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No.
1 Syllabus 1-4
2. Introduction about forests, Definition of Forest and Forestry, branches in 5-9
forestry
3 Role of Forest - Production function, Protection function and ameliorative 10-14
functions of forests
4 Classification of Forest based on mode of regeneration, age, composition. 15-17
ownership, object of management and growing stock
5 National Forest Policy 1988- Objectives and salient features 18-21
6 Forest regeneration, Natural regeneration - natural regeneration from seed 22-27
and vegetative parts, coppicing, pollarding, root suckers
7 Artificial regeneration – objectives, choice between natural and artificial 28-36
regeneration, essential preliminary considerations
8 Silvicultural practices for Eucalyptus spp, Casuarina equisetifolia, Tectona 37-45
grandis, Ailanthus excelsa
9 Silvicultural practices for Melia dubia, Leucaena leucocephala. Tending 46-52
operations - Weeding, Cleaning, Thinning and pruning.
10 Forest Mensuration - Objectives- Diameter measurements, instruments used 53-57
in diameter measurement
11 Height measurement, instrumental methods of height measurement - Tree 58-63
form, form factor, Volume estimation of standing and felled trees
12 Social Forestry and its branches - Extension Forestry and Urban forestry 64-65
13 Agroforestry, definition- Importance- Agroforestry systems - Shifting 66-75
Cultivation, Taungya, Alley cropping, Wind break, Shelter belt, Home
garden
14 Tree and crop combination in Agroforestry- Tree crop interaction in 76-80
Agroforestry
15 National Agroforestry Policy 2014 , objectives and salient features 81-82
16 Forest Utilization - Definition - Wood products - solid wood and composite 83-85
wood.
17 Forest Utilization - Non Wood Forest Products - fibres , floss, bamboo, tan, 86-87
dye, resin, oleoresin
18 Glossary 87-90
19 Model question 91-106
 FOR 111 Introduction to Forestry (1+1)

Offered for [Link]. Hons. (Agriculture) and [Link]. Hons. (Sericulture)

Theory

UNIT I

Forest and Forestry

Introduction - Definition of Forest and Forestry - Role of Forest (Production, Protection and
Amelioration) - Classification of Forest (Regeneration, Age, Composition. ownership, object
of management, growing stock) - National Forest Policy 1988.

UNIT II

Silviculture and Forest plantation

Forest regeneration - Natural regeneration- Seeds and vegetative parts (Coppice , Root
suckers) - Artificial regeneration , Objectives - Nurseries - Types of nurseries, Quality
seedling production techniques - Silvicultural practices for Eucalyptus spp, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Tectona grandis, Ailanthus excelsa, Melia dubia, Leucaena leucocephala.
Tending operations - Weeding, Cleaning, Thinning and pruning.

UNIT III

Forest Mensuration

Forest Mensuration - Objectives- Diameter measurements, instruments used in diameter

measurement- Height measurement, instrumental methods of height measurement - Tree
form, form factor, Volume estimation of standing and felled trees.

UNIT IV

Social forestry and Agroforestry

Social Forestry and its branches - Extension Forestry, Urban forestry - Agroforestry,
definition- Importance- Agroforestry systems - Shifting Cultivation, Taungya, Alley
cropping, Wind break, Shelter belt, Home garden - Tree and crop combination in
Agroforestry - Tree crop interaction in Agroforestry - National Agroforestry Policy 2014.

UNIT V

Forest Utilization

Forest Utilization - Definition - Wood products - solid wood and composite wood.- Non
Wood Forest Products - fibres , floss, bamboo, tan, dye, resin, oleoresin.
Practical

Identification of important farm grown trees - Identification of tree seeds and seedlings- Site
selection for tree nursery and layout of nursery- Study of nursery techniques for Casuarina
equisetifolia and Tectona grandis - Practicing clonal propagation in trees Practicing land
preparation, stacking, pitting, planting techniques and after care operations in plantations-
Height measurement in trees, diameter measurement in trees , Volume estimation in trees-
Identification of wood and non- wood forest products - Visit to Agroforestry plantations

Lecture schedule

1. Introduction about forests, Definition of Forest and Forestry, branches in forestry

2. Role of Forest - Production function, Protection function and ameliorative functions of

forests

[Link] of Forest based on mode of regeneration, age, composition. ownership, object

of management and growing stock

4. National Forest Policy 1988- Objectives and salient features

5. Forest regeneration - Types of regeneration - Natural regeneration through seeds and

vegetative parts including coppice and root suckers

6. Artificial regeneration , Objectives - Nurseries - Types of nurseries, Quality seedling

production techniques

7. Silvicultural practices for Eucalyptus spp, Casuarina equisetifolia, Tectona grandis,

Ailanthus excelsa,

8. Silvicultural practices for Melia dubia, Leucaena leucocephala. Tending operations -

Weeding, Cleaning, Thinning and pruning.

