp Act) such as tea, glass and paper. The Acts went further
documents. This tax was a verified with a stamp printed on the by creating a commissioner to enforce the law in the colonies.
goods thereby making the final cost of the items increase.  Reactions were the same as the imposition of the Stamp Act.
 Furthermore, the colonists had to use British pounds to pay the  Colonists revolted.
tax, not local colonial currency. Boycotts occurred.
 Outcry was heard. Although many Legislative
colonists were upset with the higher assemblies
costs of some goods, even more promoted the
colonists were upset that British purchase of non-
Parliament forced this tax on them British goods.
with our their say.  Hence, “no  British merchants
taxation without representation” lost revenue.  The
became a common saying of the Townshend Acts
colonists wanting a voice in the way provoked more
they were governed and taxed.  The animosity and did
Stamp Act was eventually repealed https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
little to solve the http://cdn.history.com/sites/2/2013/12/townshend-acts-hero-AB.jpeg
commons/b/be/
1765_one_penny_stamp.jpg
96
British debt problem. In 1770, Parliament repealed the Act but specifically. Resistance and rancor had turned to protest and
kept the tax on tea.

Boston Massacre

The Townshend Acts established commissioners or officers to

enforce the British law in the colonies.  Although repealed, a tax
on tea remained.  Intimidation and resentment grew towards the
British officials who tried to enforce the regulation. Clashes
commenced.  On  March 5, 1770, a crowd of angry colonists
gathered to harass British soldiers at the local customs house.
Colonists began throwing snowballs at the soldiers.  A skirmish https://i.pinimg.com/originals/07/9b/2c/079b2ce4b99691d45218e39c48a5061e.jpg

ensued. Gunfire erupted resulting in the death of five colonists.

violence.
The event became known as the Boston Massacre and fueled
antagonism towards the British, parliament, and the king

97
Boston Tea Party & Its Consequences
Interactive 5.2 Prelude to
Unrest continued.  Trying to save the British East India Company Revolution - Taxes and
Smuggling
from going bankrupt, parliament passed a law allowing the
company to sell its tea to the colonies without paying a tax.  This
made the East India Company’s  British tea less expensive than
tea sold by local colonial merchants.  Annoyed, Samuel Adams
led a band of rebels, the Sons of Liberty, dressed as Native
Americans to Boston’s harbor.  Late at night under a very dark
sky, they dumped over 300 chests from the company’s ships into
the water. Thus, the “Boston Tea party” had taken place. King
George III of England was furious.  He punished Massachusetts
inhabitants through a series of measures known as the Intolerable
After viewing the video, what do you believe was
Acts, including the closing of Boston’s harbor, requiring citizens
revolutionary about the Revolutionary War?
to house British soldiers in their homes, and limiting the power of
the local colonial assemblies.  Later, the Quebec Act extended
the authority of Quebec in the lands north of the Ohio river and
recognized Catholicism as the official church in these lands. While
the Enlightenment’s theories of government were spreading, the
King of England was determined to tighten his control over the Lexington and Concord
colonies as he believed a king should.
With tempers flaring from both Parliament and the king, and
colonial indignation, both sides were on a collision course.  In
April of 1775, a British military unit had orders to confiscate
weapons that had been stockpiled by the rebels. British soldiers
left Boston, marching through the nearby city of Lexington toward
the Concord depot station where munitions were kept. The

98
colonial militia met British forces on Concord's North bridge. The The Declaration of Independence
“shot heard around the world” was fired.  The British army
The Declaration of Independence from Britain by the colonists
retreated back to Boston with gunfire skirmishes occurring along
was a milestone in world history as it was the first of its kind to be
the way. The rebels, now known as patriots, saved the munitions
successful.  Its example helped to inspire countless movements
depot from the British. Shortly thereafter, the Continental
for independence, self-determination, and revolution after 1776.
Congress met.  Establishing the Continental Army, George
However, at the time it had been issued, Britain would, under no
Washington was selected to command it.  By July of 1776,
circumstance, tolerate such treason from the colonies and
Thomas Jefferson as the principal author, had drafted The
threaten Britain’s economic success under its mercantilist
Declaration of Independence.  Through the application of John
policies.
Locke’s ideas as the opening of the important document, Thomas
Jefferson then proceeded to carefully detail the colonists’ Britain’s first success came later in 1776 in New York. Under the
grievances against Britain.  Protest and violence had turned to command of Sir WIlliam Howe, the British captured New York.
war. The War for Independence had begun.  Revolutionary prospects sank.  Still, during the evening of
December 25, 1776, General George Washington led the
Interactive 5.3 The Shot Continental Army across the Delaware river for a surprise attack
Heard Round the World
on the Hessians--
German
mercenaries
employed by the
British at Trenton,
New Jersey.  This
attack, along with
the subsequent
capture of
Princeton over a
week later, proved

99
beneficial for the morale of the American forces. The colonists By 1780, British military command changed with General Charles
were in control of much of New Jersey.  Spirits soared. Cornwallis now directing the war effort. He needed to reverse
past outcomes and stop the Continental Army to avoid
Interactive 5.4 Washington subsequent American victories. Successful at first in North
Crosses the Delaware Carolina, he sought a decisive battle in Virginia but was eventually
surrounded by over 9,500 American and 7,800 French forces.
 Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown.  Washington and the
Continental Army along with help from Spain and France, had
finally won the war. Two years later, the British signed the Treaty
of Paris officially recognizing the independence of the original 13
colonies from Great Britain.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipisicing elit, sed Interactive 5.5 Who Won
do tempor incididunt ut labore et the American Revolution?
dolore magna aliqua.

The Battles of Saratoga in 1777 were key victories in the war.

Although the British won first under the command of General
Burgoyne, two weeks later the American forces pushed Burgoyne
back and the British retreated.  Not only did the Americans defeat
the British at Saratoga, but these victories encouraged other
nations to become involved with the War of Independence and
create alliances with the revolutionaries.  Britain's historical After viewing the video, what do you believe was
nemesis, France, took the side of the Americans. revolutionary about the Revolutionary War?

100
Successes and Weaknesses of the new nation

With revolutionary victories over the British, the United States of

America, had been established.  In addition, the government that
the founding fathers had established incorporated the principles
of the Enlightened philosophes such as Locke, Voltaire, and
Rousseau into the new society.  Jean-Jacques Rousseau stated
that society should be ruled by the "general will" of the people.
 Baron de Montesquieu declared that power should not be
concentrated in the hands of any one individual and
recommended separating power among executive, legislative,
judicial branches of government.   Through the writings of
Benjamin Franklin, Americans began to think about and
eventually absorb these ideas.  While Europeans had pondered
the implications of life under an enlightened
type of government for almost a century,
Interactive 5.6
The United States of America had put one Revolutionary Timeline Sort
into place first.

Correctly place the cause or

conflict on the timeline.

101
Section 2

How did the old social order contribute to the French

Revolution?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY In 1789, France (like other European nations), still utilized an outdated social class
1. What were the causes, conflicts, and system that had been around since medieval times.  The Estates General, the
consequences of the American Revolution? French legislative body, consisted of three parts that represented the three distinct
2. How did the old social order demonstrate classes.  The first estate consisted of the clergy which contained one percent of
social inequities and how did those
inequities contribute to the French the French population.  The Church owned approximately ten percent of French
Revolution?  
lands and had to pay roughly two percent into the French government in taxes.
3. In what ways did Napoleon’s leadership
contribute to Enlightened ideals of  The second estate consisted of the nobility which made up two percent of the
revolution? population.  This wealthy class controlled twenty percent of France and paid
4. Did the benefits of Napoleon’s political, virtually nothing in taxes.  The first two estates enjoyed privileges and lived lavishly
social, and economic policies outweigh the
costs of the French Revolution? even if their incomes did not
5. Were the revolutions that occurred in South match. The third estate
America more similar to or different than
the American and French Revolutions?
 contained the remaining
97% of the French
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE population with more

French and Indian War Battle of Saratoga diversity amongst its ranks.

Stamp Act Surrender at Yorktown  The bourgeoisie, or middle

Townshend Acts General Cornwallis class, contained merchants,

Boston Massacre Treaty of Paris bankers, doctors and other

Boston Tea Party professionals  whom at

Lexington and times had more wealth than

Concord nobles. They wished to

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
George Washington
Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution#/media/ 102
File:Ex%C3%A9cution_de_Louis_XVI_Carnavalet.jpg
obtain entry to the second estate but were banned from doing so
as their lower class birth prohibited it. The third estate also
contained urban laborers while peasants made up the majority of
its population and consistently owned 60-70% of the land and
paid heavy taxes.

Interactive 5.7 The Three

Estates

Match each marker into the chart

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Troisordres.jpg

Which estate is represented by which person in

the cartoon above?

103
Causes of the French Revolution bankruptcy.  The third estate was taxed greatly while the first two
estates enjoyed the privilege of tax exemptions.  When crop
As the third estate estate lacked any privileges enjoyed by the
failures led to food shortages, famine and increased food prices
first two estates without the ability to climb the political and social
also led to escalation of the revolution as peasants and urban
ladders, Enlightenment ideas were spreading across Europe.
dwellers suffered greatly.
 Beginning in the late 1600s, philosophers such as Thomas
Hobbes and John Locke questioned the relationship with people With financial and
and the government.  Locke proposed that all individuals had economic hardships facing
natural rights and should change the government if it no longer fit France, the monarchy was
the needs of its people.  France became the epicenter of the ill equipped to handle the
Enlightenment as the ideas of rights and potential of humans problems. Louis XVI, the
emerged paramount. French philosopher and aristocrat, Baron de king of France, was often
Montesquieu argued that a constitutional monarchy such as that viewed as immature and
of England was the best form of government as power would be indifferent.  He ignored the
shared by Parliament and the monarch, thus being kept in check. problems facing French
Inspired by the Enlightenment, Liberté, equalité, and fraternité citizens and focused on his
(liberty, equality and brotherhood) became the slogan of the personal interests instead.
French Revolution. The people of France, specifically the  His wife, Marie-Antoinette
educated, accepted these ideas and began questioning the was already unpopular as
power of the French monarchy. she was a princess of
Austria, a historical enemy
Compiled with ideas of limiting the power of the king, the debt of
of France.  As a poor
France amounted throughout the years leading up to the
advisor to her husband on
revolution.  Opulent spending of Louis XIV on the Palace of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France#/media/
political and social matters, File:Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Callet_-
Versailles and the mishandling of France’s finances, in addition to
she became known as _Louis_XVI,_roi_de_France_et_de_Navarre_(1754-1793),_rev%C3%
the provision of financial aid to colonists during the American AAtu_du_grand_costume_royal_en_1779_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
Madame Deficit for her
Revolution the massive debt pressed France to the brink of
opulent spending on

104
clothes and The Revolution Begins
entertainment.  The
Congregating together for the first time since 1614, the Estates
monarchy became
General had to make a decision on taxes and agreed to follow the
increasingly unpopular
rules of their last meeting.  Each estate accounted for one final
as the king and queen
vote.  Naturally, the first and second estates would not vote to
ignored the plight of
increase taxes on themselves.  The third estate, with more
the people and spent
members than the other two combined, refused this system.  On
lavishly. As the
June 17, 1789 they declared themselves the National Assembly
financial problems
which would govern in the interests of the people.  The assembly
increased, the
encouraged members of the other two estates to join them.  The
monarchy was forced
king closed the Estates Hall.  The National Assembly met at an
to act and call
indoor tennis court three days later on June 20 and swore to the
together the Estates
Tennis Court Oath which claimed that they would not disband
General to solve the
until a constitution was drawn up and approved.  They also
nation’s financial
declared old tax collection null in void and took action to help the
woes.
food shortages facing the poor.  Louis XVI, in order to regain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Antoinette#/media/ control, ordered his troops to take back control.  The news
File:Marie_Antoinette_Adult.jpg
spread and a public national guard was created to protect the
interests of the people.  As Paris began to be surrounded by
Louis’ troops, mobs formed and took action.  On July 14, 1789;
Parisians stormed the Bastille, a grim medieval fortress that had
been used as a  prison but also contained cannons and
gunpowder.  The commander of the prison was killed as were five
What were the short term and long term causes
that led to the French Revolution?
guards.  The handful of prisoners were released but no cannons
or gunpowder were recovered.  More importantly, the Bastille
became a symbol to the people of France as it represented years

105
of abuse by the monarchy and served as a wake-up call to Louis supplies. The worst of the great fear was over within August of
XVI and ultimately challenged the existence of the regime.  Since 1789 with only minor flare-ups after.
1880, Bastille Day has been celebrated as national independence
While the riots of the great fear quieted, the National Assembly
day by the citizens of France.
proclaimed that social injustices including neglect and
government corruption were the main causes of problems in
France.  Highly inspired by Enlightenment ideals, they drafted the
Declaration of Rights of Man and of the Citizen which proclaimed
that all male citizens were equal before the law.  This document
set forth to provide basic rights and liberties to the people of
France. For example, every Frenchman was granted an equal
right to hold public office.  Additionally, the declaration asserted
freedom of religion and called for taxes to be levied according to
one’s ability to pay.  

Many French women were disappointed that the declaration did

not extend the same rights to their gender.  In 1791, Olympe de
Gouges, a journalist, drafted the Declaration of the Rights of
Woman and the Female Citizen.  In it, she claimed that “woman is
born free and her rights are the same as those of man.”  She
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille#/media/File:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg further reasoned that all citizens, including women, must be
equally eligible to hold public offices, positions, and jobs--the
Outside of Paris, riots and paranoia spread like wildfire.
same as men.  As the revolution progressed, women met strong
 Peasants, fueled by rumours that outsiders sent by the nobility
resistance for publicly expressing their views and many of them,
were going to raid their lands , took up to arms during the great
including Gouges were imprisoned and executed.
fear.  Peasants plundered and destroyed lands of the nobility.  In
the process, they burned medieval papers and stole grain

106
To be fair, The Declaration of the Rights of Man met resistance as Women March on Versailles
well as king Louis XVI refused to accept the reforms of the
In October of 1789, Parisian women marched thirteen miles to
National Assembly.  By the time autumn had arrived, anger had
Versailles, the residency of the monarchy.  Infuriated over the lack
again fueled action.
of bread and their dislike of the monarchy, they demanded that
the royal family relocate back to Paris to be with the people and
Interactive 5.8 Declaration away from the influence of the aristocracy.   After a day of high
of the Rights of Man tensions, the family left Versailles for the last time and relocated
to Paris.   To also help alleviate the downtrodden of the poor, the
National Assembly examined methods to stabilize the nation’s
finances.  The lands of the Catholic Church were seized as the
assembly proclaimed they belong to France.  In hopes to sell the
land quickly, they aimed to improve the economy.

After reading the Declaration of the Rights of Man

above, what rights are protected under this document?
How is this document similar to the Bill of Rights?

Illustration of Women Marching on Versailles.  Source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_March_on_Versailles#/media/
File:Women%27s_March_on_Versailles01.jpg

107
Changes to the Political Landscape to keep the constitutional monarchy, radical parties were growing
in strength.  Girondins, a radical group, wished to fight Austria
Since the Tennis Court Oath, the National Assembly lingered and end slavery in France’s colonies. Jacobins, a more radical
slowly to craft a constitution.  Various opinions and viewpoints group, wished to eliminate the monarchy completely.  The
were taken into consideration.  The Constitution of 1791 was Jacobins were supported greatly by the sans-culottes (without
presented to Louis XVI who would become the “King of the breeches), a group of poor that pushed for elected officials.
French” as his power would now come from the people, not
 These two groups would fight for power to gain control over the
divine right.  The document called for a constitutional monarchy political scene.  As Austria, Prussia and émigrés created a plan to
which allowed the monarchy to still maintain rights to executive restore the power of Louis XVI, France declared war on Austria in
powers including a cabinet.  Not satisfied with the constitution, 1792.  With minor successes at first, the French gained ground on
Louis planned his escape from Paris in hopes that émigrés, the battlefield with the support of the people who viewed victory
nobles that left France, and other nations like Prussia and Austria necessary to keep the revolutionary ideas alive.
would help his cause.  In June of 1791, Louis XVI and his family
attempted to escape France.  They were recognized in Varennes In September 1792 as Prussians entered France and neared
and brought back to the Tuileries where the royal family remained Paris, rumors spread that they would use counter-revolutionaries
under house arrest. The arrest was watched with great including priests to help win over the city. The September
uneasiness by other monarchies throughout Europe.  If the Massacres, beginning on September 2, were five days of chaos
French were able to rid themselves of their king, they were as Parisians attacked prisons and murdered prisoners who were
worried over the potential loss of their power.  Austria, the believed to be enemies of the revolution.  The Jacobins benefited
ancestral home of Marie Antoinette, was ready to wage war with from the chaos and propelled it to increase their political
France to restore the monarchy. messages.  Their leader, Jean-Paul Marat was arrested for
attacking Girondins this time.  The people of Paris were outraged
The Constitution of 1791 passed in September with great debate. at the arrest and celebrated when he was acquitted.  The
 Monarchy supporters tried to downplay the failed escape Jacobins rose up to power and rid of the Girondins.  The National
attempt of the king while other factions were not supportive of it. Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly. On December 11,
 The Legislative Assembly, created under the new constitution, 1792, King Louis XVI went on trial for treason.  The Girondins
saw the competition of political parties. While moderates pushed were against the execution but with the Jacobins in control, Louis

108
XVI had little hope.  Louis XVI was found guilty.  On January 21, Jacobin Changes and the Rise of Robespierre
1793 Louis XVI was guillotined at the Place de la Concorde.
As the Jacobins embraced the ideas of the Enlightenment, they
 Right before his execution, he claimed his innocence of all
focused on reason and virtue above all else.  They worked to
crimes.  In October of 1793, Marie Antoinette was also executed.
change the culture of France to adapt to their ideals.  During this
France was now without a king and the Jacobins were entirely in
era, they removed any influence of the Catholic Church.  The
charge.
iconic Notre Dame was turned into a temple of reason.  Their
attempt to dechristianize France did not go well with peasants
who embraced Christianity.  The attempt was short lived as
Interactive 5.9 September
Massacre France would return to accepting the Church after their rule came
to a close.  Secondly, they introduced a republican calendar that
began on the Autumn equinox.  This calendar focused on natural
names for months ridding of the gregorian calendar names.  It
was contradictory as random leap days were introduced.

As the Jacobins worked to change the culture, they faced many

internal issues, including rebellions, ongoing economic woes, and
constant outside threats of émigrés and European nations
wishing to end the republic.  In April 1793, the Committee of
Public Safety assumed power and took charge to put down
After reading above, how does the author view the internal and external threats.  Internal threats, exemplified in the
violence? In the end note, how do Parisians overall Vendée Region, where rebellions occurred in high numbers.  One
react to the September Massacres? fourth of the people of this region died throughout the period as
the Committee of Public Safety attempted to maintain control
there.  Although consisting of twelve members, the committee
would be dominated by Maximilien Robespierre, a Jacobin

109
lawyer.  For roughly over a year, Robespierre would rule the show my head to the people.  It is really worth seeing.”   By July
French political arena in one of its darkest moments in history. 1794, the National Convention turned on Robespierre as the
internal deaths increased as the outside threat became less
Reign of Terror
significant.  As well, Robespierre noted that other members from
Under Robespierre, the Committee of Public Safety unleashed the Committee of Public Safety were turning against the
the Reign of Terror to keep republican ideas going.  They viewed revolution. On July 27, Robespierre and 21 of his followers were
it as necessary to have a dictator-like state in order to restore accused of treason by the National Convention.  Robespierre
peace.  In September, the National Convention passed the Laws attempted to commit suicide that night by a gunshot to his head
of Suspects that imprisoned and tried people who were but only damaged his jaw.  The next day, he was taken to the
dismissed by the state, émigrés, former nobility and their families guillotine with is supporters.  The Reign of Terror had ended.
and anyone who talked badly about the state. Prisons began to
overflow with accused suspects that the system could not keep
Interactive 5.10 Would You Survive the Reign of Terror?
up as nearly one of fifty people were arrested.  The Law of 22
Prairial expanded the powers of tribunals who could make
quicker decisions to counteract the excess amount of prisoners.
 Beginning in September 1793, approximately 50,000 Frenchmen
would fall to the guillotine, a swift execution device to cut off
heads to reduce suffering, which symbolizes this era.  Guillotines
were placed in major public areas and became major attractions.
 Executioners became famous throughout France.
 Counterrevolutionaries, émigrés, aristocrats, and Jacobin
political opponents fell prey to the guillotine.   Two of most
notable were Georges Danton and Marie Antoinette.  Georges
Danton, as a radical from an opposing political club who
encouraged the revolution, was executed as he disagreed with
the violence.  He commented prior to his death, “Don’t forget to

110
111
Section 3

How did Napoleon’s Leadership Contribute to Ideals

of Revolution?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. What were the causes, conflicts, and

consequences of the American Revolution?
2. How did the old social order demonstrate
social inequities and how did those
inequities contribute to the French
Revolution?  
3. In what ways did Napoleon’s leadership
contribute to Enlightened ideals of
revolution?
4. Did the benefits of Napoleon’s political,
social, and economic policies outweigh the
costs of the French Revolution?
5. Were the revolutions that occurred in South
America more similar to or different than
the American and French Revolutions?


TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Napoleon Bonaparte Abdicate https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_of_Napoleon_I#/media/File:Jacques-Louis_David,_The_Coronation_of_Napoleon_edit.jpg

Coup d’état Congress of Vienna

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769 on the of Corsica.  Napoleon’s
Consulate
family was of minor nobility with no tradition of military participation.  At a young
Lycées
age, he showed passion and demonstration for mathematics and history.
Napoleonic Code
  Napoleon first attended  the French military school at Brienne at the age of nine
Continental System
and finished his military education at the military academy in Paris.  At the age of
Guerrilla warfare
Scorched Earth Policy
112
sixteen in 1785, Napoleon graduated and joined the French  As Napoleon’s army was in position to threaten the border of
artillery in the position of second lieutenant.   Austria, they sought peace.  France gained lands in Italy and the
Austrian Netherlands as a result.  Napoleon became a national
Napoleon's Rise to Power
hero.
During the French Revolution, Napoleon had sided with the
Jacobins.  As a lot of the officers fled France with their nobility
status, the door was open for other soldiers to rise in the ranks.
 In the siege of Toulon in 1793, a French city rebelling against the
Jacobin-controlled revolution, Napoleon was selected to replace
the injured commander.  With his military knowledge, Napoleon
was able to defeat the rebellion and was promoted to brigadier
general.  In 1795, Napoleon was in Paris when
counterrevolutionary activity who supported the royalty broke out.
 Napoleon ordered a “whiff of grapeshot,”  a mass of small metal
balls that break apart upon being fired, into the crowds.
 Hundreds were injured and the rebellion ended.  Napoleon was
considered the hero of the hour and savior of the National
Convention and the Directory.  He was rewarded with becoming
the commander of the French army in Italy and with a military
advisement role with the Directory. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_campaigns_of_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars#/media/
File:La_Bataille_du_Pont_d%27Arcole.jpg

Napoleon married Josephine de Beauharnais, a widow whose

With his successes in Italy, the Directory wished Napoleon to
husband was guillotined in the Reign of Terror and the mother of
attack France’s longtime enemy, Great Britain.  Napoleon knew
two, on March 9, 1796.  Two days later, he took off to Italy to take
that France was not ready to attack Great Britain directly across
command of the army.  The army was disgruntled when he
the English Channel as the British were the superior naval power.
arrived but Napoleon turned them around.  Napoleon saw
 Instead, Napoleon opted to attack their trade routes to Asia
victories against Austria at the battles of Lodi, Arcola and Rivoli.
113
through Egypt.  On July 1, 1798, the invasion of Egypt began. Directory.  Napoleon became first consul which had greater
 Napoleon had quick successes against Egypt’s military rulers at power than the other two and essentially controlled France.
the Battle of the Pyramids in the same month.  Napoleon
introduced ideas of the French Revolution to the Egyptians and
his army discovered the Rosetta Stone, which allowed the
language of ancient Egyptian to be translated.  The British used Interactive 5.11 Napoleon Timeline
their superior navy under the command of Admiral Horatio Nelson
to defeat the French at the Battle of the Nile on August 1-3, 1798.
 The British fleet now was able to cut off supplies to Napoleon
and his troops.  Meanwhile, the British encouraged the Ottoman
Empire to declare war on France.  Napoleon led his army to Jaffa
to prevent the Ottomans from entering Egypt.  Short on supplies
and unable to support the prisoners he took, Napoleon ordered
the prisoners to be executed.  At the same time, many of his men
fell ill to the plague.  The French moved onto the fortress of Acre
when word arrived that France was in trouble under control of the
Directory.  Napoleon opted to return to France.

Napoleon Takes Power

Upon his return to France, two of the five directors had a

conspiracy to overthrow the Directory and create a more stable
government.  They needed the military behind them and selected
Napoleon.  On November 9, 1799, they staged a coup d’état, or
How did Napoleon build up his reputation as a
blow to the state, and rid of the Directory.  A new constitution was national hero? In what ways did Napoleon
written and set up the three member Consulate to replace the demonstrate he was not a hero?


114
Napoleon Restores Order than privilege.  However, education was typically emphasize for
males as female education focused on skills like maintaining
To ensure that his new government gained support of the French
religion to attract husbands.  
people, Napoleon needed to stabilize life in France. Firstly, he set
out to end the aggressive wars of the Directory.  When the French Along with increasing the political stability of France, Napoleon
defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Holhenlinden in December worked to improve the French economy.  Their economy suffered
1800, the Austrians were open to peace which left only the greatly with the chaos of the Reign of Terror and costly wars of
British.  In 1802, the Treaty of Amiens brought a short lived peace the Directory.  Napoleon created the Bank of France in 1800.  The
between France and Great Britain. bank was funded partially by the state but also by private
capitalists.  It also issued currency to the citizens of Paris.  The
Apart from ending wars, Napoleon used the power of first consul
Bank of France created monetary policies and enabled the
to stabilize life in France.  Napoleon offered amnesty to citizens
government to support the French economy.  Napoleon also
who left France during the earlier parts of the French Revolution.
introduced a tax system that was equitable to all citizens,
 As well, he reached an agreement with the pope to allow Roman
improved infrastructure to increase trade, and imposed tariffs to
Catholicism to become once again the religion of France.
protect French businesses.  His work laid foundations to increase
 However, the Church had no political rights upon returning.
the French economy.  
 Napoleon won support of those who wished for the return of
Catholicism and upheld the ideas of the Republic by separating Napoleon’s political and economic ideals were brought under the
church and state. Napoleonic Code in 1804 which established French civil law. Prior
to the code, French laws mimicked feudal laws and were not
Napoleon also worked to improve France by emphasizing
equal to everyone.  Napoleon’s system created a uniform set of
education.  In 1801, Napoleon established lycées, secondary
laws that called for separation of church and state, basic rights
French schools to produce citizens with political and military
such as religious freedom, rights over choice of profession, and
education. To further the importance of lycées, Napoleon added
outlawed the privileges of nobility.  French women did experience
the Legion of Honor to include high citizens of merit.  By
political gains such as the right to own property but men still
rewarding citizens who earned their positions in society,
retained power over households.  The ideas of the Napoleonic
Napoleon kept the ideals of the French Revolution by giving
positions to those who demonstrated capacity to perform rather
115
Code spread throughout Europe as Napoleon worked to build an Napoleon’s Empire
empire.
While Napoleon worked to
internally improve France,
Interactive 5.12 The Code he was elected first consul
Napoleon for life in 1802.   While
domestically France was
stabilizing, it had external
problems.  St. Domingue, a
Caribbean French colony
who provided products
such as sugar cane to
France, was fighting for its
independence based on
the ideas of the French
After reading the excerpts above, in what way is
Revolution.  Napoleon sent
this code continuing the ideas of the French
troops to squash the
Revolution? How are women treated?
rebellion in 1801.  The
French were successful in
the beginning but ended up
losing as French troops
died due to tropical
illnesses and warfare
against the determined
Haitians.  Along with the Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, 1

defeat, Great Britain https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Empire#/media/

File:Ingres,_Napoleon_on_his_Imperial_throne.jpg
declared war on France in

116
1803 as Napoleon had gained greater economic power in Europe. While Napoleon was demonstrating his military superiority on
 Austria and Russia sided with the British.  To help raise funds for land, Great Britain continued to demonstrate its naval superiority.
war and to cut losses in the Americas, Napoleon sold Louisiana  As Napoleon’s army won the Battle of Ulm on October 19,
to the United States for $15 million in 1803.  Despite the looming Napoleon’s navy, along with Spanish ships faced defeat against
war, Napoleon’s influence as first consul continued to grow.  In the British on October 21, 1805.  Napoleon fought Vice Admiral
May 1804, the French senate elected him emperor.  On December Horatio Nelson again but this time off the coast of Spain.  The
2, 1804 at Notre Dame in Paris, Pope Pius VII handed Napoleon British victory at the Battle of Trafalgar demonstrated that
the crown when Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France. Napoleon could not contest the British power at sea. Napoleon
 His crown mimicked that of the Charlemagne era following in decided to focus on using his army to control mainland Europe.
tradition of the French monarchy.  Napoleon also crowned his
wife Josephine.

Napoleon wasted little time in fighting the coalition of enemies

who wished to stop the French Empire from expanding. On
October 19, 1805, Napoleon defeated the Austrians in a swift
victory at the Battle of Ulm.  Napoleon used maneuvers to
surround the Austrians which prevented a large scale battle.  On
December 2nd, Napoleon faced the Austrians and Russians at
the Battle of Austerlitz.  On his one year anniversary of being Battle of Trafalgar by William Lionel Wyllie.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar#/media/
File:Battle_Of_Trafalgar_By_William_Lionel_Wyllie,_Juno_Tower,_CFB_Halifax_Nova_Scotia.jpg
emperor, morale was high as Napoleon won a decisive victory
against the two opposing nations.  Austria sought an armistice
In 1806, Napoleon continued to influence mainland Europe.  On
and Russia retreated back into Eastern Europe.  In 1810,
March 30th, he appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, the
Napoleon annulled his marriage with Josephine as she could not
King of Naples and also granted various positions and titles to
provide him with a male heir.  He married Marie-Louise, a member
other family members.  On July 12th, Napoleon created the
of the Austrian royal family to help solidify his empire.  Marie-
Confederation of the Rhine and named himself as its protector.
Louise provided Napoleon with an heir in 1811, who Napoleon
 The Confederation hoped to gain growth and power while
immediately named “King of Rome.”
aligned with Napoleon but upset Prussia and Austria who were
117
culturally tied to them.  In November 1806, Napoleon created the
continental system to make Europe self sufficient and inflict an What political practices of Napoleon reflected those of a
economic blow to the British by blockading their goods from monarchy? What were the pros and cons of France’s
entering mainland Europe.  Napoleon and Russia reached an Military? How successful was the continental system?

agreement in 1807 for Russia to join the blockade because all of

Europe was needed to make the plan successful. Napoleon’s
system had short term success as British exports dropped by
Napoleon's Mistakes and First Downfall
over 20% and prices of foods such as corn increased.  However,
the French and other Europeans needed and wanted goods from While Napoleon dominated most of Europe by 1808, his next
the British empire such as cotton and coffee.  Smuggling target was the coastal state of Portugal.  In the fall of 1807,
increased and Napoleon had sent 100,000 troops into the Iberian Peninsula with
European the support of Spain who was aligned with France at the time.
leaders, including  Napoleon turned on Spain and disposed of the Spanish monarch
some members and made his brother, Joseph, the king of Spain. As a result,
of Napoleon’s uprisings occurred throughout Spain leading to the Peninsular
family, did not War.  From 1808 to 1814, the Spanish and their newly found
heavily enforce British allies fought the French as Napoleon tried to put down the
the continental uprisings.  As well, guerilla warfare, or hit-and-run raids,
system.  Britain  increased Spanish nationalism as Spanish citizens fought to rid
played on the themselves from their French rulers.  The French battled the
economic decline Spanish and British for six years and the war finally came to a
by gaining allies close when Napoleon abdicated his throne.
who wished be
As Napoleon struggled to contain the Spanish, tensions were
rid of Napoleon’s
rising with Russia.  Czar Alexander I had ended Russia’s
empire. First French Empire in 1812.  Dark blue are areas directly controlled by
France.  Light Blue are sister states that are greatly influenced by France.
participation with the continental system and imposed heavy
taxes on French luxury goods by 1810.  Napoleon, angry with

118
Russia, decided to take action.  Russia formed an alliance with Napoleon worked to rebuild his army and face the international
Great Britain, Spain, and Sweden while Napoleon prepared his coalition to stop him.  On October 13, 1813, the French army
army.  On June 24, 1812 Napoleon’s grand army of 650,000 men faced its enemies on the four day Battle of Leipzig.  The French
invaded Russia who had approximately 200,000 soldiers.  Russia army consisted of 198,000 against the international army of
applied its scorched earth policy to defeat the French.  On June 370,000.  Napoleon’s plan was to eliminate each major state’s
27th, Napoleon had captured the Russian city Vilna while the army individually and he began with the Prussians.  After
Russians barely provided resistance.   The Russians continued to changing the focus of his battle numerous times, the French were
retreat and burn cities to the ground while peasants burned their outweighed by the size and strength of its enemies.  Napoleon’s
crops to prevent goods from falling into French hands.  With army retreated leaving the coalition with a clear victory.  The
supplies dwindling, diseases such as dysentery and typhus French army was chased to Paris.  In 1814, the French were
began to take its toll on the French army.  As the cold winter weary from two major defeats and wanted peace.  As the allies
approached, Napoleon had realized that he would not be able to surrounded Paris, Napoleon abdicated or gave up, his throne due
feed and supply his army through the long winter.  In October, he to his increasingly unpopularity with the French.  Napoleon aimed
Napoleon turned his army homeward. French and Russian forces to have his son from his second marriage to Marie-Louise claim
finally clashed on September 7, 1812, in the Battle of Borodino. the throne but the allies would not have it. Louis XVIII, brother of
 There were approximately 70,000 casualties on both sides.  The Louis XVI, was officially recognized as the king of France.
Russians retreated and left the path to Moscow wide open.  On Napoleon was banished to the Mediterranean island of Elba
September 14th, the French entered the city and saw it in flames. under the Treaty of Fontainebleau which ended the wars with
 Realizing that Czar Alexander I would not bargain with him and France.   
that his army could not survive the Russian winter on little
supplies, Napoleon and his army left Moscow on October 19th.
What did Napoleon do to gain the support of the French
 With only 100,000 left of the 650,000, Napoleon’s army faced people? How did Napoleon lose support of the French
attacks from the Russians on their retreat.  Napoleon left his people? How did Napoleon lose the French empire? How did
army on December 5th to return to Paris on rumors of a coup nationalism commence during the French Empire?
to overthrow his power.  As news spread of the dwindling army,
Prussia and Austria re-joined the coalition to overthrow Napoleon.

119
Return and Final Downfall between 800,000 and 1,200,000 troops ready to attack France
from all angles to squash Napoleon’s chances of expanding and
After Napoleon’s exile, the Bourbon monarchy returned to power
remaking a French empire.  The plan to have the multinational
in France in 1814.  Well intentioned Louis XVIII proved
armies in place fell through as only the Anglo-Dutch army was in
incompetent in handling the hardships facing France. The
position in May 1815.  Napoleon, understanding of the French’s
émigrés returned to France and reclaimed their privileges and
unwanting of conscription, worked to rebuild his army.  Napoleon
power that they held under the old French order.  As their lands
called the French to arms and gained approximately 300,000
purchased from lower classes, distrust grew of the potential
soldiers from new volunteers to veterans returning.  Instead of
action of the nobility regaining their lands.   As well, the French
taking a defensive stance against the coalition, Napoleon decided
economy suffered as a bad harvest led to increased food prices.
that it was best to fight the Anglo-Dutch coalition under the Duke
 Former soldiers had not adjusted to civilian life. The woes of the
of Wellington to deal a moral blow to the English.
middle and lower classes increased as Louis XVIII feebly
attempted to make their lives better.   In June 1815, Napoleon led his army into Belgium. While
victorious against the Prussians on June 14th, Napoleon did not
The unhappiness of French citizens made it easy for Napoleon to
destroy their army.  On June 16th, Napoleon’s army faced off
make a return.  On March 1, 1815, Napoleon set foot on French
against the English and Dutch forces at the Battle of Waterloo.
soil in the south of France.  Alarmed when news reached Paris,
 Napoleon had shown early potential for a victory against the
the monarchy called for his arrest.  Napoleon, being the
English at the debut of the battle.  However, when the Prussian
opportunist, gave speeches on his path to Paris and won back
army arrived, Napoleon’s army under poor leadership and lower
the support of French citizens and former soldiers who were
numbers, proved inept to the coalition.  Waterloo became
discontented with the monarchy.  As the revolutionary mood
Napoleon’s final defeat.  He returned to Paris and abdicated his
gripped Paris and Napoleon continued his march to the French
throne once again.  The British, ensuring that he did not return,
capital, Louis XVIII voluntarily exiled himself.  Napoleon returned
exiled Napoleon to St. Helena.  Lord Liverpool, the British prime
to the Tuileries Palace on March 19 and began his 100 days in
minister, described it as “the ideal place to lock away such a
power.
character.  In such a place, so far away, no scheming of any kind
The coalition against Napoleon reformed and created a plan of will be possible and, far from Europe, he will be quickly
attack to rid the French emperor of his power.  The allies had forgotten.”  Napoleon lived out the end of his days under the

120
constant supervision of a British soldier on this island.   He died of ideas of revolution--a concept that would not end with
on May 5th, 1821. Napoleon.

Does Napoleon deserve to be called great?  Provide 3 specific

pieces of evidence to support your position.

Congress of Vienna

After Napoleon’s downfall, the major states of Europe came

together to make decisions that impacted Europe’s political map.
Longwood House where Napoleon spent his final days.  Photographed in 1970.  Source: https://  Led by Austrian Klemens von Metternich, a staunch conservative
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Helena#/media/File:16_Napoleons_exole_St_Helena_June1970.jpg
who aimed to keep a traditional Europe, representatives from
European nations came to Vienna on October 1, 1814.  They
Napoleon’s Legacy
briefly paused their discussions upon the return of Napoleon.
Although Napoleon died in 1821, his legend lived on not only in  The Congress of Vienna continued afterwards and had four major
France but around the world as his legacy has been long debated goals:
as to whether he lived up to his own title of “the revolution on
1. Restoring the balance
horseback” or to that of a traitor.  What was not debated, was his
impact on France and on Europe from both political and social 2. Containment of France
perspectives.  France under The Napoleonic Code was that of a
centralized government with a constitution and included elections 3. Restoration of legitimate powers

with expanded, although limited suffrage.  More French citizens
had property rights and gained access to education.  Perhaps
most importantly, what prevailed most dominantly was the spread
121
 4. Reward or punish those in the fought in the Napoleonic Poland and keep Finland in its possession.  Sweden was allowed
Wars
 to take Denmark as the Danish had aligned with Napoleon for a
great amount of time.   Prussia grew in size as it took parts of
Saxony and other Germanic states to help build a stronger
The restoration of balance in Europe was mostly decided by
Prussian state.
mostly redrawing the political boundaries to pre-Napoleonic
times.  This enabled most states to maintain the lands they As a result of the Congress of Vienna, political stability followed
controlled.  This plan worked well until discussion arose on how for nearly forty years as none of the major European powers went
to contain France.  Belgium was given to the Spanish to war.  However, political stability came at a price.  The
Netherlands to create a stronger power north of France.  A new reinstated conservative governments ignored the growing
German Confederation, headed by Austria and Prussia, was influence of liberal ideas as seen in the French Revolution. Also,
created to have a power balance to the east of France.  Genoa nationalism increased as those states who were placed under
and other Italian states were given to Piedmont to help create a control of the strong European powers wished to break away and
stronger political influence on the Italian-French border.  France
now had stronger political states surrounding it to check its
power.

The French minister to the Congress of Vienna, Talleyrand,

advocated for the Bourbon monarchy.  Louis XVIII returned to
France and became king once again.  The Bourbons also claimed
their right to the Spanish throne.  Austrian princes and princesses
regained their thrones in parts of Italy to maintain Austrian
influence.  The return of monarchies, especially to France, helped
ensure the power of the old orders.  

Lastly, the great powers wished to reward those who opposed

Napoleon.  Austria lost Belgium to the Netherlands but its
influence grew in Italy.  Russia was allowed to retain most of
122
become independent.  As political ideologies and economic
changes evolved throughout the next century, the actions of the
Congress of Vienna continued to be challenged.

Boundaries established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna

What changes were made by the Congress of Vienna? What

inferences can be made by the new boundaries in regards to
nationalism?

123
Section 4

How Did the Revolutions in South America Compare?

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Introduction

1. What were the causes, conflicts, and
consequences of the American Revolution? With the principles of the Enlightenment impacting the American colonists and
2. How did the old social order demonstrate French revolutionaries, these values continued to spread--this time impacting
social inequities and how did those peoples of Central and South America. Inspired that citizens could change the
inequities contribute to the French
Revolution?   political, economic and social dynamics of their lives, Haitians, South Americans,
3. In what ways did Napoleon’s leadership and Mexicans began to question their colonial roots. They desired a change from
contribute to Enlightened ideals of
revolution? the 300 year-old Spanish rule established
4. Did the benefits of Napoleon’s political, during the European exploration. The time
social, and economic policies outweigh the for rebellion and revolt was right.
costs of the French Revolution?
5. Were the revolutions that occurred in South The social class system in the Spanish
America more similar to or different than
the American and French Revolutions?
 colonies had developed during the 16th
century age of discovery and conquest.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
 Colonial peoples were broken down into six
Peninsulares King Jao main groups. The closer a person was to
Creoles Dom Pedro Spanish ancestry, the higher their ranking in
Mestizos the caste system. At the top were the
Natives peninsulares. These were people born in Spain on the Iberian peninsula -- hence,
Toussaint L’Ouverture the term peninsulares. Some were from noble, landowning families, but many were
Miguel Hidalgo not. These people could hold government or military office, work in the church,
Simone Bolivar and carry weapons.  Many were exempted from paying taxes. The next caste
Jose de San Martin
124
consisted of the creoles.  These people were born in the new French riches from the huge plantations of cotton, sugarcane,
world and were descendents of native Spanish parents. Although and coffee beans. Many of the French plantation owners enslaved
considered “legal” Spaniards (because their parents were), Africans to work their fields.  By the mid-1700s, over 500,000 of
creoles could not hold colonial posts or church offices. They the 570,000 inhabitants on the island had been or currently were
could serve in the army, though, and controlled much of the land enslaved.  A rich, powerful and privileged French minority
and businesses.  Together, the peninsulares and the creoles governed a poor and abused native majority.
controlled the political, economic, and social power of the
With the Enlightenment and the French Revolution acting as the
Spanish colony.  Below these two social groups were the
backdrop, some in the minority population began to question the
mestizos, mulattos, natives, and slaves.  Mestizos were mixed
imposition of slavery.
race children born of Spanish and Native heritage. The word
“mestizos” generally comes from the Spanish language and Performance Task / Haitian enslavement
means “mixed.”  Many mestizos worked as the servants to
peninsulares and creoles. Next in the class structure were As you read the exerpt, be able to answer: How did African
mulattos -- people with mixed races, too.  However, these people culture impact slaves’ resistance?
had parents of European and African descent. Native Americans,
In the Caribbean and in many slave societies in the Americas, one
those born from the ancestors who had lived on the territory prior
of the most important aspects of resistance to slavery was the
to the European conquests, and slaves, those usually brought to
retention of African culture or the melding of African, American
the territory from places in Africa, comprised the bottom of the
and European cultural forms to create new ones such as the
structure.
Kweyol languages (Antillean Creole).
Haiti
The importance of African culture – names, craftsmanship,
However, before Spanish colonists could attempt their revolution, languages, scientific knowledge, beliefs, philosophy, music and
Haiti was the first to express rebellion against their overlord--the dance, was that it provided the psychological support to help
French.  Seen as a prized possession of the French in the 1700’s, captives resist the process of enslavement.  The act of
Haiti was located on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola better enslavement involved attempts to break the will and ignore the
known as St. Domingue during this time.  The colony brought the humanity of slaves in what was known as 'seasoning'. Obvious
examples would be the use of Vodun (Voodoo) religious beliefs in
125
the Haitian Revolution and the employment of Obeah to in France where he later died.  He never lived to see St.
strengthen the Jamaican Maroons in the struggles against the Domingue as an independent nation.  
British. Rebel leaders such as Nanny in Jamaica and Boukman
L’ouverture’s assistant, Lieutenant Jean-Jacques Dessalines,
and Mackandal in St Domingue (Haiti) were also religious or
continued the revolution after slavery had been reintroduced to
spiritual leaders. Religious beliefs should perhaps be seen as also
the island.  WIth the support of the British, Napoleon’s forces
providing enslaved Africans a way of understanding the world and
were defeated and the island officially gained independence on
giving them simultaneously a whole belief system, a coping
January 1, 1804. The nation was later named Haiti meaning in
mechanism, and a means of resistance.
native language of Arawak, “mountainous land” by those on the
From: http://www.understandingslavery.com/index.php- island.
option=com_content&view=article&id=310&Itemid=222.html
Primary Source: Abbe Raynal
In 1791, a self-education former slave, Toussaint L’Ouverture, led
Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade
an uprising against colonial French rule. These revolts resulted in
of the Europeans in the East and West Indies (1770)
plantation fields and homes set ablaze. For the next 10 years,
Toussaint led the rebels, hoping to free the enslaved Haitian As you read the primary source, be ready to answer: For whom
people. Yet, St. Domingue did not become an independent does the author call upon? What will this individual do?
nation.
Where is this great man, whom nature owes to her afflicted,
When Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France, he sent an oppressed, and tormented children? Where is he? He will
army to the island to re-establish firm colonial control. Once undoubtedly appear, he will shew himself, he will lift up the sacred
again, Toussaint L’Ouverture led an army against the French.  This standard of liberty. This venerable signal will collect around him
time, total independence was his goal. By May of 1802, with the companions of his misfortunes. They will rush on with more
disease and starvation depleting the French forces and aiding the impetuosity than torrents; they will leave behind them, in all parts,
native fighters, the French agreed to a truce and  L’Ouverture indelible traces of their just resentment. Spaniards, Portugueze
stopped the rebellions. Despite a ceasefire between the two [sic], English, French, Dutch, all their tyrants will become the
groups, the French eventually captured L’ouverture. He was jailed victims of fire and sword. The plains of America will suck up with
transport the blood which they have so long expected, and the
126
bones of so many wretches, heaped upon one another, during the South America
course of so many centuries, will bound for joy. The Old World will
With the Napoleonic Wars engulfing Spain in the early 1800’s, the
join it's [sic] plaudits to those of the New. In all parts the name of
creoles of Latin America saw an opportunity for independence.
the hero, who shall have restored the rights of the human species
 Napoleon had captured Spain by 1808.  But, the Spanish
will be blest; in all parts trophies will be erected to his glory. Then
controlled colonists of Latin America refused to follow his
will the black code [each country had its own code of laws
directives and had no allegiance to the French emperor.
regarding slaves or blacks] be no more; and the white code will be
Additionally, the educated Creoles knew of the Enlightened ideals
a dreadful one, if the conqueror only regards the right of reprisals.
and wanted to establish them in the colonies. Rebellions against
Napoleon and the new French government broke out.

Interactive 5.13 The In 1810 Simon Bolivar, an educated Creole who knew of the
Haitian Revolution advances made during the American revolution and witnessed
the valuable changes brought about by the French revolution, led
a revolt. Fighting began in Bolivar’s birth colony of Venezuela
where frustrations and disgruntlement had been brewing for
years. After Napoleon’s capture of Spain, Bolivar led a rebellion.
 On July 5, 1811, the colonial rebels declared their independence.
In spite of the declaration, conflicts between the sides continued.
 Eventually Bolivar won a decisive battle against the Spanish at
Carabobo.  Named “The Liberator,” Bolivar won final victory from
Spain in 1821.
As you watch, what were the causes of the
Haitian Revolution? What actions by T’ouverture
and Dessalines were “revolutionary”?

127
Performance Task / Primary Source: Simon Bolivar As Bolivar was battling for independence in Venezuela and other
Spanish colonies, Jose de San Martin was struggling for the
How do the words of Simon Bolivar reflect Enlightenment ideals? same result in present-day Argentina, Chile, and Peru. Since the
advance of Pizarro and the conquest of the Incas, present-day
Example One:
South America had been under the control of the Spanish.
Nations will march towards the apex of their greatness at the European educated and militarily trained, San Martin joined the
same pace as their education. Nations will soar if their education independence movement and by 1816 gains freedom for
soars; they will regress if it regresses. Nations will fall and sink in Argentina. But Spain still had control over vast territories of Chile
darkness if education is corrupted or completely abandoned and Peru.  In 1817 this military hero leads a band of soldiers over
the Andes mountains to attack the Spanish stronghold in Chile.
Example Two:
With the support of Bernard O’Higgins, independence is achieved
The continuation of authority has frequently proved the undoing of by 1819. During the next year San Martin joined in the freedom
democratic governments. Repeated elections are essential to the fight for Peruvian independence.
system of popular governments, because there is nothing so
These two main freedom fighters, Bolivar and San Martin, met in
dangerous as to suffer power to be vested for a long time in one
1822 to join the military forces and discuss the remaining
citizen. The people become accustomed to obeying him, and he
liberation of Peru and South America. But differences arose and
becomes accustomed to commanding, hence the origin of
San Martin agreed to have Bolivar take general command.  Lima
usurpation and tyranny.
fell in 1824 and Spanish control in South America had finally
ended.

128
Mexico years later.  However, the revolution did not die.  In 1821, a group
of wealthy creoles grew fearful of the new government in the
As the Latin American revolutions occur in South America,
home country of Spain. Believing they could lose the privilege
Spain’s Mexican colony began its fight for freedom too. In 1810, a
they had under the former Spanish government, the rebel
creole priest named Father Miguel Hidalgo lead the rebellion
colonists declared their autonomy. Ironically, the man who had
against colonial control.  Like other revolutionaries, Hidalgo
defeated Father Morelos was the person who announced
believed in aiding the poor mestizos by bringing the flourishing
Mexico’s independence.
ideas of the Enlightenment to his people.  Hidalgo thought only
an armed revolt against the Spanish would successfully eliminate
their control.  On September 16th, he rang the bells of the local
church and gathered the local population.  He called for a
rebellion. This “El Grito de Dolores” or “Cry of Dolores” became
Interactive 5.14 Latin Interactive 5.15
the battle cry for freedom originally read in the town of Dolores American Revolutions Revolutions Sort
against Spanish rule.

Primary Source:

“My Children, a new dispensation comes to us today…Will you

free yourselves? Will you recover the lands stolen 300 years ago
from your forefathers by the hated Spaniards? We must act at
once.”

The “Cry of Dolores” by Padre Miguel Hidalgo

Hidalgo led uprisings through the local villages as he marched

toward the capital, Mexico City. As his forces grew to more than How did Latin American people gain independence? To
80,000 soldiers, Hidalgo was captured and killed near the city of what extent is violence necessary to bring about change?

Guadalajara. Father Jose Maria Morelos then assumed Were the Latin American Revolutions historical turning
leadership, but he too, was eventually captured and shot four points? Treasonous?

129
Chapter 6

Was the Industrial

Revolution Worth
the Human Cost?

What were the political and economic impacts of

the Industrial Revolution?

How and why did the Industrial Revolution cause

shifts in population?

What new forms of technology propelled the

Industrial Revolution?

How did the Industrial Revolution shape the

distribution of global power?

How did the Industrial Revolution change society?


Section 1

The Advent of the Industrial Age

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY “Industrialism is, I am afraid, going

1. What were the political and economic to be a curse for mankind.
impacts of the Industrial Revolution? Exploitation of one nation by

2. How and why did the Industrial Revolution

another cannot go on for all time.
cause shifts in population? Industrialism depends entirely on
your capacity to exploit, on foreign
3. What new forms of technology propelled
the Industrial Revolution? markets being open to you, and on
the absence of competitors.” --
4. How did the Industrial Revolution shape the
distribution of global power? Mohandas Gandhi (Image source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/
Gandhi_spinning_1942.jpg)
5. How did the Industrial Revolution change Mohandas Gandhi (pictured above)
society? was a nationalist leader in India who led nonviolent opposition against the British,
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE an industrial and imperial powerhouse, during the first half of the 20th century. He
feared for India’s future and preservation of its rich history and customs in the
Enclosure movement
Industrial Age. However, others embraced industrialization and its subsequent
Industrialization
opportunities for modernization, social mobility, and technological innovation. In
this chapter, we will explore the costs and benefits of the Industrial Revolution.

131
 Daily life before industrialization started in Great Britain and caused sweeping changes around the
world. This global event transformed how people worked, played,
The Industrial Revolution (ca. 1750-1900) may have involved
traded and traveled. It changed politics, economics, and family
fewer beheadings per capita than preceding political revolutions,
structures and continues to shape our world today.
but it was certainly transformative for people in all walks of life. In
Europe, feudalism was a thing of the past, but without modern Changes in agriculture spur changes in industry
forms of transportation, the average person still had to rely on
Improvements in agriculture, such as those represented in the
their local community for the production of food and durable
flowchart above, resulted in greater yields and increased
goods. Prior to industrialization, most people lived as farmers; life
efficiency. However, these methods also required large tracts of
revolved around subsistence agriculture. People worked the land
land. Therefore, landowners started closing off areas of land
with simple, homemade tools to grow their own food. Production
during the enclosure movement. Prior to enclosure, much of the
of goods (clothing, for example) happened on a small scale, often
farmland in Europe
within workers’ homes. Trade happened on a small scale within
was used for
communities. Life expectancy was short, although it had
communal grazing
increased at a slow rate since the Middle Ages. All of this,
and cultivation. The
however, would change dramatically as the Industrial Revolution
enclosure movement
displaced peasants,
who migrated to
urban areas seeking
work and a new place
to call home.
Population increased
due to the
improvements in
agriculture and
Image source:  http://www.flowofhistory.com/sites/foh.gargtech.com/
subsequent food
files/images/FC109.preview.png)

(Data source: https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/cjp-rbi-communities-blogs/wp-content/blogs.dir/383/ 132

files/2015/02/Life-expectancy-GDP-capita.png )
surpluses. Together, these factors created an urban population
capable of staffing factories necessary for industrialization.

New technology

In its most basic form, industrialization is a shift from manual

labor to machines. The focus shifted from agriculture, driven by
human and animal labor, to industry, driven by machines,
assembly lines, and fossil fuels. Inventions affected numerous
aspects of society. For example, Jethro Tull’s mechanized seed
drill and Eli Whitney’s cotton gin increased agricultural efficiency.
The steam engine, first developed by Thomas Newcomen and
revamped for greater efficiency by James Watt, was used in both
the mining and transportation industries. Earlier mills using water
power had to be located near a water source; with the steam
engine, factories could be located anywhere. Textile production
became mechanized with the flying shuttle,spinning jenny, and Interactive 6.1 Industrial
improvements to the loom permitting mass production. Modern Revolution Timeline
city skylines are possible due to the Bessemer process, enabling
mass steel production, and the Otis Elevator Company.
Communication could now travel faster than humans, thanks to
the telegraph and telephone. Better understandings of vaccines
and bacteria led to fewer diseases and prolonged life expectancy.

Learn more about some of the

major innovations in the Industrial
Revolution.

133
Section 2

Great Britain Leads the Industrial Revolution

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY As you read the rest of this chapter, use a G>SPEC organizer (like the one below)
1. What were the political and economic to help you organize the role that geography played in the development of social,
impacts of the Industrial Revolution? political, economic, and cultural impacts.  

2. How and why did the Industrial Revolution

cause shifts in population?

3. What new forms of technology propelled

the Industrial Revolution?

4. How did the Industrial Revolution shape the

distribution of global power?

5. How did the Industrial Revolution change

society?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Capital
Factors of Production
Enterprises
Mercantilism
Putting-out-system
Cottage Industry

134
Industrialization may have been a
global phenomenon, but it certainly
Interactive 6.2 Crash
occurred at different rates in varying Course - The Industrial
regions. One thing is for sure, though: Revolution
Great Britain led the way. In addition
to improvements in agriculture and an
increase in population, several factors
converged to put Great Britain at the
forefront of industrialization. For a
thorough overview of some of the
main points of this section, watch this
Learn more here!
John Green video: Coal, Steam, and
(Image source:  https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Barmen_(1870).jpg)
the Industrial Revolution: Crash Course #32.

Natural Resources

Economics connection: Great Britain had all the factors of

Great Britain had a wealth of natural resources that helped
production in place to move forward with industrialization and turn
catapult the nation to the forefront of industrialization. Because of
profits: land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship.
its location, England had an abundance of natural ports and
navigable rivers.  Rivers were a huge supplier of water power and
allowed for additional construction of canals which dramatically
increased accessibility for trade.  As fossil fuels replaced human
and animal energy sources, coal became essential to
industrialization (particularly due to steam engines). Iron was also
key, as it was used to build machinery and smelted into steel. By
the 1850s, Great Britain (comparable in size to the state of
Oregon) was supplying about half of the world’s iron ore and

135
mining two-thirds of its coal.  And in certain areas of England, Demand and a favorable economy
large amounts of linen and woolen cloth were being produced--
Great Britain’s leadership in industrialization was the result of a
valuable resources of the textile industry.
perfect storm of domestic and international circumstances. The
population boom created a workforce with income to purchase
newly manufactured goods. However, entrepreneurs needed
investors with capital or money used to invest in enterprises--
business organizations in areas such as shipping, mining,
railroads, or factories.  Moreover, Great Britain was able to
provide a national infrastructure to facilitate progress. Its stable
government was willing and able to promote economic growth.
The Bank of England provided necessary capital and currency to
pay wages.

Internationally, Great Britain held an established colonial empire

which was a critical component of mercantilism--a theory and
system of political economy in several European countries after
the decline of feudalism, based on the reliance of raw materials
from colonies overseas.  Colonies supplied raw materials to
support industrialization, in addition to markets to sell finished
goods. For example, cotton grown in the American south was
valuable to the British textile industry. Great Britain was also
known for its navy, which protected the empire while enabling
shipping and trade.

 http://cbweaver.wikispaces.com/file/view/UK_industrial_revolution.jpg/61331830/
UK_industrial_revolution.jpg

136
Textile industry

Textiles were among the most significant goods in the world

during the pre-modern time period. India, with its large population
and favorable climate, was a leader in textile production. It took
50,000 hours of manual labor to spin 100 pounds of cotton, using
traditional Indian tools. British merchants tried to organize their
own cloth industry back home in England through the putting-
out system.  Also known as the cottage industry, raw cotton
was distributed to peasant families who spun it in their own
homes and then threaded it into cloth.  However, under this
system, production was slow.  Fortunately, the increased demand
for cloth resulted in the invention of multiple textile machines.
 The mechanization of the textile industry in Britain, thanks to
Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733, Hargreaves’ spinning jenny in 1764,
and Arkwright’s water frame in 1769, reduced the number of labor
hours required to produce 100 pounds of cotton to 300 hours in
the 1790s, and 135 hours by the 1830s. The textile factory-based
production system had been born.

Transportation revolution

Great Britain had ample natural resources to produce goods and Image source: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/rail/image018.gif

markets ready to purchase them, but none of that would have

mattered without the ability to transport the goods to their construction of turnpikes--private roads built by entrepreneurs
destinations. Factories throughout the country needed who charged those who utilized them tolls or fees.  During the
inexpensive, efficient methods to transport raw materials and the 1700s, a network of canals was expanded by other entrepreneurs
products ready for sale. Some capitalists invested in the to connect industrial centers throughout the country. As an island
137
nation, Great Britain had natural ports and numerous rivers that
enabled the construction of canals. These waterways promoted
trade and transmission of goods.

The inventions of the steam locomotive and railroads went hand

in hand, and were major catalysts
for the transportation revolution. Interactive 6.3 Crash
Course: Railroads and the
Railroads were often regarded as Industrial Revolution
the most significant change in
transportation in all of human
history; while airplanes and
automobiles would keep the
revolution forging ahead, it was
railroads that kept it chugging
along. For a detailed synopsis of
While viewing the video, pay
the impact on multiple aspects of attention to Green’s take on how The expansion of railways had political and economic
society, view the following John railroads altered perceptions of
ramifications. Constructing such a large scale network of
time, space, distance, and leisure.
Green video: transportation required oversight and organizations, prompting
national governments to step in. Towns and cities would vie to
The basic idea of transport by rail
have railroads built along routes that would benefit them and
existed in Great Britain in the 1700s, used primarily by coal
promote prosperity, so governments had to step in and make
mines. Railroads were appealing because they didn’t have to be
decisions. Governments also created standards for safety
built near a water source, unlike canals. Modifications to James
measures and types of equipment, so trains could transfer from
Watt’s steam engine and processes to purify iron resulted in the
track to track and run in a uniform manner throughout the nation.
advent of the steam locomotive. The result was a dramatic
While perhaps an unintended consequence, railroads brought
escalation in railway construction, both in Great Britain and other
national unity and increased political power.
nations around the globe.

138
Opposition

It is worthy of note, however, that industrialization was not

universally embraced. In Great Britain, a group called the
Luddites violently opposed the industrial revolution that was
taking place.  In early 1811, General Ned Ludd and his Army of
Redressers began sending threatening letters to manufacturers in
Nottingham because many factory owners had lowered wages
and were replacing skilled workers with unskilled workers.  The
Luddites began organized machine smashing parties. The
government responded forcefully by placing rewards in exchange
for information regarding the identity of the Luddites.  By 1812,
the government had passed a law making the destruction of
machinery a capital offense.  Today, the term “Luddite” has
become part of our modern vernacular, used to describe a person
who opposes technology.

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Section 3

Industrialization Spreads

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. What were the political and economic

impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

2. How and why did the Industrial Revolution

cause shifts in population?

3. What new forms of technology propelled

the Industrial Revolution?

4. How did the Industrial Revolution shape the

distribution of global power?

5. How did the Industrial Revolution change

society?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Tariffs
image source: https://revolutionsarethelocomotivesofhistory.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/d-5-19.gif
Corporation
Stock In addition to Great Britain’s internal factors conducive to industrialization, there
were external factors that help explain why other nations didn’t industrialize as
early or as rapidly. First, Great Britain took intentional measures to protect their
innovations and maintain a competitive edge. Second, other European nations
were experiencing varying degrees of political disunity. As an island, Great Britain
remained segregated from conflicts and turbulence on the mainland, such as the

140
French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars in Europe. Third, longtime rival of France. The tariffs resulted in the persistence of
natural resources such as coal and iron were either lesser in older, less efficient means of textile production and metallurgy. In
quantity or more spread out, making them more difficult to mine addition, natural resources of coal and iron were less abundant in
and distribute than in Great Britain. France than in Great Britain, Germany, or the United States.
Population growth occurred at a slower pace in France than in
In 1851, Great Britain hosted The Great Exhibition to showcase
other Western nations. Nevertheless, the Industrial Revolution did
the nation’s progress in innovation and technology. This became
take  hold in France as railroads expanded and the factory
a turning point, as it sparked other nations to industrialize. The
system replaced the domestic system.
first nations to follow Great Britain’s lead were those that were
closest geographically-- Belgium, France, and Germany in Europe Germany
and the United States in North America.
Germany was politically divided in the early 1800s. After
Belgium unification in 1871, industrialization occurred at a rapid pace.
Germany followed the British model, importing technology and
Belgium was the first nation on the European mainland to
sending people abroad to learn about the innovations in Great
industrialize. Geographically, it had a network of waterways that
Britain. The construction of railroads linked urban centers of
behooved transportation. As a small nation, its iron and coal
manufacturing with valuable coal and iron deposits in the Ruhr
resources were near each other. Although Great Britain forbade
valley. Germany focused primarily on heavy industry with less
the transmission of its technology to other nations, skilled British
emphasis on textiles, preferring instead to import them from
workers emigrated to Belgium and used their knowledge and
Great Britain. Germany experienced exponential growth in steel
expertise to help kick start textile manufacturing.
production, even surpassing Great Britain in the 1890s. The
France combined factors of unification and industrialization elevated
Germany as an emerging military and imperial powerhouse in the
Due in part to lingering effects of the French Revolution, the pace 20th century.
of industrialization was more gradual in France than in Great
Britain. The French had protectionist tariffs, or taxes on imports The United States
and exports. These were especially punitive toward Britain, a

141
As a much larger nation than any single European country, more Americans led by Commodore Matthew Perry forced the
expansive territory meant more expansive natural resources for Japanese to open up to trade in 1853. Quickly realizing that
the United States. It also meant that railroads were essential to dramatic changes were happening elsewhere around the globe,
traverse the nation and link resources to manufacturing locations; Japan made a concerted effort to catch up with the Industrial
the first intercontinental railroad was built in 1869 to connect Revolution. After seeing China influenced by European
territory east and west of the Mississippi River. Like Belgium, the imperialists with modern weapons, Japan felt is was necessary to
United States mechanized the textile industry with British be proactive. During the Meiji Restoration, starting in 1868, Japan
emigrants leading the way, which sparked urbanization. Most sent scholars abroad to learn from the United States and Western
factories were concentrated in the Northeast. Notable inventions Europe, and brought Westerners to Japan to spread their
unique to the United States include the electric lightbulb and knowledge.
telephone. Eventually, smaller companies trended toward mergers
Japan caught the world’s attention during the Russo-Japanese
to form larger companies. Corporations emerged as companies
War (1904-1905). It started as a rivalry over territory in Manchuria
who sold stocks, or shares of ownership, to raise capital for
and Korea, and exemplified how industrialization could beget
investment and expansion. Prominent examples include the
military and political power. The Japanese victory was significant,
Standard Oil Company, founded by John D. Rockefeller and the
as the first instance of an Asian nation defeating a European
Carnegie Steel Company, founded by Andrew Carnegie. The Civil
power in the modern era.
War also fueled a manufacturing boom, particularly in the arms
industry. As domestic demand subsided following the conclusion
of the Civil War in 1865, sales were redirected to international
markets. Another factory unique to the United States was an
initial concern about a labor shortage, which led to an influx of
immigrant workers in the latter half of the nineteenth century.

Japan

Japan stands out as a non-Western example of industrialization.

As an island nation, Japan was staunchly isolationist until

142
Section 4

Social Transformation

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY It’s ironic really--the Industrial Revolution was, by definition, mechanical in nature.
1. What were the political and economic Yet, it managed to affect nearly every aspect of human society. The overall pace of
impacts of the Industrial Revolution? life was transformed. Prior to industrialization, families
worked at their own pace, producing goods in their Interactive 6.4 Filthy Cities
2. How and why did the Industrial Revolution
cause shifts in population? own homes under the domestic system with materials
provided by entrepreneurs. Workers’ earnings were
3. What new forms of technology propelled
the Industrial Revolution? contingent on the number of items produced. The
pace quickened dramatically with the onset of the
4. How did the Industrial Revolution shape the
distribution of global power? factory system, which required workers to keep pace
with machinery. Workers were also paid by the hour,
5. How did the Industrial Revolution change
society? under the supervision of others seeking to maximize Learn more about how
profits. The Industrial Revolution deserves a great deal industrialization affected the
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE growth and development of cities
of credit for the high standard of living we enjoy today, in this video.
Domestic system but there was an initial price to pay.
Factory system
Urbanization
Urbanization
Tenements Coketown lay shrouded in a haze of its own, which appeared impervious to the
Labor union sun’s rays. You only knew the town was there because you knew there could have
Nuclear family been no such sulky blotch upon the prospect without a town. A blur of soot and
smoke, now confusedly tending this way, now that way, now aspiring to the vault of
Heaven, now murkily creeping along the earth, as the wind rose and fell, or

143
changed its quarter: a dense formless jumble, with sheets of cross
light in it, that showed nothing but masses of darkness—
Coketown in the distance was suggestive of itself, though not a
brick of it could be seen.                                                                

The quote above is from Hard Times by Charles Dickens. The

novel is set in Coketown, an industrial city in England.

Generate a mental image of Coketown based on the (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Revolucion_industria.jpg)

description in the quote. What else would you expect to see

there?

Dickens describes Coketown as “a blur of soot and smoke.”
Can you think of anything the soot might symbolize?


By 1850, Great Britain was the first nation in the world to have an
urban population that outnumbered its rural population. Other
nations would soon follow the same trend of urbanization, as
cities grew to accommodate the rapid influx of people looking for
work. Because cities were built so quickly, they were often poorly
planned with narrow streets and crowded tenements,or
apartment buildings. Many tenements housed entire families in
one room, with one account of a house sheltering 63 residents in
7 rooms.
Image source: http://images.slideplayer.com/27/9253651/slides/slide_90.jpg

144
Poor sanitation was another result of poor urban planning. Clean Social Classes
water became a luxury reserved for the rich. Open sewers ran
During Europe’s Middle Ages, social classes were largely defined
through the streets, transporting human, animal, and industrial
by the feudal structure. Land ownership governed the hierarchy
waste unchecked by regulation. Consequently, diseases (e.g.
and defined the haves and have nots. However, that would shift
cholera, tuberculosis, typhoid, typhus) were rampant. During the
significantly as the Industrial Revolution provided new means of
summer months of 1858, the weather was exceptionally hot. The
wealth and alternative paths to social mobility.
smell resulting from the filth in London’s Thames River was
overwhelming and paralyzed the city. People implored the As a whole, the status of the aristocracy declined as most of their
government to intervene. The event came to be called The Great wealth was derived from land ownership; industrialization
Stink.  Air pollution was commonplace and working class families provided different opportunities to amass wealth. The artisan
battled malnutrition. In response to these living conditions, rates class diminished as its members gravitated toward small
of alcoholism and crime rose. business ownership or wage labor.

The Industrial Revolution paved the way for new groups in

society: the working class and middle class. The working class
differed from their peasant predecessors because they mainly
labored for hourly wages in factories, rather than performing
agricultural duties. Also, for the first time in history, a middle class
emerged. Members of this new middle class included owners and
supervisors of industrialized factories, mines, railroads, and the
like. Women’s roles varied by social class; working class women
were more likely to labor in factories whereas middle class
women tended to spend the bulk of their time performing
domestic duties.

Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Punch-

A_Court_for_King_Cholera.png/1280px-Punch-A_Court_for_King_Cholera.png
145
Demographic Shifts more available food, fewer plagues, and advancements in
medicine and science.
The Industrial Revolution had massive impacts on human
population. In 1800, a person could expect to die during their The distribution of population changed as well. Communities
thirties. A person born after 1900 could expect to live into their grew as settlements sprung up in areas conducive to factories,
fifties, thanks to improvements in the overall standard of living. such as those near water and natural resources such as coal and
Higher birth rates and lower death rates combined for an overall iron. People also migrated on larger scales. For example,
increase in population. These changes can be attributed to industrialization in the United States attracted and international
improvements in sanitation, better living and working conditions, workforce. Skilled British workers sought higher wages in
America, and staffed textile factories, shipyards, and coal mines.
Immigrants fleeing the Irish potato famine in the mid-1800s hoped
for a brighter future in America.  Workers came from France,
Germany, Italy, Poland, and Russia with reasons ranging from
high unemployment rates to disease outbreaks and Anti-Semitic
sentiment (violence and negative attitudes toward Jews). From
the other side of the globe, Chinese immigrants went to America
and found work in gold mines, railroad construction, agriculture,
and factories. Stay tuned for further examples of global
migrations spurred by industrialization in the chapter on global
imperialism.

146
Working Conditions programs exist to support people who were injured on the job or
unemployed.
Working conditions in urban
Interactive 6.5 Factory life In the working class, women and children also held jobs to make
factories were much different than
Activity
those in rural farms. During the ends meet, although they typically earned lower wages.
early phases of the Industrial
Refer to the tables below. What similarities and differences exist
Revolution, workers labored under
when comparing child labor in the mining and textile industries?
difficult conditions. The work day
What are some possible explanations for these similarities and
could last up to 14 hours per day,
differences?
6 days per week. The work itself
was both physically and mentally
exhausting, due to repetition and This plan includes resources and
activities regarding working
boredom. Workers who arrived conditions.
late could find themselves locked
out of the factory and docked half a day’s wages as punishment.
Working around steam engines was very hot. Early machines had
few safety precautions, resulting in
injuries and amputations of fingers,
hands, and arms. Dangerous conditions
in mines resulted in explosions and
cave-ins. A surplus of laborers meant
that wages remained low, and
unemployed workers were available to
replace those who were ill, injured, or
unwilling to endure the harsh
conditions. Keep in mind, there was no
public assistance nor did social welfare
Image Source: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1WPCkxED4nDpgoeDBmNlK8EfMmgsWSvp8ltCjHnf3MtE/edit, data from https://eh.net/encyclopedia/
child-labor-during-the-british-industrial-revolution/ 147
      Our grave-rest is very far to seek.

Ask the aged why they weep, and not the children;

     For the outside earth is cold;

And we young ones stand without, in our bewildering,

     And the graves are for the old."

Lines 25-36 of “The Cry of the Children,” a poem by

Elizabeth Barrett Browning, exerpted from http://
www.wwnorton.com/college/english/nael/victorian/
topic_1/children.htm
Image source: https://upload.wikimhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Childlabourcoal.jpgedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/b/b3/Childlabourcoal.jpg

They look up with their pale and sunken faces,

     And their looks are sad to see,

Refer to the passage above. What can you infer about the
For the man's hoary anguish draws and presses
Industrial Revolution’s impact on children?

     Down the cheeks of infancy;

"Your old earth," they say, "is very dreary,

     Our young feet," they say, "are very weak!

Few paces have we taken, yet are weary —

148
Reform Laws they became ill, got injured, or retired. Labor unions employed
strategies including collective bargaining and strikes to leverage
Rapid changes in industrialization resulted in many people living
their unity.
in poverty and fed up with working conditions. Some advocates
for change came from within industry, such as Robert Owen.  As
a manufacturer-turned-reformer, Owen ran textile mills in New
Lanark, Scotland. He sought to improve the standard of living for
his workers by transforming the entire community. Owen took
Interactive 6.6 Timeline of Reform Laws
steps to improve housing, lower crime rates, improve the quality
of education, regulate alcohol consumption, and improve
sanitation.

Other advocates for change turned to legal means. Some

politicians were motivated to improve the plight of the working
class, whereas others sought change to avoid a possible
revolution stemming from the discontent. A series of laws
improved living and working conditions.

Labor Unions

While some reforms were initiated by factory owners and

politicians, organizations of workers also developed to advocate
for better conditions. These organizations evolved into labor
unions, or groups of people in a trade or profession working
together to protect their rights and further their interests. Chief Learn more about the reform laws passed in this era in this interactive.

concerns included wages, setting parameters for work hours,

safety in the work environment, ending child labor, negotiating
health benefits, and setting up programs to support workers if

149
Effects on Gender and Family chose to devote time to social and political causes. More women
attained high school and college diplomas. Doing the shopping
Industrialization had massive impacts on social structures,
meant that women had more economic power as consumers.
especially gender roles and families. Prior to industrialization,
Engaging in these arenas laid an important foundation for women
village life offered support networks including friends, neighbors,
to seek voting rights; several industrialized nations awarded
and extended family. However, typically migrants left villages and
suffrage to women in the early 1900s.
moved to urban areas as nuclear family units, including only
parents and children. The result was feeling less supported and
more isolated in cities.

Under the domestic system, home and workplace were one in

the same; men and women shared tasks. However, the factory
system meant that families were no longer the primary agents of
production. Gender roles diverged as a result. Working class
families had men, women, and children traveling to separate job
sites each day. Middle class families typically had men going to
work while women stayed home.

Female laborers were important in early factories, especially in

textile manufacturing. However, the textile industry was also a
leader in mechanization, with machines replacing human workers.
Most female factory workers were young, intending to work a few
years before marrying and having a family. Women’s overall status
(relative to men) declined over time, furthering the divide in
gender roles. Increasingly, men took on traditional roles as skilled
laborers and breadwinners while women performed domestic
duties. However, there were ways in which middle class women
took on new, important roles in society. Housewives sometimes
150
Section 5

Industrialization Promotes New Thinking

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY During the first phase of the Industrial Revolution, between 1790 and 1850, British
1. What were the political and economic society became the first example of what happens in a country when free-market
impacts of the Industrial Revolution? capitalism had no constraints. Significant social, political, economic, and cultural

2. How and why did the Industrial Revolution

changes occurred rapidly as the result of mass urbanization in the nation’s
cause shifts in population? industrialized cities.  

3. What new forms of technology propelled One British economist who studied the effects of the population explosion brought
the Industrial Revolution?
on by the Industrial Revolution was Thomas Malthus.  Through careful study of
4. How did the Industrial Revolution shape the crowded slums, widespread hunger, unemployment, and much misery, he
distribution of global power?
published his work.  In An Essay on the Principle of Population, published in 1798,
5. How did the Industrial Revolution change Malthus concluded that because the population was increasing at a faster rate
society? than the food supply could accommodate, poverty was unavoidable. Malthus was
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE just one of many who tried to understand the onslaught of significant changes
taking place during the first phase of the Industrial Revolution.  
Laissez-faire
Utilitarianism Just as significant as the demographic work of Malthus, was that of Adam Smith.
Communism  In his best-selling book, The Wealth of Nations, Smith asserted that a free
market--unregulated exchanges of goods and services would come to benefit
everyone--not just the wealthy or upper class.  Smith further asserted that the free
market would produce more goods at lower prices, making them affordable to
everyone.  Furthermore, as the economy continued to grow, capitalists would
reinvest profits in new ventures.  This cycle would happen without the interference

151
of government, known as a laissez-faire or “hands off” proponent for individual freedom because he believed it
approach. guaranteed an individual’s happiness, he saw the need for the
government to become involved under certain circumstances.
Even though Malthus was also a laissez-faire economist, his view
 Another utilitarian, John Stuart Mill, believed that the government
was in sharp contrast to the economic views that Smith held.
should step in to help improve the lives of the working class by
 Malthus was convinced that the only checks on population
placing some restrictions on middle-class business owners.  Mill
growth (the root of widespread misery) were nature’s methods of
additionally called for workers and women to have the right to
war, disease, and famine.  Therefore, Malthus urged families to
vote because he believed that they could then pool their political
have less children. Many accepted his bleak view during the early
power to win reforms.  Very slowly (not until the later 1800s) his
1800s as lifestyles changed for the worse.  Although as the
views were accepted.
century progressed, and the population boom continued, the
food supply grew even faster, thus disproving his primary theory. The Emergence of Communist Thought
 As the century progressed, living conditions slowly improved and
One of the greatest revolutionary ideals to emerge from this time
people did begin having fewer children.  
was led by Karl Marx in the 1840s. Marx condemned the ideals of
While laissez-faire economists such as Smith, Malthus, David Utopians such as Robert Owen as being unrealistic.  Teaming up
Ricardo, and a few others studied the impacts of industrialization with Friedrich Engels, their book, The Communist Manifesto
on the nation’s economy and the importance of no government expanded upon concepts behind a communist society.  A form of
interference, other thinkers utilized the economic theory to justify socialism, according to Marx, communism went one step further.
modifications to the role the government should play in the  According to Marx, class struggle was inevitable and would lead
nation’s economy.  Jeremy Bentham was one such person.  By to a classless society in which all wealth and property would be
1800, Bentham was a strong advocate for utilitarianism, or the owned by a community as a whole.   Marx also stated that the
idea that the goal of society should be to attain “the greatest only real change can come from a revolution.  His manifesto
happiness for the greatest number” of a nation’s citizens.  became the working man’s code of equality.  This idea set the
 Bentham believed that all actions or laws should be judged by European world on fire.  Middle class workers, along with the
their “utility.”  In other words, was the end result more pleasure or lower class workers suddenly were working together to get what
happiness than pain?  And while Bentham was a strong they believed they were owed.  Thus began a whole new era

152
pitting the proletariat or working class against the bourgeoisie, or
upper class.  By the 1860s, Germany had adopted a social
democracy, a political ideology in which a gradual transition
occurred from that of a capitalistic system to a socialistic one
thus avoiding a violent overthrow of the system.  Toward the end
of the century, socialists in Russia had embraced Marxism and
the outcome of the Russian Revolution in 1917 established a
communist government.

Marxism Eventually Loses its Appeal

Marx had argued that workers would unite across national

borders to wage class warfare.  Nationalism, however, trumped
unity of the working class and by the end of the 20th Century, few
nations still retained Communist forms of governments. The
capitalistic system was back.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.png

After looking at the above graphic how would you answer the
following question: Is this how Capitalism is seen today?

  Explain any differences or similarities.  Be sure to use
specific examples.

153
Chapter 7

Why did Europe’s

Influence in the World
Outpace that of Other
Geographic Regions?

What were the consequences of political and

nationalistic revolutions?

What factors contributed to the growth of nation-

states and the rise of nationalism?

How did the growth of nation-states in Europe differ

from that in the rest of the world?

How was China weakened by European influence?

How did Japan build itself into a world power in a

short time?

Section 1

Nation Building in Europe

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Following the Congress of

1. What were the consequences of political Vienna in 1815, the
and nationalistic revolutions? achieved goal was the re-

2. What factors contributed to the growth of

establishment of peace and
nation-states and the rise of nationalism? the restoration of balance
among the European
3. How did the growth of nation-states in
Europe differ from that in the rest of the powers. Following the
world? Napoleonic Wars, Europe
4. How was China weakened by European entered a period of relative
influence? calm under the former
conservative, sovereign
5. How did Japan build itself into a world
power in a short time?
 governments. However, this
period did not last long as Europe as agreed upon at the Congress of Vienna, 1815

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE liberal and nationalist forces (Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_congress_of_vienna.jpg)

Nationalism Militarism gained more influence.

Nation State Reichstag Nationalism is similar to what we call patriotism in the United States: love of one’s
self-determination Kaiser country. It is also a movement to assert the interests of one nation separately from
conservatism Reich those of other nations, and the desire for a people with a common background to
liberalism live independently under their own rule. Many peoples in Europe eventually would
civil liberties achieve self-determination by forming nations out of areas which were once
Risorgimento small kingdoms or principalities, or areas ruled by emperors. One was Belgium,
Realpolitik
155
which rebelled from the Dutch Republic in 1830 to form an
independent nation-state.

Other ideas about political power that were in conflict during

this era were conservatism and liberalism. Most of the
representatives to the Congress of Vienna believed in
conservatism. Their belief in tradition and social stability led
them to re-establish the monarchies of the 18th century and
not accept the demands of the people who wanted
representative governments or even individual rights. On the
other hand, many liberals believed in the the ideas of the
Enlightenment and wanted people to be as free as possible
from government interference with their lives. Liberals wanted
religious freedom, equality before the law, and civil liberties.
They did not, however, want a democracy; liberals felt a
monarchy that was controlled by a constitution did enough to
Universal Manhood Suffrage established in France
protect the citizens, especially those male citizens who were
property owners like the new industrial middle class. (Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Suffrage_universel_1848.jpg)

REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 country, so the more moderate members of the government

closed the workshops. The people, angered by the decision,
France would again spark a number of revolutions throughout rioted in the streets until the French military had killed thousands
Europe. Poor harvests, economic issues, and general unrest and arrested thousands more. A new constitution was eventually
resulted in the abdication of King Louis-Philippe in 1848. The new ratified, calling for universal manhood suffrage, a representative
government called for free elections and also set up national assembly and a popularly elected president.
workshops - government-funded public works projects, such as
building roads or planting trees - to provide work for the many When news of the rebellion and new republic in France reached
unemployed French people. This threatened to bankrupt the Germany, the people demanded similar rights from the many
156
leaders within the German Confederation. An all-German Empire. With the assistance of rebels in other Italian states, and a
parliament chosen via universal manhood suffrage met in plan to create a constitution unifying all of Italy, the Lombard and
Frankfurt with the intention of writing a constitution to unify the Venetian revolutionaries rose up. Like the rebels in the rest of the
German states into one nation. The resulting constitution, empire, they were soon defeated and the plans to unify Italy were
however, was not accepted by many of the German leaders, so temporarily crushed.
this movement toward unification was unsuccessful. The leaders
After the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna restored Italy
of the revolution in Germany had difficulty deciding whether or
to its status before
not they should include the German-speaking areas of Austria
Napoleon (see chart).
and Prussia in their united Germany. This action would have
Many of the regions,
created a large, unified nation in central Europe that would have
such as Lombardy and
been difficult for other European nations to defend themselves
Venetia in the north,
against in the event war broke out.
were controlled by
The Austrian Empire included people of many different ethnicities, outside, non-Italian
and their nationalism emerged with a number of demonstrations powers. This division
in the Empire’s cities. The Hungarians were granted their own would soon lead to a
legislature, and the Czechs demanded the same. Determined to desire for Risorgimento
re-establish control, the Austrian military with the assistance of which literally meant
Russia crushed the rebels in “resurrection”, and
Prague, Vienna, and across Interactive 7.1 Empires referred to the
and Nationalism
Hungary, dooming the reunification of the
revolutions in the Austrian Italian city-states. The
empire to failure. Italians in the movement began with
northern provinces of the revolutions of 1848
Lombardy and Venetia also and continued in the
attempted to free themselves northern kingdom of
Camillo di Cavour
from the control of the Austrian Sardinia when Camillo
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/
Learn more here! Camillo_benso_Conte_di_Cavour_iii.jpg)
157
 di Cavour was appointed Prime Minister in 1852. Once they had control of Sicily, Garibaldi and his army crossed
over to mainland Italy and eventually controlled all of the Kingdom
Cavour began to put together an army and formed an alliance
of the Two Sicilies. Concerned over Garibaldi’s rising popularity
with French emperor Napoleon III, and the Italians and French
and power, Cavour sent the Piedmont army under the new
together then provoked the Austrian Empire into a war in 1859.
Piedmont King Victor Emmanuel II into the territories just outside
The French-Italian alliance was victorious, and under the peace
Rome. These territories as well as the Two Sicilies voted to join
terms, Austria surrendered Lombardy.  Cavour granted Savoy to
Piedmont and created the Kingdom of Italy, with all territory
France as promised in their alliance. Additional small northern
except Venetia and Rome. Italy gained Venetia as a result of the
Italian states overthrew their governments and voted to join
Austro-Prussian War in 1866; the Italians agreed to assist Prussia
Cavour’s Piedmont. Meanwhile, in southern Italy, Giuseppe
in return for Venetia. When the French withdrew from Rome
Garibaldi organized an Italian nationalist army known as the Red
during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the Italian army
Shirts to assist the revolution on Sicily against the Spanish.
occupied all but a few blocks around the Vatican which would
become the Vatican City.

Interactive 7.2
Reunification

Check out this video to see how

reunification took place.

Giuseppe Garibaldi leading the Red Shirts against the Spanish at the Battle of Calatafimi (Image source: https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Battle_of_Calatafimi.jpg)
158
GERMANY dominance. After consolidating control of Schleswig and Holstein,
Bismarck annexed the northern German states and convinced the
Prussian King Wilhelm I appointed Otto von Bismarck as prime
states in the south to ally because of their fear of French
minister in 1862, and tasked him with strengthening the Prussian
imperialism.
military and expanding Prussian power. The Prussians were
known for their military strength and use of militarism to govern When a relative of the Prussian king became eligible to become
their territory. Bismarck also the King of Spain, France worried that they would be surrounded
developed a new idea about making by Prussian power. Napoleon III of France insisted that Wilhelm
political decisions, called Realpolitik, should oppose Prince von Hohenzollern from becoming Spain’s
in which he focused not on political king. The French ambassador - Count Benedetti - and Wilhelm
theories, ideology, and morality, but discussed the situation, but Bismarck made it sound like they had
instead relied on practicality and had a serious disagreement in the edited telegram he sent to the
pragmatism. Alliances would only be French government (See interactive). This telegram was enough
important as long as they served his to cause the already tense situation between the two nations to
purpose, and democracy was only a boil over.  On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia.
means by which to consolidate and
strengthen the nation. He constantly
monitored the domestic and Interactive 7.3 The
international situations to determine Bismark Telegram
the best time to advance his
agenda.

Bismarck convinced Austria to help him defend Schleswig and

Holstein against a Danish invasion with plans to then provoke the
Austrians into a war. In June 1866, Austria declared war on
Prussia and the Austrians were defeated in only seven weeks
Learn more here!
time, in part due to Prussian advantage in arms and military

159
Again, due to Prussian military dominance and organization, the Collapse of the Ottoman Empire
war would be a short one. The Franco-Prussian War effectively
As new nation states like Germany and Italy were taking hold in
ended on September 2,1870, when the Prussian army invaded
Europe, old empires were losing control because of government
France and captured the French army and Napoleon III; the
corruption, lack of technological development, and weak
French however, did not formally surrender until January 28,
leadership. The once powerful Ottoman Empire that stretched
1871. Meanwhile, on 18 January of that year, Wilhelm was
across the Middle East was faced with revolts from various ethnic
crowned Kaiser Wilhelm I, Emperor of the Second German
groups during the 1800s. European powers scrambled to take
Empire at the palace of Versailles, setting up future conflict
advantage of the weakening Ottoman Empire and divided up
between the French and the Germans. The peace treaty ending
Ottoman lands. The Slavic areas to the north of Greece, including
the war further divided the two nations by forcing France to pay
Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro began to win their
$5 billion francs to Germany and annexing the French territories
independence after Greece won its independence in 1829. Bosnia
of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German empire.
and Herzegovina were under the control of the weakening
Austro-Hungarian Empire. Serbia wanted Bosnia and
Herzegovina for itself. To complicate the situation further, Russia
was allied with Serbia. This made the Balkan region a hotbed of
political turmoil that would later lead to worldwide conflict in the
20th century.

160
Section 2

Opium Wars and Rebellion in China

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Opium

1. What were the consequences of political
The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) expanded China to its largest size in history, but the
and nationalistic revolutions?
decision by China’s leaders to practice isolationism and not expand trade or
2. What factors contributed to the growth of
establish relationships with European powers doomed their nation to eventual
nation-states and the rise of nationalism?
submission. Additionally, their swiftly growing population caused mass famine, and
3. How did the growth of nation-states in the government became corrupt or incompetent. European traders were restricted
Europe differ from that in the rest of the
world?
to one small trading post located in the port of Guangzhou. Chinese products such
as silk and porcelain were in high demand in Europe, but the most important trade
4. How was China weakened by European
influence?

5. How did Japan build itself into a world

power in a short time?


TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Opium Boxer Rebellion
Opium War
Treating of Nanjing
Taiping Rebellion
Hong Xiuquan
Confucianism
Treaty of Tianjin
Dowager
161
product - especially for the British - was tea. The British trade, or even took bribes to allow it to continue. As the Chinese
purchased so much tea from the Chinese that British silver Emperor realized that many of his people were becoming addicts
reserves declined to very low levels. There were no British and that the Chinese supply of silver was shrinking, he appointed
products that the Chinese wanted, so there was no way for the Lin Zexu as Imperial Commissioner. Lin quickly began working to
British to make up their trade deficit until the British East India ban the sale and use of opium throughout China.
Company began the trade and smuggling of opium.
First Opium War

Lin confiscated crates of

opium from ships in
Guangzhou harbor and
arrested almost 2000 opium
dealers. After composing a
poem apologizing to the
creatures and gods of the sea
for polluting their home, Lin
had the opium mixed with salt
and lye and thrown into the
ocean. British traders
appealed to their own
Opium is a drug made from a specific type of poppy flower that government for restitution,
grew in the British colony in  India, among other places. The which the British government
Chinese had used opium as medicine for centuries, but using it couldn’t afford, so they established a blockade in protest. Lin sent
recreationally was illegal. There was, however, a market for a letter to Queen Victoria, calling out Britain’s hypocrisy in forcing
recreational opium in China that the British began to exploit by a product on the Chinese that was illegal in Britain. The British
directly importing and smuggling the drug in exchange for silver soon made war on the Chinese to re-establish the opium trade.
that they used to purchase tea and other Chinese goods. Many
Chinese government officials looked the other way regarding the
162
The First Opium War (1839-1842) included a strong British Christianity, Confucianism, and other ancient Chinese ideas.
advantage in arms, and their modern ships made short work of Much of what the Tai Ping rebels pursued in their rebellion would
the old and slow Chinese junks. Additionally, the British captured look quite similar to the goals pursued by the Chinese
Qing tax barges in the Yangtze river, cutting off a main source of Communists a century later, such as the holding of property in
revenue for their opponents. common.
When the Chinese eventually
Interactive 7.4 The Treaty In 1853, Hong’s forces captured the city of Nanjing, and by the
of Nanking surrendered, the British drew up
late 1850s, held over a third of the country. Realizing the power of
the terms of the Treaty of
the Tai Ping forces, and the potential disruption to their trade
Nanjing (1842) in their favor, and
profits, the British aided the Qing Dynasty’s objective to defeat
leading to this being called on of
the rebels. In a brutal and bloody series of battles that cost
the “unequal treaties” of the
period. Gains made by the
British included most favored
nation status and
Take a look at the treaty and
answer the questions that follow. extraterritoriality for its citizens
living in China.

The Tai Ping Rebellion

China had a long history of peasant uprisings and groups

challenging the power of the emperors, royal family, and nobility.
Perhaps the most important of these uprisings was led by Hong
Xiuquan, a Chinese Christian who believed God had tasked him
with the mission to destroy the Qing Dynasty.  Peasants flocked
to his cause, and he soon declared a new Chinese Dynasty - Tai
Ping Tianguo - where peasants were granted land and women
were treated as equals to men. Their beliefs combined ideas from

163
millions of dollars and at least twenty million lives, the Tai Ping that the Chinese government had seized his ship, imprisoned the
Rebellion was finally crushed in 1864. crew, and taken down the British flag. When their request was not
fully honored, the British attacked Chinese forts in Canton. The
British destroyed a number of Chinese ships and again worked
their way up the Yangtze to capture cities and forts. The Chinese
refused to ratify the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, leading to
additional warfare.

The British asked the United States, Russia, and France to join
them against China, with the French playing a large role.
Officially, the U.S. was neutral, but they managed to capture four
forts with just under 300 sailors. The French joined the British in
taking several forts along the waterway to Beijing, leaving the
capital city without defenses. To further punish the Chinese, the
European allies looted and destroyed the Summer Palace. The
Chinese were finally forced to agree to the Treaty of Tianjin,
which was amended to include more punitive measures against
the Chinese. Additionally, China was forced to open more ports
to the west, allow foreign ships to navigate on the Yangtze River,
allow foreigners to travel to the interior of China, and let foreign
Second Opium War powers to establish embassies in Beijing. The Chinese also had
to pay significant bounties of silver (over 180,000 pounds each) to
In the middle of the Tai Ping Rebellion, the Chinese were forced to
the British and the French, further weakening the Chinese
fight a two-front war; one against their own rebelling people, and
government.
another against the British. To make their trading easier, the
British began registering the Chinese ships they traded with as
British ships. In late 1856, a Chinese capitan told British officials

164
Foreign Influence and Attempts at Reform

Based upon the several treaties ending the Opium Wars, foreign
governments began to establish spheres of influence throughout
China. The weakened Qing Dynasty could do little to oppose
European and Asian powers negotiating with local provincial
leaders for additional trade privileges, mining rights, or the
authorization to build railroads. The Chinese fought other minor
wars in this period, including against the French for control of the
Indochinese Peninsula, and against Japan for control of Taiwan
and influence in Korea. In 1898, Emperor Guangxu attempted to
reform and westernize China in a series of orders known as the
Hundred Days Reform. Many Chinese opposed these reforms,
believing that foreign influence would lead to the downfall of
China. In response, the Empress Dowager Cixi, Guangxu’s aunt
and former Chinese regent, reclaimed power and ended the
reforms.

165
The Boxer Rebellion http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2007/07/09/the-talibans-
opium-war
The Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists arose in the
1890s as a response to both foreign influence in China during the
19th century, and natural disasters such as drought and flooding,
especially in Shandong Province. The Society gained the
nickname “Boxers” from Westerners observing their martial arts
that resembled shadow boxing. The Boxers believed that with
proper training and prayer, they could become immune to attacks
by cannons and guns. Their mission to “destroy the foreigner” led
them to kill Chinese Christians, foreign Christian missionaries,
and foreign businessmen. Empress Cixi threw her support behind
the Boxers, further angering the foreign governments, resulting in
the invasion of China and capture of Beijing by a multinational
force including soldiers from eight nations (Austria-Hungary,
Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, and the United
States). Cixi accepted the rather generous treaty, guaranteeing
that China would not have to give up territory to the foreign
powers, but the long-term effect of a century of warfare and
rebellion weakened the Qing dynasty enough that it would be
overthrown in 1911.

Activity: After reading the articles below, write an essay/create a

Venn Diagram that compares/contrasts the Opium War in China
to what has happened in more modern times in Afghanistan.

http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/16/world/asia/afghanistan-
opium-heroin-taliban-helmand.html?_r=0
166
 Section 3

Japan

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Since the 17th century, Japan had been a feudal nation under the rule of the
1. What were the consequences of political Tokugawa shogunate. The shogunate was named for Tokugawa Ieyasu who took
and nationalistic revolutions? control of Japan in 1603. His descendants continued to rule Japan for over 200

2. What factors contributed to the growth of

years and closed the nation to outside influence.
nation-states and the rise of nationalism?

3. How did the growth of nation-states in

Europe differ from that in the rest of the
world?

4. How was China weakened by European

influence?

5. How did Japan build itself into a world

power in a short time?


TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Japanese Feudalism Prefecture
Tokugawa Shogunate Shintoism
Shogun Zaibatsu
Samurai
Meijii Restoration
Charter Oath
Oligarchy
Daimyo
167
The “Opening” of Japan Perry sailed on to China only a few days later, but when he
returned with a larger fleet six months later, it was enough to
United States Commodore Matthew C. Perry sailed into Edo
intimidate the Japanese into agreeing to the Treaty of
(Tokyo) Harbor in the summer of 1853 with a fleet of four ships
Kanagawa. This treaty opened two Japanese ports to the West,
and an offer from the U.S. government to open relations between
established a U.S. consulate in Japan, and arranged for humane
the two countries. Perry also brought with him a letter from
treatment and return of shipwrecked American sailors. A later
President Millard Fillmore asking for better treatment of American
treaty negotiated by U.S.
sailors shipwrecked in Japan, as well as the possibility of trade
Consul Townsend Harris -
between the United States and Japan. Perry sent another letter
considered an “unequal
threatening military intervention if the Japanese did not agree.
treaty” like those negotiated
between Europeans and
Interactive 7.5 The Filmore China - opened additional
Letter ports, established
extraterritoriality, set low
import and export duties,
and allowed for freedom of
religion in the foreign
settlements. European
nations soon signed similar
“unequal treaties” with the
Japanese.

Some groups were extremely unhappy with the treaties,

especially the samurai in the south of Japan. In 1863, samurai
from the territories of Satsuma and Choshu formed an alliance to
force the shogun to abandon the treaties with the western
nations. In 1868, the alliance attacked the shogun’s palace,

168
starting the Boshin War, which ended with the surrender of the set out the goals for the restoration and described a path forward
shogun and the reestablishment of the power of the Emperor. for Japan in the modern world.

The Charter Oath, 1868

By this oath, we set up as our aim the establishment of the

national wealth on and broad basis and the framing of a
constitution and laws.

1. Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established

and all matters decided by open discussion.

2. All classes, high and low, shall be united in vigorously

carrying out the administration of affairs of state.

3. The common people, no less than the civil and military

officials, shall all be allowed to pursue their own calling so that
The Meiji Restoration there may be no discontent.

The allied samurai realized that restoring the Emperor would not 4. Evil customs of the past shall be broken off and
be enough to strengthen Japan against the foreign influence, and everything based upon the just laws of Nature.
that the nation would have to modernize to keep up with the rest
5. Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world so as
of the world. The Emperor took the name Meiji which means
to strengthen the foundation of imperial rule.
“enlightened rule,” so the period is known as the Meiji
Restoration. The samurai, knowing there was significant Questions:
uncertainty among the Japanese people as a result of the
1. What do you think the people of Japan thought about
overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate, wrote up a document that
this document? Compare the ideas of the samurai, the supporters
is often considered the first constitution of Japan, called the
of the shogun, the peasants, and the merchants.
Charter Oath. This simple document consisting of only five points,

169
 2. What did the authors mean by “deliberative was difficult for the peasants in years of poor yield - under the
assemblies” and “open discussion”? Did they intend Japan to be previous system they may have paid no tax if there was a drought
a democracy? Did Japan become a democracy?
 and under the new system payment was required regardless of
whether or not they made a profit.

Although the language of the oath seemed to proscribe a The government leadership did adhere to the fifth point of the
democratically-elected government, in actuality the samurai Charter Oath, and in 1872 traveled to Europe and the United
leaders of the alliance controlled the nation through an oligarchy. States to study Western government, society, and industry.
Modernization began with the dismantling of the feudal system - According to many conservative samurai, reforming Japan along
the daimyo were forced to give up their domains and the land Western lines violated the entire reason for overthrowing the
was redistributed into prefectures. In most cases the daimyo were shogun, so they united to actively resist the government. Led by
allowed to remain as rulers of the prefectures, and were influential samurai Saigo Takamori, the Satsuma Rebellion
reimbursed for the loss of their lands with
government bonds. The hierarchical class
system was abolished, and all Japanese
people were considered to be equal.
Eventually the samurai were banned from
wearing their swords, and most entered
occupations in the government bureaucracy
and other professions. In 1872, a nationally
conscripted army was formed, requiring every
male to complete three years of military
service. The tax system was also reformed;
instead of paying a portion of their crops,
farmers were required to pay a percentage of
the value of their land in cash. This helped the
government to fund the variety of reforms, but

170
engulfed much of the southwestern portion of Japan, and can be persuade the Western powers to renegotiate the “unequal
considered a civil war in that region. The highly organized, treaties” of the 1850s, which they did in 1894.
Western-style imperial army, armed with modern guns and
Sino-Japanese War, 1894-1895
artillery, defeated the samurai and their traditional fighting
methods after only a few months. China had always claimed Korea as a dependent state. In 1876,
Japan negotiated a trade treaty with Korea, opening their ports to
Social and Economic Reforms
foreign goods for the first time. Eventually, Korea split into pro-
Point three in the Charter Oath called for economic freedom and and anti-Japanese factions, and the resulting tension between
the right to choose one’s occupation. Many peasants took China and Japan led to public support for increased Japanese
advantage of this freedom when they could not afford to pay the intervention in Korea. In 1885, China and Japan negotiated the
higher taxes, and moved to the cities to work in the new Treaty of Tientsin, an agreement to remove all troops from Korea
industries. The government invested in a number of and inform each other if they planned to send troops back. When
communication, transportation, and manufacturing enterprises, the Korean government requested Chinese support to put down a
but soon realized that this was a costly endeavor. In 1880, the revolt in 1894, the Japanese felt the treaty had been broken, and
government decided to sell the majority of the industries and then they sent troops to Korea who eventually captured the capital and
promote the establishment of new industries through financial control of the Korean government. The Japanese crushed the
incentives such as tax breaks and subsidies. Eventually, buyers Chinese in a naval battle prior to the official declaration of war,
built up extensive monopolies called zaibatsu that came to and the Japanese were again victorious in the first land battle at
control much of Japanese industry by the end of the Meiji period. Pyongyang.

A national education system was established in 1872, requiring all After inflicting several defeats on their Chinese opponents, the
Japanese to learn not only academic subjects like reading, Japanese split their army, sending one into Manchuria and the
writing, and mathematics, but also “moral” subjects, such as duty other toward Port Arthur. Both places fell to the Japanese, who
to the emperor, one’s community, and one’s family. The Meiji then also captured the port of Weihaiwei in Shantung Province
Constitution, which went into effect in 1890, created a parliament, and began an invasion of the Pescadores Islands near Taiwan. An
but only a small percentage of Japanese were eligible to vote. attack on Beijing was planned, but China asked for peace before
Japan also revised their criminal and civil codes in order to it could be carried out. China agreed in the Treaty of Shimonoseki
171
to give the Pescadores, Taiwan, Port Arthur, and the Liaotung Liaodong Peninsula back to Japan, agree to recognize the
Peninsula to Japan and also to pay them a large compensation Japanese sphere of influence on the Korean peninsula, and
for their war damages. Concerned over the increased Japanese remove their troops from Manchuria. Japan also received the
power in Asia, Germany, France, and Russia combined to force remainder of Russia’s lease of Port Arthur and the southern
the Japanese to return Port Arthur and the Liaotung Peninsula to portion of Sakhalin Island.
China. A later Russian lease of Port Arthur angered the Japanese
and laid the groundwork for the Russo-Japanese War at the
beginning of the 20th century.

Russo-Japanese War, 1904-1905

Following the Boxer Rebellion in China, Russia occupied

Manchuria and Japan occupied Korea. Both nations wished to
expand their sphere of influence in East Asia, and planned to use
those occupations as a base of operations. In 1904, the Japanese
launched a surprise naval attack on the Russian base in Port
Arthur. Japanese troops then attacked the Russians in Manchuria
and the Liaodong Peninsula. The Russians mobilized their Baltic
fleet, sailing from the Atlantic all the way to the Pacific, but
suffered an embarrassing defeat by the recently-established
Japanese navy. Although they believed themselves to be the
most powerful military in the world, the Russians were no match
for the Japanese army or navy and were forced to surrender after
just over a year and a half.

United States President Theodore Roosevelt acted as a mediator

between the two nations, which would earn him the Nobel Peace
Prize. In the terms of the peace treaty, Russia had to give the
172
Activity: 8. How did competition with the West modernize Japan?


View the video and answer the following questions:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Nosq94oCl_M&index=34&list=PLBDA2E52FB1EF80C9

1. What is John’s definition of the modern nation-state?

2. How is public education often seen as as part of a

nationalizing project?

3. What are some examples of conflicts that gave way to

emerging nations?

4. Beginning in 1603 and lasting over 250 years, what

was the main government of Japan and what did it offer?

5. What warrior class was an odd feature of the

Tokugawa era?

6. What two events rocked Japan and contributed to the

crumbling of Tokugawa control in Japan?

7. What steps did a newly-throned Emperor Meiji and his

leadership implement in order to unify Japan?


173
 Section 4

India

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY For more than 200 years, a powerful empire endured in India, governed by Mughal
1. What were the consequences of political rulers.  But by the mid-1700s, the Mughal empire began to collapse due to a lack
and nationalistic revolutions? of strong rulers.  Seizing the opportunity to capitalize on political gain, the British,

2. What factors contributed to the growth of

who already had a strong economic relationship within the country, began to
nation-states and the rise of nationalism? increase its power in India.  Since the early 1600s, the British East India Company
had won trading rights along the fringes of the Mughal empire.  200 years later, by
3. How did the growth of nation-states in
Europe differ from that in the rest of the the mid 1800s, the company controlled three fifths of India--both economically and
world? politically.  
4. How was China weakened by European
Actions by the East India Company leads to Rebellion
influence?

5. How did Japan build itself into a world Exploiting Indian Diversity--The exploitation of India’s diversity was one way the
power in a short time?
 British were able to conquer India.  As India was home to many people and a wide
variety of cultures, society became fragmented as Mughal power declined. Due to
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE such a wide spectrum of languages and traditions, unity against British actions
British East India Indian National was not possible.  The British took advantage of divisions by encouraging
Company Congress competition which led to disunity among the rival princes. When diplomacy and in
Sepoys Muslim League some instances intrigue proved fruitless, the use of more advanced weaponry by
Viceroy the British overpowered local rulers.

Deforestation
Ram Mohun Roy
Purdah

174
Implementing British Policies to undermine Hindu beliefs and promote Christian ones.  Finally in
1857, the British government issued new rifles to its sepoys. This
When the East India Company began trading in India in the
was a huge problem because the tips of the rifle cartridges had
1600s, its main goal was economic--to utilize India’s natural
been greased with animal fat. As cows were sacred to Hindus
resources and human capital to make as much money as
and pigs were forbidden by Muslims, it should have been no
possible.  As a result, many Indian officials grew rich.
surprise that sepoys would refuse to reload their rifles.  Troops
Simultaneously, the East India Company worked to improve the
were then sent home without pay, causing very bad relations
country’s roads, preserve peace, and reduce theft. The British
between the people of India and the British.
saw efforts by the East India Company as an opportunity to
introduce institutional “ways of the west” by introducing Western Rebellion and Aftermath
education as well as political ideology.  Additionally, missionaries
Sepoys rose up against their employers--British officers. Named
attempted to convert Indians to Christianity as it was seen as a
the Sepoy Rebellion, fighting swept across central and northern
superior religion. Social change was also a goal of the British as
portions of India.  As several regiments of sepoys marched to the
many worked to end slavery and the caste system and to improve
old Mughal capital of Delhi, once there, they proclaimed the last
the position of women in the family setting. One law that was put
Mughal ruler as their new leader. While many British men,
into place was the banning of the Hindu custom of sati--an upper
women, and children were massacred throughout India, the
class ritual that involved a wife throwing herself on her husband’s
British were able to eventually
funeral fire.
crush sepoy revolts while
Interactive 7.6 The Sepoy
Discontent Grows instituting a terrible revenge Mutiny
which involved slaughtering
Starting in the 1850s, the company enacted policies that were
thousands of unarmed Indians.
very unpopular with the Indian people.  First, sepoys, or Indian
 Substantial changes in British
soldiers who were employed by the East India Company, were
policy were enacted as an
required to serve anywhere at the discretion of the company.  For
attempt to move past the bitter
high-caste Hindus, overseas travel was seen as an offense
legacy of hatred, fear, and
against their religion. Second, the company passed a law making
mistrust on both sides. In 1858,
it legal for Hindus to remarry which was seen as a blatant attempt Learn more here!

175
rule by the East India Company was ended and the British crown  Because of these benefits, the British built roads and railroad
ruled India. networks throughout the country. By 1869, when the Suez Canal
opened, trade between Britain and India soared. The partnership,
British Colonial Rule and its Impact
however, was unequal, greatly favoring the British.  India’s once
As the British crown began to rule India, viceroys--a thriving hand-weaving industry was wiped out once British
representative who governed in India in the name of the British machine-made textiles flooded India. Additionally, traditionally
monarch, were established.  Below is a picture of some of India’s nomadic herders were shifted to agriculture which included the
viceroys. growing of many types of cash crops that could be sold world
wide.  Much of the clearing that was done to India’s forests
resulted in massive deforestation throughout the country.

Famine and Substantial Population Growth

Because of new farming methods and medical improvements by

the British, increased food production and better healthcare led to
rapid population growth.  Unfortunately, India’s food supply was
greatly strained as more and more cash crops were grown in
replace of food. To add to its problems, by the late 1800s, terrible
British officials held top positions in civil service but Indians filled famines swept throughout the country.
most of the other jobs.  But while British officials saw their ruling
Benefits to British Rule
efforts as attempts to modernize India, not all Indians believed
progress in modern practices was necessarily a positive thing.   Under British rule, India’s legal system was revised, promoting
justice for all Indians, regardless of class or caste thus restoring
An Unequal Partnership
peace and order throughout the country.  Improved
For the British, India was seen as both a market for British communication and advances in transportation helped reduce
factory-made goods as well as Indian raw materials such as regional tensions and increased national unity. Economically,
cotton, jute, and coal to be transported to British factories.

176
Indian landowners profited immensely from large exports of cash leaders that would come later in India’s history, he is often viewed
crops. as the founder of Indian nationalism.  Check out the short video
below to learn more about this important Indian leader.
A Clash of Cultures
The Growth of Indian Nationalism
Some upper-class, educated Indians who appreciated British
power and technological advances, encouraged fellow Indians to During the years of British rule, it was thought by many, that an
embrace Western progress.  Others believed that change for India elite class of Western-educated Indians would bolster British
was through existing Muslim or Hindu cultures. power throughout the country.  This did not happen--by the late
1800s, Indian elites led a nationalist movement with hopes of
One Indian who combined both views was Ram Mohun Roy.  An
ending imperial rule.
Indian scholar who knew many languages, Roy believed that his
country could learn from some of the ways of the West.  He One of the first steps nationalist leaders felt was necessary to be
founded Hindu College in Calcutta, a school educating its free of British influence and rule was to establish a political party
students in Western education. Roy used those educated in that would promote independence.  In 1885, the Indian National
Western ways to help establish English schools throughout the Congress was organized.  Becoming known as the Congress
country.   party, members were strong proponents of peaceful protest to
achieve their goals.  While looking
Roy also worked toward social Interactive 7.7 Raja Ram forward to eventual self-rule, the Interactive 7.8 Rise of
reform in India by condemning Mohan Roy
Indian National Congress did Indian Nationalism
some Indian traditions such as sati,
support Western-style
child marriage, and purdah, the
modernization, believing that
isolation of women in separate
greater democracy would help
quarters.  However, Roy also
bring more power to Indians. To
worked to revive pride in India’s
get a sense of the conditions under
culture by establishing educational
which the Congress was formed,
societies.  Because of the
Learn more here from Google! please view this short clip:
significance of his influence on

177
In the first years of the formation of the Indian National Congress,
Muslims and Hindus worked collaboratively to achieve Indian
self-rule.  Over time, however, Muslims began to resent Hindu
domination of the Congress party. Due to fears that a Hindu-
dominated government would end up oppressing Muslims, in
1906, Muslims formed the Muslim League to pursue goals that
Muslims saw as only pertaining to Muslims.  Eventually members
of the Muslim League began talking about a separate Muslim
state in India.  

178
Section 5

The European Miracle - A Performance Task

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Just as you did earlier in the book you will now undertake a performance task
1. What were the consequences of political where you will view multiple sources and answer sets of questions.
and nationalistic revolutions?
View Crash Course “Asian Responses to Imperialism” and answer the questions
2. What factors contributed to the growth of below.
nation-states and the rise of nationalism?

3. How did the growth of nation-states in 1. Why does John emphasize that when we rely on studying historical
Europe differ from that in the rest of the texts, we should note the origin, particularly those of European writers?
world?
2. According to historians and Asian intellectuals, what reasons were given
4. How was China weakened by European
influence? for European dominance over Asia?

5. How did Japan build itself into a world 3. What, if anything from western imperialism, do Asian communities
power in a short time?
 borrow and integrate into their own communities?

4. Why did India struggle with the idea of nationalism?

5. What other factors finally made it possible for Europeans to colonize

Asia?

6. What is “rule through and by the natives?”

179
 7. In colonized areas, why might native princes and Middle: $2000-$20,000

landowners have put up with European imperialism?
 High: over $20,000


View 200 countries, 200 years, in four minutes: Joy of Stats 9. Why are money and health related? Are there
exceptions on the graph? Why might countries be unhealthier
Then look at the Gapminder website to view and manipulate the
than those with the same or very similar incomes?
graph.
10. Go back to 1800. Why was poor health everywhere,
Take note of the following:
even in the richest countries? Why was the UK the richest in
1. Each country in the world is a bubble. 1800?

2. The size of the bubbles represents the population size 11. Replay from 1800 to today. Stop at 1950 and think
of the country. about the following important changes:

3. The color represents the regions of the world. 12. Health improved everywhere (What were the important
medical advances that happened around this time?)
4. The vertical axis is the average life span.
13. The “catch-up” of the East
5. The horizontal axis is the income per person.
14. The boom of the oil-producing countries
6. Look at the situation in 1800 - most countries are poor
and have poor health. 15. Stop in the 1980s. What health setback occurred
across the world in the early 80s?
7. Click play and see the progress from 1800 to today.
16. See if you can find the following major national,
8. Take note of the income gaps - you can divide most regional, or global disasters on the graph:

countries into one of three groups:

Low: under $2000

180
 Irish potato famine
 Now answer the questions below:
World War I
1. Can you delete the apps, and is the West in the
Spanish Influenza pandemic
 process of doing so? Which app do you think is most in danger of
The Great Depression
 being deleted in the United States?
Famine in the Soviet Union

2. Does the sequencing of the download matter? Could
World War II

Africa, for example, get the sequencing wrong? Do property
Famine in China

rights have to precede democracy?
Cambodian genocide

Rwandan genocide
 3. Can China do without app #3 (property rights)? Could
Asian economic crisis
 other developing nations do without another of the apps? Explain
which app(s) you think they could do without, and why you think
they could achieve prosperity without them.
Now view Niall Ferguson’s TED Talk, “The Six Killer Apps of
Prosperity.” 4. Explain which app you think is most important to
achieving the level of prosperity of the United States and other
Make a list with a short description of the six “apps” he talks
Western nations?

about. Ferguson asks some questions in the video that you will
revisit below.

You can also consult the PBS website companion to Civilization:

The West and the Rest that gives more information about the six
killer apps.

Finally, read the author interview and excerpt from Ferguson’s

book.

181
 Chapter 8

Why did
Revolution sweep
the world?

1. How did Russia’s social structure and autocratic rule impact its
economy?

2.  What were some of the social and political problems that occurred as a
result of Russia’s industrialization?

3.  How did the events of Bloody Sunday mark a turning point for the
Russian people?

4.  How did political unrest increase after the Revolution of 1905?

5.  What were some Parliamentary reforms in Britain between 1815-1848?

6.  What values did Queen Victoria represent and how did these values relate
to economic reform?

7.  What were some of the biggest reforms in British politics under Benjamin
Disraeli?

8.  How did the series of social reforms in the mid 1800s reflect Queen
Victoria’s values?
 Section 1

Growing Pains in Russia

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Russia: Reform and Reaction

1. How did Russia’s social structure and autocratic rule
By 1815, Russia could claim it was the largest and most populated nation in
impact its economy?
Europe, along with being a great world power. But, was Russia a great world
2. What were some of the social and political problems
power?  Explorers had been expanding the Russian frontier eastward across
that occurred as a result of Russia’s industrialization?
Siberia toward the Pacific Ocean since the 1600s. Both Peter and Catherine the
3. How did the events of Bloody Sunday mark a turning Great had acquired
point for the Russian people?
lands on the Baltic
4. How did political unrest increase after the Revolution of and Black seas.
1905?
 Tsars in the 1800s
5. What were some Parliamentary reforms in Britain had expanded
between 1815-1848?
territory into Central
6. What values did Queen Victoria represent and how did Asia resulting in a
these values relate to economic reform? huge empire that
7. What were some of the biggest reforms in British politics existed within two
under Benjamin Disraeli? continents--Europe
8. How did the series of social reforms in the mid 1800s and Asia. As other
reflect Queen Victoria’s values? nations in Europe
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE looked at the
Colossus Refugees Russian colossus, or
Emancipation Proletariat giant with mixed
Zemstvos
Russification
183
Pogroms
thoughts--economic envy because of Russia’s immense natural Emancipation and Other Reforms
resources but fear of expansionist motives under an autocratic
Pressed to initiate reform from every angle, Alexander II finally
government, both Peter and Catherine knew that Russia would
agreed to certain reforms.  In 1861, through a royal decree,
need to westernize.  However, by the 1800s, although tsars tried
emancipation, or freeing of the serfs took place.  Although this
to modernize Russia, reforms thought to undermine absolute rule
newly found freedom of the largest social class of Russians
resulted in Russia remaining economically underdeveloped.
created its own set of problems that perpetuated economic
A significant obstacle to reform was Russia’s very rigid social poverty because peasants now had to buy the land they had
structure.  Society had been dominated by landowning nobles worked for years, emancipation was a turning point that boosted
who rejected any change that would threaten their privilege of the push by many for further reforms.
nobility.  Middle class members of society were too small in
Another reform that Alexander instituted was the establishment of
number to initiate any institutional change and the majority of
serfs were peasants who would forever be enslaved by their a local system of government.  Zemstvos--elected assemblies

masters, many of which were landowners. were granted responsibilities for the maintenance of local matters
involving roads, agriculture, and schools.  This reform was seen
Russia’s Antiquated Systems are Exposed as significant because it was the first time Russians had
experience with self-government.
During the Crimean War in 1855, Alexander II came into power.
 This war had broken out after Russia had tried to seize Ottoman Other reforms included a reduction in the level of censorship by
lands along the Danube River.  As both the British and the French the government, the implementation of political concepts such as
stepped in to assist Ottoman Turks, the Russian army was trial by jury.  Terms of military service were reduced and brutal
defeated.  It was this war that had exposed Russia’s antiquated discipline was limited. An emphasis on the development of an
ways and its lack of a railroad system and its inefficient military. industrial base was also encouraged, although it would take
 Upon this exposure, many both inside and outside of Russia much time as Russia was still an agrarian nation.
believed that drastic changes in the country were needed.

184
From Reform to Ideas of Revolution 3.     What was the issue the rebel groups had with the tsar’s
government?
Although Alexander saw his reforms as significant
accomplishments, to many Russians, they were not enough. 4.     What was the goal the rebel groups hoped to accomplish?
 Radicals, with socialist ideas adopted from the West, called for
5.     How does the assassination impact that goal?
more revolutionary changes. The response by the tsar was
repression--just the opposite of what had been demanded. Now on the throne, Alexander III responded to his father’s
 Radicals became angered and some turned to terrorism. On assassination by reinstating the harsh methods that had been
March 13, 1881, terrorists assassinated Alexander II in the streets enacted by Nicholas I which included an increased presence of
of St. Petersburg. the secret police, strict censorship, and exile of critics to the
harsh land of Siberia.  An extreme form of nationalism, Alexander
Interactive 8.1 Tsar
Alexander Assassinated III launched his program of Russification which was aimed at
suppressing all non-Russian cultures within his empire.  This
included one language and only one church which was the
Russian Orthodox Church.  Persecution was suffered by many
including Finns, Armenians, Jews, Muslims, Poles, and
Ukrainians.

During the 17th century, Russian and Poland had split much of
For a short video on the the territory of what is currently Ukraine along the Dnieper River.
assassination of Tsar Alexander,  A century later, Russia’s advance continued under the rule of
click here.
Catherine the Great, who wanted to expand her empire with the
Video Questions- acquisition of fertile riverlands while at the same time collapsing
the Ottoman empire so Istanbul would be seen as an extension of
1.     Whose assassination leads to the path of revolution in
Moscow’s reach.  In Russia, under Alexander III, persecution of
Russia?
Jews increased as the tsar placed limits on the number who
2.     Which groups worked to assassinate the tsar? could attend universities and serve in certain professions.

185
Additionally, they were forced to live in restricted areas of Russia. Growing Discontent Leads to Revolution in 1905
 Pogroms, or violent mob attacks by gangs were encouraged by
As war broke out between Russia and Japan, news of Russia’s
the government and became so prevalent that many persecuted
military disasters quickly spread.  It was this issue that was
Jews fled Russia and as refugees, fled their homeland to seek
responsible for the eruption of discontent, created by years of
safety in the U.S.  
oppression by the Russian government.  As the working class or
Industrialization is Finally seen as Important proletariat went on strike demanding better working conditions,
liberals called for reforms to overhaul the oppressive government.
Under Alexander III and then his son Nicholas II, Russia finally
began to industrialize.  During the 1890s, the government under
Interactive 8.2 Russian
Nicholas II began to focus on economic development.  Railroads Revolution of 1905
were seen as a critical transportation system to connect natural
resources to factories and then for the transportation of goods
across Russia.  Investment was also made in capital to continue
to develop transportation methods.

While business leaders and government officials greatly approved

of economic growth, both nobles and peasants opposed it,
fearful of the changes it might bring to the country.  As peasants For an excellent description of
rushed into cities to work in factories in search of a better life, what happened next, watch this
short video:
they found the opposite, often working long hours in dangerous
conditions for very little pay. Just like other countries
experiencing rapid industrialization, the challenges of urbanization
occurred in Russia as well--poor living conditions (slums),
poverty, disease, and growing discontent.

186
Results of the Revolution during this time, but by 1914, as Russia was an autocracy,
simmering unrest was about to reach a boiling point.
The manifesto by Nicholas that announced sweeping reforms
established a Duma, or an elected national legislature.  While it Stolypin wasn’t the only person responsible for the brewing
won over many moderates it isolated Socialists; these divisions unrest of the Russian people.
would help the tsar, who had no intention of allowing any group or  Both Grigori Rasputin, a religious
social class challenge his rule.  When the Duma first met in 1906, wanderer who gained
Nicholas quickly dissolved it because its leaders had criticized considerable influence over
the government and appointed a Alexandra, the wife of Tsar
new prime minister under the Nicholas II, and the Tsar himself
Interactive 8.3 Stolypin’s
guise of restoring order.  Under Reforms were responsible for a divided
Peter Stolypin, arrests, aristocracy, resulting in an
pogroms, and executions began autocratic regime riddled with
once again. corruption.  

In order to gain the support of

the peasant class, Stolypin Interactive 8.4 Rasputin
established agricultural reforms.
 Watch this brief video to learn
about Stolypin’s agrarian
reforms and the result of such
reforms.

Unfortunately, Stolypin’s reforms were “too little, too late,” from

For details about the mysterious
the standpoint of meeting the broad needs of a huge majority of Rasputin and his impact on the
the Russian people.  Unrest grew and in 1911, Stolypin was Romanov family, watch this video:
assassinated in the streets of Russia. Dumas continued to meet

187
Late in 1915, the Tsar dissolved the Duma and left to fight in
World War I.  Alexandra took over the throne and continued
autocratic rule. The continued suppression of rights for the
Russian people and food shortages led the people to revolt. The
Russian Revolution of 1917 involved the collapse of an empire
under Tsar Nicholas II and the rise of Marxian socialism under
Lenin and his Bolsheviks. It sparked the beginning of a new era in
Russia that had effects on countries around the world.

The impact of the Russian Revolution cannot be understated from

both the standpoint of the country of Russia and the impact that
it had on WWI.  (You will return to a study of this significant event
in a following chapter about WWI.) Even though a hundred years
have passed since the revolution, it is important to compare the
similarities of the Romanov rule and that of Russia’s current
president, Vladimir Putin.  

Interactive 8.5 Putin’s

Russia

While viewing the following video,

reflect upon the significant
similarities between both regimes,
past and present.
188
 Section 2

Reform in Britain
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. How did Russia’s social structure and autocratic rule With the Industrial Revolution in full swing (as it had started in the 1770s), in 1815,
impact its economy? Britain was a constitutional monarchy consisting of a parliament and two political

2. What were some of the social and political problems

parties.  As many might assume that because Britain possessed a constitution it
that occurred as a result of Russia’s industrialization? had a democratic government, that was not the case. Granted, the House of

3. How did the events of Bloody Sunday mark a turning Commons was comprised of elected members, less than 5% of the population
point for the Russian people? had the right to vote.  With a tight alignment between economic and social class
and political privileges, those who dominated politics at the time were wealthy
4. How did political unrest increase after the Revolution of
1905? nobles, squires, or country landowners.  The House of Lords, mainly comprised
of hereditary nobles and high ranking clergy, had veto power over any bill passed
5. What were some Parliamentary reforms in Britain
between 1815-1848? by the House of Commons.  

6. What values did Queen Victoria represent and how did Along with economic and social distinctions as factors determining voting rights,
these values relate to economic reform?
religion was also a factor.  For example, Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants
7. What were some of the biggest reforms in British could not vote or serve in Parliament. During the 1820s, reformers tried to put an
politics under Benjamin Disraeli?
end to religious restrictions on voting; after many intense debates, Parliament
8. How did the series of social reforms in the mid 1800s finally granted equal political rights to Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants.  
reflect Queen Victoria’s values?
The next battle came from the perspective of social reform to make Parliament
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
more representative of Britain’s population, consisting of multiple social classes.
House of Commons Free Trade
 During the second phase of Britain’s industrial revolution, the last craft industries
House of Lords Abolition Movement
became industrialized. Additionally, mass-produced consumer goods expanded
Rotten Boroughs Capital Offenses
along with a growing service sector (e/g/, teachers, waiters, lawyers, police, clerks,
Great Reform Act Suffragists
Chartists
189
etc.); gradually, by the end of the 19th century, a middle class had Although a greater voice in politics was given to middle class
emerged.  This caused population centers to shift with some rural men, The Great Reform Act of 1832, did not bring about full
towns losing so many people that there were very few voters or democracy as land-owning nobles continued to remain a
none at all. Rotten boroughs, rural towns that sent members to powerful force in both governmental affairs as well as Britain’s
Parliament despite having few or no voters, continued to exist economy.  
while simultaneously, highly populated newly industrialized cities
From the standpoint of both rural and urban workers, many
such as Birmingham and Manchester had no seats allocated in
demanded more substantial change as the Reform Act did not
Parliament.  
benefit them.  In the 1830s, a group of protesters known as
Initial Acts of Reform Chartists created the People’s Charter.  The petition called for
universal male suffrage, annual elections for Parliament, salaries
By 1830, the Whig Party, mostly comprised of middle class
for members of Parliament, and secret ballot voting.  Upon
individuals with strong business interests, clashed with members
presentation of thousands of signatures on petitions during two
of the Tory Party which largely consisted of nobles, land owners,
separate occasions, Parliament ignored the petitions.
and others whose income came from roots of agriculture over
Capitalizing on the wave of revolution that swept across Europe in
reforms in Parliament.  Finally, in 1832, the Great Reform Act 1848, the Chartists organized a march on Parliament to present a
was passed by members of Parliament.  Although a property third petition.  Although the march was suppressed due to fear of
requirement for voting was still retained, the Act did do the violence, Parliament would later pass laws including most of the
following: Chartists proposed reforms.

1. Seats in the House of Commons were redistributed,

The Victorian Age Brings About a Different Type of Reform
eliminating rotten boroughs and granting representation to large
cities and towns. From 1837 to 1901, Queen Victoria set the tone for what is known
today as the Victorian age.  Although the Queen really did not
2. Suffrage was granted to more men, thus enlarging the
exercise much political power, her reign brought about reforms,
electorate, or the body of people allowed to vote.

many of which were social in nature.  Because her reign lasted 63
years (far exceeding the reign of any other British monarch until
Queen Elizabeth who recently celebrated her Sapphire Jubilee,
190
marking 65 years on the throne in 2015), the best summary of her • Expanding Suffrage--through the Reform Bill of 1867, many
accomplishments and reforms occurs in this video: working class men gained the right to vote, doubling the size of
Britain’s electorate thanks to Disraeli and the modern
Interactive 8.6 The Era of Conservative Party.
Queen Victoria
• Extended Suffrage--in the 1880s, Gladstone and the Liberal
Party extended, through reform, the right to vote by farmworkers
and most other men in the country.  By the end of the century,
along with almost-universal male suffrage, the secret ballot and
most other goals of the Chartists had been achieved.

• Parliamentary democracy--the country had transformed

Learn more here! itself from that of a constitutional monarchy to one of a
parliamentary democracy--a form of democracy in which
executive leaders such as a prime minister and cabinet, are
British Politics Embraces a New Era of Reform

While Queen Victoria continued to push for greater economic and

social justice, a new era of politics in Britain was emerging in the
1860s as old political parties regrouped under new leadership.
 Benjamin Disraeli united members of the Tory Party into a more
modern Conservative Party. William Gladstone did the same for
members of the Whig Party as it evolved into the modern Liberal
Party. Over a 12 year span (1868-1880), Disraeli and Gladstone
would alternate as prime minister as the majority party in
Parliament swung back and forth.  Each, however, fought for
important political reforms.

191
selected by a legislature (usually parliament) and are responsible source of support of Britain’s new industrial society.  Additionally,
to the members of parliament. as union membership soared between 1890-1914, union leaders
were able to help secure higher wages and shorter hours for
• Limiting the power of the House of Lords--a bill passed by a
workers.
Liberal government in 1911, limited the power of the House of
Lords which was seen by a majority of the people as a victory for In addition to multiple economic reforms, a wide variety of social
democracy.   reforms occurred as well.  One such reform was the abolition
movement.  Although in 1807, Britain became the first European
Economic and Social Reforms in Britain soon Follow
power to abolish the slave trade, although banning the slave
Along with significant political reforms that benefited the middle, trade did not end slavery.  Finally in 1833, Parliament passed a
working, and poorer classes, social and economic reforms also law banning slavery in all British colonies.
occurred.  During the mid-1800s, Parliament had passed free
The criminal justice system also experienced reform during this
trade laws.  Free trade is when trade between countries occurs
era.  In the early 1800s, many crimes were classified as capital
without any quotas, tariffs, or other restrictions.  Free traders--
offenses--severe crimes that were punishable by death.
middle class business leaders believed that Adams Smith’s
 Because more than 200 crimes fell into the capital offense
laissez faire policy would lead to an increase in prosperity for
category, juries often refused to convict criminals because the
everyone.  The abolishment of tariffs would create larger markets
punishment was so stringent.  Executions were held in public
in which merchants everywhere could sell their goods while also
which often drew huge crowds and those executed rarely
benefiting consumers from open competition. Unfortunately, by
received a proper burial. These situations prompted reformers to
the end of the century, economic hard times in the country led
push for the reduction of those offenses that had been
Britain (as well as other European countries) to reimpose
considered capital offenses and the death penalty was reserved
protective tariffs on many goods.
only for crimes such as murder, treason, piracy, and arson.  Many
By the early 1900s, Parliament passed a series of reforms aimed petty criminals (those charged with minor crimes) were sent to
at aiding the working class.  Better working conditions, increased penal colonies--settlements for convicts in newly acquired British
safety regulations, and the abolishment of child labor greatly territories such as Australia and New Zealand.  By 1868,
benefited the men, women, and children whose labor were the Parliament ended public hangings and additional reforms

192
improved conditions in prisons and outlawed imprisonment outbreak of WWI in 1914, provided the opportunity for
because a person owed a debt.   suffragettes--the term used in a derogatory manner to describe a
person organizing militant activities and using violent tactics, to
Other social reforms in the late 1800s and early 1900s, included
temporarily halt what many describe as terrorist actions, by 1918,
multiple laws that continued to improve public health and living
Parliament voted to grant voting rights to women over 30 who
conditions in large cities for the working class.  Free education for
owned property.  By 1928, all women were granted the right to
elementary children was legislated and government jobs were
vote.
granted to those who were qualified as opposed to those born
into a certain family or had amassed a significant amount of Although the strategies and and degree of uniformity of suffrage
wealth.   movements around the world differed, the work needed to gain
suffrage crossed boundaries worldwide.  Because the same
In the early 1900s, Britain also passed additional welfare reforms
struggle was occurring in the U.S.
to secure the well-being of the poor and disadvantaged.
during the same time period,
 Modeled after the reforms of Bismarck in Germany, accident, Interactive 8.7 Did violent
comparisons have been made with protest get women the
health, and unemployment insurance protected workers. The
particular regard to the tactics vote?
middle class was encouraged by all of Britain’s reforms and
used. An excellent video that
believed that democracy was finally working.
provides insight on the suffrage
Women’s Suffrage is Finally Secured movement in England and
examines the significance in the
In Britain, as in many cases around the world, women met fierce change in tactics from those of
opposition in their fight for the right to vote.  Initially, under the peaceful protest to that of violent
leadership of Millicent Garrett Fawsett in 1897, and later in 1903, means can be found here:
under the leadership of Emmeline Pankurst, suffragists--the term
used to describe a person who supported women’s suffrage, Ireland’s Instability Initiates Issues
utilized many civil disobedience strategies to appeal to Parliament
Although Britain had undergone major economic, social, and
to gain the right to vote.  When continued civil protests failed,
political reforms that were viewed by the middle and lower
tactics became more aggressive and violent. Although the
classes as prime examples of democracy in action, another
193
significant change was happening right next door in Ireland.  As
you watch this video about Ireland’s instability as an agricultural
nation, ask yourself this question: How do the tenants of
nationalism conflict with the idea of home rule, or local self-
government and how does Ireland’s instability play into this
conflict?

Once again, the outbreak of WWI would temporarily halt the

question of what was to become of relations between Ireland and
Britain.  And although WWI was known as “The War to end all
Wars” on an international scale, issues surrounding nationalism
would turn many countries against one another in the years that
followed “The Great War.”

194
 Section 3

Revolution and Democracy in France

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY After the 1848 Revolution in which Napoleon III rose to power, the Second Empire
1. How did Russia’s social structure and autocratic rule was established.  As the nephew of Napoleon, many from multiple tiers of social
impact its economy? class and ideologies saw him as a capable leader initially.  The bourgeoisie, or the

2. What were some of the social and political problems that middle class, believed he would be a strong leader, capable of restoring order.  To
occurred as a result of Russia’s industrialization? the lower classes, his promise to end poverty was appealing. Regardless of class
stature, the masses were attracted to him as a leader because of his name,
3. How did the events of Bloody Sunday mark a turning
point for the Russian people? associated with memories of glory days of past when France dominated Europe.
 However, unlike his uncle, Napoleon would not return glory to France as an
4. How did political unrest increase after the Revolution of
1905? empire.

5. What were some Parliamentary reforms in Britain Limits to Individual Liberties

between 1815-1848?

6. What values did Queen Victoria represent and how did At the surface level, Napoleon III’s Second Empire appeared to be a constitutional
these values relate to economic reform? monarchy--a monarchy governed according to a constitution that limits and

7. What were some of the biggest reforms in British politics defines the powers of those who are sovereign.  However, Napoleon ruled almost
under Benjamin Disraeli? like a dictator, appointing his own cabinet, the upper house of the legislature, and

8. How did the series of social reforms in the mid 1800s

many officials.  Even though the assembly was elected by universal male
reflect Queen Victoria’s values? suffrage (women had not obtained the right to vote), officials appointed by

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Napoleon III “managed” elections so that supporters of the emperor would win.
 Newspapers endured strict censorship by the government and debate was
Bourgeoisie
 Coalitions
limited. By the 1860s, the emperor started to ease up on some of the imposed
Constitutional monarchy
 Anti-Semitism
Universal male suffrage
 Libel
Ceded
 Zionism 195
Bicameral
controls such as those on censorship and granted some powers
back to the legislature.
Although the Suez Canal did not touch French soil, its successful
Economic Growth under Napoleon III construction, many French hoped, would bring Egypt as a nation,
closer to the French as it was becoming a more developed
Similar to most countries in Europe, France did prosper at mid-
nation.
century.  Investment in industry was promoted and large-scale
ventures that improved France’s infrastructure such as the Additionally, workers were also able to enjoy some of the benefits
building of railroads and the urban renewal of the city of Paris of economic growth to the country.  Labor unions were legalized
were significant achievements.  Additionally, a French by Napoleon at the same time that public education had been
expanded to now include females.  A small public health program
was also created. However, despite some improvements to
society, similar to other industrialized nations, many still lived in
poverty.

Foreign Relations

Along with few improvements in domestic affairs, Napoleon had

even more failures in foreign affairs.  In the 1860s, his attempt to
turn Mexico into a French satellite by placing an Austrian
Hapsburg prince named Maximilian on the throne backfired.
 Mexican patriots resisted fiercely and the United States also
protested this move. After four years of resistance, Maximilian
was overthrown and shot by Mexican patriots.

Another attempt to add territory to France also backfired on

entrepreneur named Ferdinand de Lesseps organized the building
Napoleon.  Although the regions of Nice and Savoy had been
of the Suez Canal.
ceded, or formally surrendered to France in return for French
assistance to Italian nationalists in the defeat of Austria, a united
196
Italy later emerged as a rival on France’s border.  France and with Germany but at quite a cost.  France had to surrender the
Britain ended up winning the Crimean War, but it was little provinces of Lorraine and Alsace as well as pay a substantial sum
compensation for French losses. France ended up with only a of money to Germany. The French were eager for vindication.
small foothold in the Middle East.
The Paris Commune
Simultaneously, France was growing concerned about it’s rival,
In response to the newly elected National Assembly’s costly
Prussia.  Prussia’s leader, Otto van Bismarck was able to
peace with Germany, Communards, or rebels established the
manipulate the French, along with its leader, Napoleon into war in
Paris Commune.  The patriots rejected the harsh peace that the
1870.  For more details about this disastrous conflict for France,
National Assembly had signed with Germany.  Many of the most
watch his short, but informative video.
radical dreamed of the creation of a new socialist order. Naturally,

Interactive 8.8 The Franco the Paris Commune was ordered by the National Assembly to
Prussian War disband.  When the Communards refused, government troops
were sent to retake the city. A civil war raged for weeks which
included the burning of several government buildings and the
slaughter of many hostages.  Ultimately, the government killed
approximately 20,000 rebels. The suppression of the commune
only deepened the social divisions that had already existed within
the country.

Even though the Third Republic was originally set up as a

provisional or temporary government, it remained in place for 70
years.  Consisting of a bicameral or two-house legislature, the
Challenges for the Third Republic
Chamber of Deputies or lower house was elected through
Once French republicans had heard of Napoleon’s capture, they universal male suffrage.  In tandem with the Senate, the president
declared the Second Empire had ended.  A provisional, or of the republic was elected. The president of the republic,
temporary government was established that quickly became the however, had very little power, serving mostly as a figurehead.
Third Republic. By 1871, the National Assembly accepted peace  Real power existed with the premier or prime minister.  
197
Unlike Britain’s two-party system, France had multiple parties had been gathered against him.  Dreyfus, the first Jewish person
which reflected the wide chasm between classes and priorities. to climb to such a high position in the army, was despised by the
 This proved to be quite problematic--with so many parties and military elite. Even though Dreyfus proclaimed his innocence, a
such splits in philosophies of those parties, no single party could court convicted him of treason and sentenced him to life to be
win a majority within the legislature.  This led to coalitions, or served on Devil’s Island--a desolate island that served as a
alliances between the parties.  Once a coalition could control military prison off the coast of South America.  Soon after his
enough votes, it could then name a premier and form a cabinet. conviction, his family began the appeals process. The case split
While there were benefits to multiple party and coalition systems, the country between social and political groups--intellectual pro-
drawbacks also existed.  For example, if a party were to desert a republican leaders clashed with conservative pro-army factions.
coalition, a majority in the legislature could be lost. For that Two years later, new evidence was uncovered that pointed to
reason, many coalition governments were unstable. Within the someone other than Dreyfus as the person who had spied, yet
first ten years of the reign of the Third Republic, 50 different the army refused to grant Dreyfus a new trial.  
coalition governments were formed and fell.  

Political Scandals also played a part in weakening trust in the

government.  From an economic standpoint, France had made
progress during this time period.  Debt owed to Germany as part
of the peace treaty from the war with Prussia had been paid and
the French had expanded their overseas empire.  However, a
series of political scandals between 1880 and 1890 severely
shook the public’s trust in the government.

The Dreyfus Affair and Calls for a Jewish State

In January 1898, Émile Zola, a French novelist published
By 1894, the most serious and divisive scandal was underway.
J’accuse…!, a rallying cry of support for the exoneration of
 Alfred Dreyfus, a high-ranking army officer, had been accused of
Dreyfus. Zola charged the army and the government with
spying for Germany.  At his highly publicized, military trial, neither
suppressing the truth about the details surrounding the Dreyfus
Dreyfus nor his lawyer had been allowed to see the evidence that
198
Affair.  Zola was convicted by the government of libel, or
knowingly publicizing damaging or false statements.  Zola fled
into exile.

Eventually Dreyfus supporters, known as “Dreyfusards,” were

able to make progress, illustrating that the evidence against
Dreyfus had been forged.  In 1906, Dreyfus was cleared by a
French court of all charges and his military honors were restored.
Although it was seen as a victory, the political scars that had
damaged French politics would take some time to heal.

From the social perspective, the Dreyfus Affair reflected the rise
of anti-Semitism throughout Europe.  Due to both the French
Revolution and The Enlightenment, religious toleration had been
emphasized. Because of that, some Jews had been able to
obtain jobs in government and universities; others had achieved
success in business and banking.  However, most Jews
continued to live in poverty throughout Europe.

By the late 1800s, anti-Semitism was again prominent throughout

Europe. Members of the lower middle class who held insecurities
both economically as well as socially and were swept up in an
intense nationalist wave throughout Europe, constituted the Hungarian Jewish journalist living in France at the time, to help
majority of those who grew increasingly intolerant for outsiders launch modern Zionism, a movement devoted to rebuilding a
and developed a violent hatred for Jews. Jewish state in Palestine. By 1897, Herzl had organized the First
Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland with approximately 200
Even though anti-Semitism had existed for hundreds of years, the
people representing 17 countries.   
Dreyfus Affair and the pogroms in Russia stirred Theodor Herzl, a

199
Even though the country had been extremely shaken by the social opposed to women gaining this political right.  Women in France
and political implications of the Dreyfus Affair, France eventually would not gain the right to vote until after WWII.
achieved some reforms in the early part of the 20th century.  From
By 1914, France was the largest Democratic country in Europe
an economic and social perspective, hours and wages were
with basic human rights guaranteed by a constitution.  Generally,
regulated for workers, including the improvement of working
France’s economy was prosperous and its overseas holdings
conditions. Public elementary schools were also established
ranked second in the world, behind that of Britain.  However, due
which reduced the religious power of the Roman Catholic Church,
to political instability through the rise and fall of coalition
which up until that time had regulated education in France.  
governments, the threat posed by German industrial might, and
Another result of the Dreyfus Affair in France was the separation the desire to avenge French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War,
of church and state.  During the affair, Republicans saw the left France in a precarious position.  As the countries of Europe
church as a conservative force that was opposed to progressive would soon be plunged into a world war, France’s might as a
government policies.  After the affair, the government closed world power would soon be tested.
schools run by the church along with many monasteries and
convents. In 1905, a law was passed to separate church and Interactive 8.9 Chapter 7 Analysis
Activity
state.  The result was that Jews, Catholics, and Protestants were
all free to worship as they chose and none would receive any
special treatment from the government.

Thanks to the Napoleonic Code, French women possessed very

few legal rights.  By 1890, a women’s rights movement was
growing in number and fervor. As a result, some gains were
made for women.  For example, by 1896, married women were
granted the right to their own earnings. Like in Great Britain and
the United States, women’s suffrage became a huge social and
political issue, although unlike the U.S. and Britain, radical tactics
were not employed and a majority of men were adamantly

200
Chapter 9

Did Movement
Connect the
World?

What were the political, cultural, and  economic

motives for imperialism in the 19th century?

Why were European powers able to spread

imperialism through Africa, the Middle East, and
Asia so quickly?

How did native peoples respond and or resist

imperialism?
Section 1

What Were the Political and Economic Motives for

Imperialism in the 19th Century?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY What is an empire? What resources are needed to become an empire? You may remember
1. What were the political, cultural, and the term “civilization” which was introduced in your studies of the ancient world in middle
 economic motives for imperialism in the school. Some civilizations grew large and powerful enough to become an Empire, which
19th century? spread outward from where they originated to other parts of the world.
2. Why were European powers able to spread
imperialism through Africa, the Middle An Empire is a  group of countries or regions that are controlled by one ruler or one
East, and Asia so quickly? government. The resources needed to become an empire are:

3. How did native peoples respond and or 1. Industrialization

resist imperialism?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE 2. Natural Resources

Empire 3. Work Force

Social Darwinism
4. Land
Lateen sail
5. A strong military
Magnetic compass

Imperialism
6. Advanced weapons

Balance of trade 7. Most importantly a

powerful structure of political
leadership and allies to support it.

In order for an empire to thrive it must grow.

202
Motivations for Overseas Expansion using an Empire as Social Darwinism.

Europeans had developed superior weapons as result of the This idea often called, “Survival of the Fittest” suggested that
Industrial Revolution. Thus, these weapons made it easier for certain groups of people were better/more likely to survive. Thus,
European powers to conquer people in the Middle East, Africa, they used this as justification for taking over Africa, the Middle
and Asia. During the Industrial Revolution, factories produced East, and Asia. Please read the following source and answer the
finished goods. In order to remain productive, these factories questions that follow:
needed access to cheap raw materials. They also needed bigger
Social Construction of Race and Social Darwinism
markets to sell the finished goods. Overseas colonies provided
both. In the 189Os, British poet Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem entitled
“The White Man’s Burden: The United States and The Philippine
Social and Economic
Islands.” In this poem, Kipling urged the United States to take up
Remember from earlier chapters, that Europeans gained a desire the “burden” of imperialism, as had Britain and other European
for luxury items such as silk, tea, and spices from the Eastern nations. The poem coincided with the beginning of the Philippine-
world. However, they had to rely on overland silk road routes American War and U.S. Senate ratification of the treaty that
through the Middle East that often placed Guam, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and
took years to arrive in Europe. Cuba under American control. Theodore
These items were enormously Roosevelt, who would soon become president,
expensive. New sailing technology copied the poem and sent it to his friend, Senator
such as the lateen sail, cannons, Henry Cabot Lodge, commenting that it was
and magnetic compass enabled “rather poor poetry, but good sense from the
European sailors to navigate and expansion point of view.” Many anti-imperialists
explore the oceans to find a were not as impressed as Roosevelt and Lodge.
quicker route to the East. In Not everyone was as favorably impressed as
addition, European powers tried to Roosevelt. The racialized notion of the “White
apply Darwin’s theory of evolution Man’s burden” became a symbol for imperialism.
to human beings.This is referred to
203
Take up the White Man’s burden— Comes now, to search your manhood
Send forth the best ye breed— Through all the thankless years,
Go send your sons to exile Cold-edged with dear-bought wisdom,
To serve your captives' need The judgment of your peers!
To wait in heavy harness Source: Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden: The United
On fluttered folk and wild— States & The Philippine Islands, 1899.” Rudyard Kipling’s Verse:
Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Definitive Edition (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1929).
Half devil and half child
Take up the White Man’s burden
In patience to abide Is this a primary or secondary source? How do you know?
To veil the threat of terror
Based on this document, would the author be in favor of Social
And check the show of pride;
Darwinism? Are they convincing? Why
By open speech and simple
An hundred times made plain Is there any weakness or bias you can identify in the document?
To seek another’s profit Explain why or why not.

And work another’s gain

Take up the White Man’s burden—
And reap his old reward:
The blame of those ye better
The hate of those ye guard—
The cry of hosts ye humour
(Ah slowly) to the light:
"Why brought ye us from bondage,
“Our loved Egyptian night?”
Take up the White Man’s burden-
Have done with childish days-
The lightly proffered laurel,
The easy, ungrudged praise.

Rudyard Kipling 204

Political 2) Protectorate- local rulers remain in charge. Foreign power
provides protection in exchange for exclusive trading rights.
As European powers were gaining strength, traditional Middle
Eastern powers like the Ottoman Empire were weakening due to 3) Sphere of influence- a foreign power has political or exclusive
internal corruption, lack of technological development, and weak control in the form of military bases and areas of business.
leadership. As European nations began to see themselves as
individual nations (nation-states), they naturally wanted to
Interactive 9.1 Crash
compete with one another for prestige and respect. This Course - Imperialism
contributed greatly to the concept of nationalism which drove
European powers to take over other lands in Africa, the Middle
East, and Asia.

Cultural

Europeans held the belief that they were superior to all others and
it was their duty to teach these colonies about customs and
Christian values. As European powers were gaining strength,
traditional Middle Eastern powers like the Ottoman Empire were
As you view this video clip, answer the following questions:
weakening due to internal corruption, lack of technological
development, and weak leadership. 1. In the 19th Century, Why did Europe have to use silver
in trade with China?
Three types of Imperialism
2. What did the Europeans find that the Chinese could
Imperialism is the social, political, and or economic domination of
not refuse and thus upset the balance of trade (The balance of
one country over another.
trade (BOT) is the difference between a country's imports and its
1) Colonization- Direct rule of a colony (areas under total control exports for a given time period) in the Europeans favor?

by a foreign power)

3. How did the Chinese respond and resist Imperialism?

205
 4. What were terms of Treaty of Nanjing?

5. What motivated Europeans to start colonies around the

world?

6. Why did Europeans have to stick to the coast line until

the late 19th Century?

7. What was the big game changer that allowed them to

move into the interior of Africa?

8. How did African leaders respond and resist

Imperialism?

9. How did Middle Eastern leaders respond and resist

Imperialism?


206
Section 2

Why Were European Powers Able to Spread

Imperialism Through Africa, the Middle East, and Asia
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY As the age of movement continued on, European
Interactive 9.2 World
1. What were the political, cultural, and GeoHistogram powers began to spread their empires throughout the
 economic motives for imperialism in the globe. Most notably, they began to head toward
19th century? Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. European powers
2. Why were European powers able to spread wanted to spread to these areas because of their rich
imperialism through Africa, the Middle natural resources. These natural resources would be
East, and Asia so quickly?
sent back to Europe and used to benefit upper class
3. How did native peoples respond and or Europeans that could afford luxury material items such
resist imperialism? as gold and diamonds. For example, the British wanted
Turn on all the empire layers -
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE what do you notice? to dominate South Africa because of the discovery of
diamonds and gold mines and were able to conquer a
Zulu
tough, organized, and determined native people called the Zulu Nation. They were able
Sepoys
to defeat a much larger force because of superior technology in weapons and medicine.
Assimilation  

View the presentation and clickable atlas on the next page and answer the following
questions.

1. What enabled European powers to advance and venture far across the sea
and claim land?

2. What regions of the world did Spain take over? Be specific.

207
 3. What regions of the world did the Dutch take over? Be Interactive 9.3 Big Ideas - European
specific.
Colonization

4. What regions of the world did the British take over? Be

specific.

5. Why were Germany and Italy not as successful in

setting up colonies overseas.

6. Why did Britain and France fight many battles with

each other?

7. How did a group of small countries (less than 5 percent

of the world) claim the legal right to rule over more than 80
percent of the world?

8. To prevent conflict between Spain and Portugal, the

Catholic Pope did what? What effect did this have on languages Interactive 9.4 Big Ideas -
Clickable GIS Atlas
spoken by countries such as Brazil, and other countries in South
and Central America?

208
Imperialism in Africa beef fat. This was a problem as the cartridges had to be bitten off
in order to load their rifles. Many Hindus refrain from eating beef.
During the Age of Exploration coastal regions of Africa became
Further, Muslims do not eat pork, believing it to be forbidden. The
important trading centers for Europeans. They served as strategic
Sepoys rebelled because of many factors including lack of
port cities for merchant ships in India and China. The scramble
respect for their traditional values . They fought for two years and
for colonies in Africa occurred when King Leopold II of Belgium
the rebellion failed with long lasting consequences. Great Britain
stormed into the region of the Congo to extract resources such as
stepped in and got rid of The British East India Company. They
copper, rubber, and ivory. Leopold and other Belgians exploited
then made India a colony of Great Britain.
the riches of the Congo and brutalized the local population. The
locals were forced into labor. If they did not meet their quota This created a model of British Imperialism. India would send their
laborers were savagely beaten or mutilated. For example, they raw materials to Great Britain. Great Britain would create finished
used the practice of using human hands as trophies. products and send them back to India. The upper castes of India
were educated on language, culture, and religion from Great
Imperialism in Middle East and India Britain. Thus, they were able to assimilate into the British way of
life.
India

Historically India had been a trade destination for most of Europe. Middle East

They had many luxury items such as tea, sugar, silk, salt, and jute The Ottoman Empire began its decline in the sixteenth century.
(rope). Due in part to their superior navy, Great Britain won control Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they
and set up The British East India Company. This company set up fought the Russians for control of the Black Sea and the Balkans.
exclusive trade rights between India and Great Britain. The British The Russians were victorious in many of these battles. In turn, the
East India Company used its resources to its advantage and Ottoman Empire was on the verge of collapse. Greece, Egypt,
became more and more dominant and controlling of the local and Arabia were successful in gaining independence. France and
people of India. They used a group of native Indian people called Britain were fearful that Russia would take over the entire
the Sepoys.  Many Sepoys were practicing Hindus and Muslims. Mediterranean trade network. Thus, the British and French tried
The British did not respect their religious beliefs.The Sepoys to keep the Ottoman Empire from completely falling apart. At the
found out that their bullet cartridges were greased with pork or same time, Britain and France increased their own influence. For
209
example, in 1882, Britain gained control of Egypt. European
powers were starting to create a new world order.

Interactive 9.5 Imperialism

Graphic Overview

210
Section 3

How did Native People Respond to and Resist

Imperialism?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Middle East Response
1. What were the political, cultural, and
Throughout the nineteenth century, Ottoman rule was weak. Local rulers began to
 economic motives for imperialism in the
19th century? have far more influence. For example, When Napoleon tried to conquer Egypt at
the beginning of the nineteenth century, Muhamadd Ali defeated the French and
2. Why were European powers able to spread
imperialism through Africa, the Middle the Ottomans and gained control. He began the expansion of cotton production
East, and Asia so quickly? which was exported to Britain and directed Egypt on the path of industrialization.

3. How did native peoples respond and or

Later in the nineteenth century, Egypt worked with France to build the Suez Canal.
resist imperialism? When it was completed in 1869, it connected the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian
Ocean. The Egyptian government went into debt because the Canal was so costly.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE
They started selling stock in its canal to raise money. This stock was bought by the
Muhammad Ali
British government. By 1882, Britain declared Egypt as a British protectorate,
Suez Canal which was essentially a colony except that Egyptians remained as political leaders.

Africa’s Response

Africans did not sit back and let Europeans dominate.. As Europeans advanced
their troops, they were met with African resistance from local peoples and their
rulers. The fighting was often fierce but most battles ended in complete European
control.

For example the Zulu’s resisted for over 50 years by working together with several
neighboring people. They won many victories but in the end the navy of Great

211
Britain was too powerful. Great Britain defeated the Zulu’s and In 1885, a group of well-educated Indians formed the Indian
forced them to become their colony. National Congress to begin the path toward independence.

The same was true for the people of West Africa when fighting Mohandas K. Gandhi
against France.They fought for over 15 years but in the end the
Indian Home Rule,1909
French defeated them and took control.
In this imaginary dialogue, Gandhi is replying to the question of
Ethiopia had a much different outcome. They were equipped with
an interviewer (here labeled “Reader”) as to how we would
superior weapons and modern war technology. Italy tried to take
address “extremists” seeking independence from Britain.
control  over a treaty dispute and Ethiopia won out maintaining its
Gandhi’s replies are labeled “Editor”
Independence..
EDITOR:
In the end, European powers maintained their dominance.
 Throughout the entire process Africans were not allowed to make I would say to the extremists: “I know that you want Home Rule
a profit from  their raw materials. For example, the British in South for India; it is not to be had for your asking. Everyone will have to
Africa took complete control not allowing any claims to the vast take it for himself. What others get from me is not Home Rule but
richness of gold or diamonds. The Africans were, however, made foreign rule; therefore,it would not be proper for you to say that
to work in the mines as their natural resources were sent world you have obtained Home Rule if you have merely expelled the
wide. English. I have already described the true nature of Home Rule.
This you would never obtain by force of arms. Brute-force is not
India’s Response to imperialism
natural to Indian soil. You will have, therefore, to rely wholly on
By the end of the nineteenth century, India became one of soul-force. You must not consider that violence is necessary at
Britain’s most profitable colonies. Raw materials like cotton, tea, any stage for reaching your goal. I would say to the moderates:
and spices flowed into Britain. The upper caste Indians were Mere petitioning is derogatory; we thereby confess inferiority. To
taught English and were expected to adopt English customs. All say that British rule is indispensable is almost a denial of the
of this came at the expense of Indian culture. As a result of the Godhead. WE cannot say that anybody or anything is
education they gained, many Indians began to push for self rule. indispensable except God. Moreover, common sense should tell

212
us that to state that, for the time being, the presence of the therefore, learn it. We can hold communication with you only in
English in India is a necessity, it to make them conceited…" our national language.”

READER: (Source: Paul Halsall,edl, Modern history Sourcebook,

http://www.wsu.edu:8080/wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_2/gandhi.html)
What, then, would you say to the English?
Analyze the exchange above - by following T.R.A.I.T.S. when
EDITOR: looking at any primary or secondary document, it will not only
help you gain an in depth understanding of the document, but it
To them I would respectfully say: “I admit you are my rulers. It is
will subsequently aid you in writing.
not necessary to debate the question whether you hold India by
the sword or by my consent. I have no objection to your
To Whom:
remaining in my country, but although you are the rulers, you will
have to remain as servants of the people. It is not we who have to 1. The group of readers to whom this document is
do as you wish, but it is you who have to do as we wish. You may directed.
keep the riches that you have drained away from this land, but
2. The audience may be one person, a small group, or a
you may not drain riches henceforth. Your function will be, if you
large group; it may be a certain person or a certain people.
wish, to police india; you must abandon the idea of deriving any
commercial benefit from us. We hold the civilization that you 3. How might the intended audience affect the reliability
support to be the reverse of civilization. We consider our of the document?
civilization to be far superior to yours. If you realize this truth, it
Reason for the Source
will be to your advantage and, if you do not, according to your
own proverb, you should only live in our country in the same
1. Why is this document important
manner as we do. You must not do anything that is contrary to
our religion… We consider your schools and courts to be useless. 2. What is the reason behind the text?
We want our  own ancient schools and courts to be restored. The
3. What is the argument or logic behind the document?

common language of India is not English but HIndi. You should,

213
 4. Is it meant to be persuasive? Inflammatory? What is 4. What is going on in the world at the time the document
the author up to? was created? (as long as it is clearly connected to the document)

Author (Point of View) Subsequent Impact (long term consequences)

1. What is the attitude of the author to their subject? 1. What were the long term consequences of his message?

2. What exactly are they speaking about?

3. What was their reason/rationale for creating the You will continue to study Imperialism and it’s effects in later
document? chapters. In the mean time, return now to the compelling
question for the chapter: Did Movement Connect the World?
4. Is the document biased? From what perspective?
To answer this, G-SPEC this chapter. Using the perspectives
Immediate Impact
below please explain the motivation, spread, and responses to
1. What was the immediate impact of Gandhi’s message? imperialism using evidence from Chapter 7 and 8.

Time Period: (Historical Context)

Perspectives to Consider:
1. What is historically happening at the time the
document was created? Geography- The study of the physical features of the Earth
(examples include mountains, deserts, waterways, natural
2. What legislation/event/person caused the document to resources, climate)
be created?
Social- Characteristics that describe people in groups and their
3. What other major events/historical phenomena are living together (Gender, economic status, class system, ethnicity)
happening at the time just before or after the document was
created?
 Political- Characteristics that describe the seeking, gaining, and
organizing of power and the events related to the functions of

214
government (Type of government, making, enforcing, and
interpreting laws)

Economic-Characteristics that describe the ways that people

meet their basic material needs. These characteristics also
describe the process of production, distribution, and
consumption of goods in a society and include issues such as
trade and taxation (Trade routes, resources, money, taxes,
monetary policies, businesses, inventions)

Cultural-Characteristics that describe a society’s technology, arts,

and institutions of a given people at a given time. ( Religion-belief
system, architecture, literature, music, traditions, legends)

How did the movement of people, the spread of cultures, and

technological innovations of diverse groups of people contribute
to global interconnectedness?

215
World
MI OPEN BOOK PROJECT

History

Stefanie Camling, Mike Halliwill, Troy Kilgus, Anne

Koschmider, Adam Lincoln, Mark Pontoni, Anthony
Salciccioli, Tom Stoppa, Nick Vartanian, Melissa Wozniak,
Kymberli Wregglesworth, Rebecca Bush.
Chapter 10

How did World

War I Shape the
Global
Landscape?
Why was World War I considered the first global
war, and how did it impact the average citizen?

What was the legacy of World War I?

Why was Nationalism such a driving force in the

global conflict?

What impact did technology have on the war’s

changing landscape?



What factors led to the Armenian genocide, and
what were its effects?

Which provisions of  the Treaty of Versailles made

the insurance of a lasting peace impossible?

Section 1

Origins of the Great War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY “This is a war to end all wars.” --Woodrow Wilson, American President
1. Why was World War I considered the first
World War I (also called the Great War) was unlike any conflict the world had ever
global war, and how did it impact the
average citizen? seen. Lasting from 1914-1918, it was the first industrialized war, employing
weapons made more mechanized (and more deadly) with technology from the
2. What was the legacy of World War I?
Industrial Revolution. It was also considered the first truly global conflict, because
3. Why was Nationalism such a driving force it was fought on multiple fronts and involved nations from nearly every continent.
in the global conflict?
Millions of soldiers and civilians lost their lives. The war affected daily life for
4. What impact did technology have on the citizens in ways never before seen. National boundaries were transformed. World
war’s changing landscape?
leaders hoped to resolve this conflict with a lasting peace, yet nations were
5. 
 embroiled in World War II less than thirty years later following a global economic
What factors led to the Armenian genocide,
depression. Hegemony (dominance of one nation over others) started to shift from
and what were its effects?
Western Europe toward the Soviet Union and the United States, and it all started
6. Which provisions of  the Treaty of Versailles with the first global war.
made the insurance of a lasting peace
impossible?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Hegemony Entente
Militarism Imperialism
Arms race Nationalism
Conscription Pan-Slavism
Alliance
Triple Alliance
Triple Entente 217
 Examine the maps below and make some predictions. What years preceding World War I. However, the very factors that kept
changes do you notice? How and why do you think these the peace would eventually cause the Great War.
changes occurred between 1914 and 1919?
As you may recall from Chapter 7, Italy and Germany underwent
unification in the mid-19th century. Both nations emerged as
stronger, more dominant forces offsetting the former balance of
power in Europe. Germany was exceptionally rapid in its rise as
an industrial, political, and military force. Tensions lingered
between France and Germany after France’s loss in the Franco-
Prussian War (1870-1871) and the German annexation of Alsace-
Lorraine. Otto von Bismarck, Germany’s prime minister, pursued a
course of diplomacy aimed at alienating France and forging
alliances to protect Germany and maintain peace in Europe.
France responded by forming its own alliances. Coupled with the
race to build colonial empires, fierce nationalism, and growing
military forces, Europe charted an inevitable course toward war.

When considering the causes of World War I, there is no singular

(Image source: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/3a/1d/9e/3a1d9eece50efbc3d3d856baad618ec8.jpg)
“bad guy” to take the blame. Rather, the causes are an intricate

The latter portion of the 19th century was largely a time of peace and complex mixture of short-term and long-term influences. To

in continental Europe. Nations were engaged in political understand the long-term causes of World War I, use the acronym

transformations and economic industrialization, causing them to MAIN: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism.  

focus inward and strengthen their domestic structures. Some

countries, particularly those of Western Europe, turned attention
abroad as they built colonial empires. As a result, there was not
much international conflict on the European continent in the 100

218
Militarism

Militarism refers to glorification of the

military and a readiness for war.
Prompted by a desire to showcase their
strength and prestige, the major
European powers engaged in an arms
race, or competition to build up the
most extensive stores of weapons and
armed forces. As one nation increased
the size of its military, others responded
in kind. For example, Great Britain had (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/

a well-established navy, stemming from HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H61017.jpg)

roots during the Industrial Revolution

and its extensive colonial empire.
Germany embarked on a quest to build Between 1870 and 1914 the major powers in Europe
a navy to rival that of Great Britain, more than doubled the size of their militaries. This is
resulting in tension between the two a sizeable increase under any circumstances, but
nations. The naval rivalry centered on especially notable in peacetime. Conscription,
construction of the Dreadnought sometimes called a draft, was a tool used to achieve
battleship, launched in 1906. The this increase by requiring individuals to enlist in the
Dreadnought revolutionized naval military.
technology, and redefined the standard
for battleship technology. Germany
went to work constructing its own
destroyers, and Great Britain
responded by expanding its fleet.

219
 Military alliances in Europe, prior to the outbreak of war in 1914

By the summer of 1914, Europe was polarized by alliances, or

agreements to come to another country’s aid if they were under
attack. The initial intention was to preserve national security.
Perhaps it was naive, but countries entered into alliances with the
mindset that they could maintain peace by dissuading
aggressors, under the threat of triggering a larger conflict.
Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary comprised the Triple
Alliance. Its counterpart, the Triple Entente, included France,
Based on the data in the table above, which nations experienced
Britain, and Russia (an entente is an agreement for collaborative
the most dramatic changes? How do you predict this will impact
action). Russia also had agreements with Slavic nations in
the role of each nation in World War I?
Eastern Europe.
Alliances
The alliance system was built on the premise that nations would
avoid battle on a small scale to prevent war on a large scale. This
proved to be a dangerous assertion, because it can also mean
that a small skirmish can quickly escalate into a colossal conflict.

(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/

Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg/1002px-Map_Europe_alliances_1914-en.svg.png)

220
(Image source: http://images.mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/
insert_main_wide_image/public/10_alliances_credit_wikimedia.gif)

(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/WorldEmpires.png)

What message does this cartoon convey about the alliance

system? to build overseas empires as well. Rivalries and distrust
abounded. In one example, Germany and France nearly went to
Imperialism war after a clash over interests in Morocco in 1905. The result
was a climate of competition ripe for conflict by 1914.
During the 1800s, Western European countries built colonial
empires that reached every corner of the globe. Seeking raw
materials to fuel industrialization and cultivation of new markets to
purchase finished goods, this land grab was fast and furious.
Britain and France were leaders of this wave of imperialism,
exerting power and influence over other nations. Tensions
mounted as the scramble to acquire territory, especially in Africa
and Asia, intensified. Germany and Italy were a bit late to the
game since they were not fully unified until 1871, but they sought
221
Nationalism

Nationalism can be divisive as well, as in the case of the

multiethnic Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires. The spirit of
nationalism kindled a desire for ethnic groups with common
language and common histories to seek their own sovereign
states, as opposed to being part of larger empires. This was
especially prevalent in the Balkans, a region in southeastern
Europe (see map). The region was formerly under Ottoman rule,
but the Ottomans gradually lost their hold on the Balkans as their
empire went into decline. Russia and Austria-Hungary both hoped
to gain supremacy in the region. The Balkans became a hotbed of
nationalist tension, sometimes called the “powder keg” of
Europe. One example of nationalist sentiment was Pan-Slavism, a
movement to unite Slavic peoples. This movement was backed
by Russia, a Slavic nation. Russia saw itself as a protector of
(Image source: https://c2.staticflickr.com/4/3008/2721592095_f9ccd02810_b.jpg) Slavs. Russia would also benefit from the Pan-Slavic movement if
it meant that they would gain territory with access to the Black
This is an example of a satirical map. Choose one country and Sea, by undermining Austria-Hungary’s authority in the Balkans.
explain how its role in the start of World War I is portrayed.

Nationalism, intense pride in and devotion to one’s country, was

the underlying force driving other causes of World War I.
 Nationalism fueled militarism and the desire for a strong country.
It compelled nations to exert imperialist influences, expand
territorial boundaries, and carve out their share of the industrial
economy. Nationalism can be a unifying force, as it was in
Germany and Italy.
222
 The “Spark”

Diplomatic strains existed in the Interactive 10.1 Multiple

Balkans prior to the outbreak of World Perspectives
War I. In 1908, Austria-Hungary
annexed the province of Bosnia-
Herzegovina. This action angered
Serbia, who viewed Bosnia as a
homeland for Serbs. Russia also took
offense as a fellow Slavic nation and
rival of Austria-Hungary. Wars in 1912
Which argument do you find the
and 1913 resulted in Serbian territorial most compelling? Why?
expansion in the Balkans, and were
perceived as a threat to Austria-Hungary’s clout in the region.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Ethnic groups in the Balkans

These events created a background of
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Balkans-ethnic_(1877).jpg) nationalist tension when Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian
throne, visited Sarajevo, Bosnia on June 28,
1914. Ferdinand and his pregnant wife Sophie
were killed by a gunman while in their car,
fleeing the city after a failed assassination
attempt with a bomb earlier that day. The
gunman was Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old

223
member of a Serbian terrorist group called the Black Hand.
Members of the Black Hand resented the fact that Austria-
Hungary annexed Bosnia; they thought that Bosnia should have
been part of Serbia.

Gavrilo Princip

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand

was the “spark” that ignited the
“powder keg” of Europe. As an
isolated event, the murder of
Ferdinand and his wife garnered media
attention and created a stir among the
public, but would not have triggered a
global war without the MAIN causes
Image source: http://publications.newberry.org/digitalexhibitions/archive/files/170c9006e124c5d6a2c2e051e5e4fcfd.jpg)
churning in the background--military
mobilization, fierce nationalism, and
tangling alliances.
The political cartoon above appeared in The Chicago Tribune in
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for Ferdinand’s death. Russia August 1914. What do you think the artist is trying to convey?
backed its fellow Slavs in Serbia and mobilized its military to Which nation(s) do you believe were most responsible for the
show readiness. Germany, in a tenuous geopolitical position, outbreak of war? Create a pie chart showing the allocation of
dreaded the possibility of a two-front war with neighboring France responsibility for the outbreak of war.
and Russia (allied in the Triple Entente) and mobilized its own
forces. Austria-Hungary declared war with Serbia on July 28,
1914. Germany declared war with Russia on August 1 and France
two days later. The alliance system kicked in and declarations of
war ensued from around the globe. The Great War had begun.
224
Section 2

Fighting Intensifies

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. Why was World War I considered the first

global war, and how did it impact the
average citizen?

2. What was the legacy of World War I?

3. Why was Nationalism such a driving force

in the global conflict?

4. What impact did technology have on the

war’s changing landscape?

5. 

What factors led to the Armenian genocide,
and what were its effects? Caption: Compare the two images of soldiers in battle. How are they similar? How
6. Which provisions of  the Treaty of Versailles are they different? What factors might account for the differences?
made the insurance of a lasting peace
impossible?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Schlieffen Plan Treaty of Brest-
Neutrality Litovsk
Central Powers Balfour Declaration
Allied Powers
Trench warfare
Stalemate
War of attrition 225
The Industrial Revolution altered the fundamental nature of respiratory distress. International law banned the use of poison
warfare. The ingenuity and efficiency that marked transformations gas in war after World War I.
in industry could now be
Interactive 10.2 • Machine guns were pioneered by Hiram Maxim, an
applied to the battlefield, with
Technological American inventor. In 1889, machine guns were adopted by the
deadly results. Factories could Developments of WW I
British army. Austria, Germany, Italy, and Russia followed within
produce weapons and
the next year. One machine gun could fire 500 rounds per minute,
ammunition en masse using
the equivalent of 100 rifles. Inventors followed Maxim with
assembly lines and
variations on his design, including technology that enabled
interchangeable parts. World
machine guns to be mounted on airplanes and armored vehicles.
War I marked the introduction
of several improvements and • Aircraft was initially used to gather intelligence about
innovations in weaponry and the opposing side, then for aerial dogfights with machine guns.
technology. The latter became possible once technology enabled machine
gun fire to synchronize with the propellor. Airplanes were also
• Tanks were first developed by the British. WIth
used to bomb targets on the ground.
bulletproof exteriors, they were able to navigate barbed wire
entanglements. The first British tank weighed 14 tons and could • Zeppelins were German airships used for bombing and
only travel 3 miles per hour. Frequent breakdowns were reconnaissance. They were initially useful at high altitudes to
problematic, even as tank designs improved during the course of avoid enemy fire, but as aircraft technology improved, the
the war. Zeppelins became obsolete by the end of the war.  

• Poison gas was first used in battle by the Germans, • Submarines were used by both sides, but most
opposing the French in 1915. They used chlorine gas, which prominently by the Imperial German Navy. Called Unterseeboots
damages the respiratory system and causes asphyxiation (U-boats), these vessels were part of Germany’s effort to thwart
(insufficient oxygen supply). Mustard gas followed in 1917, British naval superiority. Armed with torpedos and deck guns, the
causing a burning sensation in the eyes, blistering skin, and Germans employed U-boats to attack the opposing navy as well
as supply ships.

226
 • Flamethrowers had been used in warfare for centuries, “We could hear the shells coming. We heard a rushing of air
but underwent refinements in World War I. These short-range which increased in intensity until it became a furious hurricane
weapons could project burning fuel up to 18 meters. German roar and ended in a dreadful crash of thunder; fountains of earth
soldiers used them first, followed by Britain and France. and smoke were thrown into the air, and the whole earth shook.”

• Artillery was the deadliest form of weaponry in World --Lieutenant-General Leman, Belgian army commander
War I. Mortars (short-barreled guns that could fire shells at high
The Western Front
trajectories) were effective in trench warfare on the Western Front,
and firing at buildings and fortifications. By the end of the war, Germany’s location put
some mortars could travel up to two kilometers. In 1914, Gustav the nation in an
Krupp invented Big Bertha for the German army. Weighing 43 unfavorable position,
tons, Big Bertha could fire a 2,200 pound shell over nine miles. 
 faced with the prospect
of fighting a two-front
war with France to the
West and Russia to the
East. Under the
Schlieffen Plan, Germany
devised a strategy to
swiftly defeat French
forces, then concentrate
their forces on Russia The Schlieffen Plan (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Map_of_Attack.jpg/453px-
(operating under the Map_of_Attack.jpg)
assumption that Russia,
lacking industrialization, would be slower to mobilize their forces).
Germany would avoid fortifications along its border with France
by circling through neutral Belgium. Their plan was to crowd
French forces against their own border, eliminating the possibility
227
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Dicke_Bertha.Big_Bertha.jpg)
of a major French offensive. The Germans expected to defeat the
French within two months.

The Schlieffen plan backfired. Rather than delivering the

“knockout blow” to France they intended, Germany inadvertently
escalated war on the Western Front. Germany underestimated the
consequences of invading neutral Belgium. Great Britain,
outraged at Germany’s violation of Belgian neutrality (refraining
from involvement in a war), declared war on Germany. The
alliance system kicked off a chain reaction, plunging Europe into
war. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire came to
be known as the Central Powers. Great Britain, France, and
Russia formed the Allied Powers, also called the Allies. They were
later joined by Japan and Italy. Note that Italy was a member of
the Triple Alliance, but switched sides, lured by the promise of A soldier keeps watch while others sleep in the trenches (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

gaining territory around the Adriatic Sea in exchange for their commons/f/fa/Cheshire_Regiment_trench_Somme_1916.jpg)

loyalty to the Triple Entente. This will become an important factor

In trench warfare, opposing armies fight each other from trenches
in the eventual peace settlement at the end of the war.
dug in the ground, roughly 500 yards apart. There were multiple
The first few months of battle on the Western Front were lines of trenches, with the front lines taking the brunt of enemy
characterized by a war of movement. However, that changed as a fire. The area between the opposing front lines was called “no
result of the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914. The man’s land,” typically containing large amounts of barbed wire to
French (with British support) defeated Germany, thus ending deter enemy advances. If battle had been going on for long, no
German hopes for a swift victory on the Western Front. Both man’s land might also contain defective or abandoned military
sides dug in along the border between Germany and France; equipment, craters from artillery shells, and the bodies of fallen
trench warfare ensued. soldiers.

228
During earlier wars, armies would advance, do battle, and retreat, They seem to be mighty hungry.  Almost every man has had his
taking time to regroup and recover. In contrast, trench warfare bread gnawed.  Kropp wrapped his in his waterproof sheet and
kept soldiers in close proximity with the enemy for prolonged put it under his head, but he cannot sleep because they run over
periods. The result was a great deal of physical and psychological his face to get at it.  Detering meant to outwit them: he fastened a
fatigue. The nature of trench warfare also made it very difficult for thin wire to the roof and suspended his bread from it. During the
either side to advance or lose much territory, resulting in a night when he switched on his pocket-torch he saw the wire
stalemate along the Western Front. Gains were more likely to be swinging to and fro. On the bread was riding a fat rat.
measured in yards than in miles. The Western Front became a
At last we put a stop to it.  We cannot afford to throw the bread
war of attrition, based on slowly wearing down the other side.
away, because already we have practically nothing left to eat in
Even the new, technologically sophisticated weapons (machine
the morning, so we carefully cut off the bits of bread that the
guns, heavy artillery, armored vehicles) could not deliver the
animals have gnawed.” - Eric Maria Ramarque
advances that military strategists were striving for.
The trenches were invariably muddy, filthy, smelly, and wet.
Conditions in the trenches made daily life absolutely miserable.
Soldiers endured periods of constant shelling, with the casualty
Eric Maria Remarque, a veteran of World War I, described daily
count numbering into the thousands some days. Confinement
life for soldiers in the trenches in his novel All Quiet on the
and boredom could feel stifling. Disease ran rampant. Lice
Western Front.
multiplied in the folds of filthy uniforms. Trench foot, a fungal
“We must look out for our bread.  The rats have become much infection, developed as a result of prolonged exposure to cold,
more numerous lately because the trenches are no longer in good damp, unsanitary conditions. It often led to gangrene, and even
condition.  Detering says it is a sure sign of a coming amputation.
bombardment.
In the poem “Dulce et Decorum Est,” Wilfred Owen describes a
The rats here are particularly repulsive, they are so fat-- the kind gas attack in the trenches of World War I. The title is Latin for “it is
we call corpse rats.  They have shocking, evil, naked faces, and it sweet and honorable.” The last line, “Pro patria mori,” means, “to
is nauseating to see their long, nude tails. die for your country.”

229
The Eastern Front Russia was struggling abroad and at home, fraught with internal
tensions. Discord stemmed from food and fuel shortages and
While soldiers were entrenched in battle on the Western Front,
inflation, which reached nearly 400 percent by 1916. Bread riots
another front formed in Eastern Europe. The Battle of Tannenburg
raged in cities. Sources of food and coal in the countryside could
in August 1914 was the only battle of World War I fought on
not be transported to areas of need, due to Russia’s minimally
German soil. Germany’s rapid defeat of Russian forces dashed
industrialized transportation infrastructure. Discontent with
Allied hopes for a quick victory against Germany. Russia suffered
Russia’s involvement in World War I fanned the flames of
30,000 casualties at Tannenburg, in addition to 100,000 soldiers
preexisting anti-government sentiment. Imperiled by domestic
taken prisoner.
hardships, Russia plunged into revolution. Czar Nicholas II
The Russian army was the largest in the world in August 1914. abdicated the throne in March 1917.
Recruitment efforts started strong, but demoralizing defeats such
After the fall of the Russian monarchy, a Provisional Government
as the Battle of Tannenburg left soldiers feeling more mauled than
took that power. Alexander Kerensky, the minister of war,
mighty. Russia lagged behind its European counterparts in
launched a military offensive on the Eastern Front. Kerensky
industrialization, putting her at a disadvantage against Germany,
wanted to show Russia’s allies (and the Central Powers) that the
an established industrial powerhouse. Russia relied more on
nation was still a formidable power, not to be discounted.
horses than motorized vehicles. Lackluster roads and railroads
However, the offensive failed, further demoralizing the Russian
inhibited transportation of troops and supplies. In Russia’s rickety
army.
military infrastructure, soldiers outnumbered rifles. By some
accounts, one third of Russian soldiers went to the front without a In November 1917, Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik party seized
rifle, with standing orders to take them from fallen comrades if the power in Russia and promised to end the nation’s involvement in
opportunity arose. Insufficient ammunition was rationed, with World War I. Russia withdrew from combat, and negotiated the
limits placed on the number of shells to be fired each day in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. The terms of the
battle. Soldiers at the front also dealt with shortages in clothing, agreement required Russia to concede territory in Poland,
boots, and bedding. Desertion rates rose, further weakening Ukraine, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and Finland. Russian
Russia’s military. withdrawal allowed Germany to devote its full strength to the
Western Front. Around the same time, the United States entered

230
the war. The question remained, would that be enough to bolster joined the Central Powers, Britain and France feared the move
Allied troops? would jeopardize their supply lines with Russia via the Black Sea.
Turkey controlled the Dardanelle Straits, which connected the
The War Outside of Europe
Black and Mediterranean Seas. The offensive was poorly
managed, and after a couple of foiled opportunities to emerge
victorious, the British were forced to retreat. After their defeat, the
British tried to undermine Ottoman authority in the Middle East by
instigating rebellions. T.E. Lawrence, sometimes known as
Lawrence of Arabia, was a particularly prominent British officer
who led revolts of Arab tribes in the diverse Ottoman Empire. The
British also issued the Balfour Declaration in 1917, which
promised Jews a homeland in Palestine in exchange for their
wartime support

Excerpt from the Balfour Declaration (1917):

“His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in

Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use
their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object,
it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may
prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish
communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed
(Image source: https://firstworldwarhiddenhistory.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/gallipoli-map1.jpg )
by Jews in any other country.”

During World War I, both sides opened new fronts, hoping to 1. How do you think the sultan of the Ottoman Empire felt
strain the opposition by dividing their troops and resources. about this document?

Fighting spread to the Middle East with the start of the Gallipoli
Campaign, a British offensive in Turkey. After the Ottoman Empire
231
 2. If you were a Jewish person living in an Allied nation A group called the Young Turks rose to power in Turkey. Their
(such as Russia or the United States), would this declaration goal was to revive and expand the Ottoman Empire, with unity
affect your perception of the war effort? Why? from a policy of Pan-Turkism. The Young Turks sought to “Turkify”
diverse ethnic minorities in the Ottoman Empire and viewed
3. How do you predict this declaration will affect Middle
Armenians as an obstacle. The Young Turks became the
Eastern political relations and boundaries in the coming decades?

perpetrators of genocide.

The scope of the war continued to spread. At the Battle of

Jutland, the British and German navies fought off the coast of
Denmark with an indecisive outcome. Colonies in Africa and Asia
were drawn into the conflict. Japan, an Allied nation, invaded
China to challenge Germany’s hold on its sphere of influence
there. The Great War had indeed become global.

Armenian Genocide

The Armenian genocide refers to the extermination of 1.5 million

people in the declining Ottoman Empire between 1915 and 1923.
At the beginning of World War I, about 2 million Christian
Armenians resided in Turkey, comprising 10 percent of the
population. By 1923, fewer than 400,000 Armenians remained.
A march of Armenians, guarded by Ottoman soldiers
Under the traditional Ottoman social hierarchy, Muslims generally
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/
enjoyed higher status than non-Muslims. However, a segment of
Armenians_marched_by_Ottoman_soldiers%2C_1915.png)
the Armenian population found success as merchants and skilled
artisans. Others rose to elevated status with jobs in banking and
politics, resulting in resentment from some Islamic Turks.

232
Acts of genocide intensified during the course of World War I.
First, Armenian soldiers were banned from military service and
exiled, sentenced to hard labor, or executed by Turkish soldiers.
On April 24, 1915 hundreds of Armenian intellectuals were
rounded up for arrest. Some Armenians were forced to convert to
Islam. Next, Armenian civilians--including women, children, and
the elderly--were massacred and buried in mass graves. Others
perished during long marches and
Interactive 10.3 The
forced deportations (see map).
Armenian Genocide
Deaths resulted from starvation,
exposure to the elements, disease,
Map of Armenian deportations and massacres
and exhaustion as Armenians were
marched out of the country (Image source: https://cdn1.vox-cdn.com/assets/4612767/turkey_armenian-deportations_720px_map.jpg

through inhospitable deserts and

The violence against Armenians was documented by journalists
mountainous terrain. Those who
and government officials from the Allies and Central Powers. The
survived the marches were sent to
excerpt below is from an American consul:
concentration camps in the Syrian
desert. Orphans numbered in the tens of thousands. US CONSUL LESLIE DAVIS DESCRIBING ARMENIAN
"DEPORTEES" PASSING THROUGH THE HARPOOT PLAIN ON
THEIR WAY TO DER ZOR

“All of them were in rags and many . . . almost naked . . .

emaciated, sick, diseased, filthy, covered with dirt and vermin . . .
driven along for many weeks like herds of cattle, with little to
eat . . . There were few men among them, most of the men having
been killed by the Kurd before their arrival at Harpoot. Many of the
women and children also had been killed and very many others
233
had died on the way . . . Of those who had started, only a small Documents from Turkish government officials reveal state
portion were still alive and they were rapidly dying . . . Many sponsorship of policies targeting Armenians, such as this:
Turkish officers and other Turks visited the camps to select the
January 15th, 1916
prettiest girls and had their doctors present to examine them . . .
Several hundred of the dead and dying scattered about the To the Government of Aleppo:
camp . . . the body of a middle-aged man who had apparently just
died or been killed. A number of dead bodies of women and We are informed that certain orphanages which have opened also
children lay here and there . . . Old men sat there mumbling admitted the children of the Armenians.
incoherently. Women with matted hair and sunken eyes sat staring
Should this be done through ignorance of our real purpose, or
like maniacs. One, whose face has haunted my memory ever
because of contempt of it, the Government will view the feeding
since, was so emaciated and the skin was drawn so tightly over
of such children or any effort to prolong their lives as an act
her features that her head appeared to be only a lifeless skull.
completely opposite to its purpose, since it regards the survival of
Others were in the spasms of death. Children with bloated bellies
these children as detrimental.
were on the ground wallowing in filth. Some were in convulsions.
All in the camp were beyond help”. - United States Official I recommend the orphanages not to receive such children; and no
records on the Armenian Genocide 1915-1917, pp. 644, doc. NA/ attempts are to be made to establish special orphanages for
RG59/867.4016/392. them.

Minister of the Interior,

TALAAT.

234
Section 3

The Homefront

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Civilian Life

1. Why was World War I considered the first
World War I was an instance of total war, a conflict in which nations devoted all
global war, and how did it impact the
average citizen? their resources to achieving victory. As a result, the war had unprecedented effects
on civilian populations. Citizens joined the war effort to produce food, weapons,
2. What was the legacy of World War I?
and supplies for larger-than-ever militaries. Governments imperiled in war turned
3. Why was Nationalism such a driving force to their citizens for support, asking more than ever before and appealing to
in the global conflict?
patriotic sentiments. At the beginning of the war, the government of Great Britain
4. What impact did technology have on the asked for 100,000 volunteers to enlist as soldiers. In one month’s time, 750,000
war’s changing landscape?
answered the call to serve as volunteers.
5. 

What factors led to the Armenian genocide, However, enthusiasm gave way to weariness as the war progressed. Casualties
and what were its effects? mounted as civilians became victims of the new weapons of war. In 1915,
6. Which provisions of  the Treaty of Versailles Germany bombed London and other targets in the southern and coastal regions of
made the insurance of a lasting peace Great Britain using Zeppelins. In March 1918, Germany fired shells on the citizens
impossible? of Paris, France for a 44 day period of destruction. In 1917 and 1918, Great Britain
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE and France bombed German cities, killing over 700 civilians and injuring 1800
Total War others.
Rationing
Other citizens were displaced by the conflict. Parts of Belgium, France, Poland,
Inflation
western Russia, and the Balkans were occupied and administered by the Central
Propaganda
Powers during the war. Citizens fled their homes, seeking shelter elsewhere. In

235
Belgium, about 1 of every 7 citizens emigrated to nearby Allied Britain was less affected because of its extensive navy and its
nations. ability to trade with overseas nations. However, some shortages
did occur. “War bread” replaced regular bread, made with potato
Economic Effects
flour. Prices increased, especially for meat.  Citizens were
Germany was agriculturally solvent before the war, but the British encouraged to cultivate vegetable gardens. Great Britain was able
naval blockade prevented Germany from importing fertilizers to stave off rationing until 1918. Even the King and Queen of
needed to bolster farm output. As a result, Germany was the first England were issued ration booklets. France also delayed major
nation to experience wartime food shortages. In 1915, Germany shortages until the latter part of the conflict. The French had their
implemented rationing, a method of fixing the amount of own version of war bread, which became rationed. Additional
commodities allotted per limits were placed on sugar and milk prices soared.
person. Bread rations were
War affected the economy
reduced by a third. In 1916,
beyond food supplies as well.
rationing extended to other
The British naval blockade
foods, including milk, meat,
affected supplies of cotton and
and potatoes. Butter, coffee,
leather in Germany, posing
eggs, fruits, and vegetables
challenges for clothing
became rare. A poor harvest
manufacturers. Shoes were
of potatoes in 1917-1918
made from wood. Soap became
further diminished rations.
a luxury. A coal shortage made it
German citizens experienced
difficult for some citizens to heat
malnourishment, the spread
their homes. Elementary schools
of diseases such as
in Berlin had to close during the
tuberculosis, and shortened
winter of 1916-1917 due to lack
lifetime expectancies.
of heat. Inflation also plagued
“Victory gardens” were encouraged in the United
wartime economies as prices States

(Image source: http://news.bbcimg.co.uk/media/images/

increased and purchasing power (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
72333000/jpg/ wikipedia/commons/0/03/
_72333534_25245899_homefrontfood_iwm_artiwmpst4470 Sow_victory_poster_usgovt.gif) 236
.jpg )
decreased. Real wages in France dropped 20 percent over the Women and the War Effort
war’s duration.
World War I was a turning point for gender roles and women’s
The governments of belligerent nations appealed to citizens to rights. Some women joined the military, although they were more
support the war effort through indirect means such as rationing, likely to serve in clerical or nursing positions than direct combat.
but also in a more direct Others supported the war effort by taking on new roles at home,
manner: with their money. such as selling war bonds. Women went to work filling vacancies
War bonds were sold to left by men off fighting in the war. They served in positions
finance the cost of war; traditionally occupied by men, including police officers,
they raise capital by asking firefighters, postal workers, public transportation operators,
private citizens to invest bankers, and clerks. Women also found new job opportunities in
money in the government. factories. In the United States, 1.5 million women worked in war-
In return, the bonds earn related industries during the conflict. In Germany, 75,000 women
interest and can be cashed worked in Germany’s machine industry before the war’s onset.
in at a later date. That number grew to 500,000 during the maelstrom. By 1918, 25
Campaigns to sell war to 30 percent of laborers in French munitions factories were
bonds often appealed to women. Britain and France also asked women to go to work in
citizens’ feelings of agriculture, harvesting food crops for citizens and the military.
patriotism.
The Great War prompted women to take on new roles and

(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/

responsibilities in society. Developments in women’s rights were
wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/LibertyBond- soon to follow. In March 1918, the British Parliament granted
WinsorMcCay.jpg/490px-LibertyBond-
WinsorMcCay.jpg)
women the right to vote with a 7 to 1 ratio in favor. Germany
followed suit in November of the same year. In the United States,
the women’s suffrage movement culminated in the passage of the
19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote in 1920. The

237
evolution of women’s roles was even reflected in changing
fashions, with women wearing shorter skirts and even pants.

Propaganda

One aspect of total war was the use of propaganda, information

(often biased or exaggerated) used to promote or discredit a
cause. Propaganda ran the gamut, encouraging a wide range of
topics such as enlisting in the military, rationing, promoting war
bonds, patriotism, and villainizing the opposite side. Posters often
used national symbols to represent countries, such as Uncle Sam
for the United States and John Bull for Great Britain (as in the
image below). Posters aimed at discrediting Germany sometimes
depicted soldiers as Huns wearing pointed helmets, a reference
to the Boxer Rebellion in China when Kaiser Wilhelm II instructed
German soldiers to squash the
rebellion with the ferocity of Huns of Interactive 10.4 WWI
previous eras. Propaganda Posters

This is an example of World War I

propaganda, published by the British
to appeal to feelings of patriotism and
promote enlistment in the military.
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/John_Bull_-
_World_War_I_recruiting_poster.jpeg)

238
Section 4

The United States Enters the War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY In 1914, President Woodrow Wilson made a declaration of neutrality to the United
1. Why was World War I considered the first States Congress. He stated,
global war, and how did it impact the
average citizen? I venture, therefore, my fellow countrymen, to speak a solemn word of warning to
you against that deepest, most subtle, most essential breach of neutrality which
2. What was the legacy of World War I?
may spring out of partisanship, out of passionately taking sides. The United States
3. Why was Nationalism such a driving force must be neutral in fact, as well as in name, during these days that are to try men's
in the global conflict?
souls. We must be impartial in thought, as well as action, must put a curb upon our
4. What impact did technology have on the sentiments, as well as upon every transaction that might be construed as a
war’s changing landscape?
preference of one party to the struggle before another.
5. 

What factors led to the Armenian genocide, However, even with this official policy of neutrality, American foreign policy had
and what were its effects? Allied leanings. With preference for a democratic government, Wilson felt
6. Which provisions of  the Treaty of Versailles trepidation about a potential Central Powers victory. Wartime loans to Allied
made the insurance of a lasting peace nations totaled over $2 billion by 1917, compared to $27 million loaned to
impossible? Germany. The British naval blockade prevented Germany from trading with the
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE United States, but American trade with France and Great Britain flourished.
unrestricted Germany retaliated with a blockade of its own. In February 1915, German U-boats
submarine warfare started attacking commercial vessels, targeting those carrying goods to and from
Lusitania Great Britain. The United States continued to engage in trans-Atlantic trade and
Zimmerman Telegram travel, thinking that American ships would be safeguarded by the policy of
Sussex Pledge

239
 neutrality. The U.S. also informed Germany that she would be
held culpable for any American ships sunk by U-boats.

On May 7,1915, a British

passenger liner called the
Lusitania was torpedoed by a
German submarine during a
voyage from New York to
Liverpool, England. The ship sank
in less than 20 minutes. Of the
1198 passengers killed, 128 were
Americans. The American public
was outraged.Woodrow Wilson
threatened to terminate diplomatic
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ ties with Germany unless she
wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/
agreed to halt attacks on
Lusitania_sunk_8_May_1915.jpg/193px-
Lusitania_sunk_8_May_1915.jpg) passenger ships and spare the
lives of crew members on
commercial ships. These terms
constituted the Sussex Pledge. Germany capitulated to the The Zimmerman Telegram

pledge in 1916, appeasing the United States. However, the terms (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/

of the Sussex Pledge would not last. In January 1917, Germany Zimmerman_Telegram_WWI_Image.jpg/548px-Zimmerman_Telegram_WWI_Image.jpg)

announced a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, stating

In addition to unrestricted submarine warfare, another key event
that their U-boats would attack any and all ships (including non-
in January 1917 contributed to the end of American neutrality in
military vessels) that passed through occupied waters. Americans
World War I. British cryptographers intercepted and deciphered a
were displeased with the shift in German policy.
telegram sent to the German ambassador in Mexico city from
Arthur Zimmerman, Germany’s foreign minister. The Zimmerman
240
telegram offered Mexico an opportunity to regain territory lost to
the United States in the 1840s including Texas, New Mexico,
California, and Arizona in exchange for an alliance with Germany.
Britain gave the decrypted message to the United States, and the
telegram was published in American newspapers. Public opinion
against Germany intensified after such a direct threat on
Interactive 10.5 Decoding
American soil. On April 2, 1917, President Wilson addressed the Zimmerman Telegram
Congress requesting a declaration of war, stated that “The world
must be made safe for democracy.” Congress agreed, declaring
war on Germany.

Within a year, the size of the United States Army swelled from
100,000 to 5,000,000 with the help of conscription. The entry of
fresh, energized soldiers into the conflict was a great help to the
war-weary Allies. Russia had withdrawn from the war under the
terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, allowing Germany to
concentrate all its forces on the Western Front. At the Second
Battle of the Marne in July 1918, Germany launched its last major
offensive of World War I. American “doughboys” fought alongside
Italian, British, and French soldiers to achieve victory, but with
heavy casualties on both sides. Germany suffered 168,000 losses
compared to 13,000 for Great Britain, 95,000 for France, and
12,000 for the United States. The battle signaled a turning point,
indicating that the Allies were gaining the upper hand.

241
Section 5

An Ending...or a Beginning?

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY An Allied Victory

1. Why was World War I considered the first
The Second Battle of the Marne was followed by a string of Allied victories. The
global war, and how did it impact the
average citizen? Central Powers dissolved as Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire
withdrew from the war. Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated his position in Germany. The
2. What was the legacy of World War I?
conflict officially ended on November 11, 1918 with an armistice, or agreement to
3. Why was Nationalism such a driving force stop fighting. (Side note--in the United States we observe Veterans Day each year
in the global conflict?
on November 11th. Ceremonies are often held at 11:00 a.m. because the World
4. What impact did technology have on the War I armistice went into effect at the eleventh hour, on the eleventh day, of the
war’s changing landscape?
eleventh month in 1918.)
5. 

What factors led to the Armenian genocide,
and what were its effects?

6. Which provisions of  the Treaty of Versailles

made the insurance of a lasting peace
impossible?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Armistice Treaty of Versailles
Paris Peace War guilt clause
Conference Reparations
Fourteen Points Mandate system
Self-determination
League of Nations
Collective Security 242
Cost of the War

The “war to end all wars” incurred immense costs, both human
and financial. Russia and Germany lost the most soldiers (see pie
charts for more data on military deaths). Overall, 9 million soldiers
and 5 million civilians perished as result of World War I, with an
additional 21 million people wounded. Total war meant that
civilians were drawn into the conflict like never before, along with
its perils. Financially, the war cost Allied nations over $125 billion
with the United States, Great Britain, France, and Russia bearing
the most expense. Costs for the Central Powers totaled over $60
billion, with Germany and Austria-Hungary taking on the majority
of the burden.

(Image source: http://alphahistory.com/worldwar1/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/

deathtoll.jpg)

243
 Influenza Pandemic of 1918 locations around the globe, urban and rural alike. It is possible
that the spread of the virus was exacerbated by large-scale troop
movements. In addition to the typical flu symptoms such as
fever, achiness, and nausea, victims would experience sudden,
severe bouts of pneumonia in which the lungs would fill with
fluid. It might be a few hours or a few days from the onset of
symptoms until death. The flu virus was atypical in its impact,
both in magnitude and demographics. Influenza usually takes the
heaviest toll on children and the elderly, but this strain was more
deadly among young adults ages 20 to 40 years. With so many
doctors and nurses caring for soldiers wounded in battle,
hospitals and medical professionals on the homefront were
overwhelmed with victims of the pandemic. The statistics were
staggering:

• With 50 million victims, the 1918 influenza pandemic

caused more deaths that the Great War.

• The 1918 influenza pandemic caused more deaths in

Hospital ward for patients with Spanish flu in Camp Funston, Kansas (1918)
one year than the bubonic plague did in four years, between
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/CampFunstonKS- 1347 and 1351.
InfluenzaHospital.jpg)

• One-fifth of the world’s population was infected.

In the fall of 1918, the world was in the twilight of the Great War
with peace on the horizon. However, an unexpected threat would • Of the American soldiers who perished in Europe, half
leave millions fighting for their lives: influenza. The deadly strain of the deaths were due to influenza, not enemy fire.
was dubbed the “Spanish flu,” because the media in Spain were
• During one year, the average life expectancy in the
the first to report news of the outbreak. It arose in different
United States declined by 12 years.
244
You have probably heard the saying “Art imitates life.” As a result
of the 1918 influenza pandemic, children developed a rhyme to
sing while jumping rope:

I had a little bird

Its name was Enza

I opened the window

And in-flu-enza

Paris Peace Conference

The armistice brought an end to combat in World War I, but there

will still issues to settle in  hopes of creating a lasting peace. The
Paris Peace Conference convened on January 18, 1919 at the
Palace of Versailles with representatives from thirty nations in
attendance. Vittorio Orlando of Italy, David Lloyd George of Great The “Big Four” convene at the Paris Peace Conference

Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Woodrow Wilson of (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Big_four.jpg/781px-Big_four.jpg)

the United States constituted the “Big Four” leaders among the
delegates. recommendations for establishing borders of particular nations.
Wilson also called for self-determination, the policy of allowing
Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, derived from an address to nationalities to choose which form of government they wish to
Congress, provided a blueprint for the peace negotiations. In live under. Lastly, Wilson suggested the formation of an
summary, the Fourteen Points called for and end to secret treaties international peacekeeping organization, the League of Nations.
and alliances, free trade and travel in international waters, military The purpose of the League of Nations was to establish collective
disarmament for all nations, German withdrawal of troops from security, or cooperation among nations to ensure a lasting peace.
other nations, fair treatment of colonial subjects, and

245
Members of the Paris Peace Conference worked together to Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.
arrive at the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the peace Despite resenting terms of the treaty, Germany had no alternative.
agreement ending the Great War. It is worth of note that the Allies The treaty included the war guilt clause, requiring Germany to
did not permit nations of the defeated Central Powers (Germany, accept all the blame for the war. Germany also had to pay
Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria) to attend the Paris Peace reparations, payment for war damages, to the Allies. The bill
Conference or participate in treaty negotiations. Another notable tallied over $30 billion U.S. dollars, to be paid in installments.
absentee was Russia; the Allies did not recognize the legitimacy
of Russia’s Bolshevik government and did not invite the nation to
the conference.

The Treaty of Versailles

Should the Treaty of Versailles focus on punishing or rebuilding

Germany? That question was at the heart of the peace
negotiations. Delegates from the Allied nations had differing
priorities. Woodrow Wilson’s goal for the conference was to
achieve “peace without victory.”  Others felt Wilson was too
idealistic. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George’s 1918
election platform included “making the Germans pay.” French
Premier Georges Clemenceau was most concerned with
disarming the German military and preventing future aggression,
given that the nations share a border. Vittorio Orlando sought to
expand Italian territory in the Adriatic region, in return for Italy
having joined the Allies at the war’s onset. After weeks of tense
negotiations, the Allies arrived at an agreement to present to
Germany.   
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Treaty_of_Versailles_Reparations_--
_Let's_see_you_collect.png

246
With its economy already struggling, Germany would default on
payments within a few years. Other provisions were aimed at
weakening Germany. The German military was limited to
100,000 soldiers. The treaty also put caps on stores of military
weapons, closed munitions factories, and prohibited imports of
weapons.The German navy was no longer permitted to possess
submarines and its air force was dismantled. The size of
German territory diminished as France reclaimed Alsace and
Lorraine. Lastly, Germany had to relinquish many of its colonial
holdings.

The Treaty of Versailles included the Covenant of the League of

Nations, making the organization official. Its intended purpose
was to preserve peace and prevent another global conflict.
Membership was to include victorious Allied nations, but
Germany and the Soviet Union were excluded. Also, despite
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png/1280px-
being proposed by President Woodrow Wilson in the first place, The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png)

the United States Congress refused to ratify the treaty

necessary for membership in the League. Opponents in the What message is the author of the cartoon trying to convey? How
Senate cited concerns about the cost and military obligations to do you know?
to other nations.
Making connections: Choose three provisions of the Treaty of
Versailles. For each, explain how it relates to one of the MAIN
causes (militarism, alliances, imperialism, nationalism) of World
War I and predict how it will impact the next 20 years of world
history.

247
Beyond Germany

While the Treaty of Versailles was the most prominent postwar

agreement, the Allies negotiated settlements with other members
of the Central Powers. These agreements altered the map of
Europe. Poland became an independent nation, as did the Baltic
countries of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. Austria, Hungary, and
Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia emerged from the defeated
Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Ottoman Empire (sometimes
called the “sick man of Europe” due to its prolonged decline)
came to an end, transitioning into Turkey. Former Ottoman
territories were subject to the new mandate system, which
proposed that territories would be under Western influence until
ready to self-govern. In reality, the mandates were treated more
like traditional colonies. This dashed hopes for independence
among European colonies in Africa and Asia, hoping that the
principle of self-determination would extend beyond the
European continent. Revisit these maps from the opening of the chapter. Given what
you have learned about World War I, how can you enhance your
original explanation of the differences between the maps?

248
Chapter 11

Does extreme
Nationalism
Always Lead to
Revolution?
1. At what point does the extent of nationalism
become harmful to the people of the nation?

2. Does nationalism always precede revolution or is

it sometimes an after-effect?

3. What were some of the political, economic, and

cultural ways of thinking that lead each of the
countries in this chapter to adopt an extreme
policy of nationalism?

4. Were the circumstances that brought about

nationalism in each of the countries in this
chapter similar?  

5. What role did the U.S. play in strengthening Latin

American nationalism?

Section 1

Struggles in Latin America

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Making Sense of “Nationalism”

1. At what point does the extent of
Often times nationalism is defined as the belief by people of a nation who believe
nationalism become harmful to the people
of the nation? their nation is superior to all other nations. Most often, this sense of superiority has
its roots in a shared ethnicity.  Some countries build nationalism around a shared
2. Does nationalism always precede
revolution or is it sometimes an after- language, religion, culture, or set of social values. The nation emphasizes shared
effect? symbols, folklore, and mythology. Often, shared cultural characteristics such as

3. What were some of the political, economic, music, literature, and sports may further strengthen nationalism.
and cultural ways of thinking that lead each
of the countries in this chapter to adopt an Frequently, the terms nationalism and patriotism are used interchangeably;
extreme policy of nationalism? because there is rarely a simple, easily understood division between the two

4. Were the circumstances that brought about

terms, it’s no wonder why.  Perhaps the most articulated division between
nationalism in each of the countries in this nationalism and patriotism came from George Orwell when he wrote:
chapter similar?  
“Nationalism is not to be confused with patriotism. Both words are normally used
5. What role did the U.S. play in strengthening
in so vague a way that any definition is liable to be challenged, but one must draw
Latin American nationalism?
a distinction between them, since two different and even opposing ideas are
TERMS, PEOPLE, PLACES
involved. By ‘patriotism’ I mean devotion to a particular place and a particular way
Nationalism of life, which one believes to be the best in the world but has no wish to force on
Self-determination other people. Patriotism is of its nature defensive, both militarily and culturally.
Economic nationalism
Nationalism, on the other hand, is inseparable from the desire for power. The
Cultural nationalism
abiding purpose of every nationalist is to secure more power and more prestige,
Good Neighbor Policy


250
not for himself but for the nation or other unit in which he has It sets policies that strengthen the domestic entities that own the
chosen to sink his own individuality.” most if not all of the factors of production: capital goods,
entrepreneurship, natural resources, and labor. Nationalists don’t
Put another way, patriotism is love of country while nationalism is
care whether the government or private businesses own the
love of country combined with dislike of other countries, their
factors of production, as long as they make the nation stronger.
peoples, or their cultures.  The definition also includes the dislike
Trade policy is based on protectionism which subsidizes
of fellow citizens inside a nation who are different. This is why
domestic industries that are believed to be of national interest,
nationalists often support nation-building campaigns of
including tariffs and quotas on foreign imports.
government schooling to assimilate citizens to a state-determined
norm, national languages, and other means of creating ethnic, Can Nationalism Ever be Neutralized?
religious, or other types of uniformity.
Many believed that hostile actions of countries as a result of an
How Does Nationalism Work? extreme sense of nationalism would have been neutralized in the
aftermath of WWI. And to help ensure international world peace,
Nationalists demand to be independent of other countries. They
one of the ideas behind the League of Nations was the principle
don't join global organizations or collaborate with other countries
of national self-determination that would create a world of
on joint efforts. If the people are part of another nation, then they
independent nation states, free of outside interference. If the
will want freedom and their own state.  Because they believe in
basis of each nation’s concerns were only related to external
the superiority of their shared attribute, nationalists often
threats (invasion, colonization, etc.) the League of Nations might
stereotype different ethnic, religious, or cultural groups. The result
have been extremely successful.  However, many of the nations
which is often prejudice, keeps the nation unified. Intolerance can
around the world that experienced division and in many
lead to a desire to rid the country of those deemed as "different."
instances, revolution, did so due to the internal strife and the
In an extreme form, it can lead to ethnic cleansing and genocide.
political, economic, and social instabilities that occurred from
Those who believe strongly in nationalism work toward a self- within. The region of Latin America was one such example.
governing state. The government controls aspects of the
economy in order to promote the nation’s self-interest.

251
Strife in Latin America that engulfed the entire nation.  By 1917, Venustiano Carranza
was elected president of Mexico who reluctantly approved a new
In the early years of the 20th century, Latin America experienced
constitution that included multiple land and labor reforms.
a booming economy due to its exports largely existing of natural
resources and cash crops.  In exchange, produced goods were Mexico’s revolutionary attempt to Interactive 11.1 The
purchased from the industrialized nations from which Latin reclaim greater control over its natural Mexican Revolution
America was trading. Stable governments such as Argentina and resources reflected a familiar spirit of
Uruguay (who had democratic governments) helped keep the nationalism that pervaded Latin
region’s economy on solid ground.  Unfortunately, military America; much of the focus involved
dictatorships in some nations and wealthy landowners held the ending economic dependence by
real power. Economic benefits tended to be isolated to the small industrialized nations (mainly the U.S.
ruling class while the growing middle class and lower classes and Britain), but political and cultural
(workers and peasants) had no say in their own government. Both independence were also common This short but comprehensive
political and economic inequalities weighed heavily on many Latin goals behind many revolutions of the video does an excellent job of
illustrating some of the long-
American nations but in Mexico, those inequalities led to time that occurred around the globe.   lasting reforms in The Constitution
situations that eventually brought about an explosive revolution. of 1917 that are still in force in
Economic Nationalism Mexico today.

The Mexican Revolution

In the decades after WWI, world events greatly impacted
By 1910, the dictator of Mexico, Porfirio Diaz, had ruled Mexico economies in Latin American nations.  The Great Depression that
for 35 years, leading Mexico to experience peace and economic started in the U.S. and spread throughout the world led to a huge
growth through the welcoming of foreign investors who improved drop in the demand for Latin American exports which in turn led
the extraction of natural resources and transportation systems to the decline of Latin American economies.  Economic
within the country.  However, by 1910, unrest by peasants, nationalism, the emphasis on domestic control and protection of
workers, and the urban middle class had boiled over. Francisco a nation’s own economy, swept most Latin American nations.
Madero, a liberal reformer from an elite family demanded free  The goal of each nation was to develop its own industries to
elections. Diaz saw rebellion in several parts of the country and lessen dependence on products from other countries.
resigned in 1911. A bloody, complicated struggle soon began Cooperation between business and government leaders was
252
essential for economic nationalism to work.  Local entrepreneurs cultural nationalism--pride in one’s own country became a unique
established factories for the production of goods while cultural blend of Western and native traditions.  In the 1920s and
governments also invested in new businesses with some even 1930s, many Mexican muralists (artists who paint murals) such as
taking a more aggressive approach and taking over foreign- Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Jose Clemente Orozco
owned assets. Although attempts at establishing economic created spectacular works that portrayed the struggles of
nationalism were partially successful, the unequal distribution of Mexicans for liberty.  
wealth is the factor that held
back economic development.

Political Nationalism

One effect of the economic crises

faced by many Latin American
nations was a shift in public
opinion with regard to political
leadership.  Many lost faith in the
ruling oligarchies and European,
liberal ideas of government. In
response, stronger, authoritarian
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governments of different types
replaced liberal oligarchies in the
hopes that each country’s economy could be more effectively
controlled, directed, and likewise, protected.

Cultural Nationalism

During the 1920s, many artists, writers, and thinkers in Latin

America began to reject European cultural influences.  Instead,

253
The U.S. Becomes a Good Neighbor

After WWI, while British investments in Latin America declined,

U.S. investments soared.  To protect its investments, the United
States took on the role of international policeman--restoring order
between two arguing factions, when it felt U.S. interests had been
threatened.  By the 1930s, as anti-American sentiments had
increased in Latin America, President Roosevelt took a new
approach. Known as the Good Neighbor Policy, the U.S.
promised to interfere less in Latin American affairs.  After the
policy was enacted, the U.S. withdrew troops stationed in Haiti
and Nicaragua.  The Platt Amendment, which had limited Cuban
independence, was lifted and the President supported Mexico’s
nationalization of its oil companies.  The Good Neighbor Policy
went a long way toward improving relations between Latin
America and the United States along with strengthening Latin
American nationalism.  

254
Section 2

Nationalism in Africa and the Middle East

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Resistance of Colonial Rule

1. At what point does the extent of
By 1914 at the outbreak of WWI, ninety percent of the continent of Africa was
nationalism become harmful to the people
of the nation? under European colonial rule--Ethiopia and Liberia were the only two nations that
remained independent.  The story of West Africa after the Berlin Conference in
2. Does nationalism always precede
revolution or is it sometimes an after- 1885, revolved around 5 major themes:
effect?
• the establishment of European colonies,
3. What were some of the political, economic,
and cultural ways of thinking that lead each • the consolidation of political authority,
of the countries in this chapter to adopt an
extreme policy of nationalism? • the development of the colonies through forced labor,
4. Were the circumstances that brought about
• the cultural transformation of West Africa, and West African Resistance,
nationalism in each of the countries in this
chapter similar?   and

5. What role did the U.S. play in strengthening • the economic transformation of West Africa and West African
Latin American nationalism?
Resistance
TERMS, PEOPLE, PLACES
During the war, more than one million Africans had fought on behalf of their
Apartheid
respective colonial rulers with the hopes that their service would be rewarded with
Pan-Africanism
more rights and opportunities once the war had ended.  Unfortunately, the
Negritude movement
Pan-Arabism situation remained the same or in some cases, even worsened. Many continued
Balfour Declaration to be forced to work on plantations or in mines, and in some areas under British

255
rule. All Africans were forced to carry identification cards, pay Africans and people of African descent, worldwide. Inspired by
taxes, and were subject to restricted travel. Marcus Garvey, W.E.B. DuBois, and later, Malcolm X, delegates
from African colonies, the West Indies, and the U.S.established
South African Nationalism and Racial Segregation
cooperation between African and American leaders to continue to
By 1940, whites had strengthened push for rights for Africans.  
their grip on South Africa through Interactive 11.2 Apartheid
Explained As culture often reflects the social, political, and economic
an imposed system of racial
contexts of the time, the negritude movement was no exception.
segregation to ensure social,
 French-speaking writers in West Africa and the Caribbean
political, and economic supremacy.
continued to awaken and strengthen self-confidence among
 Through newly passed legislation,
racial inequity in employment was
ensured. Blacks were forced into
lower paying and less skilled jobs
and were forced to live on reserves For a brief, but fairly
comprehensive history of this
that were overcrowded and system of rigid segregation that
infertile. In a few provinces, blacks lasted for the better part of 50
years, watch this video clip
who had at one point owned land
and been able to vote saw that right rescinded. When the South
African policy of apartheid, a policy of rigid segregation of non-
whites became law in 1948, previously held rights of blacks
continued to be taken away.

The Impact of Pan-Africanism

During the 1920s, a movement known as Pan-Africanism began

as a way of strengthening the spirit of nationalism as well as
resistance movements in Africa.  Its emphasis was on the unity of
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African-Independence-Map.jpg 256
Africans through their writings which expressed pride in their radical reforms that included: replacing Islamic law with a
African roots and protested colonial rule. European model, replacing a Muslim calendar with a Western
(Christian) calendar, shifting the day of rest from Friday to Sunday,
African nationalism brought little immediate political change with
closing religious schools and instead opening state schools,
the exception of Egypt, where extreme protests, riots, and strikes
forcing the wearing of Western-style clothing, replacing the Arabic
forced Britain to grant the country its independence in 1922.
language with the Latin alphabet, and giving women the right to
 Independence for many African nations would occur a few
vote and to work outside the home, Westernization transformed
decades later as you can determine from the map below.
the nation of Turkey.  Industrialized expansion occurred as
Persia and Turkey Modernize Ataturk’s government increased infrastructure, established
factories, and hired westerners for their advice as to how to help
Nationalist movements were not limited to countries in Europe Turkey realize economic independence.
and Africa; significant changes occurred in the Middle East as
well after WWI.  During the war, Arabs had helped the Allied The success of Ataturk’s reforms in Turkey inspired nationalists in
powers defeat the Central powers, particularly the Ottoman Persia.  Turkey’s next door neighbors had greatly resented both
Empire. In return for their help, Arabs had been led to believe by Britain and Russia’s sphere of influence over Persia by 1907.  In
the Allied powers that they would gain independence after the 1925, an enthusiastic officer in the Persian army, Reza Khan, led
war.  That did not happen. The Ottoman Empire was near an overthrow of the current shah of Persia--establishing his own
collapse by 1918--its Arab lands divided between France and dynasty, Khan made himself shah.  In a fashion similar to Ataturk,
Britain. In Asia Minor, Turks resisted Western control, fighting to Khan moved quickly to modernize Persia and make it
build an independent and modern nation. The Treaty of Sevres, independent. His strengthening of the army, building of factories
signed in 1920, by the reluctant Ottoman sultan, ceded Arab and and development of an infrastructure, in addition to the
North African lands as well as some land in Asia Minor, including mandatory wearing of Western clothes, the encouragement of
Greece.  As a Greek force landed in the city of Smyrna to claim women to take part in public life, and persuasion of British
the land on behalf of Greece, Turkish nationalists overthrew the controlled oil producers to give Persia a greater share of profits
Ottoman sultan and the Greek force, declaring Turkey a republic from Persian oil production, were responsible for economic
and calling for approximately 1.3 million Greeks to vacate the new independence in Persia. Oil would continue to become a major
Turkish lands.  Under the leadership of Ataturk and through his factor, not just in Persia, but throughout the Middle East during

257
this time period as foreign countries would begin to move in to As conflict ensued, the population of both groups multiplied.  As
exploit large oil reserves. anti-Semitism in Europe took hold, thousands of Jews emigrated
to Palestine. Meanwhile, the Arab population was also increasing
Pan-Arabism Grows in the Middle East
substantially.   (See chart below.)
As a result of substantial foreign influence compounded by
broken promises by former Allied nations during the war, Arab
nationalism grew after WWI and gave rise to Pan-Arabism.  Like
Pan-Africanism, the nationalist movement was built on the shared
heritage, history, and language of Arabs living from the Arabian
Peninsula to North Africa. (The area encompassed by growing
Pan-Arabism is what today includes the areas of Syria, Jordan,
Iraq, Egypt, Algeria, and Morocco.)  Pan-Arabism was a
movement to free Arabs from foreign domination and unite them
in their own state--similar to the goals of the Pan-Africanism
movement in Africa. However, another botched promise would
soon lead to a huge, bitter struggle in the Middle East.
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In 1917, Britain attempted to win the support of Jews in Europe Jewish_immigration_chart.png?1424469711

through the issuing of the Balfour Declaration.  In the

declaration, the British supported the idea of the establishment of Even though they suffered great hardship, many Jewish settlers
what was referred to as “a national home for the Jewish people” helped establish factories as well as farming communities and
in Palestine.  However, the declaration helped set the stage for a built new towns.  While initially some Arabs welcomed the
conflict in Palestine because it also noted that “nothing shall be modern technological skills and wealth that accompanied Jewish
done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights” of newcomers, as Jewish immigration into Palestine exploded,
communities in Palestine that had already existed.  The already- tensions between the Jews and Arabs developed.  As Jewish
existing communities were Arab and thus began conflict between organizations attempted to purchase as much land as possible,
Jewish and Arab nationalists. Arabs did their best to drastically slow Jewish immigration.

258
Religious differences greatly increased the level of tension which
led to Arab attacks on Jewish settlements with the hope of
discouraging Jewish immigrants.  In response, Jewish settlers
established their own military defense force and for the
remainder of the century Jews and Arabs continued to fight over
the land that Jews called Israel and Arabs called Palestine.

259
Section 3

India Strives for Independence

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY As you have read in a previous chapter, Britain had long held colonial ties to India.
1. At what point does the extent of  Just as nationalist ideals were taking root in countries throughout Eastern Europe,
nationalism become harmful to the people Africa, and the Middle East, the spirit of nationalism brought about much protest
of the nation? throughout the nation of India as well.  As riots and attacks on British resident
2. Does nationalism always precede continued to increase in number and severity, one event was particularly impactful.
revolution or is it sometimes an after- On April 13, 1919, a peaceful, but rather large crowd of Indians had gathered in an
effect?
enclosed field in the city of Amritsar, a city in northern India.  Either ignoring or not
3. What were some of the political, economic,
and cultural ways of thinking that lead each
of the countries in this chapter to adopt an
extreme policy of nationalism?

4. Were the circumstances that brought about

nationalism in each of the countries in this
chapter similar?  

5. What role did the U.S. play in strengthening

Latin American nationalism?

TERMS, PEOPLE, PLACES

Amritsar Massacre
Mohandas Gandhi
Ahimsa
Nonviolent resistance
Civil disobedience
Untouchables
Boycott 260
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 hearing the British commander, General Reginald Dyer’s order Western-educated elite, they couldn’t convince the masses of
that public meetings were banned, many Indian leaders continued peasants that they were fighting for a common cause.
to speak. Gen. Dyer and 50 of his soldiers opened fire on the  Mohandas Gandhi, who emerged on the scene in the 1920s,
unarmed crowd, killing nearly 400 people and wounding more was the leader who was able to unite Indians across class lines.
than 1,100.  A turning point for many Indian people, the Amritsar
Gandhi’s Push for Nonviolence
Massacre convinced them that India needed to pursue self-rule.
Many of Gandhi’s theories and ideas were rooted in Hindu
Similar to broken promises made to both Africans and Arabs by
traditions.  He often preached the ancient doctrine of ahimsa, or
Allied forces during the war, India suffered a similar situation.
nonviolence and reverence for all life.  Emphasizing the power of
 After the Amritsar Massacre, the Indian National Congress (which
love, Gandhi believed that people could inspire even the worst
had been in existence since 1895) began to press for full
culprit to take the right course of action.  He also advocated and
independence for the Indian people.  But because most of the
leaders of the Indian National Congress were middle class, practiced nonviolent resistance to fight social injustices.  

One of the reasons Gandhi was such an inspirational

and successful leader in India was his ability to
integrate Western as well as Indian influences in his
philosophy.  He appreciated Christian teachings
about the power of love. He believed in Thoreau’s
ideas regarding civil disobedience and was also
influenced by the Western ideas of nationalism and
democracy.  He encouraged equal rights for all
Indians--both men and women. And from a class
standpoint, Gandhi fought to end the harsh treatment
of the untouchables--the members of the lowest
castes in Indian society.

261
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During the 1920s and 1930s, Gandhi put in motion a series of Gandhi’s campaign garnered international attention.  Newspapers
nonviolent protests against British rule by calling for a boycott--a around the world publicized Britain’s harsh reaction to the
refusal to purchase British goods, particularly cotton textiles. protests that had occurred in India, especially the police brutality
Gandhi tried to restore honor in the traditional industries that were that ensued when peaceful marchers had tried to occupy a
present in India by making the spinning wheel a symbol of the government saltworks.  Slowly, Britain was forced to relinquish
nationalist movement.  His many instances of civil disobedience some of its power to Indians and eventually agreed to meet some
attracted wide support. demands of the Congress party.

The Salt March and its Impact on India Unfortunately, any progress that had been made toward India’s
self-rule during the 1930s, stagnated in 1939 when WWII began.
In addition to promoting the traditional industries of India, Gandhi  Indian leaders were outraged when they learned that Britain had
also encouraged mass support of taking a stand against the decided not only to postpone India’s independence but had
British salt monopoly which he saw as an image of British brought India into the war without India’s consent.  Indians were
oppression, especially because Indians were only allowed to conflicted in their responses. While many angry nationalists were
purchase salt sold by the monopoly.  On March 12, 1930, Gandhi jailed because they launched a campaign of noncooperation,
and 78 followers embarked on a 240 mile march to the sea. As many Indians did help Britain during the war.  
the group passed through villages enroute, many villagers
responded to Gandhi’s message. By the time the group had
reached the sea, marchers numbered in the thousands. On April
6th, as Gandhi waded into the surf and lifted a lump of salt he
was arrested and jailed.  Indians followed his lead as villages
located on the coast collected salt and began selling it on the
streets. Tens of thousands of Indians were jailed. One result was
that Indians in coastal villages started collecting salt and selling it
on city streets. The campaign that Gandhi started gained force
and tens of thousands of Indians were imprisoned because of
their actions during the campaign.  

262
Section 4

Disorder in China

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY China Faces Many Troubles

1. At what point does the extent of
From reading previous chapters, you know that China’s Qing dynasty had
nationalism become harmful to the people
of the nation? collapsed in 1911.  Sun Yixian, also known as Sun Yat-sen, as the new leader,
made little progress as he tried to rebuild the country on the “Three Principles of
2. Does nationalism always precede
revolution or is it sometimes an after- the People”--nationalism, democracy, and economic security for all.  China quickly
effect? fell into chaos due to warlord uprisings and imperialism from foreign powers.

3. What were some of the political, economic,

Warlord Uprisings
and cultural ways of thinking that lead each
of the countries in this chapter to adopt an
In 1912, Sun Yixian stepped down as president in hopes that a powerful general,
extreme policy of nationalism?
Yuan Shikai would be able to create a strong national government.  Instead, the
4. Were the circumstances that brought about ambitious general tried to set up a dynasty. Without the military’s support
nationalism in each of the countries in this
chapter similar?   however, opposition ended up dividing the nation and by the time Shikai died in
1916, China’s disarray worsened as local warlords seized power in provinces.
5. What role did the U.S. play in strengthening
 Rival armies battled for control and the economy collapsed. Those who suffered
Latin American nationalism?
most were the millions of peasants who faced famine and attacks by bandits.
TERMS, PEOPLE, PLACES
Foreign Imperialism
Twenty-One Demands
May Fourth Movement
While China’s government was weak internally, foreign powers (merchants,
Vanguard
Guomindang missionaries, soldiers) soon dominated China’s open ports.  You may remember
that during WWI, Japanese officials had presented Shikai with the Twenty-One

263
Demands--a list of demands that would hopefully make China a spread his rule and that of the Nationalist Party throughout China.
Japanese protectorate.  At the time China had been too weak to After Western democracies refused to help, Sun Yixian enlisted
resist and Shikai gave in to some (not all) of those demands.  In the aid of the Soviet Union to help his Nationalist Party.  
1919, a the Paris Peace Conference, the Allies granted Japan
Democracy vs. Communism
control over some former German possessions within the country
of China which angered China’s nationalists.  The result was the After Sun Yixian died in 1925, leadership of the Guomindang went
May Fourth Movement--a cultural and intellectual movement to an energetic young army officer named Jiang Jieshi, also
with the goal of strengthening the country.  With a concerted known as Chiang Kai-Shek.  While determined to end the power
effort to reject Confucian traditions and embrace more Western of the warlords, he had no interest in establishing either a
ideas while employing the assistance of women in campaigning democratic or communist government. By 1926, Jieshi began
to end many traditional practices, many doors were opened to what was known as the Northern Expedition in cooperation with
women in education and in the economy.   the communist party in China.  He led forces into the northern
China crushing the warlords located there and eventually
Marxism Appeals to Many
capturing Beijing. He was able to take control of China under a
While some Chinese turned to the rejection of long-held new government but without communist rule. By 1927, as Jiang
traditions, some turned to the revolutionary ideas of Lenin and saw the Communist Party in China as a substantial threat to his
Marx.  The Soviets were more than willing to teach and train rule, he ordered the Guomindang troops to attack communist
Chinese students and officers to become the vanguard--the elite party members in several cities.  In cities like Shanghai thousands
leaders of a communist revolution. The Soviets were successful were slaughtered. This massacre was the start of a bitter civil war
as by the 1920s, there existed a small group of Chinese between the Communists and the Guomindang that would last
Communists who had formed their own political party.   for 22 years.

Further Struggles for China One individual who managed to escape Jiang’s brutal attack was
a young revolutionary named Mao Zedong, also known as Mao
In 1921, Sun Yat-sen and his Nationalist Party, also known as the Tse-tung.  Mao had come from peasant origins,and believed that
Guomindang, established a government in the southern part of the Communists should most seek support from the large
China.  His plan was to raise an army to defeat warlords and then peasant masses. Although Jiang’s army continued to pursue
264
communists throughout the country, Mao remained optimistic and struck again which soon became the Second Sino-Japanese War.
believed that he and Communist Party members would eventually  Jiang Jieshi’s government retreated to an interior region of China,
be successful. establishing a new capital in the city of Chongqing.

The Long March After an extensive siege, the Japanese marched into the former
capital of Nanjing, forcing the city to surrender.  Afterwards, the
Determined to destroy the “Red bandits” as he called them, Jieshi
Japanese killed hundreds of thousands of Chinese soldiers as
led the Guomindang in a series of “extermination campaigns”
well as civilians. The cruelty towards the Chinese and the mass
against the communists.  Mao’s army was harassed throughout
destruction to the city was known as the “rape of Nanjing.”  The
what became known as The Long March which lasted from 1934
united front of the Communists and the Guomindang forces
to 1935. The Long March was significant because it was during
fought back along with the assistance of advisors and equipment
this series of battles where Mao emerged as the undisputed
from the Soviet Union and economic aid from France, Great
leader of the Chinese Communist Party. As thousands of young
Britain, and the United States. The united front remained intact
Chinese learned of the heroism and determination of the
until the end of war with Japan in
Communist Party, many traveled far distances to enlist in Mao’s
1945.
Red army.  Combined with Mao’s insistence that the soldiers Interactive 11.3 China’s
Revolutions
under his command were to treat peasants politely, pay for all
goods, and protect farmlands to win support of the peasant
class, Mao’s Red army was widely accepted.

Japan Invades

While Jiang and Mao were fighting for control over China’s
government, Japan invaded the northeastern region of China,
The following clip is an important
known as Manchuria in 1931, adding it to the expanding
one because it provides a
Japanese empire.  Eventually, as the Japanese became more synopsis of China’s political
upheavals through time from the
aggressive, Mao and Jiang realized that they would need to form events of the Boxer Rebellion
a unified front against the Japanese. In 1937, the Japanese through the Long March and the
eventual establishment of China’s
Communist government under
leader Mao Tse-tung.   265
Chapter 12

How did the Rise

of Totalitarism
Lead to World
War II?
1. How did the Treaty of Versailles fail to meet
Wilson’s hope of a world safe for democracy?

2. In what ways did the League of Nations fail to halt

political and military aggression?

3. How did worldwide economic depression shape

the political landscape throughout Europe?

4. How did totalitarian regimes in the Soviet Union,

Italy, Germany, and Japan come to power after
WWI?

5. How and why did totalitarianism play out

differently in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet Union
and how did this lead to the outbreak of WWII?
Section 1

Western Democracies Stumble

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Ineffectiveness of The Treaty of Versailles

1. How did the Treaty of Versailles fail to meet
At you recall from chapter 10, The Treaty of Versailles Interactive 12.1 The Treaty
Wilson’s hope of a world safe for
officially ended WWI. To understand the significance of Versailles
democracy?
of the treaty from a geographic perspective, watch
2. In what ways did the League of Nations fail
to halt political and military aggression? this interactive map:

3. How did worldwide economic depression From its inception, which took six months to
shape the political landscape throughout compose, divisions in philosophical approaches to
Europe?
the prevention of another world war doomed the
4. How did totalitarian regimes in the Soviet treaty from the start.
Union, Italy, Germany, and Japan come to For an animated map on how the
power after WWI? Versailles Treaty changed the
world, click here
5. How and why did totalitarianism play out
differently in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet
Union and how did this lead to the outbreak
of WWII?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Maginot Line
Kellogg-Briand Pact
Disarmament
Collective Security
Totalitarianism

267
“The Day” (Der Tag): Allied leaders at Versailles force Germany to take a bitter pill.
 Source: Daily Express [London] 7 May 1919
Challenges Faced by Western Democracies A Significant International Situation

By the time WWI had ended in 1919, the Western democracies of In addition to domestic issues for each of the Allied countries, the
the U.S., Great Britain and France appeared powerful.  Together three democratic nations faced a difficult international situation in
they had dominated the Paris Peace Conference and spurred that the peace settlements that were the result of the Treaty of
hope for the spread of democracy in some of the newly formed Versailles caused substantial friction in Germany and within some
nations in Eastern Europe.  However, below the surface were ethnic groups in Eastern Europe.  Additionally, friction increased
grave, deep problems. between the three democracies because of conflicting ideologies
about the implementation of the conditions of the treaty. France’s
Domestic Issues
chief concern after the war was to secure its borders against
In Britain, the Labour party gained support over the Liberal party Germany to prevent future invasion
which was significant because of the Labour’s party promotion of
which resulted in the building of massive fortifications known as
a gradual shift toward socialism.  The middle class backed the
the Maginot Line along the French-German border.  Additionally,
Conservative party which ended up holding power during most of
France strengthened its military and sought out alliances with
the 1920s.
other countries such as the Soviet Union who agreed with the
Additionally, by 1922, after years of violence with Ireland over French that Germany remained
self-rule, Britain agreed to Irish self-governance.  France weak.  Britain disagreed with
experienced political turmoil as well along with financial this belief, fearing that if
problems--specifically, how the French were going to extract war Germany remained weak, both
reparations from Germany.  And in the U.S., the “Red Scare” was France and the Soviet Union
the cause of some domestic issues--the most significant being would become too powerful.  
political controversy of the issue of limits to immigration.
Despite disagreements, many
of the nations that had been
involved in WWI did work to https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
maintain the recent peace that thumb/e/e2/Maginot_Line_ln-en_svg.svg/220px-
Maginot_Line_ln-en_svg.svg.png
had been reached at the end of
268
the war.  One example of this effort was the Kellogg-Briand • The United States itself failed to join, for fear that the
Pact, an international agreement signed by almost every nation in country would be under obligation to enter into yet another
1928, to stop using war as a method of national policy.  One horrendous foreign conflict.
action that was a part of this spirit was the practice of
• Without a military or even the full cooperation of member
disarmament, the practice of reducing a nation’s armed forces
nations, the League lacked the power to effectively carry out its
and weapons.  The goal of preventing a future world war was
rulings. 

shared by all of the members of the League, but because of the
many integral weaknesses of The League of Nations, its number
one goal in preventing a second world war would fail miserably,
eventually leading to its demise.  

The League of Nations Fails to Halt Aggression

The League of Nations was created in direct response to

Woodrow Wilson’s desire to avoid future wars through a “general
association of nations”, both big and small, that could gather and
peacefully resolve international disputes.  By pursuing policies
related to disarmament and the principle of collective security,
war (at least in theory) could be rendered obsolete. Collective
security is the idea that countries can maintain peace by entering
into agreements whereby an attack against one member is
viewed as an attack on all members.  Unfortunately, the League
of Nations was weak from the start.

• Several powerful countries were initially left out of the

formation of the League following World War I, including Germany
and Russia. 


269
As a result of the League’s weaknesses, it was often ineffective in Long-Term Political Effects of the Great Depression
halting acts of aggression committed by larger countries seeking
During the 1930s, the Great Depression was a global
to expand their territory, restore their national honor, and to
phenomenon resulting in economic collapse in virtually every
overcome the humiliations handed out at Versailles following
nation around the world. By the end of 1932, the worldwide
World War I.  
unemployment rate was estimated at 30 million people.  

(Image source: http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/depression/dep03.jpg)

270
Unfortunately, the impact of the Great Depression was not limited 20 million Soviets died during the 1930s as a result of famine and
to economics.  Another response to the Great Depression was deliberate killings.
the establishment of fascism and militarism in some nations such
Aggressive Dictatorships Promote National Interests  President
as Germany, Italy, and Japan.  In Germany, Hitler’s Nazi Party
Wilson had hoped that “making the world safe for democracy”
promised to restore the country's economy and to rebuild its
through self-determination, young democracies would be born
military. In 1932, after becoming chancellor, Hitler outlawed labor
that would assist in promoting world peace and security.  But, in
unions, restructured German industry into a series of cartels, and
the years following the Great War, democracy after democracy
after 1935, instituted a massive program of military rearmament
struggled. Leader after leader arose and made promises to
that ended high levels of unemployment. In Italy, fascism
provide food and jobs for people while the social order continued
developed even before the onset of the Depression under the
to break down around them.  Instead of democracy flourishing in
leadership of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. In Japan, militarists
the post-war world, democracies gave way to powerful leaders
seized control of the government during the 1930s. In an effort to
who secured their power through brutal means and controlled
relieve the Depression, Japanese military officers conquered
every aspect of society. The 1920s and 1930s were the decades
Manchuria, a region rich in raw materials, and coastal China in
characterized by the rise of totalitarian dictatorships.
1937.
 Totalitarianism is a form of government whereby a leader or
A similar response to the Depression was totalitarian small council of leaders have total and complete authority,
communism. In the Soviet Union, the Great Depression helped controlling all aspects of a country’s political, economic, and
solidify Joseph Stalin's hold on power. In 1928, Stalin instituted a social life.
planned economy. His first Five Year Plan called for rapid
industrialization and "collectivization" of small peasant farms
under the control of the government. To obliterate any opposition
to his program, which required peasant farmers to give their
products to the government at low prices, Stalin exiled millions of
peasant to labor camps in Siberia and instituted a program of
terror called the Great Purge. Historians estimate that as many as

271
Below are several key traits of totalitarianism.  Review America’s As you read the next four sections, fill in a graphic organizer like
Core Democratic Values here or here.  Then, for each trait of the one below with details describing the rise of totalitarian rule
totalitarianism below, identify a major core American value that during the interwar period.
the trait conflicts with.
SOCIAL POLITICAL ECONOMIC CULTURAL
Violates the Democratic Value
Totalitarianism
of:
Italy
All power is controlled by one Checks and balances
Separation of powers Germany
leader or a council of leaders,
Popular Sovereignty
not the people Representative Government Soviet
Union
The country is greater and Individual Rights
more important than the Japan

individual
How might the rise and actions of these dictators contribute to
All speech is tightly monitored
and controlled; dissent is not
Free speech the start of World War II?
tolerated
Individual rights are denied and
viewed as contributing to social Liberty
unrest
A secret police suppresses and
terrorizes all opposition, often Rule of Law
without the constraint of law or Justice
trials
The government controls the
Capitalism
economy with an emphasis on
Economic Freedom
industrialization
Education and the media is used
Truth
to spread propaganda
Freedom of the Press

Social life controlled by the state Liberty

272
Section 2

Stalin’s Totalitarian State

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Stalin and the Communist State  

1. How did the Treaty of Versailles fail to meet
The rise of totalitarian dictatorships in the interwar
Wilson’s hope of a world safe for
democracy? period began in Russia following its early departure
from World War I.  The war had greatly highlighted
2. In what ways did the League of Nations fail
to halt political and military aggression? Russia’s weak and ineffective leadership, both
politically and militarily, in addition to its relative lack
3. How did worldwide economic depression
shape the political landscape throughout
of industrialization compared to the Western powers.
Europe?  Furthermore, Russia was forced to make
tremendous land concessions when it surrendered
4. How did totalitarian regimes in the Soviet
Union, Italy, Germany, and Japan come to to the Germans in 1917, only to watch that land
power after WWI? further divided up by the Allies at Versailles.
5. How and why did totalitarianism play out
In the ensuing years of the Russian Revolution, the
differently in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet
Union and how did this lead to the outbreak move towards communism brought about a
of WWII? complete reordering of Russian society and the

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

creation of the world’s first socialist state.  The country’s name was changed to the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union. The country’s leader,
Gulags
Joseph Stalin was able to ultimately seize power and gain total control of all
The Great Purge
collectives
aspects of Soviet power, the economy and life. Keeping a firm grasp upon the
Non Aggression Pact inner workings of his government was Stalin’s first and most important priority.
Getting rid of major political opponents was high on his list, so he exiled his major

273
rival, Leon Trotsky. The process itself began with the creation of
a powerful police state that heavily monitored all aspects of
Soviet life.  Instead of serving and protecting, the Soviet secret
police used terror, murder and intimidation to carry out the
policies of Stalin’s government.

Education was used to promote the virtues of communism with

Stalin at the head.  Propaganda was used extensively to control
the information received by citizens. Enemies or anyone
perceived to be a threat to Stalin’s authority were systematically
destroyed through the use of a secret police that ruthlessly
arrested and/or executed any opposition.  Millions were sent to
Soviet work camps in Siberia, known as gulags, where life
expectancy was typically one winter. Not only did The Great
Purge focus on those Stalin believed were after him, but he was
becoming paranoid, and believed that everyone was out to get
him.  He also became increasingly power-mad by demanding http://gulaghistory.org/nps/onlineexhibit/stalin/work-src/images/belbaltlag_detail.jpg

constant praise, applause and validation of his work. The far-

reach of the purges was not limited to those who opposed Stalin.
 Regular people were just as at risk to be placed in the gulags.
Some reports claim that over 20 million people imprisoned, and
nearly 10 million of them died. These numbers do not include
those who were executed before they ever reached the Gulags.

274
 sought to modernize the country.  After some initial setbacks
industrially, Stalin’s plans significantly enhanced the Soviet
Union’s position as a modern industrial power.

Stalin’s economic plans succeeded in providing full

employment and economic growth in the Soviet economy
during the early 1930s at a time when western democracies
were struggling heavily with the global depression.   Even as
early as the 1920s, as young democratic countries arising
out of the ruins of World War I struggled economically to
provide jobs for workers, Russia’s initial transition to
communism was beginning to seem like a better solution
than capitalism.  As unemployed workers took to the streets

https://languagesoftheworld.info/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/Gulag_map.jpg
in protest of ineffective governments and poor economic
conditions, violence often resulted, and many perceived
While many of these aspects of Soviet life under Stalin’s rule were communism to be a significant threat to stability and social order.
hidden from international view, Stalin’s impact on the Soviet They responded by supporting individuals and political parties
economy got the attention of the world.  For the Soviet Union to who promised to counter communism, bring about social order,
overcome the humiliating defeat to Germany in World War I and and restore a perceived path to destiny that had somehow been
to become a global power to be reckoned with, the Soviets lost due to the outcome of World War I.  For Italians and
needed to increase the availability of essential industrial products Germans, those individuals were Benito Mussolini and Adolf
like oil, steel, and electricity, in addition to significantly improving Hitler, and their emergence as totalitarian dictators took similar
agricultural production.  One of the major ideas that Stalin paths.
brought to the table with him was to create collectives in Soviet
Russia.  This meant that the government would take control of the One of the only things that scared Stalin was the power that Hitler

production of all goods.  Stalin took control of all aspects of the had in Germany.  He saw what type of control he was exerting

Soviet economy by instituting a series of economic plans that and became frightened to what that might mean for Russia.  He

275
 decided to enter into a Non Aggression Pact--a national treaty latter was headed by such fiends and cannibals as
with another nation where both countries agree not to engage in Hitler and Ribbentrop.”
military action against each other, with Germany in order to keep
1. Why do you think Stalin gave this speech?
some control over what he saw as the upcoming instability on the
European Continent.   2. Using what you know about the character of Joseph
Stalin, do you think this was an easy speech to deliver.  Give
reasoning for your answer.

Read the
following
excerpt from
“Scorched
Earth” speech
given by
Joseph Stalin How does this image
in 1941, after contradict the earlier
the Nazi’s had image of Hitler and Stalin?
invaded the
Soviet Union.
Image from: http://www.authentichistory.com/
“Non-
aggression pacts are pacts of peace between two
States. It was such a pact that Germany proposed
to us in 1939. Could the Soviet Government have
declined such a proposal? I think that not a https://hsudarren.files.wordpress.com/2009/04/
single peace-loving State could decline a peace a_stab_in_the_back.gif

treaty with a neighboring State even though the

276
Section 3

The Rise of Moussolini

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Despite being on the side of the victorious Allies in World War I, Italy was
1. How did the Treaty of Versailles fail to meet dissatisfied with the outcome of the Paris Peace Conference negotiations. Italy
Wilson’s hope of a world safe for joined the Allies under the presumption that their loyalty would be rewarded after
democracy? the war, with land around the Adriatic Sea. However, that did not come to fruition
2. In what ways did the League of Nations fail under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The Italian economy was also plagued
to halt political and military aggression? by debts due to high wartime expenditures, inflation, and unemployment. With
3. How did worldwide economic depression unification having just happened in 1870, Italy was still a fairly new country when
shape the political landscape throughout the worldwide depression hit after World War I, which was problematic because
Europe? they were still gaining their footing in the economic and political realms.
4. How did totalitarian regimes in the Soviet Conservative landlords retained significant power in rural areas. Urban areas were
Union, Italy, Germany, and Japan come to fraught with tensions between the middle and industrial working classes that came
power after WWI?
along with industrialization. In addition, loss of people and property in World War I
5. How and why did totalitarianism play out left both soldiers and civilians feeling disillusioned. Labor strikes and land seizures
differently in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet
evidenced discontent. Communist and socialist parties challenged the existing
Union and how did this lead to the outbreak
of WWII? social order, leading citizens to question whether capitalism and democracy would
be viable paths to peace and prosperity for Italy.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Fascism
March on Rome

277
Fascism Interactive 12.2 Fascism the tendencies and the aspirations of a people,
like the people of Italy, who are rising again
Fascism is often defined as any after many centuries of abasement and foreign
centralized, authoritarian servitude. But empire demands discipline, the
government system that is not coordination of all forces and a deeply felt
communist whose policies glorify sense of duty and sacrifice: this fact explains
the state over the individual and many aspects of the practical working of the
are destructive to basic human regime, the character of many forces in the
rights.  This short video provides a
thorough overview of the
State, and the necessarily severe measures which
characteristics of a fascist must be taken against those who would oppose this
The following excerpt was written government:
spontaneous and inevitable movement …
by Benito Mussolini in 1932,
explaining the concept of fascism for an entry in an Italian
encyclopedia:
1. Highlight three excerpts in the passage that exemplify
The foundation of Fascism is the conception of
key characteristics of fascism. Identify which characteristics you
the State, its character, its duty, and its aim.
chose. Share your excerpts and explanations with a partner.
Fascism conceives of the State as an absolute, in
comparison with which all individuals or groups 2. How reliable is this source? Explain your reasoning.
are relative, only to be conceived of in their
3. Why do you think Mussolini chose to write this when
relation to the State….For Fascism, the growth of
he did? Who was his intended audience?
empire, that is to say the expansion of the
nation, is an essential manifestation of 4. Is it significant that the passage was written for an
vitality, and its opposite a sign of decadence. encyclopedia? Why or why not?

Peoples which are rising, or rising again after a
period of decadence, are always imperialist; and
renunciation is a sign of decay and of death.
Fascism is the doctrine best adapted to represent
278
Appeal of Fascism

Fascism was revolutionary in the sense that it included a

willingness to overhaul the existing governmental system. Yet,
fascism was conservative in the sense that it valued tradition and
the restoration of national glory. With its rich history including the
origin of the ancient Roman Empire and the birthplace of the
Renaissance, the latter was quite appealing to the Italian people.
A broad spectrum of groups within Italy were drawn to the
ideology. Fascism was alluring to middle and upper class citizens,
who feared losing status like their Russian counterparts did
during the Russian Revolution of 1917. The ideology also
attracted farmers, artisans, and small business owners who were
leery of socialist revolution. Unemployment rates were high
among World War I veterans, leaving them feeling disillusioned
with few prospects for the future. Members of these groups
provided a favorable audience for the promises of fascism.

Mussolini’s Rise to Power

Mussolini ran for office in 1921, but only got 7% of the vote.
However, that would change as he made efforts to gain popularity
and crush the competition. Mussolini’s Black Shirts beat and
killed opponents including communists, socialists, and labor
organizers. Mussolini was also a charismatic leader and gifted
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/
orator. He promised the Italian people restoration of national
Benito_Mussolini_colored.jpg/404px-Benito_Mussolini_colored.jpg)
glory. He also provided an alternative to communism and the
troubled democratic system.
279
In 1922, Mussolini led his followers in the March on Rome. He Lateran Accords of 1929, a series of agreements with the Church,
claimed that Italy was in chaos, and he was solely capable of established the Vatican as a sovereign state and acknowledged
restoring order. Mussolini threatened a government takeover. King Catholicism as the official national religion in Italy. Fascism’s
Victor Emmanuel conceded, and made Mussolini prime minister. nationalist fervor was evident in 1935 when Italian troops invaded
The Italian Parliament granted Mussolini emergency powers for Ethiopia looking for vindication. (Recall that Ethiopia was a
one year, which enabled him to implement censorship, suspend notable exception to the European Scramble for Africa when it
civil liberties, and abolish political opposition. retained independence by defeating the Italian military in 1896.)
Mussolini appealed to Italian patriotism by promoting this action
In 1924, Mussolini was formally elected by the Italian people. This
as a step toward reviving the Roman Empire. The League of
time, he garnered 60% of the vote. However, part of that was due
Nations voiced their disapproval of the action, but took no real
to intimidation tactics, fraud, violence, and rigged polls. Mussolini
measures to intervene. Italy simply withdrew from the League of
took the title Il Duce, meaning “leader.” By 1925, he ruled Italy as
Nations.
a fascist dictator. Other political parties were eradicated.
Mussolini eliminated workers’ rights to strike and dismantled
labor unions. He censored the press and used propaganda to
promote fascist ideals. The government took charge of the Italian
economy. Public works put unemployed citizens to work
constructing roads and expanding arable land to increase
agricultural output. Mussolini claimed to bring efficiency to the
economy, famously stating that he “made the trains run on time.”

Mussolini continued to cultivate favor with the public. Some

prominent business owners approved of his strides toward
economic efficiency by ending social turmoil, restoring the
traditional social order, and eliminating discord between political
parties. Although Mussolini was an atheist, he recognized the
significance of the Catholic Church as part of Italian heritage. The

(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/ 280

Horn_of_Africa_and_Southwest_Arabia_-_Mid-1930s.jpg)
Perspectives on the Italian invasion of Ethiopia: extermination of a nation by barbarous means, in violation of the
most solemn promises made by the nations of the earth that there
Document A
should not be used against innocent human beings the terrible
“It is not only our Army that marches to its objective: 44 million poison of harmful gases. It is to defend a people struggling for its
Italians march with that Army, all united and alert. Let others try age-old independence that the head of the Ethiopian Empire has
to commit the blackest injustice, taking away Italy’s place in the come to Geneva to fulfil this supreme duty, after having himself
sun. When, in 1915, Italy united her fate with the Allies, how fought at the head of his armies.
many promises were made? To fight the common 

I pray to Almighty God that He may spare nations the terrible
victory, Italy brought her supreme contribution of 760 000 dead,
sufferings that have just been inflicted on my people, and of
480 000 disabled and more than a million wounded. When we
which the chiefs who accompany me here have been the horrified
went to the table of that odious settlement, they gave us only the
witnesses.
crumbs of the colonial booty.” 

— Benito Mussolini, 2 October 1935, excerpted from a speech to It is my duty to inform the Governments assembled in Geneva,
the Italian people responsible as they are for the lives of millions of men, women
and children, of the deadly peril which threatens them, by
Document B describing to them the fate which has been suffered by Ethiopia.

"I, Haile Selassie I, Emperor of Ethiopia, am here today to claim It is not only upon warriors that the Italian Government has made

that justice which is due to my people, and the assistance war. It has above all attacked populations far removed from

promised to it eight months ago, when fifty nations asserted that hostilities, in order to terrorize and exterminate them,”

aggression had been committed in violation of international —Haile Selassie, June 1936, excerpted from an appeal to the
treaties. League of Nations

There is no precedent for a Head of State himself speaking in this

assembly. But there is also no precedent for a people being victim
of such injustice and being at present threatened by
abandonment to its aggressor. Also, there has never before been
an example of any Government proceeding to the systematic
281
Document C For each document:

“The invasion of Abyssinia [Ethiopia] was undertaken primarily to 1. What value does the author’s perspective provide for
demonstrate Italy’s great-power status and, in doing so, avenge historians seeking information about Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia?

Adowa, the scene of the disastrous defeat of Italian troops in
1896. One of the more frustrating aspects of Versailles had been
2. What limitations does the author’s perspective provide
Italy’s failure to acquire any new colonies and Mussolini now
for historians seeking information about Italy’s invasion of
intended to recreate the glories of the Roman Empire and achieve
Ethiopia?

a ‘place in the sun’ to rival Britain and France. Further motives
were the prospect of economic gains in the form of oil, coal and
gold and of African recruits for the Italian army. Mussolini also
thought of East Africa as a fertile area for Italian settlement, given
the expected increase in population from the ‘Battle for Births’.
Abyssinia was in any case the only remaining uncolonized African
territory and seemed an easy target, given Italy’s military
superiority and its presence in neighbouring Eritrea and
Somaliland.”

—Patricia Knight, 2003, excerpted from her book Mussolini and

Fascism

282
Section 4

The Rise of Hitler in Germany

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Treaty of Versailles was just the beginning of the German story in the early
1. How did the Treaty of Versailles fail to meet 20th Century.  Finding the right leader was crucial in Germany rebuilding and
Wilson’s hope of a world safe for becoming a force to be reckoned with during the interwar period.
democracy?
Refer to the political cartoon:
2. In what ways did the League of Nations fail
to halt political and military aggression?
1. List three important
3. How did worldwide economic depression details from the cartoon.
shape the political landscape throughout
Europe? 2. What message is the
4. How did totalitarian regimes in the Soviet cartoon conveying?
Union, Italy, Germany, and Japan come to
power after WWI? 3. The cartoon was
originally published in 1930.
5. How and why did totalitarianism play out
differently in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet What was happening in
Union and how did this lead to the outbreak Germany and the world that
of WWII? would explain why the author
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE chose to create this cartoon?

Weimar republic 

Adolf Hitler
Nazi Party
Mein Kampf
Reichstag
Third Reich
Appeasement 283
The Legacy of Versailles territory, seemingly premature to
some citizens. Germans also
The image above appeared in a
viewed the treaty as a diktat (order
German magazine in 1919. The
or mandate) as opposed to a
man on the far left is Woodrow
peace agreement. The bitterness
Wilson of the United States,
was exacerbated by economic
seemingly trying to engage the
and political instability. After the
others in conversation. Georges
abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II, a
Clemenceau of France is holding
new, democratic government
the rope. David Lloyd George of
emerged. The Weimar Republic,
Great Britain is holding a rolled up
so called for city of its origin, was
document, the Treaty of Versailles.
politically moderate but too weak
A figure representing Germany is
to maintain stability in Germany.
standing in front of the guillotine
The Weimar Republic was
with his hands bound.
challenged by groups from the left
• Thinking back to what you have and right ends of the political
learned about the end of World spectrum. Parties on the left
War I, what is significant about the wanted a communist or socialist
way each country is portrayed? government, possibly following
the model of the Russian
• How does the cartoon’s source Revolution of 1917. Parties on the
(a German magazine in 1919) (Image source: http://www.johndclare.net/images/versailles_guillotine.jpg)
right, such as the Nazis, wanted a
shape your understanding of its more militant, centralized
content? government. Also, in the wake of the Great War, the German
economy was heavily dependent on American loans. Much of
The Treaty of Versailles left Germany feeling betrayed. The
these loans were used to pay reparations. Thus, the 1929 stock
armistice was signed without Allied forces breaching German
market crash that dealt a strong blow to the American economy
284
had ripple effects in Germany. The Great Depression also caused Adolf Hitler
high, protectionist tariffs that further heightened international
Adolf Hitler was born in
tensions.
Austria in 1889. After
The German economy was in turmoil. French troops occupied the dropping out of high
industrialized Ruhr Valley in Germany after Germany defaulted on school at age 16, Hitler
reparation payments. Germany needed funds to strike back, and supported himself by
printed paper currency without the gold to back it up. Inflation working odd jobs. One
skyrocketed as a result. The cost of a single turnip rose to $50 such job was painting
million German marks. Paper money became so worthless, some pictures; young Hitler was
families burned it as kindling. an aspiring artist.
Others shoveled cash out of However, he was denied
bank vaults to make purchases. admission to an art
Children played with stacks of academy in Vienna. In the
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
money as building blocks and context of preexisting anti- wikipedia/commons/b/be/Adolf_Hitler_45.jpg)

citizens infamously carted Semitism in Vienna where

currency around in many Jews had found success as business owners and
wheelbarrows. Keep these professionals, Hitler felt resentful. He accused Jews of plotting to
circumstances in mind as you keep him out of the art school. In 1913, Hitler dodged the draft to
learn about the rise of a leader avoid service in the Austrian army. He fled to Germany to evade
promising to bring order to the arrest.
chaos: Adolf Hitler.
However, young Hitler was destined for military service after all.
World War I seemed to give him the purpose he was searching
for. Hitler joined the German army. Formerly a loner and drifter,
Hitler found a sense of belonging in the military. He became a
decorated soldier in World War I. His allegiance to the military led

285
to strong feelings of anger and betrayal regarding the Treaty of In 1923, Hitler and his supporters attempted a putsch (revolt) to
Versailles. overthrow the Weimar republic. The putsch was a failure. Hitler
was convicted of treason and sentenced to prison. The publicity
After World War I, Hitler continued to serve the military as a
surrounding the putsch and Hitler’s trial made him a household
reserve officer. He spied on political parties to keep them from
name throughout Germany.
contributing too much to the chaos of post-WWI Germany.
Among these was the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, While incarcerated, Hitler wrote a book called Mein Kampf (¨My
or Nazi party for short. Hitler was the seventh member of the Struggle¨). It was a manifesto of sorts, outlining his vision for
organization, and quickly rose to a leadership position. The Nazi Germany, political beliefs, and strategies. Mein Kampf contained
party was a right-wing organization with racist ideology. They strong elements of German nationalism, racism, and Anti-
favored the superiority of Aryans and the so-called “inferiority” of Semitism. In the book, Hitler denounced the Weimar Republic
other races. The Nazis held especially unfavorable views of Slavs and called for the restoration of German glory. He laid the
and Jews. The Nazi party started small, but with Hitler’s ability to foundation for future expansionist policies, stating a need for
deliver passionate, persuasive speeches, the party started to more ¨living space¨ for the German people. The text became part
attract large audiences at its rallies and fundraisers. of a road map for Hitler’s rise to totalitarian rule, along with radio,
rallies, posters, and slogans. While most Germans did not read
The Nazi Party
the book from cover to cover, it was considered good form to
The Nazi Party’s platform would likely be considered too extreme possess a copy. It was also common practice to give a copy of
to gain many adherents in an era of peace and prosperity, but that Mein Kampf as a gift to graduates and newlyweds.
was simply not the case amid the anguish of postwar Germany.
The ideology of the Nazi party included a strong element of Anti-
Semitism. While certainly unsettling, the Nazis were not the first
to hold such an attitude. In the Middle Ages, Jews were blamed
for the Black Death and faced massacres and forced emigration.
In Nazi Germany, Jews were scapegoats (symbolic targets of
unfair blame) representing foreign and capitalist forces posing a
perceived threat to traditional German culture.
286
Excerpt from Mein Kampf: 1. Summarize the passage in your own words.

The Jewish doctrine of Marxism rejects the aristocratic principle 2. Choose a quote that exemplifies an aspect of the Nazi
of Nature and replaces the eternal privilege of power and strength party platform. Share with a partner and explain your reasoning.
by the mass of numbers and their dead weight. Thus it denies the
3. Choose a quote that you think would have been
value of personality in man, contests the significance of
appealing to the book’s audience in interwar Germany. Share with
nationality and race, and thereby withdraws from humanity the
a partner and explain your reasoning. 

premise of its existence and its culture. As a foundation of the
universe, this doctrine would bring about the end of any order
intellectually conceivable to man. And as, in this greatest of all
recognizable organisms, the result of an application of such a law
could only be chaos, on earth it could only be destruction for the
inhabitants of this planet.

If, with the help of his Marxist creed, the Jew is victorious over
the other peoples of the world, his crown will be the funeral
wreath of humanity and this planet will, as it did thousands of
years ago, move through the ether devoid of men.

Eternal Nature inexorably avenges the infringement of her

commands.

Hence today I believe that I am acting in accordance with the will

of the Almighty Creator: by defending myself against the Jew, I
am fighting for the work of the Lord

287
The Nazi party was fascist. Fascism in Germany
shared several similarities with fascism in Italy:

• Fervent nationalism

• Willingness to use violence to obtain

political power

• One-party rule

• Dictatorship under a charismatic ruler

• Glorification of the military

• Opposition to democracy and communism

(Image source: http://static6.businessinsider.com/image/4ec67dc069beddaf77000000-607-314/nazi-party-germany-hyperinflation.jpg)
• Appealed to those with a strong sense of
tradition, promising preservation of national identity The graph above shows the German unemployment rate and the
percentage of the popular vote won by the Nazi party between
With those ideals, the Nazi party worked to develop a political
1924 and 1932. What relationship do you notice? Based on your
base. The party gained power through democratic means then
knowledge of history, how might you explain this relationship?
used that power to destroy the democratic system of the Weimar
Republic. From 1928 to 1932, Nazi representation in the In a nod to Mussolini’s Black Shirts, the Nazi party created its
Reichstag (German legislature) increased from 2% to 46%. own division of thugs called the Brownshirts. These paramilitary
storm troopers instigated riots with opposing groups, especially
communists, then blamed them for the discord. These riots made
the Weimar Republic appear weak, as though they could not
maintain law and order. The Brownshirts presented themselves as
self-proclaimed guardians of peace. As in Italy, the strength of

288
Brownshirts seemed preferable to some German citizens when Reichstag. The Nazis also burned down the Reichstag building as
compared with the perceived weakness of the Weimar Republic. a scare tactic. They blamed the communist party for the act to
discredit them. The ensuing chaos included the suspension of
The increasing power of the Nazi party was further legitimized in
civil rights and the arrest of communist leaders. The Nazis did
1932 when Hitler became chancellor of Germany. German
achieve their goal of winning more seats in the Reichstag.
industrialists, fearful of a communist takeover, pressured the
government to elevate Hitler to the position. In addition to In addition to the communists, other political parties were
Germans who endorsed the Nazi platform, the party gained systematically eliminated through a combination of threats, lies,
support from army officers and business owners who saw Hitler and force. The Gestapo, a secret police force, staged ruthless
as their best line of defense against a communist revolution attacks on perceived enemies of the state. The Nazi party
similar to the one in Russia. targeted universities, journalists, and intellectuals to prevent them
from questioning authority and damaging the party’s credibility.
From Chancellor to Dictator
The Nazi party also formed national associations for each
As chancellor, Hitler continued to expand the extent of his power. profession. Each association was run by a Nazi official; free
He appealed to Germans’ sense of nationalism to gain support. speech and free thought started to slip away. Step by step, Adolf
HItler eliminated rivals within and outside the Nazi party. He HItler and the Nazis worked toward transforming the Weimar
started to rearm Germany. Hitler also launched a campaign Republic to the Third Reich. Meaning “third empire,” the term
against the Jews including propaganda, lies, and force. He referred to the restoration of German glory following the Holy
exploited the German people's anger, using it to garner favor by Roman Empire and the unification of Germany under Otto von
promising to cure Germany’s political and economic ails; that Bismarck. Hitler envisioned the Nazi regime ruling for a thousand
anger was redirected toward scapegoats such as Jews and years.
communists. The Nazi party also gained popularity with rallies,
With opposition from other parties eliminated Hitler turned his
festivals, and free food.
attention to rivals within the Nazi ranks. His chief rival was Ernst
After his appointment to chancellor, Hitler called for new Rohm, head of the Brownshirts. Rohm and his supporters were
elections. He hoped that his elevated political status would bring murdered in June 1934 during the “Night of the Long Knives,” a
legitimacy to the Nazis and help the party gain more seats in the planned purge of contenders for Nazi party leadership. The

289
dissolution of the Brownshirts followed. They were replaced by a
new, deadly agency of terror called the Schutzstaffel, or SS for
short.

After the death of President Hindenburg in 1934, Hitler became

commander-in-chief of the German army. Military leaders pledged
their loyalty to Hitler, pleased with his efforts to rearm Germany.
The positions of president and chancellor were fused into one.
Hitler emerged as a totalitarian dictator, taking the title of Fuhrer
(“leader”), much like Mussolini’s adoption of Il Duce.

The political cartoon above was published by David Low in Great

Britain in July 1934. The caption read “They salute with both
hands now!”

1. What type of imagery does the artist use?

2. How does the portrayal of Hitler and the men next to

him differ from the portrayal of the men in the crowd?

3. Note the caption. How does it expand your

understanding of the cartoon?

4. Note that the cartoon was originally published in

Britain. How does the country of origin affect the cartoon’s
content?


290
 Rearming Germany minimal opposition. There was no military response, only vocal
condemnation from Great Britain and France.
Now in charge of the German army, Hitler set a goal of increasing
its size to 300,000 active duty soldiers by the end of 1937, which In addition to expanding the ranks of military personnel, rearming
would require conscription (a military draft). This was a direct Germany meant amassing weapons and expanding the nation’s
violation of the Treaty of Versailles. If that violation made France infrastructure. Public works included building houses, draining
feel threatened enough to spark a reaction, Germany wanted to swamps to improve land for agricultural use, and developing a
be ready. Therefore, they remilitarized the Rhineland as a network of highways for efficient troop movement. These projects
preemptive step. However, Germany’s action was met with provided jobs and a bit of relief from the Great Depression, if only
temporarily. The infrastructure improvements boosted patriotic
sentiments in Germany. Growth of the military also provided job
opportunities to lower the unemployment rate among young
people.

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The Economy in Nazi Germany

German military spending increased significantly under

Nazi rule (see graph). Although Germany stopped
paying reparations in 1933, the defense expenditures
put a strain on the German economy. In response to the
nation’s economic woes, Hitler urged a course of self-
sufficiency. (Recall that poor harvests and the British
naval blockade resulted in food shortages and
malnutrition during World War I, and Germany was
heavily dependent on American loans to pay reparations
after the war.) This emphasis on self-sufficiency helped
insulate Germany from some effects of the Great
Depression, although it certainly was not immune. The
drive for autonomy also encouraged innovation in Data source: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi-germany/nazi-germany-military-expenditure/

science, spurring new methods in production of items

such as rubber and plastic to minimize imports. The goal of product is the Volkswagen, meaning “the people’s car.” Hitler
economic self-sufficiency encouraged territorial expansion as launched an initiative to build affordable Volkswagens in 1934.
well. German scientists estimated a need of up to 20 million The Nazi party started constructing a massive state-run
additional acres of farmland to feed the German people. production facility to rival that of Ford in Detroit. They also
collected advance payments from customers. However, the
Manufacturing progressed under the Nazi regime. Part of German program stalled out when the factory was repurposed for military
citizens’ interwar angst stemmed from a lack of access to use in 1939. Customers who already paid did not receive their
consumer goods enjoyed by other industrialized nations. In cars. However, the Volkswagen brand did find commercial
response, the Third Reich streamlined production of goods such success after World War II.
as refrigerators, radios, and automobiles. These items were called
Volk products, meaning “the people’s.” The best known Volk

292
Escalating Anti-Semitism

As Nazi party influence spread in Germany, so did anti-

Semitic sentiments. Discrimination against Jews became
official state policy with the  adoption of the Nuremberg
Laws in 1935. The laws banned Jews from universities,
government jobs, and certain professions. German
citizenship was revoked from Jews. Property rights were
limited and marriage between Jews and Germans was
prohibited. The night of November 9-10, 1938 came to
be known as Kristallnacht, the ¨night of broken glass.¨ It
involved coordinated acts of violence targeting Jews.
Perpetrators looted and vandalized 7500 Jewish-owned
businesses; Kristallnacht is a reference to the shattered
glass from the shop windows. Two hundred synagogues
were burned as well. Jews who tried to protect their Germans pass by a Jewish-owned shop vandalized during Kristallnacht

property were beaten. The Nazis also rounded up over (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/

20,000 Jewish people to send to concentration camps.   Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-083-42%2C_Magdeburg%2C_zerst%C3%B6rtes_j%C3%BCdisches_Gesch%C3%A4ft.jpg)

In 1933, the first German concentration camp was constructed in eugenics, a program aimed at purifying the human race by
Dachau. Here, the Nazis imprisoned those deemed “unfit” for the removing ¨undesirable¨ genetic elements through forced
Third Reich. This included political dissidents, Jews, artists, sterilization or killing. Eugenics became an official state policy in
intellectuals, homosexuals, non-whites, and people with mental 1935; the Nazis used the policy to legitimize their treatment of
and physical disabilities. Dachau and other concentration camps Jews and other targeted groups.
became death camps due to starvation, mass executions,
overwork, and disease. Efforts to purge the Third Reich of anyone
who did not fit the Nazi ideal stemmed from Hitler’s interest in

293
As German anti-Semitism intensified during the 1930s, some masses, thereby increasing radio ownership significantly during
Jews chose to flee the country. One notable example is Albert the 1930s. German citizens could hear Hitler’s charismatic
speeches from anywhere in the nation. However, Germans were
Propaganda in Nazi Germany
not permitted to listen to foreign broadcasts.
As in other totalitarian regimes, propaganda played a key role in
Hitler addressed the use of propaganda in Mein Kampf. He
the Nazi regime. Hitler’s minister of propaganda, Joseph
stated,
Goebbels, found the radio to be a powerful tool for disseminating
propaganda. In 1933, the Nazis introduced the Volksempfaenger “The receptivity of the great masses is very limited, their
(“the people’s radio”). Streamlined production and an affordable intelligence is small, but their power of forgetting is enormous. In
payment plan for the VE301 model made it accessible to the consequence of these facts, all effective propaganda must be
limited to a very few points and must harp on these in
slogans until the last member of the public understands
what you want him to understand by your slogan. As
soon as you sacrifice this slogan and try to be many-
sided, the effect will piddle away, for the crowd can
neither digest nor retain the material offered. In this way
the result is weakened and in the end entirely cancelled
out.”

Suggested activity: search the Internet to find three

examples of Nazi propaganda that exemplify the qualities
Hitler outlines in the passage above. Explain your
choices with supporting evidence from each piece of
propaganda.

294
 The Nazi party censored the German press and burned books cigarettes, no food, no personal possessions,
that did not support their ideology. They also used schools and nothing in your locker but uniforms, boots,
universities to disseminate their ideology and indoctrinate knife, polish. No talking after lights-out.
German youth. By 1933, an organization called the Hitler Youth Letters home will be posted on Wednesdays. You
boasted 100,000 members. Meeting attendance became will strip away your weakness, your cowardice,
mandatory in 1939. During Hitler Youth meetings, children your hesitation. You will become like a
practiced marching, physical fitness, and military skills. waterfall, a volley of bullets--you will all
surge in the same direction at the same pace
A one-armed
toward the same cause. You will forgo comforts;
bunk master
you will live by duty alone. You will eat country
sets forth
and breathe nation.
rules in a
belligerent The excerpt above is from All the Light We Cannot See by
torrent. “This Anthony Doerr. The passage is set in interwar Germany, as
is your parade Werner (a main character) arrives at a Nazi-run school.
uniform, this
is your field
uniform, this Suggested activity: highlight portions of the passage that
is your gym exemplify fascist or totalitarian values. Explain your choices to a
Members of the Hitler Youth attend a rally in 1936
uniform. partner.
(Image source: http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org/holoprelude/images/
Suspenders
Hitler%20youth%20on%20parade.jpg)
crossed in the
back, parallel in the front. Sleeves rolled to
the elbows. Each boy is to carry a knife in a
scabbard on the right side of the belt. Raise
your right arm when you wish to be called upon.
Always align in rows of ten. No books, no

295
Role of Women

Hitler favored traditional, domestic roles for women. According

the the Nazis, the primary responsibility of women was to bear
children for the Aryan race and raise them to believe Nazi
teachings. In 1933, Hitler passed laws incentivizing marriage
between members of the Aryan race. These laws granted
government loans to couples, as long as the woman agreed not
to work outside the home. Families also received subsidies and
tax breaks for having children. Mothers of large families with four
or more children even got special awards.

German Foreign Policy

In 1933, Germany withdrew from the League of Nations. The

organization’s weakness became apparent after their inaction
following Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia and Japan’s occupation
of Manchuria (a region in northeastern China). The United States
was not part of the League of Nations and its members feared
escalating tensions that might trigger a second world war. The
organization lacked any real military power that could have halted
German expansion.

Hitler’s expansionist policies, starting with remilitarization of the Nazi propaganda promoting families

Rhineland, were violations of the Treaty of Versailles. However, the

(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/
invasion of the Rhineland was met with so little resistance, Nazi_Germany_NSDAP_poster.jpg/425px-Nazi_Germany_NSDAP_poster.jpg)

Germany was encouraged to continue its course of aggressive

296
expansion. Germany signed a nonaggression pact with Poland, Germany and Austria. Anschluss means “link up.” This union
hoping to undermine Poland’s diplomatic ties with France. furthered the goal of Germanic peoples living together under the
Germany also acquired land in the Saar region from Austria. Rich Third Reich. The Nazis held a vote after sending troops to Austria
in coal, this land and its resources were key to strengthening to enforce the union, and claimed that 99.73% of Austrians
industry and rearming Germany. supported Anschluss. Expansionist efforts would continue as
Hitler set his sights on more territory in Czechoslovakia, Poland,
Germany’s foreign policy emphasized the need for lebensraum, or
and beyond.
“living space.” Germany used this idea to justify expansion into
Czechoslovakia, Austria, Poland, the Ukraine, and Russia. Hitler
thought Germany’s geographic boundaries were too limiting. He
claimed that in order to enjoy a standard of living comparable to
other industrialized nations, Germany needed more land
(especially farmland) and natural resources to accommodate its
population. Hitler also noted that the Treaty of Versailles
advocated self-determinism, and the borders of the newly created
Austria and Czechoslovakia left German people living outside
German territory. In Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that local
populations would be displaced rather than absorbed into the
Third Reich. He also asserted that Jews and traveling gypsies
posed threats to German farmers.

The lack of military response from France when Germany

reclaimed the Rhineland was an example of appeasement, giving
into an aggressor to prevent a larger conflict. In the wake of World
War I, countries such as France and Great Britain hoped that
making some concessions would avoid another war. However,
German expansion continued with Anschluss, the unification of

297
 Suggested activity: create a follow up to this cartoon showing
what you think will happen next. Remember that political
cartoons use symbols to convey a message. Try to be consistent
with the style Dr. Seuss uses in the cartoon above.

(Image source: http://library.ucsd.edu/dc/object/bb48472752/

_3.jpg)

1. List three important details from the cartoon.

2. What message is the cartoonist conveying?

3. How does the cartoon’s message relate to German

foreign policy in the 1930s?


298
Section 5

The Rise of Militaristic Imperialism in Japan

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY

1. How did the Treaty of Versailles fail to meet

Wilson’s hope of a world safe for
democracy?

2. In what ways did the League of Nations fail

to halt political and military aggression?

3. How did worldwide economic depression

shape the political landscape throughout
Europe?

4. How did totalitarian regimes in the Soviet

Union, Italy, Germany, and Japan come to
power after WWI?

5. How and why did totalitarianism play out

differently in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet
Union and how did this lead to the outbreak
of WWII? Refer to the map above.
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE 1. Write a thesis statement describing the trend shown on the map.
Puppet Dictatorship 2. Using the map and your knowledge of geography and history, explain
reasons for the trend.

3. Predict how the trend on the map will contribute to the causes of World War
II.

299
Japan and the Military State   the League of Nations for assistance.  The League condemned
Japan’s actions in the region, but was unable to encourage
Meanwhile, halfway across the globe while Hitler and the Nazi
League members to collectively impose sanctions. Japan simply
Party were rising to power in the Reichstag, the imperial-minded
withdrew from the League in 1933 and soon began a massive
and highly nationalistic Japanese military had taken dictatorial
naval build up in the Pacific. This would give the Japanese the
control of Japan, while Emperor Hirohito ruled as the symbolic
military power needed to expel Western imperial powers from
power of Japan.
Asia and increase the magnitude of the Japanese empire.

Tojo, was the figurehead in what is commonly called a “puppet As a member of the League of Nations, Japan’s government had
dictatorship.”  In a puppet dictatorship there is one main public, made a mockery of the guideline as stated in Article 10 of the
likeable face to the government (in this instance it was Emperor League Charter.
Hirohito), controlled by someone else, just like a puppet, (Tojo).
 This is a very dangerous form of government as the person ARTICLE 10.
blamed for the decisions is mostly never the one punished.
The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve
Throughout the early 1900s, Japan had sought to take its place as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing
among the most prestigious and modernized countries of the political independence of all Members of the League. In case of
world, but it struggled economically due to its overpopulation and any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such
lack of important raw materials necessary for industry, like oil, aggression the Council shall advise upon the means by which this
rubber, and metals.  Furthermore, the country had felt that obligation shall be fulfilled.
European powers were a little too slow to recognize its
Knowing that this was a major part of what was expected of a
emergence as a world power, and its national resentment began
League of Nations member, when Japan invaded Manchuria, the
to build. Its first solution to the problem was to invade the
League stepped in when China had asked for assistance.  The
resource-rich region of China, known as Manchuria, in 1931.  This
League of Nations sent a group of people to Manchuria and with
would be the aggressive first step for the Japanese in creating an
great gusto, asked the Japanese to leave. Japan gave their
empire that would provide living space for the country, in addition
answer quite emphatically by choosing to exit the League of
to the raw materials necessary for Japan to prosper. China, in
Nations over leaving their newly acquired landmass. This was just
little position to act while in the midst of a civil war, appealed to
300
another glaring failure of the League of Nations.  This led to a
rapid expansion of Japanese territory and the beginning of an
Alliance with Germany and Italy to keep the West out of the East.

301
Chapter 13

Was World War II

Justified by its
Results?

1. Why did fascist dictators see expansion from a territorial

standpoint as a must in meeting their goals?

2. How did the policy of appeasement by Western democratic

governments contribute to the beginning of World War II?

3. What policies, alliances, and actions contributed to the start of

World War II?

4. Why was the Jewish population viewed as such a threat to the

Nazi Party?

5. How did the results of the Holocaust play a major factor in how
the map of the world would change?

6. How did the positions of armed forces at the end of the war
lead to zones of occupation and competition for political
influence amongst the former Allies?

7. How did the multitude of damages (social, political, economic,

cultural) caused by WWII impact the geopolitical landscape
throughout the world?
Section 1

Causes of World War II

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Hossbach Conference: A Plan for War?

1. Why did fascist dictators see expansion from a
territorial standpoint as a must in meeting their The Hossbach Conference (named for Hitler’s Many might assume that a historical
goals? document such as the Hossbach
military adjutant Friedrich Hossbach, who took
Memorandum wouldn’t conjure up
2. How did the policy of appeasement by Western copious notes during the meeting) met on
democratic governments contribute to the controversy; however, some of its
beginning of World War II? November 5, 1937, at the Reich Chancellery in contents did just that. The
3. What policies, alliances, and actions
Berlin. During this four hour long secret meeting memorandum was used at the
contributed to the start of World War II? with a few of his top military and government Nuremberg Trials as evidence of
advisors, Hitler outlined his future vision for Hitler’s conspiratorial plan to create
4. Why was the Jewish population viewed as
such a threat to the Nazi Party? a world war. Several historians have
Germany. Held at the height of Germany’s
argued over whether its contents
5. How did the results of the Holocaust play a rearmament, Hitler laid out plans for territorial
major factor in how the map of the world were specific enough to determine
expansion through warfare. As Hossbach would
would change? that a conspiracy had been
later write, “Germany’s problem could only be developed and would soon be put
6. How did the positions of armed forces at the
end of the war lead to zones of occupation and saved by means of force.” Hitler argued that into action. For a succinct and
competition for political influence amongst the Germany would need to soon seize the region of interesting summary of the
former Allies?
Eastern Europe and then prepare for conflict arguments over the significance of
7. How did the multitude of damages (social, the memorandum, check out this
with Great Britain and France.
political, economic, cultural) caused by WWII page.
impact the geopolitical landscape throughout
the world?

TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE

Hossbach Conference Loyalists
Appeasement Munich Pact
Contextualization Nazi-Soviet Pact
Pacifism
Neutrality Acts 303
Nationalists
 that their carefully developed plans for peace would work.
Unfortunately, the leaders of the Axis powers (Hitler, Mussolini,
and Japan’s leaders) viewed the desire for world peace as
weakness and continued to wage new acts of aggression. The
vicious cycle of aggression would continue for years to come as
the policy of appeasement or giving in to the demands of an
aggressor in order to keep the peace, failed time and time again.

Hitler’s Aggressive Acts

The combined actions of the Axis powers were bringing the world
close to war. Singularly, Hitler was continuing the war aims that
he had penned in Mein Kampf: breaking some of the conditions
of the Treaty of Versailles, uniting all German speaking people as
one nation and providing lebensraum of “living space” for
Germany and its citizens. From the beginning, Hitler detested the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles and promptly broke some of
those terms by first building up the German military and then
using it in 1936 by sending troops into the “demilitarized”
Image source: http://vho.org/D/Wannsee/Gutachten/abb21c.png Rhineland which bordered France. Western democracies
censured Hitler’s actions but took no action.
Aggressive Acts go Unchecked
Mussolini’s Aggressive Acts
Throughout the decade of the 1930s, peace throughout the world
had been challenged multiple times and often followed a similar While Hitler was engaging in aggressive military tactics with the
pattern. Aggressive dictators took action but because the fear of German military, Mussolini and his newly modernized military was
another world war was so high, they only met with verbal protests pursuing his own aggressive ambitions. By 1935, Mussolini
and pleas for peace. It was the belief by most democratic leaders invaded Ethiopia and although the resistance of Ethiopian

304
soldiers was strong, its army was no match for Italy’s modernized engage in military action to send the message that acquisition of
warfare. The King of Ethiopia appealed to the League of Nations foreign lands through military force would not be tolerated. That
for assistance and although the League voted for sanctions to be was not the case, however, in Europe in the mid 1930s. France
imposed against Italy for violating international law, the League had been demoralized and was suffering from significant political
did not have the power to enforce the sanctions; by 1936 Ethiopia divisions realizing that without the aid of the British, Hitler could
had been conquered by Italy. not be stopped. The British had no desire to confront Hitler and
some British felt that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles had
Japan’s Aggressive Acts
been too harsh on Germany and Hitler was justified in his
One of the earliest acts of aggression by one of the Axis powers aggressive actions. Together, many in both France and Britain
countries was the invasion of Manchuria by the country of Japan. saw Hitler’s fascism as a defense against an even greater evil--
While the League of Nations condemned the act of aggression, the spread of communism. Combined with a common belief
Japan responded by simply withdrawing from the organization. throughout Europe that pacifism--opposition to all war must be
The ease at which the invasion of Manchuria took place practiced to promote peace, war was to be avoided at all costs.
strengthened Japan’s military and by 1937, Japanese armies took And in the United States, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts
over much of Eastern China thus launching the Second Sino- with the fundamental goal of keeping the U.S. out of any foreign
Japanese War. Again, protests by Western democracies had no conflicts.
effect.

Attempts at Keeping the Peace

Understanding what motivates people to behave as they did is

the heart of contextualization. When studying history, it is
important to consider contextualization, especially during
instances when a response to a dramatic event or a series of
events seems quite obvious. In this instance, one might think
that aggression by each of the countries comprising the Axis
powers would undoubtedly prompt other European countries to

305
Image source: http://www.johndclare.net/images/Roadto2.gif
 Civil War in Spain

By 1936, Spain was engulfed in a bloody civil war. Trouble had

started in Spain in 1931, when the king was forced out and a
republic was established. By 1936, the government had passed
a series of reforms seen as controversial by some because they
were liberal and took land and privileges away from the old ruling
class as well as the Church. Conservatives rejected these
changes and supported a revolt led by Francisco Franco, a
conservative general.
Image source: https://southbromsgrovehistory.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/appeasement-
cartoon.jpg?w=668

Interactive 13.1

For a video explanation and

lesson of Stepping Stones to
Glory, see the link

image source: https://libcom.org/files/imagecache/article/images/spanish_civil_war.jpg

306
 Fascists and supporters of right-wing, conservative policies Continued Aggression by Germany in Austria and
known as Nationalists backed Franco; Loyalists, or supporters Czechoslovakia
of the republic (including socialists and communists) opposed the
Back in Europe, Hitler continued to pursue his goal of uniting all
revolt. Soon, people from other nations surged in to support both
German-speaking people into the Third Reich. A firm believer in
sides. The Soviets sent soldiers to fight alongside the loyalists
the superiority of the German people or the “Aryan race,” Hitler
while both Hitler and Mussolini sent forces to back Franco.
justified the right of the German people to eliminate those who
Heinousness on both sides ensued with casualties reaching
were deemed inferior. Because Nazi propoganda had found a
almost a million. One of the worst atrocities was the raid on
favorable response in Austria, by 1938, Hitler felt ready to
Guernica, a small market town, in April of 1937, where an
orchestrate the union of Austria and Germany, also known as the
estimated 1,600 civilians were killed when German planes
Anschluss. His first step had been to infiltrate the Austrian
dropped bombs and then swooped low to utilize the planes’
cabinet by forcing the chancellor to appoint Nazis to key posts.
machine guns. Nazi leaders
When the Austrian leader balked at Hitler’s demands that came
saw the attack with their
next, Hitler sent the German army to ensure that order was
planes as a successful
preserved. While some Austrians favored annexation, Hitler used
experiment, testing the
that as justification to silence those who opposed it. Western
capabilities of one version of
democracies took no action and Austrian annexation was
their modern warfare. It is
complete.
with assistance from Germany
and Italy that helped Franco Hitler’s next target was Czechoslovakia. Back when the Treaty of
triumph by 1939, ruling Spain Versailles had been signed, the country of Czechoslovakia had
as a fascist dictator. been created including ethnic groups of Czech, Slovak,
Hungarian, and Germans. By 1938, some of the German
minorities sided with the German Sudeten German party -- a
political group leaning towards Nazi Germany support. The Czech
government refused and instituted martial law. By September,
image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/
Hitler demanded that Germans of the Sudetenland be allowed to
Francisco_Franco_1930.jpg/220px-
Francisco_Franco_1930.jpg
307
vote to join Germany. Tensions rose. To prevent the outbreak of Appeasement is Formalized in Munich
war, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain asked for a
At a four-power conference held in Munich on September 28-29,
meeting with Hitler. France and Italy were asked to join in, too.
Chamberlain (Britain), Daladier (French), and Mussolini (Italy)
agreed to allow Germany to annex certain areas of
Czechoslovakia after much negotiation. Czechoslovakia was not
invited to the conference and was informed by Britain and France
after the Munich Pact had been signed that they could either
resist Germany alone or submit to the prescribed annexations.
Czechoslovakia chose not to resist. Appeasement as a policy
had been solidified and in exchange, Hitler agreed that he would
not make any more demands. With the signing of the pact the
Western powers believed they stopped an upcoming war. Upon
his return to London, Prime
Minister Chamberlain proclaimed Interactive 13.2 Peace in
“peace in our time.” British Our Time
politician Winston Churchill
disagreed with the course of
action taken at the conference by
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jfk100chamberlain-angus.jpg
the diplomats, warning, “They
had to choose between war and
dishonor. They chose dishonor;
they will have war.”

308
 A Nazi-Soviet Pact is Signed

Hitler knew an attack on Poland would result in a two-front war --

Britain and France from the west and the Soviet Union from the
east. To avoid this problem, he stunned the world and secretly
negotiated with his communist enemy, Joseph Stalin, dictator of
the Soviet Union. The Nazi-Soviet Pact, also called the Non-
aggression Pact, could allow for a German invasion of Poland
from the west and a Soviet invasion of Poland from the east.
Additionally, both sides agreed to never attack one another and to
remain neutral in the advent of war. The Soviets also received
Hitler’s support of their occupation of Finland and the Baltic
Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germans_in_Czechoslovakia_(1918%E2%80%931938) States of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

But peace was not going to last for long. Hitler was not yet
satisfied, he wanted more of Czechoslovakia. On March 15, 1939,
German troops marched into Czech seizing control of the western
half of the country. Poland and Hungary divided the remaining
portion between themselves. Later, the city of Memel was
annexed from Lithuania and Italy took Albania. By now, the
western powers knew their appeasement policy was in shambles.

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QNYA_9GU8kY/s320/PactoGermanoSovietico.jpg
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 Publicly, the world witnessed Hitler and Stalin commit to peaceful The Invasion of Poland ignites WWII
relations. What most didn’t realize was that the pact had been
In 1919, one condition of the Treaty of Versailles was the creation
based on mutual need. Hitler feared communism; Stalin feared
of Poland and its water access to the Baltic Sea, better known as
Hitler’s fascist regime. Hitler wanted a free hand in Poland
the Polish Corridor. Poles were joyous; Germans were angry and
without having to worry about fighting a two-front war. Stalin
disillusioned. To the Germans, the treaty and the corridor had
wanted to protect the Soviet Union from Hitler’s aggressive
carved out illegal access for the Poles, divided their lands, and
tendencies and felt that the only way to do that was to befriend
put some of their citizens under the leadership of foreign
him while also leaving his options open to attain additional land in
governmental control. Furthermore, the treaty established the
Eastern Europe to extend the Soviet empire.
independent town of Danzig administered by the League of
Nations.

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310
Hitler wanted this corridor back under German control. Yet, by the
end of March of 1939 Chamberlain proclaimed: “ . . . in the event
of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence, and
which the Polish Government accordingly considered it vital to
resist with their national forces, His Majesty's Government would
feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government all
support in their power.” Furthermore, talks ensued between the
French and Poles and in late May, an agreement was reached
stating "on the outbreak of war between Germany and Poland,
the French would immediately undertake air action against
Germany.” Appeasement had ended. Hitler pressured the Poles
for control. But for now, the corridor remained under Polish
control. On September 1, 1939, just one week after Hitler and
Stalin had formed the Nazi-Soviety Pact, German forces invaded
Poland. It took only two days for Britain and France to declare
war on Germany. World War II had begun.

311
Section 2

Advances by the Axis

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Blitzkrieg Begins

1. Why did fascist dictators see expansion from a
territorial standpoint as a must in meeting their On the evening of August 30, a band of Nazi’s dressed as Polish soldiers invaded
goals?
the town of Gleiwitz and began an attack. Local radio stations reported that
2. How did the policy of appeasement by Western Germany was under attack from Poland. The following morning, Nazi forces
democratic governments contribute to the
beginning of World War II? stormed into Poland, demonstrating the power of Hitler’s blitzkrieg or “lightning
war.” The combination of substantial tank and airpower proved no match for
3. What policies, alliances, and actions
contributed to the start of World War II? Poland. The German air force, known as the Luftwaffe often launched the first
4. Why was the Jewish population viewed as wave of an attack bombing airfields, factories, towns, and cities and screaming
such a threat to the Nazi Party? dive bombers would fire upon troops as well as civilians. Fast-moving Panzer
5. How did the results of the Holocaust play a tanks and troop transports then pushed their way into Poland, encircling the Polish
major factor in how the map of the world
army and forcing surrender. For Poland, this meant that over 1.7 million Germany
would change?
invaded the country by air and land. There were heroic Poles But, in a matter of
6. How did the positions of armed forces at the
end of the war lead to zones of occupation and four short weeks, over 66,000 Poles were killed. Poland fell to Hitler on
competition for political influence amongst the September 27, 1939.
former Allies?

7. How did the multitude of damages (social,

political, economic, cultural) caused by WWII Primary Source: 1st person Account – Poland
impact the geopolitical landscape throughout Blitzkrieg Unleashed. The German Invasion of Poland
the world?
“People, animals, everything is running around in confusion! Horses fall as if they have been struck
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE by a blade, and dragged along, others crash into overturned wagons. There, an entire convoy is
Blitzkrieg Blackouts ablaze. And while we make our second, third attack against this enemy, who is laid low until he can
Luftwaffe Island Hopping no longer fight, groups of Stukas [military airplanes] dive down upon these disintegrating divisions
Panzers and spread hell, death and ruin with their bombs.”
Royal Air Force (RAF) Stuka Pilot, Invasion of Poland, 1939 from Blitzkrieg Unleashed.
Blitz 312
 As Hitler’s forces invaded Poland from the west, Stalin’s forces
invaded from the east, grabbing lands that had been promised
under the Nazi-Soviet Pact. In less than a month, the country of
Poland ceased to exist. Because of the rapid rate at which the
aggression from both directions occurred, France and Britain
could do nothing to help.

The “Phony War”

After the invasion of Poland, France and Great Britain declared

war on Germany on September 3, 1939. Both nations prepared
for war while both French and British soldiers hunkered down
behind the Maginot Line, anticipating another of Hitler’s
German Panzer I tanks near the city of Bydgoszcz, during the Invasion of Poland. blitzkriegs. But no direct conflict between these countries initially
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occurred. Some labeled this time period as the “phony war” –
war had been declared, but no military conflicts took place.

Interactive 13.3 Hitler

Unleashes The Blitz

A short but accurate video that

depicts “the blitz” can be found
here

https://www.histclo.com/essay/war/ww2/camp/eur/phoney/pw-cd.html 313
The “phony war” ended in April of 1940 with the German invasion On May 9 of 1940, Hitler assured the low countries of the
of Norway. Hitler wanted control of Norway to regulate the trade Netherlands and Belgium after he professed to have no designs
of iron ore from Sweden which had declared their neutrality. The on them. In fact, the Netherlands like Sweden declared their
iron ore would aid Germany with weapons’ manufacturing. On neutrality at the beginning of the war. Nevertheless, the German
the same day, Hitler invaded Denmark. Control of both of these Luftwaffe bombings began on Rotterdam. The royal family fled to
countries would control the shipping lanes into and out of the London and the Netherlands surrendered on May 15, 1940.
Baltic Sea. By June, both countries had fallen to Nazi Germany.
The Fall of France
With the war getting worse, the British parliament replaced Neville
After the three-week battle in the Netherlands and Belgium,
Chamberlain with Winston Churchill in May. Churchill is quoted as
Germany moved onto France. Just like the Great War, Germany’s
saying upon his selection as the new Prime Minister, "If you ask
invasion came from the north. Their forces easily swept into the
what is our policy, it is to wage war by sea, land and air with all
northern territory forcing the French and British armies to retreat
our might, I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat."
to the coastal town of Dunkirk. Here, over 400,000 men were
trapped against the sea – the English Channel to the north and
the German forces to the south. For over a week in late May and
early June, a rescue mission of British ships, boats, and other
sailing vessels crossing the channel occurred to save the men on
the shores of Dunkirk. Almost 340,000 soldiers were ferried to
safety. Known as the “Miracle of Dunkirk,” the improvised
armada’s heroic rescue greatly raised British morale. The rescue
continued until June 4th when Dunkirk fell to the Axis powers.

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314
 Primary Source: part of France to the Nazi occupiers. In the south, the Germans
Of the successful rescue at Dunkirk, Prime Minister Churchill said: “We established a “puppet state” with its capital at Vichy.
shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the
seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing
strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may
be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing
grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in
the hills; we shall never surrender . . “

Interactive 13.4 We Shall

Fight Speech

Adolf Hitler after the armistice on June 23, 1940.

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From Dunkirk, the

Germans moved on to Paris. On June 9, a Nazi offensive was
launched on Paris. The French gave up with Premier Raynaud
resigning and Field Marshal Petain receiving control of the
government. German troops marched into the capitol on June
14, 1941. To humiliate the French, Hitler ordered the official
surrender to be signed in the same railway car used when
Germany signed the armistice ending WWI in November of 1918.
The ceasefire was signed on June 22, giving the northwestern
315
The Battle of Britain Hitler had called off the land assault and changed tactics. In
September, the Luftwaffe began aerial raids on cities and civilian
With the fall of France, Britain stood alone. Believing the British
sites. The blitz had begun, forcing many of London’s citizens to
would not fight, Hitler offered peace. Instead, the British prepared
utilize the Tube (subway) tunnels as airway shelters.
for war. Although Britain had started to prepare for war at least a
year before it actually started with the building of warships and
armaments. On the home front, the government expected the
war to disrupt and threaten the lives of civilians left at home, so
preparation happened in a variety of different ways, from cutting
down railings to be melted down and used in munitions factories,
to rationing and evacuation plans. People were needed on the
home front to help with all sorts of things. They were encouraged
to plant vegetables on any spare land they had to supplement the
rationing, but people were also recruited into a variety of essential
positions such as Air Raid Wardens and the Home Guard. People
were also encouraged to think about their safety, and the
government spent a great deal of time educating people on what
to do in situations such as an air raid, or a gas attack, as well as https://imgix.bustle.com/mic/6d9e7902c1e77297e1331228cdad2b9bdd39e7229e5265e3b394943f6c93e185.jpg?
w=1020&h=576&fit=crop&crop=faces&auto=format&q=70
providing information on how to make rations stretch further. In
Germany, Hitler’s generals prepared too, for “Operation Sea Lion” Other Brits living out of the capitol, constructed their own
– the code name for the invasion of Britain.
shelters. “Blackouts” were ordered where all evening lights –
The initial focus of Operation Sea Lion was the Luftwaffe lamps, street lights, automobile lamp, etc. were banned. The
bombing of Britain. Hitler thought he could break the island morale of the British could not be broken. Each morning they

nation, destroy the Royal Air Force (RAF), and ensure an easier came out of their shelters and started the clean-up from the night

land attack. In July, the German air force began their missions prior. The blitz went on for months, but the RAF kept control over

over Britain – bombing ships, airfields, and the RAF. By August, the skies. The island nation was not invaded. By June of 1941,
the Battle of Britain and the blitz came to an end.
316
 Africa and the Balkans

While Germany was invading Western Europe, the Italians began

invading Africa and the Balkans. But Mussolini would struggle in
both areas. In September of 1940, Mussolini ordered his 300,000
troops from the North African colony of Libya into Egypt. When
the British army, comprised of troops from Australia, New
Zealand, India, and Great Britain rebuffed Italian advances, Hitler
dispatched one of his most brilliant generals, Erwin Rommel and
his Afrikan Korps to North Africa. Nicknamed the “Desert Fox,”
Rommel racked up a string of successes in 1941 and 1942,
pushing British forces back toward Cairo.

In October of 1940, Italian forces set their sights on Greece.

When they encountered substantial resistance, German troops
served as reinforcements. Greece as well as Yugoslavia became
a part of the Axis empire even though Greek and Yogoslav
guerrillas (soldiers who work outside the confines of a country’s
official army using harassing tactics such as surprise raids and
sabotage to try and defeat enemy forces) continued to plague the
occupying forces.

Germany Invades the Soviet Union

War in the West: September 1939 - 1941

Hitler and Stalin had signed the non-aggression pact, also known
at the Nazi-Soviet Pact, in August of 1939. They agreed not to
attack one another and to agree to divide Poland between the
two nations. After Hitler’s assault in September, the USSR

317
 occupied the eastern half of Poland and continued to invade “Operation Barbarossa” was the codename for the invasion of the
lands from Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. The pact was USSR. Using the same blitzkrieg strategy of the past, the German
working. Hitler however, despised Stalin as well as communist forces began a three-prong attack. German divisions were sent
ideology and desired to rid the continent of Europe from northward to Leningrad (formerly
communist leadership in any country. By June of 1941, Hitler known as Petrograd and St. Interactive 13.5 Operation
Barbarosa
nullified the pact and invaded the Soviet Union. Petersburg), to the central part of the
country to its capital, Moscow, and
southward into the rich oilfields of the
Caucuses to Stalingrad. Stalin was
shocked. By late fall over 3.2 million
German troops had created a 2,000
mile front. The Soviet Union was on
the verge of defeat. To view a short but excellent video
about Operation Barbarossa, visit
this link.

The Siege of Leningrad

The Soviets suffered unbelievable hardships during German

occupation of the Soviet Union. In September of 1941, the two-
and-a-half-year siege of Leningrad began.

Although more than a million Leningraders died during the siege,

https://miepvonsydow.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/hg.jpg Germany was not able to take the city. Stalin appealed to
Churchill for help asking him to open a second front in Western
Europe and although Churchill felt like he couldn’t do much to
help, the two leaders agreed to work together from that point
forward.

318
Japan’s Brutality the attack in the harbor. The result was extensive: four
battleships had been destroyed and four severely damaged; 340
In Asia, Japanese forces continued to take control across Asia
U.S. aircraft had been destroyed, and 3,581 military personnel
and the Pacific in pursuit of a Japanese empire throughout Asia.
were killed. In a little over two hours time, the U.S. Naval Pacific
Japanese invaders imposed brutality on the Chinese, Filipinos,
Fleet was decimated.
Malaysians, and other conquered peoples throughout East and
Southeast Asia. Crops were seized, cities were destroyed, and
many were forced into slavery.

When the war began in 1939, the Japanese sought to capitalize

on the acquisition of resources in Southeast Asia that were under
European possession. Oil, rubber, and tin would be of immense
value to the Japanese in fighting war against the Chinese. By
1940, Japan had advanced into French Indochina and the Dutch
East Indies. The U.S. wanted to stop Japanese aggression so
they banned the sale of war materials such as oil, steel, and iron
to Japan. Additionally, President Roosevelt had moved the U.S.
Navy’s Pacific Fleet from California to Pearl Harbor which https://cdn.britannica.com/s:300x300/81/71381-004-534732C4.jpg

Japanese leaders saw as a threat to Japan’s physical expansion.

These U.S. actions were viewed as an attempt to interfere with Interactive 13.6 Pearl Interactive 13.7 Pearl
Harbor Harbor Survivors
Japan’s growing sphere of influence and despite attempts to
reach an agreement between leaders in Tokyo and leaders in
D.C., the relationship between the two nations did not improve. It
seemed as if war was inevitable.

With talks at a standstill, General Tojo ordered a surprise attack

on the U.S. Navy’s Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor on December
7th, 1941. Over 300 torpedo planes and bombers took part in
To look at video footage from the To listen to survivors’ accounts of
attack on Pearl Harbor, check out the attack on Pearl Harbor, listen 319
this video: to their stories above
The next day (Dec. 8, 1941), as President Roosevelt addressed
the nation about the attack and described the day as “a date
which will live in infamy,” he urged Congress to declare war on
Japan. In a nearly unanimous decision, the U.S. Congress
declared war on Japan. Three days later on December 11, 1941,
the U.S. declared war on Germany. For the United States,
neutrality had ended; the nation was at war.

320
Section 3

The “Final Solution”

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Nazi Racial Ideology

1. Why did fascist dictators see expansion from a
territorial standpoint as a must in meeting their Almost from the beginning, the beliefs of the Nazi Party reflected the strong anti-
goals?
Semitic ideas Adolf Hitler outlined in his 1925 book, Mein Kampf. He further
2. How did the policy of appeasement by Western developed his ideas of racial purity and a “master race” that had been included in
democratic governments contribute to the
beginning of World War II? early speeches. This Aryan, or superior Germanic race would become government
policy once Hitler came to power and would guide treatment of Jews and other
3. What policies, alliances, and actions
contributed to the start of World War II? ethnic minorities, such as
4. Why was the Jewish population viewed as the Roma (Gypsies), and
such a threat to the Nazi Party? those with mental and
5. How did the results of the Holocaust play a physical handicaps. Hitler
major factor in how the map of the world
also outlined his idea of
would change?
lebensraum, or “living
6. How did the positions of armed forces at the
end of the war lead to zones of occupation and space,” in Mein Kampf. He
competition for political influence amongst the justified the eventual war
former Allies?
of conquest to the east to
7. How did the multitude of damages (social, gain room for the Germans
political, economic, cultural) caused by WWII
impact the geopolitical landscape throughout to live, and to find those
the world? considered as undesirable
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE or “untermenschen” to
Anti-Semitism Kristallnacht enslave for their interests. Original copies of Hitler’s Mein Kampf
Concentration Camp Shoah
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/
Final Solution Nuremberg Laws
Display_of_Copies_of_Hitlers_Mein_Kampf_-_Documentation_Center_in_Congress_Hall_-
Ghetto
_Nuremberg-Nurnberg_-_Germany.jpg) 321
Holocaust
When Ernst-Eberhard Hell, one of Hitler’s war generals asked
Hitler what he intended doing if he ever had full freedom of action
against the Jews, his response was: "If I am ever really in power,
the destruction of the Jews will be my first and most important
job. As soon as I have power, I shall have gallows after gallows
erected, for example, in Munich on the Marienplatz-as many of
them as traffic allows. Then the Jews will be hanged one after
another, and they will stay hanging until they stink. They will stay
hanging as long as hygienically possible. As soon as they are
untied, then the next group will follow and that will continue until
the last Jew in Munich is exterminated. Exactly the same
procedure will be followed in other cities until Germany is
cleansed of the last Jew!" (quoted in John Toland, Adolf Hitler.
London: Book Club Associates, 1977, p.116)

Once Hitler took power

in 1933, the German
government began to act
on Hitler’s beliefs and
Two Jewish women in occupied Paris wearing the Star of David
passed the Nuremberg
Laws in 1935. By the (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/
Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-N0619-506,_Paris,_J%C3%BCdische_Frauen_mit_Stern.jpg)
terms of this and later
laws, Jews had their with Germans, and could not employ German women under the
German citizenship age of 45 to work as maids or cooks in their homes. The laws
revoked, they were not Fabric Star of David with the German word for Jew (Jude) defined a Jew as being a person with at least three Jewish
allowed to marry or have grandparents, and those with two or one Jewish grandparents
(Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
extramarital relationships commons/c/c9/Judenstern_JMW.jpg) were labeled mischlinge. Other laws required Jews to wear a Star
322
of David on their clothing, carry identification papers, and Germany. Additionally, other measures forced Jews to turn over
eventually banned them from property ownership and expelled precious metals, suspended their driver’s licenses, confiscated
them from professional occupations. their radios, and established a curfew that kept them off the
streets during nighttime hours.
In response to the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris by
a Polish Jew, German Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels
made a speech in Munich filled with anti-Semitism, blaming
Jews for a conspiracy against Germany. Although staged to look
like it was spontaneous, Nazi officials carefully planned the
Kristallnacht violence against Jewish people across Germany
that took place on November 9-10,1938. Mobs throughout
Germany and the newly annexed areas of Austria and the
Sudetenland attacked Jews in the streets, killing 96 and injuring
hundreds more. Over 1,000 synagogues and several thousand
Jewish-owned businesses were burned and looted and 30,000
Jewish men were rounded up and sent to concentration camps
for “protective custody,” according to the Nazis.

Following the destruction, the German Jewish community was The interior of Fasanenstrasse Synagogue, Berlin after Kristallnacht

fined one billion Reichsmarks by the Nazis and were forced to (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/

clean up the streets and other areas damaged or destroyed Interior_view_of_the_destroyed_Fasanenstrasse_Synagogue,_Berlin.jpg)

during Kristallnacht. Business owners and homeowners were

barred from collecting insurance payments on their property and
the money instead went to the German government. Jews were
also banned from using public transportation, public buildings,
and attending German public schools. They were prohibited from
owning, managing, or working in stores, and encouraged to leave

323
 then took ships across to Britain. Homeless children, orphans,
and children whose parents were in concentration camps were
given priority. The last transport from Germany left on September
1,1939, as the war began and the final transport left the
Netherlands in May of 1940, as the Dutch surrendered to the
Germans.

View the video below and consider what happened to Harry

Bibring, whose experience mirrored that of many of the
Kindertransport children.

1. How do you think Harry felt about being separated from his
parents at age 13?

Jewish storefronts in Magdeburg, Germany after Kristallnacht 2. How did he prepare for his journey?
(Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1970-083-42,_Magdeburg,_zerst%C3%B6rtes_j%C3%BCdisches_Gesch%C3%A
3. What would you pack in your suitcase if you were going to
4ft.jpg) leave your parents and know you might never see them again?

Kindertransport Interactive 13.8 Harry

Bibring’s Story
Following Kristallnacht, the British government eased their
restrictions on immigration of Jewish children aged 17 and
younger from Germany and German-occupied territories in
Europe. Private organizations or individuals had to guarantee
payment for the care of the children once they arrived in Great
Britain, and it was expected that the children would return to their
families after the “crisis.” This came to be known as the
Kindertransport and children traveled through Europe by train and Excellent clips for answering these
questions begin at: 39:03-46:46,
49:57-54:54, 1:09:28-1:14:07,
1:24:03-1:27:09 324
The Voyage of the S.S. St. Louis government also refused to take the passengers. By early June,
the ship had no choice but to return to Germany with the
On May 13,1939, 937 people boarded the S.S. St. Louis, bound
remaining passengers. The Nazis used the refusal of the
for Cuba, where each passenger had paid $150 for an entry visa.
American nations as propaganda to show that no one wanted
As the ship approached Cuba, many Cuban citizens began to
Jews in their country. Belgium, the Netherlands, Britain, and
pressure their government to revoke the visas; when the ship
France took in the 907 passengers who returned, but 254 of them
finally docked in the harbor in Havana, only 29 passengers were
would eventually die during the events of the Holocaust.
allowed to disembark. Two passengers attempted suicide, and
one was successful, which led to demands by American citizens Life in the Ghettos
to the U.S. government to accept the passengers. The U.S.
With the German invasion and occupation of Poland in late 1939,
government refused to allow them entry, as did all Latin American
millions of Jews came under Nazi control. Jewish and Polish
nations. The ship then sailed toward Canada, but that nation’s
males were made to perform unpaid manual labor for government
agencies and in factories established for that purpose. Jews from
the countryside were ordered into
the cities, where they were forced Interactive 13.9 I’m Still
to live in crowded ghettos Here
alongside urban Jews. The ghettos
were often sealed, so that the
residents could not go out and the
only supplies, such as food and
medicine, were provided by the
Nazis. Starvation, disease, and
despair filled their lives until the
This video is long, but the authors
ghettos were liquidated and the of this chapter would at least like
students to look at minutes:
residents sent to concentration
34:04-38:18
Passengers aboard the S.S. St. Louis, seeking refuge from Nazi-occupied Europe, wait to find out if they
camps.
will be allowed entry into Cuba in June 1939.

(Image source: https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/image/refugees-aboard-st-louis? 325

backlink=https://www.facinghistory.org/holocaust-and-human-behavior/chapter-7/voyage-st-louis)
Diary of an Anonymous Girl, Łodź Ghetto, Poland

Tuesday, 10 March 1942

“In the morning I want my father to leave as soon as possible.

Then I jump from the bed and consume all the bread my mom has
left for me the entire day. My God, what has happened to me? I
[don’t] know how to restrain myself. Then I starve all day.”

Wednesday, 11 March 1942

“Today I had a fight with my father. . . . It happened because

yesterday I weighed 20 decagrams of noodles and then sneaked a
spoonful. When my father came back he immediately noticed that
some noodles were missing. My father started yelling at me and
he was right. . . . I became very upset and cursed my father. What
Walling-off of Świętokrzyska Street in the Warsaw Ghetto
have I done? I regret it so much, but it can’t be undone. My father
is not going to forgive me. . . . We would be a happy family, if I (Image source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/The_Wall_of_ghetto_in_Warsaw_-
_Building_on_Nazi-German_order_August_1940.jpg)
didn’t fight with everybody. All the fights are started by me, I
would like to be different but I don’t have a strong enough will. Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
There is nobody I can talk to. . . . God, show me what is right.”
The Jews forced into the ghettos did not always follow orders and
In the diary entry above, highlight a place where the author passively accept their fate. The first and most symbolic example
faced a moral struggle. Then, explain whether or not you of active resistance happened in the Warsaw Ghetto during the
think the author faced a “choice-less” choice, where the months of April and May of 1943. In mid-to late 1942, the majority
author was in a situation she did not choose, so her decision of the Jews remaining in the Warsaw Ghetto were deported, most
represented one of several abnormal responses to a to an execution camp in Treblinka and others to various forced-
unbelievable circumstances. 8 labor camps. Approximately 35,000 were given special passes to

326
remain in the ghetto and work in the few industries still running, 7,000 members of the resistance who were captured were sent
while another 20,000 or more were in hiding in bunkers and immediately to Treblinka’s gas chambers and over 42,000 others
basements. were sent to Majdanek and other forced-labor camps.

Realizing that deportation was inevitable, several groups created

underground resistance organizations to defend against the
Nazis, the best-known being the Jewish Combat Organization
(ZOB) and the Jewish Military Union (ZZW). In January 1943, the
SS attempted to resume deportations only to be met with armed
resistance. Most Jewish fighters died in this attack, but the
Germans were disoriented enough that the Jews being
assembled were able to escape and the SS temporarily
suspended further deportation. At this point of encouragement,
the remaining ghetto residents began constructing additional
bunkers and collecting any weapons they could find. On 19 April
1943 - the eve of Passover - the Germans intended to liquidate
the ghetto, but entered to find empty streets and deserted
buildings. The residents had gone into hiding, intending to begin
the resistance upon the resumption of deportations. The fighters
A housing block burns during the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
forced the Germans outside of the ghetto walls, where they
stayed until the third day when they began burning down the (Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stroop_Report_-_Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising_-_26552.jpg)

buildings one by one in order to force the resistance out of hiding.

The organized resistance broke when the Germans captured the
leader of the ZOB on May 8th, but small groups held out until
mid-May. The destruction of the synagogue on May 16th,
signified the end of the organized resistance, but some individuals
continued guerrilla attacks well after that date. Approximately

327
The Final Solution chamber. By the time the invasion was over, the Einsatzgruppen
had killed over a million Soviet Jews, and tens of thousands of
The Final Solution was implemented slowly in stages, but the
others, such as Communist party officials, Roma, and disabled
best-known and most terrible actions of the Nazis involved the
persons.
attempted, systematic extermination of the Jewish people called
the Holocaust by many and referred to as Shoah by Jews Because of the continued psychological toll on soldiers who shot
themselves. Holocaust is a word originally used in the Bible to and gassed victims using the gas vans, Nazis worked to come up
refer to “burnt offerings,” and Shoah is a biblical Hebrew word with an alternative plan to kill large numbers of people in a
meaning calamity. Where Final Solution and Shoah always refer to “hands-off” method. Concentration camps had been used even
the Jews, Holocaust can mean the entire Nazi genocide and can before the war to detain Jewish men and use them as forced
also refer to other genocides throughout history. labor. The Chelmno killing center was the first camp established
for the sole purpose of mass murder. This and five other
As the German army invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, they were extermination camps (Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, Auschwitz-
closely followed by the Einsatzgruppen, mobile killing units that Birkenau, and Majdanek) built in occupied Poland would
began with killing all male Jews they found, and later all Jews eventually play a major role in killing millions of Jews as well as
regardless of gender or age. These special groups of others the Nazis deemed “unsuitable for life.”
Schutzstaffel (SS) soldiers began in Germany killing political
enemies of the Nazi government (socialists and communists), the
Roma (gypsies), and those living in institutions for the mentally
and physically disabled. During the invasion of the USSR, they
went into individual Jewish communities, rounded up entire
villages of residents, marched them to secluded areas where the
Jews were forced to turn over their valuables and often dig their
own graves, and then soldiers shot and buried the Jews. When
soldiers began to show psychological problems due to the mass
shootings, the Nazis developed gas vans that re-routed a truck’s
exhaust into the sealed storage area to act as a mobile gas

328
Section 4

Turning Points

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Perspective. It is important for all historians, because objective history does not
1. Why did fascist dictators see expansion from a exist. This means that all historians have different ways to interpret events in the
territorial standpoint as a must in meeting their
goals?
past. In other words, all events are known and told from a historian’s bias. This is
known as historiography. It is important to keep the concepts of perspective and
2. How did the policy of appeasement by Western
democratic governments contribute to the historiography in mind, especially when studying historical topics that at first
beginning of World War II? glance appear to be straightforward, such as the turning points of WWII. However,
3. What policies, alliances, and actions you might be surprised to learn that when historians have been asked the question
contributed to the start of World War II?
of the most decisive event or turning point of the war, answers vary widely. And, if
4. Why was the Jewish population viewed as you consider the perspectives of experts in the other social studies disciplines
such a threat to the Nazi Party?
such as geography and sociology, even more viewpoints will emerge. A
5. How did the results of the Holocaust play a
major factor in how the map of the world
geographer might assert that a major turning point occurred at the Battle of El
would change? Alamein as the Allied victory ensured that the Axis powers would not be able to
6. How did the positions of armed forces at the secure any additional oil--an incredibly critical natural resource. A sociologist
end of the war lead to zones of occupation and might argue that the month of December in 1941 when Hitler verbalized that the
competition for political influence amongst the
former Allies? Jewish population needed to be disposed of would be considered a major turning
point. Therefore, perspective is an essential consideration when studying
7. How did the multitude of damages (social,
political, economic, cultural) caused by WWII significant historical events.
impact the geopolitical landscape throughout
the world? For example, Adam Tooze, a professor of history at Yale believes that Germany’s
TERMS, PLACES, PEOPLE victory in France in May of 1940 was a decisive moment of the war whereas
Perspective
Historiography
Conrad C. Crane, Director of the U.S. Army Military History Institute believes it was
Island hopping
Manhattan Project
329
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. And while Geoffrey Wawro, and then used as a launching point for the takeover of the next
a military historian at the University of North Texas agrees with island. Because of the vast territory, the local topography, and the
Crane, Robert Dallek, a presidential historian believes it to be the Japanese will to fight to the death, the task of island hopping was
Battle of Stalingrad; Max Hastings, a British historian, agrees with daunting.
Dallek. As you read this section, ask yourself what you believe to
Sitting between Japan and Hawaii was Midway Island -- a military
be one of the major turning points of the war. Most importantly,
and refueling base for the United States. The Japanese had
ask yourself “why” as you determine the perspective that comes
planned an attack to seize control of the island, but the United
into play.
States had broken the Japanese military code and were alerted to
Japan’s First Serious Setback occurs in the Pacific the impending attack. The aircraft carriers that had survived the
surprise attack at Pearl Harbor moved toward Midway. Admiral
In the Pacific theatre, the Japanese continued to extend their
Nimitz, the commander of the Pacific fleet, planned to surprise
South East Asian Co-Prosperity sphere in late 1941 and 1942.
the Japanese forces as they readied their assault. The battle took
This process was to extend Japanese influence in SE Asia and
place in June, 1942, and lasted for four days. Ships and carriers
into the Pacific islands via a web-like structure. After the surprise
from either side never came into direct contact with one another
attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese invaded Malay, Singapore,
as aircraft (bombers) was the key to success. The American
Guam, and the Philippines to name a few. In May of 1942, at the
forces surprised Japanese carriers sinking four--the Akagi, Hiryu,
Battle of the Coral Sea, Japan suffered a serious setback as
Kaga, and Soryu. The Japanese counter-attacked and sank the
Allied forces kept the Japanese from seizing several important
U.S.S. Yorktown. With three more carriers and over 2,000 more
islands in the Pacific. In a battle that lasted five days, American
casualties, American forces prevailed. The Battle of Midway
forces sank several Japanese ships including an aircraft carrier,
halted the Japanese advances and changed the course of the
several cruisers and destroyers. Even more impressive was the
war in the Pacific.
Allied victory at the Battle of Midway the following month.

In the same year, American forces under the leadership of

General Douglas MacArthur, began a technique called “island
hopping” where a specific,strategic island of Japanese control
would be taken over. A military base would then be established
330
 Next Stop: Italy

As Africa was being liberated, the Allies moved their attention to

mainland Europe. At their 1943, wartime meeting in Casablanca,
Morocco, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to invade the “soft
underbelly of Europe” and invade Italy. The amphibious assault of
Italy began on the southern shores of Sicily. By August 17, the
allies had reached Messina. The Axis armies fled to the Italian
mainland. Now, the long, difficult battle moving up the peninsula
began. From the southern coast near Salerno up the western side
near the Tyrrhenian Sea to the mountain town of Cassina, the
The U.S.S. Yorktown after being hit during the battle of Midway island.
Allies lumbered northward. The German-Italian “Gustave Line”
North African Victories for the Allies proved harsh, but was eventually
broken as the Allies continue their Interactive 13.10 Entry Into
In November of 1942, British General Bernard Montgomery was Rome
march towards Rome.
victorious over Germany’s “Desert Fox” General Irwin Rommel at
the Battle of El Alamein, halting his advance into Northern Africa, On June 5, 1944, Rome was
driving the Axis powers back across Libya into Tunisia. Later in liberated, but it would take until
1942, Allied General Dwight D. Eisenhower was able to take May of 1945, until the
command of a joint force of American and British soldiers in unconditional surrender would
Morocco. Under Eisenhower’s command, soldiers advanced occur.
from the west and trapped Gen. Rommel’s army which
Once the Italians were defeated To view actual war footage of the
surrendered by May of 1943. liberation of Rome, visit this site:
there, the Italians themselves
overthrew Mussolini and signed an armistice. Hitler sent troops
into the north to try to rescue Mussolini. For the next year and a
half, Allied forces slowly pushed north up the Italian peninsula
suffering heavy losses while doing so. The Italian invasion was
331
seen as a decisive event because Hitler was forced to fight on yet
another front, thus weakening his army.

German Forces are Eventually Stalled at Stalingrad

By the late fall of 1941, the future had seemed grim for the
Soviets. After the German army’s lightening advance in 1941,
troops were halted outside of both Leningrad and Moscow.

Beyond Horror: Starvation in Leningrad

Laying siege to Leningrad enabled Hitler to move his troops to the

other main battles sites -- Moscow and Stalingrad.

Near Moscow in September of 1941, Operation Typhoon, the

military code name for the German invasion, was advancing. The
capture of Moscow seemed inevitable. Panzers from Leningrad
had been moved. Less than half a million Russian men were left
to defend the Soviet capital. But the outskirts of Moscow had
been fortified with miles of anti-tank trenches, barbed wire
Image source: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/books/article-2032706/BEYOND-HORROR-They-ate-cats-
fences, and manned firing points The German troops moved sawdust-wallpaper-paste--babies-Leningrads-agony-Nazis-tried-starve-submission-LENINGRAD-TRAGEDY-OF-
A-CITY-UNDER-SIEGE-1941-44-BY-ANNA-REID.html
forward but were stopped about 16 miles from the city. German
momentum stopped. The bitter Russian WInter set-in. Moscow it. German forces closed in, surrounding the city as winter was
was saved. But the battle was not over. settling in. As a harsh winter ensued, the Soviets trapped
German soldiers. With no food or ammunition, it was a matter of
By 1942, Hitler decided to shift his focus on seizing the rich oil
time. By January of 1943, the Germans had surrendered the city.
resources to the south; however, that did not happen as his
The Red Army then took the offensive completely drove the
forces were stopped at Stalingrad. Hitler was resolute to capture
German army out of the Soviet Union. Hitler’s army had suffered
Stalin’s namesake city and Stalin was just as resolute to protect

332
 a huge setback as the number of casualties and massive loss of western front to be in Normandy, France. Planning began for
equipment was beyond repair. By 1944, the Soviet army was Operation Overlord (its military code name), to occur in May of
advancing into Eastern Europe. 1944. General Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States was
named the Supreme Allied Commander to lead the invasion.

The Allies planned five beachheads or fronts along the 50 mile

Normandy coast for invasion -- Gold, Sword, Juno, Omaha, Utah
that were assigned to Great Britain, Canada, and the U.S.. After
the Nazi occupation began in 1940, the area was fortified as
Hitler's “Atlantic Wall.” The 2,400 mile stretch of coastline had
beach obstacles, bunkers, and landmines.

On the morning of June 6, 1944, Eisenhower gave the command.

The greatest amphibious assault in the history of the world began
with 6,000 ships and landing craft and 176,000 personnel. On the
Image source: The “Night Witches” first day, fighting was fierce with Allied casualties over 10,000.
https://www.history.com/news/meet-the-night-witches-the-daring-female-pilots-who-bombed-nazis-by- Juno and Gold beach were the only two that were joined. But
night?fbclid=IwAR2Oqf8wbxBot-5-eC3VYo4WPWyWDUc93qLwg2_8HWrTtxZEiKbQx9M8xRU
Hitler’s “Atlantic Wall” did not stop
the invasion. By the end of July, the Interactive 13.11 General
NORMANDY
coast was secured and many towns Eisenhower’s Letter
The next move for the Allies was the planned invasion of Europe. such as St. Laurent and Caen and
At the Tehran conference in 1943, the Big Three (Great Britain’s Bayeux were liberated. The Allied
Churchill, The Soviet Union’s Stalin, and U.S. President forces moved onward.
Roosevelt), decided that the next front to be opened in the war
would be in the German occupied territory of France. Churchill
preferred lands on the Mediterranean coast such as Yugoslavia
but Stalin and Roosevelt moved for the new opening in the

333
The End of the Axis in Europe In the Ardennes forest in Belgium, the Axis launched a winter
campaign in December of 1944. For six weeks the Germans
WIth the Axis powers in retreat and the belief that Hitler would not
halted the Allies. But, by the end of January, with over 120,000
surrender and instead destroy Germany, a group of German
Axis troops lost and over 100,000 US men killed, the German
officials led an attempt on Hitler’s life. On July 20, 1944, Colonel
offensive failed. The Allies were briefly stalled. But General
von Stauffenberg placed a briefcase with a bomb near Hitler. The
Patton’s leadership lead to a victory at the “Battle of the Bulge.”
bomb went off. Hitler was injured but did not die. In return,
The Allied powers moved on.
almost 5,000 were eventually killed for the plot against his life.
With the Soviets closing in from the East and the British, French,
The Axis continued to lose. After more than four years of the Nazi
and US forces moving towards Germany from the West, the two
occupation of France, General Charles De gaulle returned from
sides met at the River Elbe on April 25th.
Great Britain and marched down the Champs Elysees leading the
celebration of the liberation of Paris. The Allies were on the On April 27th, Benito Mussolini and his mistress were captured.
move. They were shot and killed and a day later hung upside down in

As France was being liberated, so too were the Soviets driving

out the German forces in Eastern Europe. By June of 1944, the
Soviets pushed the Nazi’s out of Warsaw. In October Greece
was liberated. By late December, the Soviet army had
captured much of Hungary.
They were ready to enter Interactive 13.12 Battle of
the Bulge
Germany in January of 1945.

On the western front an

advancing “bulge” had
occurred in the front lines of
the Allied forces. This provided
Hitler with one last opportunity.
VE Day in London

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/content/dam/news/2017/04/24/TELEMMGLPICT000002222170- 334
xlarge_trans_NvBQzQNjv4BqMaOBPhJofgJLYkKnAhgmpnlcauF6SI9-FG3M47cWNn4.jpeg
the Milan town square. On April 30th, Hitler & his wife of two When Harry S Truman became president upon the sudden death
days, Eva Braun, committed suicide in their underground bunker of Franklin Roosevelt in April, he had not known of the secret
in Berlin. On May 7th, General Alfred Jodl signed the military plan known as the Manhattan Project. During the
unconditional surrender. Victory is Europe (V-E) Day was Potsdam Conference, this new weapon, an atomic bomb, had
announced the following morning. The European theater of the been tested. Later that month, Truman approved its use. On
war was over. August 6th, the first atomic bomb named “Little Boy” was
dropped on Hiroshima. Three days later, the second bomb, “Fat
After the victory at Midway, American forces continued their
Man” was dropped on Nagasaki. The Japanese agreed to the
attacks in the Coral Sea, Guadalcanal, and Tarawa. In the fall of
terms of surrender and VJ Day, Victory over Japan, was
1944, the Japanese began the use of kamikaze -- pilots who
celebrated on August 15th. The official agreement was signed
would commit to a suicide mission by crashing their planes into
aboard the U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Bay on September 2nd. The
U.S. ships and bases. Even with Allied victories, the Japanese
second world war was over.
continued their fierce resistance in the Philippines and Iwo Jima.
In Okinawa, the deadliest battle of the war in the Pacific, the
Japanese lost over 100,000 soldiers and the allies 50,000 men.
The Allies were winning but the Japanese would not back down.

In July of 1945, the U.S. again pushed for peace. Under the
Potsdam Declaration, the Allies stated: “We call upon the
government of Japan to proclaim now the unconditional
surrender of all Japanese armed forces, and to provide proper
and adequate assurances of their good faith in such action. The
alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction.”

The Japanese were silent..

335
Primary Source / Debate: To view a Power Point on the battles of the war, see the link:

Was Truman’s decision to drop the bomb justified? POWER POINT Palooza: AP Euro Hst. Column; Begin with slide
#56 - #75 AND # 81 - 83 AND # 104 - #125
What are the arguments for the bombs’ use? Against its use?
What do you think? http://www.pptpalooza.net/

See some of the links below to craft your answers:

1st: http://www.historyextra.com/feature/second-world-war/was- 

us-justified-dropping-atomic-bombs-hiroshima-and-nagasaki-
during-second

2nd: http://www.historyextra.com/article/premium/should-
america-have-dropped-atomic-bombs-hiroshima-nagasaki-
justified-debate

Videos:

Atomic Bombs: https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=Tl3_0D2h8BY 1:14 min

VJ Day: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p0aGcoDGgKE
Start at 0.36 min.

Crash Course: World War II

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Q78COTwT7nE&list=PLBDA2E52FB1EF80C9&index=38

336
Section 5

Alliances, Opportunities, and Changes After the War

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Big Three

1. Why did fascist dictators see expansion from a
territorial standpoint as a must in meeting their In November 1943, following the Allied invasion of Iran, the leaders of the “Big
goals?
Three” nations Premier Josef Stalin, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and
2. How did the policy of appeasement by Western President Franklin D. Roosevelt had met in the Soviet embassy in Tehran to
democratic governments contribute to the
beginning of World War II? discuss several issues facing the
Allied efforts to win the war. Most
3. What policies, alliances, and actions
contributed to the start of World War II? importantly was the agreement to
4. Why was the Jewish population viewed as open a second front in western
such a threat to the Nazi Party? Europe against the Nazis. Of
5. How did the results of the Holocaust play a secondary importance was Stalin’s
major factor in how the map of the world
agreement to assist in the war against
would change?
Japan once the Germans were
6. How did the positions of armed forces at the
end of the war lead to zones of occupation and defeated. The post-war borders of
competition for political influence amongst the Poland, economic support for Iran and
former Allies?
encouraging Turkey to join the Allies
7. How did the multitude of damages (social, were also topics of discussion.
political, economic, cultural) caused by WWII
impact the geopolitical landscape throughout
the world? During a week in early February of Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill at the Tehran Conference, 1943

1945, leaders from the Big three met

(Image source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tehran_Conference,_1943.jpg)
again, this time just outside of Yalta on
the Crimean Peninsula in the Soviet Union. The three leaders discussed how they

337
would shepherd war-torn European nations and peoples back to upon the death of Roosevelt in April. Churchill and Clement Attlee
peace following the defeat of the Nazis. both attended the beginning of the conference, until election
results announced on July 26th showed Attlee’s Labour party had
The unconditional surrender of Germany was the paramount goal
gained the majority making Attlee the new Prime Minister. Stalin
of the Allies. Because the Soviet army was only 40 miles from
continued to represent the Soviet Union.
Berlin, Stalin felt particularly empowered to dictate terms to the
other leaders regarding the status of Europe following the war.
Regarding Poland, Stalin wanted to retain the portions of Poland
that the Soviet Union had annexed in 1939, but also wanted to
allow Poland to make up that
lost territory through its
annexation of former German
territory on Poland’s western
border. The leaders agreed
that Germany would be
divided into three occupation
zones, and then agreed that
a fourth zone would be
created from parts of the
British and American zones.
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/36/3f/bf/
363fbf4db4dcd54599100c717f88b390.jpg
Attlee, Truman, and Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, 1945

An Important Meeting in Potsdam (Image Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/

Enjoying_a_brief_respite_during_the_last_day_of_the_Potsdam_Conference_in_Potsdam%2C_Germa
ny_are%2C_L_to_R%2C_British_Prime..._-_NARA_-_198952.jpg)
The Big Three met for the final time from July 17th until August
2nd of 1945, at Potsdam, just southwest of the city of Berlin.
President Truman attended, having ascended to the presidency

338
The leaders again agreed to the division of Germany, and also The following year, Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would join
decided to divide Austria, and the capitals of Berlin and Vienna. the United Nations, due in part to the inclusion of an
The German war machine was to be dismantled, and much of unconditional veto by permanent members of the Security
their industry was to be utilized by the Soviet Union and European Council. The three leaders agreed that democratic elections
nations as reparations for the war. Areas Germany had annexed would be held in all liberated European nations so the people of
were to be returned to their original nations, and plans made to those nations could create the governments they believed were
relocate German people who had settled in those annexed best suited to their interests.
locations. Regarding Poland, the Allies agreed to recognize the
Soviet-supported provisional government and the provisional
eastern border, but the border with Germany was left for later
negotiation.

The U.N. is Formed

Meanwhile, in April of 1945, delegates from 50 nations gathered

in San Francisco to charter the United Nations--an international
body that would play a substantial role in world affairs--much
more so than the organization’s predecessor, the League of https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/United_Nations_member_countries_world_map.PNG

Nations. Although each member of the U.N. has one vote in the
The United Nations Charter set forth the principles and goals of
general assembly of the organization, the Security Council (one
the organization. According to the Charter’s preamble, the goals
smaller body of the U.N.) has greater power. For example, there
include:
are five permanent members of the council (the U.S., Russia,
Britain, France, and China): each permanent member has the ● Preventing another world war,
power to veto council decisions. While based on the original idea
of an international body with the primary goal of maintaining ● Protecting human rights and individual rights of all people,
world peace, the United Nations was established with greater regardless of their nation,
power to achieve that goal.
● Enforcing international justice and treaties,

339
● Promoting social progress and improving the standards of incarcerated in Spandau Prison in Berlin. Three other defendants
living for all people, were acquitted: Economics Minister Hjalmar Schacht, politician
Franz von Papen, and Head of Press and Radio Hans Fritzsche.
● Encouraging tolerance and peace in interactions among
people, Tokyo Trials

● Maintaining international peace and security, Similar to the war crimes trials held in Nuremberg, the Allies also
set up the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE)
● Using armed force only as a last resort, and
to try 28 Japanese leaders for their crimes. Judges and
● Promoting the economic and social advancement of all prosecutors from ten nations, including the United States, Soviet
people. Union, and the Philippines,
were appointed. All 28
Since 1945, the United Nations has worked to maintain peace defendants were found
and security across the globe, provide humanitarian aid following guilty, with sentences
natural and man-made disasters, protect human rights through ranging from death by
enforcement of international law, and promote sustainable hanging (including former
development around the world. Prime Minister Koki Hirota
and General Hideki Tojo) to
Nuremberg Trials
various prison sentences
The International Military Tribunal (IMT) was composed of judges from seven years to life.
and prosecutors from the United States, Britain, France, and the Emperor Hirohito, as well as
Soviet Union and charged with trying those responsible for the entire imperial family,
committing crimes related to the Holocaust. A total of twelve were not indicted, a decision
Nazis, including Hermann Göring, Joachim von Ribbentrop, made by occupying
Wilhelm Keitel, and Julius Streicher were sentenced to death, and American Gen. Douglas
others received life prison sentences. The executions were MacArthur, with the
Former Prime Minister Koki Hirota listening to Sir William Webb of
carried out via hanging on October 16, 1946, and prisoners were understanding that the Australia sentencing him to death at the IMTFE in Tokyo, 12
November 1948 (Image source: https://ww2db.com/image.php?
image_id=6967)
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Japanese people needed to see the Emperor surrender and
accept foreign occupation for it to be successful.

Casualties and Displacement of People

Between seventy and eighty-five million people were killed

related to World War II (including those who died due to war-
related famine and disease), which was approximately three-
and-a-half percent of the total world population in 1939.
Another sixty million were displaced across the globe,
including around twelve million Germans, between eleven
and twenty million inmates of camps freed by the Allies
which included over a quarter of a million Jews. Germans
were forcefully expelled from eastern European countries
they had occupied during the war, and a number of camps in
Germany and Austria were established for Jewish and other (Image Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_War_II_Casualties2.svg)

displaced persons (DPs). Resettlement of these people

created a number of problems, as many were minorities who
feared persecution in their home countries, or groups who feared
living under Communist control. Additionally, many of the
displaced persons suffered from disease and the effects of major
psychological and emotional trauma. There was insufficient
sanitary conditions and medical care following the war in Europe,
further exacerbating the problems faced by the DPs

341
Chapter 14

Is Genocide
Preventable?

1. What is genocide?

2. What factors and circumstances caused the

Holocaust and other genocide to happen?

3. What lessons can be derived from learning about

genocide and how can you apply them to today’s
world?
Section 1

What is Genocide?

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Defining and Identifying Genocide

1. What is genocide?
Genocide has been endemic throughout human history. There have been
2. What factors and circumstances caused instances of genocide from the time of the Amalekites in the Old Testament to
the Holocaust and other genocide to
Sudan at the beginning of the 21st century. Genocide is defined in international
happen?
law as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in
3. What lessons can be derived from learning part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such:
about genocide and how can you apply
them to today’s world?
• Killing members of the group; 

• Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; 

• Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its
physical destruction in whole or in part;

• Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; 

• Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

In 1996, researchers presented a model of genocide that followed eight sequential

stages. Although presented as, "predictable but not inexorable", these steps
provide description and structure for historical research. These stages also serve
as early warnings and evidence-based suggestions on how to prevent genocides
from occurring in the future.

343
Scholars studying the genocide found patterns that exist in all 2) Symbolization- This is when names and/or symbols are forced
genocides. Through their efforts, the organization Genocide upon people to designate an inferior status. Names or other
Watch, has expanded the original list of eight, identifying ten symbols to the classifications distinguish people by colors or
stages that genocides follow. These ten stages provide a model dress; and apply the symbols to members of groups. Like
to analyze genocides of the past and identify present conditions classification, symbolization does not necessarily result in
that could lead to genocidal acts in the future. genocide unless they lead to dehumanization. When combined
with hatred, symbols may be forced upon unwilling members of
Ten Stages of Genocide:
unwanted groups. To combat symbolization, hate symbols can be
1) Classification- This stage occurs when people categorize legally forbidden. as can hate speech, if supported by popular
people in their society to distinguish, “us and them”. All cultures cultural enforcement.
have categories to distinguish people into “us and them” by
3) Discrimination- This is when the group that has hegemony, or
ethnicity, race, religion, or nationality. This isn’t inherently
dominance within a society uses law, custom, and political power
dangerous, if a society possesses cultural pluralism. Culturally
to deny the rights of other groups. The powerless group may not
pluralistic societies encourage smaller groups within a larger
be accorded full civil rights, voting rights, or even citizenship. The
society to maintain their unique cultural identities, and their values
dominant group is driven by an exclusionary ideology that would
and embrace and accepted these differences. These are in
deprive less powerful groups of their rights and legitimizes the
contrast to bicommunal societies that attach negative stigmas to
victimization of weaker groups. Advocates of exclusionary
diverse groups. These societies are the most likely to have
ideologies are often populist, and charismatic. They express and
genocide. The main preventive measure at this early stage is to
exacerbate resentments of their followers that attracts support
develop institutions that actively promote tolerance and
from the masses. Prevention against discrimination means full
understanding. This search for common ground is vital to early
political empowerment and citizenship rights for all groups in a
prevention of genocide.
society. Discrimination on the basis of nationality, ethnicity, race
or religion are all forms of discrimination.

344
4) Dehumanization- This step occurs when one group denies the training is given to murderous militias and special army killing
humanity of the other group. Members of the subjugated people units. To combat this stage, membership in genocidal militias
are equated with animals, vermin, insects, or diseases by the should be outlawed. Their leaders should be denied visas for
people oppressing them. Dehumanization overcomes the normal foreign travel and their foreign assets frozen. International
revulsion against murder. At this stage, hate propaganda in media organizations should impose arms embargoes on governments
is used to vilify the victim group. The dominant group is taught to and citizens of countries involved in genocidal massacres, and
regard the minority group as less than human, and even alien to create commissions to investigate violations.
their society. This creates the perception of the subjugated group
6) Polarization- When extremists drive groups apart and separate
so depersonalized that they are actually given numbers rather
targeted people from their homes this signifies the movement into
than names. To combat dehumanization, incitement to genocide
the sixth step. Also during this stage, hate groups broadcast
should not be confused with protected speech. Genocidal
polarizing propaganda. Laws may forbid intermarriage and/or
societies lack constitutional protection for countervailing speech,
social interaction. Extremist terrorism targets moderates,
and should be treated differently than democracies. Local and
intimidating and silencing the center. Moderates from the
international leaders should condemn the use of hate speech and
perpetrators’ own group are most able to stop genocide, so are
make it culturally unacceptable. Leaders who incite genocide
the first to be arrested and killed. Prevention may mean security
should be banned from international travel and have their foreign
protection for moderate leaders or assistance to human rights
finances frozen. Hate crimes and atrocities should be promptly
groups. Assets of extremists may be seized, and visas for
punished in order to prevent further wrongdoings by the
international travel denied to them. Coups d’état by extremists
perpetrators.
should be opposed by international sanctions in order to prevent
5) Organization- This is the step where plans become formalized escalation by potentially genocidal regimes.
in order to commit genocidal acts. Genocide is always organized,
7) Preparation-  This stage occurs when victims are identified and
usually by the state, often using militias to free the state of
separated out and death lists are drawn up. National or
responsibility. Arms are purchased by states and militias, often in
perpetrator group leaders plan the final destruction of the
violation of international law, to facilitate acts of genocide. States
targeted group of people. Euphemisms are often used to cloak
organize secret police to spy on, arrest, torture, and murder
their intentions, such as referring to their goals as “ethnic
people suspected of opposition to political leaders. Special

345
cleansing,” “purification,” or “counter-terrorism.”  Perpetrators to do the killing. At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming
then build armies, buy weapons and train their troops and armed intervention can stop genocide. Safe areas, or refugee
militias.  They indoctrinate the populace with fear of the victim escape corridors should be established with heavily armed
group.  Leaders often claim that “if we don’t kill them, they will kill international protection. It becomes international responsibility to
us.”  Prevention of preparation may include arms embargos and provide troops to intervene directly, and provide the airlifts,
commissions to enforce them.  It should include prosecution of equipment, and financial means necessary for regional states to
incitement and conspiracy to commit genocide by International intervene.
bodies of law.
10) Denial- When perpetrators deny they committed any crimes,
8) Persecution- At this stage victims because of their ethnic or and often blame what happened on the victims. They block
religious identity are subjected to significant mistreatment ranging investigations of the crimes, make false claims, and place the
from humiliation and assault to outright murder. Property is often genocide in another construct such as war, self-defense, or a
expropriated. Sometimes subjugated people are segregated into necessary preemptive measure. Denial is the final stage that lasts
ghettoes, deported into concentration camps, or confined to a throughout and always follows a
famine-struck region and starved. At this stage, a Genocide genocide. It is among the surest Interactive 14.1 Stages of
Emergency must be declared. If the political will of the great indicators of further genocidal Genocide
powers, regional alliances, or the U.N. Security Council can be massacres. The perpetrators of
mobilized, armed international intervention should be prepared, or genocide dig up the mass graves,
heavy assistance provided to the victim group to prepare for its burn the bodies, try to cover up the
self-defense. Humanitarian assistance should be organized by the evidence and intimidate the
U.N. and private relief groups for the inevitable tide of refugees to witnesses. Response to denial
come. needs to be punishment by an
international tribunal or national
9) Extermination- This stage begins when the victims are killed in In order to reiterate what you’ve
courts. There the evidence can be read about the 10 stages of
mass. It is deemed, “extermination” by the killers because they genocide, drag the following
heard, and the perpetrators
do not believe their victims to be fully human. When killing is visuals into the stage of genocide
punished. Political will has to be it represents.
sponsored by the state, the armed forces often work with militias
such where perpetrators are arrested

346
and prosecuted in order to be brought to justice. 7. Populism- A belief in the power of regular people, and in their
right to have control over their government rather than a small
Additional genocide terms to use throughout this chapter: group of political insiders or a wealthy elite.

1. Genocide- The deliberate and systematic destruction of a 8. Exacerbate- When a problem, bad situation, or negative feeling
racial, political, or cultural group. (e.g., From the Greek, “genos”, is made worse.
meaning, “race”, and the English, “cide”, meaning, “denoting an
9. Subjugation- To be brought under domination or control,
act of killing”).
especially by conquest.
2. Endemic- A condition or characteristic that is commonplace in
10. Revulsion- a feeling of disgust and loathing.
an area.
11. Propaganda- A way of creating a socially constructed reality
3. Inexorable- Impossible to stop of prevent
with a clear political intention.
4. Cultural Pluralism- When smaller groups within a larger society
12. Vilify- Speaking or writing about someone, or something,
maintain their unique cultural identities, and their values and
making them out to be wholly negative.
practices are accepted by the wider culture provided they are
consistent with the laws and values of the wider society. 13. Incitement- When people are encouraged to engage in
unlawful behavior.
5. Bicommunal Societies- A society where over 80 percent of the
population belongs to one of two well-defined identity groups. 14. Embargoes- An official ban on trade or other commercial
Bicommunal societies are marked by social differentiation and activity with a particular country.
segregation, which often results in political separation or conflict. 
15. Coups d’état- A sudden, violent, and illegal seizure of power
6. Hegemony- Preponderant influence or authority over others. from a government
Synonymous with dominance.
16. Euphemisms- When a mild or indirect word or expression is
substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt. Generally
used when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.

347
17. Expropriated- When the state takes away property away from 24. Stereotype- A simplistic, firmly held belief, often negative,
its rightful owner. about individual characteristics generalized to all people within
that group.
18. Dichotomous- A division or contrast between two things that
are or are represented as being opposed or entirely different. 25. Racism- A set of beliefs based on perceived “racial”
superiority and inferiority; a system of domination that is played
19. Scientific Racism- When the scientific community create and
out in everyday interactions, and the unequal distribution of
enforce pseudo-scientific assertions that justify the subjugation
privilege, resources and power.
and mistreatment of another group of people.
26. Pan-Turkism- An ideology seeking the creation of a new
20. Eugenics- A notion that a people can be improved via
Turkish empire stretching from Anatolia into Central Asia whose
selective reproduction.
population would be exclusively Turkic.
21. Mass Murder/Massacre- The act or an instance of killing a
27. Anti-Semitism- Hostility towards Jews as an ethnic or
number of human beings under circumstances of atrocity or
religious group, often accompanied by social, economic, and
cruelty. This includes pogroms, mass executions, and crimes
political discrimination.
against humanity that lead to death. Although it is not considered
to be genocide, these acts are no less vicious and no less 28. Holocaust- A historical event that took place in Europe
tragically final for the victims. between 1933 and 1945, where over six million Jews were
systematically murdered by the Nazis and their collaborators.
22. Nationalism- Loyalty and devotion to a nation, especially in a
sense of national consciousness exalting one nation above all 29. Shoah- (which has been used to mean “destruction” since the
others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture Middle Ages) became the standard Hebrew term for the murder of
and interests as opposed to those of other nations or European Jewry as early as the early 1940s. The word Holocaust,
supranational groups. which came into use in the 1950s as the corresponding term,
originally meant a sacrifice burned entirely on the altar. The
23. Scapegoat- An individual or group unfairly blamed from
selection of these two words with religious origins reflects
problems not of their making
recognition of the unprecedented nature and magnitude of the
events.
348
30. Fascism- a governmental system led by a dictator having 36. UN Declaration of Human Rights 1948- A United Nations’
complete power, forcibly suppressing opposition and criticism, declaration identifying common standards of rights and freedoms
regimenting all industry, commerce, etc., and emphasizing an for all peoples and all nations.
aggressive nationalism and often racism.
37. Tyranny- A cruel and oppressive government or ruler.
31. Holodomor- Mass starvation in the Ukrainian Famine of
38. Dissident- A person who opposes official policy, especially
1932-33, occurring between the Russian Revolution and the
that of an authoritarian state.
Second World War.
39. Shtetls- A small Jewish town or village in eastern Europe.
32. Collectivization- Process where private property rights are
abolished and people are forced to work and share all proceeds 40. Fascism- A political system headed by a dictator in which the
with the community. government controls business and labor and opposition is not
permitted.
33. Stalin’s Five-Year Plan- When Joseph Stalin from 1928-1932
created a plan for the Soviet economy based on collectivizing 41. Perpetrator- A person who carries out a harmful, illegal, or
resources. It resulted in mass starvation. immoral act.

34. Great Leap Forward- Initiative led by Mao Zedong that was 42. Bystander- A person who is present at an event or incident
intended to promote industrialism, but ultimately resulted in a but does not take part in perpetrating the act.
famine that killed over 20,000,000 people.
43. “Final Solution”- The Nazi policy of exterminating European
35. Chinese Cultural Revolution- A movement in China, beginning Jews. Introduced by Heinrich Himmler and administered by Adolf
in the mid-1960s and led by Mao Zedong, to restore the vitality of Eichmann, the policy resulted in the murder of over 6 million Jews
communism in China. When it was over 1.5 million people were in concentration camps between 1941 and 1945.
killed and millions of others suffered imprisonment, seizure of
property, torture or general humiliation. 44. Altruism- The belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless
concern for the well-being of others.

349
Section 2

What Factors and Circumstances Caused the

Holocaust and Other Genocide To Happen?
QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY The Twentieth Century:
1. What is genocide?
Charles Dickens famously opened his, A Tale of Two Cites, “It was the best of
2. What factors and circumstances caused times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
the Holocaust and other genocide to
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the
happen?
season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was
3. What lessons can be derived from learning the winter of despair.” These words reflect the dichotomous nature of the twentieth
about genocide and how can you apply
them to today’s world?
century. In this century, an age of modernity was ushered in via the inventions of
electricity, mass communications, transportation, and industrial production.
Humankind eradicated diseases and increased life expectancies. On the other
hand, humankind created industrialized and nuclear weapons that created
destruction on a scale unseen. Also, there were major genocides, often predicated
on scientific racism and eugenics that stand as atrocities that defies reason.
According to the University of Hawaii, 262,000,000 people were killed during the
twentieth century due to state-sponsored actions, including war and genocide.

The Armenian Genocide:

The Armenian Genocide was carried out by the “Young Turk” government of the
Ottoman Empire from 1915 to 1923. Starting on April 24, 1915, Armenians in the
Ottoman armies, serving separately in unarmed labor battalions, were removed
and murdered. Of the remaining population, the adult and teenage males were

350
separated from the deportation caravans and killed under the The Ukrainian Genocide/The Great Famine (Holodomor)
direction of Young Turk functionaries. Women and children were
In 1932-33, Joseph Stalin, leader of the Soviet Union, imposed
driven for months over mountains and desert, often raped,
the system of land management known as collectivization.
tortured, and mutilated. Deprived of food and water, they fell by
Collectivization is when ownership of economic resources is
the hundreds of thousands along the routed to the desert.
given to the state, abolishing private ownership. Stalin and the
Ultimately, more than half the Armenian population, more than
Soviet government seized all privately-owned farmland and
1,500,000 people was annihilated. Pontic Greeks and Assyrians
livestock. By 1932, much of the wheat crop was sold on the
were also targeted by the Ottoman Turks. On April 24, 2015, there
foreign market to generate cash to aid Stalin’s economic re-
were international commemorations of the Armenian Genocide,
shifting of the Soviet economy known as the Five-Year Plan. Laws
although, the Turkish government denies it was a genocide.
demanded that no grain could be given to feed the peasants until
a quota was met. By the spring of 1933, an estimated 25,000
Interactive 14.2 Primary people dies every day in the Ukraine. Deprived of the food they
Source Analysis
had grown with their own hands, an estimated 7,000,000 persons
perished due to the resulting famine in this area known as the
breadbasket of Europe.

Interactive 14.3 Holdomor

Analysis

Study the two quotes in this

Google Doc and use the graphic
organizer to record your thoughts
and questions.

Using the linked website, fill in the

T-Chart in the attached Google
Doc.

351
The Holocaust Life Before the War

In 1933, the Jewish population of Europe stood at over nine Prior to the Second World War, there were roughly 11,043,100
million. Most European Jews lived in countries that the Third Jewish people living in Europe, the Middle East, and Soviet
Reich would occupy or influence during World War II. By 1945, Union. Many of these Jewish populations resided in these nations
close to two out of three European Jews had been killed as part for centuries. In 1933 the largest Jewish populations were
of the “Final Solution”, the Nazi policy to murder the Jews of concentrated in eastern Europe, including Poland, the Soviet
Europe. Although Jews were the primary victims of Nazi racism, Union, Hungary, and Romania. Many of the Jews of eastern
other victims included tens of thousands of Roma (Gypsies). At Europe lived in predominantly Jewish towns or villages,
least 200,000 mentally or physically disabled people were called shtetls (ˈSHtetl,ˈSHtātl). Eastern European Jews lived a
murdered in the Euthanasia Program. As Nazi tyranny spread separate life as a minority within the culture of the majority. They
across Europe, the Nazis persecuted and murdered millions of spoke their own language, Yiddish, which combines elements of
other people. More than three million Soviet prisoners of war were German and Hebrew. They read Yiddish books, and attended
murdered or died of starvation, disease, neglect, or maltreatment. Yiddish theater and movies. Although many younger Jews in
Germans targeted the non-Jewish Polish leadership for killing and larger towns were beginning to adopt modern ways and dress,
deported millions on Polish and Soviet citizens for forced labor in older people often dressed traditionally, the men wearing hats or
Germany or in occupied Poland. From the earliest years of the caps, and the women modestly covering their hair with wigs or
Nazi regime, homosexuals and others deemed to be behaving in kerchiefs.
a socially unacceptable way were persecuted. Thousands of
In comparison, the Jews in western Europe—Germany, France,
political dissidents, such as communists, socialists, and trade
Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium—made up much less of the
union members were persecuted as well. Religious dissidents, in
population and tended to adopt the culture of their non-Jewish
particular Jehovah’s Witnesses were harmed by Nazi actions as
neighbors. They dressed and talked like their countrymen, and
well. Many dissidents died due to their incarceration and
traditional religious practices and Yiddish culture played a less
maltreatment. By the end of the war millions were murdered,
important part in their lives. They tended to have had more formal
including 6,258,484 Jewish people. Its legacy is still very much
education than eastern European Jews and to live in towns or
being contended with by a world indelibly altered by what
cities.
happened.

352
 Jews could be found in all walks of life, as farmers, tailors, The Rise of Nazi Germany
seamstresses, factory hands, accountants, doctors, teachers,
Primo Levi once said, “Monsters exist, but they are too few in
and small-business owners. Some families were wealthy; many
number to be truly dangerous. More dangerous are the common
more were poor. Many children ended their schooling early to
men, the functionaries ready to believe and to act without asking
work in a craft or trade; others looked forward to continuing their
questions.” Germany, demoralized and in economic shambles
education at the university level. Still, whatever their differences,
after the First World War adhered to the fascist policies of the
they were the same in one respect: by the 1930s, with the rise of
National-Socialist German Workers' Party, otherwise known as
the Nazis to power in Germany, they all became potential victims,
Nazis. There is a misnomer that Nazis and their sympathizers
and their lives were forever changed.
were coerced into following this regime. According to Ernst Klee’s
Image 14.1 Jewish communities in Europe prior to the Nazi book, “The Good Old Days: The Holocaust as Seen by Its
rise to power. Perpetrators and Bystanders”, the rise of Nazism created three
groups, victims, perpetrators, and bystanders. A quote from this
book came from a policeman in the Einsatzgruppen where he
stated, “It was made clear to us that we could refuse to obey and
order to participate in the Sonderaktionen (special action) without
adverse consequences”. Perpetrators are those who committed
the atrocities of the Holocaust, whereas bystanders were those
who said or did nothing to prevent the atrocities from happening.
Both are complicit. Martin Niemöller, a prominent Protestant
pastor who was an outspoken public foe of Adolf Hitler and spent
the last seven years of Nazi rule in concentration camps. Wrote a
poem demonstrating the destructiveness of collective bystanders.

First, they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out—

Because I was not a Socialist.

Retreived online: http://echoesandreflections.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/

353
EchoesAndReflections_Lesson_Two_Map-JewishCommunitiesInEuropeBeforeNaziRise.pdf
Then they came for the Trade Unionists, and I did not speak out continue. Nazis were able to perpetrate their actions for twelve
— 
 years, from 1933-1945.
Because I was not a Trade Unionist.
A Timeline of the Rise of the Nazi Party
Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out— 

Because I was not a Jew.

Then they came for me—and there was no one left to speak for
me.

Bystanders enabling the perpetrators is a theme that resonates

today. Injustice and mistreatment of people continues today and
the Holocaust demonstrates that it must be confronted, or it will

“Our strength consists in our speed and in our brutality. Genghis Khan led
millions of women and children to slaughter- with premeditation and a happy
heart. History sees in him solely the founder of a state. It’s a matter of
indifference to me what a weak western European civilization will say about
me.

I have issued the command- and I’ll have anybody who utters but one word of
criticism executed by a firing squad- that our war aim does not consist in
reaching certain lines, but it in the physical destruction of the enemy.
Accordingly, I have placed my death-head formations in readiness- for the
present only in the East- with orders to them to send to death mercilessly and
without compassion, men, women, and children of Polish derivation and
language. Only thus shall we gain the living space (Lebensraum) which we
need. WHO, AFTER ALL, SPEAKS TODAY OF THE ANNIHILATION OF THE
ARMENIANS?

354
Hitler’s Words on Genocide to his Supreme Commanders and Commanding Generals as the Nazis marched
into Poland (August 22,1939):
 The Ghettos and Jewish Resistance: had to subsist on 187 calories a day. Despite, these conditions,
there was resistance against their oppressors.
In the year 1516, the first official ghetto was established in Venice.
It was used to segregate the Jewish people and deprive them of Resistance took on several forms throughout the Holocaust.
equal access to economic and social resources. Centuries later Cultural and spiritual resistance was acts of opposition to
Jewish people were forced in ghettos again and conditions were undermine Nazi power and inspire hope among the persecuted
cramped and unsanitary. Jewish people in the Warsaw Ghetto Jews. These acts included creating schools in the ghettos;
maintaining religious customs; writing poems and songs or
performing concerts or plays; drawing, painting, or secretly
photographing observed events; and keeping records of ghetto
events and hiding them in the hopes they would be discovered
after the war. Active armed resistance entailed acts of sabotage
and guerilla attacks. Such resistance continued throughout the
duration of the Holocaust.

Where were most ghettos located? What was the Nazi rationale for
creating these ghettos? Which stage of genocide are ghettos indicative
Members of the United Partisan Organization, A Jewish resistance organization
of? 355
based in the Vilna ghetto.
The “Final Solution” leaders established three killing centers named Belzec, Sobibor,
and Treblinka. Auschwitz-Birkenau, Chelmno, and Majdanek were
The Nazis frequently used euphemistic language to disguise the
built soon afterwards, making six death camps. These differed
true nature of their crimes. They used the term “Final Solution” to
from work camps because these camps were created with the
refer to their plan to annihilate the Jewish people. It is not known
sole purpose of mass murder.
when the leaders of Nazi Germany definitively decided to
implement the "Final Solution." The genocide, or mass German SS and police murdered nearly 2,700,000 Jews in the
destruction, of the Jews was the culmination of a decade of killing centers either by asphyxiation with poison gas or by
increasingly severe discriminatory measures. After the June 1941 shooting. In its entirety, the "Final Solution" called for the murder
German invasion of the Soviet Union, SS and police units acting of all European Jews by gassing, shooting, and other means.
as mobile killing units began massive killing operations aimed at
entire Jewish communities. By autumn 1941, the SS and police Main Camps and Killing Sites During the Nazi Era.
introduced mobile gas vans. These paneled trucks had exhaust
pipes reconfigured to pump poisonous carbon monoxide gas into
sealed spaces, killing those locked within. They were designed to
complement ongoing shooting operations.

On July 17, 1941, four weeks after the invasion of the Soviet
Union, Hitler tasked SS chief Heinrich Himmler with responsibility
for all security matters in the occupied Soviet Union. Hitler gave
Himmler broad authority to physically eliminate any perceived
threats to permanent German rule. Two weeks later, on July 31,
1941, Nazi leader Hermann Goering authorized SS General
Reinhard Heydrich to make preparations for the implementation
of a "complete solution of the Jewish question."

In the autumn of 1941 Himmler implemented a plan to What were the differences between work camps and death
systematically murder the Jews of the General government. Nazi camps? Where did the Nazis set up the majority of their camps?
What do you think their rationale was for doing so?
356
 Lithuania 220,000 94
The death toll from these camps are staggering numbers and
serve as one of the darkest chapters of human history. Final Luxembourg 1950 50

numbers of deaths and the percentages of populations are the

The Netherlands 106,000 76
following:
Norway 870 55
Approximate number of Percentage of Country’s
Country
Jews Killed Jews Killed Poland 2,900,000 88
Austria 50,000 36
Russia 107,000 11
Belgium 25,000 60
Romania 270,000 33
Belorussia 245,000 65
Slovakia 71,000 80
Bohemia/
80,000 89 Spain -- --
Moravia

Bulgaria 11,400 14 Sweden -- --

Denmark 60 1.3 Switzerland -- --

Estonia 1500 35 Ukraine 900,000 60

Finland 7 2.8 Yugoslavia 60,000 80

France 90,000 26

Germany 130,000 55

Great
130 --
Britain

Greece 65,000 80

Hungary 450,000 70

Italy 7500 20
357
Latvia 70,000 77
The Destruction of the Sinti and Roma (Gypsies) during World Mao Tse-tung’s Cultural Revolution
War II
October 1, 1949 marked Mao Tse-tung’s proclamation of the
Roma Gypsies are an ethnic group originating from India which People’s Republic of China. This ushered in major changes,
for unknown reasons took to a wandering lifestyle in the late designed to destroy the traditional Chinese social and political
middle ages. Eventually, the Romas reached Europe and became system. At the philosophical foundation of these changes was
part of the ethnic mix of many countries, contributing in areas collectivization. Mao believed that the peasants of China had to
such a music and the arts. In June of 1936, the Nazis established have their resources combined and shared in totality. In 1958, he
an office to, “combat the Gypsy nuisance” that set-in motion the launched the, “Great Leap Forward” campaign. This act was
destruction of this group. Historians are uncertain about the aimed at accomplishing economic and technical development of
numbers of these people prior to World War II, but up to 250,000 the country at a faster pace with greater results. Instead, the
of these people were put to death. This constituted the second “Great Leap Forward” destroyed the agricultural system, causing
largest proportional mortality rate, second only to the Jewish a terrible famine in which 27 million people starved to death.
people.
Why did China’s implementation of Communism result in death?

Karl Marx, considered the father of Communism, wrote in his

1875, “Critique of the Gotha Program”:

In a higher phase of communist society, after the enslaving

subordination of the individual to the division of labor, and
therewith also the antithesis between mental and physical labor,
has vanished; after labor has become not only a means of life but
life's prime want; after the productive forces have also increased
with the all-around development of the individual, and all the
springs of co-operative wealth flow more abundantly—only then
can the narrow horizon of bourgeois right be crossed in its entirety
1. What nation had the highest gypsy population in 1939? How many gypsies were living
there?
2. What region of Europe housed the largest gypsy population in 1939?
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3. Using the estimate of 250,000 casualties, what percentage of the Gypsy population of
Europe was killed?
and society inscribe on its banners: From each according to his
ability, to each according to his needs! Teachers assign students’ letter grades based on their performances. Commonly,
these grades in something known as a bell curve and for our purposes, let’s assume
this is your class:
On the surface, this may appear as a kind notion, concerned
about the, “development of the individual” and helping people,
“according to his needs”. Although Communism’s intent is
positive and a means to help people, how did its implementation
in China result in mass suffering and death?

Ask yourself the factors of student performance that result in the varying grades.
Most would agree that success is a combination of being in class, innate ability and
work ethic. Lack of success would be the converse of these three things. This system
of grading is founded on competition and stratifies levels of success, the same
principles at the root of capitalism. Assume now that your teacher feels bad for the
students who are receiving low grades and switches their grading model to a
collective, communist model. Your teacher claims, “we’re all in this together” and,
“we’re only as strong as our weakest link”. It is announced that every student in the
class is receiving a “C” grade, because the entire class mean was 75%.

How would the students with “A” grades before the change feel about this? How
would they act moving forward?

How would the students with “C” grades before the change feel about this? How
would they act moving forward?

How would the students with “F” grades before the change feel about this? How
would they act moving forward?

Most likely, the lowest performing students would be rather happy for this change.
Students in the middle-performing group would be somewhat ambivalent and the
highest-performing students would be angry. In this model, the collective grade would
continue to get lower and lower due to the removal of incentive, meaning the reward
given for work and positive actions.

This hypothetical thought exercise had to do with grades. In Mao’s china, it was food
and resources needed for survival. When incentive was eliminated from the Chinese
peasants, as it was from the students in the thought exercise, things progressively got
worse until it resulted in a catastrophe of death on a mass scale.

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Section 3

What Lessons Can We Learn About Genocide?

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE INQUIRY Righteousness in the Face of Evil

1. What is genocide?
A natural reaction to learning about genocide is attempting to rationalize and
2. What factors and circumstances caused understand why, and how, such events can occur. It is understandable that the
the Holocaust and other genocide to
study of genocide would make one see human nature and human history in a less
happen?
than favorable light. However, people did show courage, kindness, and decency
3. What lessons can be derived from learning during these dark historical episodes. There were people who shunned hatred and
about genocide and how can you apply
them to today’s world?
division and choose to embrace altruism, or the desire to help others just because
it was the ethical, and moral way to behave. In Israel, Yad Vashem was built to
commemorate the Holocaust. There they honor the righteous from nations
throughout the world as a testament to goodness in the face of evil. We will be
exploring some of these righteous individuals in the hope that they serve as
inspiration to you to live a righteous life.

Garden of the Righteous

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 Armin Wegner Nicholas Winton

Armin Wegner was a German soldier and medic

in World War I, a prolific author, and a human
Sir Nicholas Winton was a 29-year-old
rights activist. While he was stationed in the
stockbroker who in 1939 organized
Ottoman Empire during World War I, Wegner
trains out of Prague to secure the safe
was a witness to the Armenian Genocide and the photographs he
passage of 669 Jewish children from Czechoslovakia to England
took documenting the plight of the Armenians today "comprises
at the dawn of World War II. The evacuees, later known as
the core of witness images of the Genocide." In the years
"Winton's Children," knew little about their rescuer until the
following the end of World War I, Wegner also voiced his
1980s, when his work finally came to light. He was knighted in
opposition, at great risk to his own life, against the anti-Semitic
2003 and died on July 1, 2015, at the age of 106. Please watch
policies of the Nazis. In 1933, he authored an impassioned plea to
the video below about him.
Adolf Hitler on behalf of the Jews of Germany. He suggested that
the persecution of the Jews was not just a question of "the fate of
our Jewish brothers alone, but also the fate of Germany." Noting
that he was writing the letter as a proud German who could Interactive 14.4 60
himself trace his Prussian familial roots back to the time of the Minutes Story
Crusades, Wegner asked Hitler what would become of Germany if
it continued its persecution of Jews. Answering his own question,
Wegner declared, "There is no Fatherland without justice!" He
was persecuted by the Nazis and, for his efforts, is recognized by
Yad Vashem as Righteous among the Nations.

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 Irena Sendler Oskar Schindler

When Hitler and his Nazis built the Warsaw One of the most famous Righteous Gentiles

Ghetto and herded 500,000 Polish Jews behind its from the Holocaust, Schindler helped to
walls to await liquidation, many Polish gentiles save thousands of Polish Jews by shielding
turned their backs or applauded. Not Irena Sendler. them as workers in his factories. Referring to them as his
An unfamiliar name to most people, but this remarkable woman “Schindlerjuden”, meaning, “Schlinder’s children”. Schindler
defied the Nazis and saved 2,500 Jewish children by smuggling ensured that the Jews in his factories worked but were also fed,
them out of the Warsaw Ghetto. As a health worker, she sneaked no-one was beaten, and no-one was killed. It became an oasis of
the children out between 1942 and 1943 to safe hiding places humanity in a desert of moral torpor. His story his immortalized in
and found non-Jewish families to adopt them. a film called "Schindler's List."

Raoul Wallenberg Yad Vashem, who houses the memorial and database of the
Righteous Among the Nations, has a strict criterion their
Wallenberg was a Swedish diplomat who helped
committee uses to determine who is considered part of the
save thousands of Hungarian Jews. Wallenberg
righteous. Righteous individuals must have had active
provided thousands of Jews with special Swedish
involvement in being a rescuer with acknowledged mortal risk
passports and also set up a bureaucracy
during the endeavor. Their motives must have been humanitarian
in Budapest designed to protect Jews by using "safe houses"
and there must be testimonial or archival materials to support
where they could receive food and medical supplies. More than
their actions. These individuals stand a testament to human
90,000 Budapest Jews were deported to death camps;
goodness in the face of overwhelming evil. They remind us that
Wallenberg's efforts may have saved an equal number. Following
we all have a choice to behave ethically and not be a perpetrator,
the liberation of Budapest, Wallenberg was arrested by the
or bystander, as many of their countrymen were.
Soviets and was never heard from again. 
Reflection writing: What do you feel were the motives behind the
actions of these righteous individuals? What observations and
conclusions can you make based upon evaluating these
numbers?
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Important sources for more information. 8. http://chineseposters.net/themes/great-leap-forward.php:
Chinese propaganda posters. These are a stark contrast to the 45
1. http://www.genocidewatch.org/genocide/
million who died in four years under Mao Zedong.
tenstagesofgenocide.html: Explanation of the ten stages of
genocide, along with a PowerPoint link found at the bottom of the 9. http://www.ipahp.org/index.php?en_acts-of-genocide:
page. Compilation of genocides since 1945 if you wish to further
expand student investigation into genocide.
2. http://twentyvoices.com: 20 oral histories on the Armenian
Genocide, multiple awards for excellence when it was launched in 10. http://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/about-the-righteous: A
2006. source to explore righteousness and altruism as a contrast to the
atrocities of genocide.
3. http://www.theforgotten.org/intro.html: Comprehensive site
on the Armenian Genocide, featuring a 1999 Peter Jennings 11. http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr: Copy of Universal
newscast and the photos of Armin Wegner. Declaration of Human Rights.

4. http://www.ushmm.org: Web site to the United States

Holocaust Museum

5. http://www.holocaust-trc.org: Holocaust Teacher Resource

Site

6. http://www.holodomorct.org: A site on the Holodomor, or

Ukrainian mass killing of 1932-33

7. https://cis.uchicago.edu/sites/cis.uchicago.edu/files/
resources/110128-ukraine-holodomor-educators-curriculum.pdf:
Chicago School’s Curriculum Guide on Holodomor

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