9. Mid Semester Examination

10. Forest Mensuration - Objectives- Diameter measurements, instruments used in diameter

measurement

11. Height measurement, instrumental methods of height measurement - Tree form, form
factor, Volume estimation of standing and felled trees.

12. Social Forestry and its branches - Extension Forestry and Urban forestry.

13. Agroforestry, definition- Importance- Agroforestry systems - Shifting Cultivation,

Taungya, Alley cropping, Wind break, Shelter belt, Home garden

14. Tree and crop combination in Agroforestry- Tree crop interaction in Agroforestry -

15. National Agroforestry Policy 2014 , objectives and salient features

16. Forest Utilization - Definition - Wood products - solid wood and composite wood.

17. Forest Utilization - Non Wood Forest Products - fibres , floss, bamboo, tan, dye, resin,
oleoresin

Practical schedule

1. Identification of important farm grown trees

2. Identification of tree seeds and seedlings

3. Site selection for tree nursery and layout of nursery

4. Study of nursery techniques for Casuarina equisetifolia

5. Study of nursery techniques for Tectona grandis

6. Practicing clonal propagation in trees Eucalyptus / Casuarina

7. Practicing land preparation, stacking, pitting,

8. Planting techniques in plantation

9. After care operations in plantations

10. Height measurement in trees

11. Diameter measurement in trees

12. Volume estimation in standing and felled trees

13. Identification and study of wood products

14. Identification and study non- wood forest products

15. Visit to Agroforestry plantations

16. Visit to forest based industry

17. Final Practical Examination

Reference Books
1. Dwivedi, A.P. 1992. Principles and Practices of Indian Silviculture. Surya publications,
Dehradun.177p

2. Gupta. R.K 1993. Multipurpose trees for Agroforestry and Wasteland utilization. Oxford
and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi. 580p.

3. Nair.P.K.R. 1993. Introduction to Agroforestry. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht,

Netherlands.499p

4. Negi, S.S. 1986. A Hand book of Social Forestry. International Book Distributors,
Dehradun.177p

5. Puri, S and [Link]. 1993. Nursery Technology for Agroforestry - applications in Arid
and Semi arid regions. Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi.392p

6. Khanna. L.S. 1981. Principles and Practice of Silviculture. Khanna Bandhu publications,
Dehradun.472p

7. Chaturvedi, A.N and [Link]. 1982. Forest Mensuration. International Book

Distributors, Dehradun.350p

8. Tirubhawan Mehta. 1981. Hand book of Forest Utilization. International Book

Distributors, Dehradun.208 p.
Lecture [Link] about forests, Definition of Forest and Forestry, branches in
forestry
Definition
Forest is defined as an area set aside for the production of timber and other forest
produce, or maintained under woody vegetation for certain indirect benefits which it
provides, e.g., climatic or protective. This is the general definition of the term and lays
emphasis on the direct and indirect benefits that the forests provide. But in ecology, it is
defined as a plant community predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, usually
with a closed canopy. This definition describes the forest as a kind of vegetation in which
trees constitute the predominant part, to distinguish it from vegetation in which grasses or
shrubs may be predominant, and are fairly dense so that their crowns touch each other. In
legal terminology, forest is defined as an area of land proclaimed to be forest under a forest
law. This definition describes the forest not as a biological unit but as property having a
owner and with rights or certain people. This definition is useful only in law courts, where
cases pertaining to offences committed are tried. From the point of view of silviculture, the
first two definitions are more important.
The term forest has generally been used so far in India to denote crops raised by the
practice of silviculture. But in recent years, an American term ‘stand’ is also used.
American foresters differentiate between ‘stand’ and ‘forest’. According to them, stand is
defined as an aggregation of trees occupying a specific area sufficiently uniform in
composition (species), age arrangement and condition to be distinguishable from the forest
on adjoining areas. Thus the unit of silviculture is a stand. Forest, on the other hand, is a
collection of stands administered as an integrated unit to obtain the objective of sustained
yield.
Silvis and Silviculture
Silviculture has been defined variously authors. According to Toumey and Korstian,
‘silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development,
care and reproduction of stands of timber’. Indian Forest and Forest Products Terminology,
published by the Forest Research Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun, defines silviculture as,
‘the art and science of cultivating forest crops’. According to Champion and Seth, ‘the term
silviculture in English commonly refers only to certain aspects of theory and practice of
raising forest crops’.
 Though from the above definitions, there appears to be some diversity in views about
the scope of silviculture, yet, in a broad sense, silviculture may be taken to include both
silvics and its practical application. According to Indian Forest and Forest Products
Terminology, silvics is ‘the study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees
and crops with particular reference to environmental factors, as the basis for the practice
of silviculture’. Thus silvics implies the study of trees and forests as biological units, the
laws of their growth and development and the effect of environment on them. It explains the
natural laws of their growth and development and their behaviour in a given set of
environmental conditions. Though a lost of information on silvics has been collected by
experiments, observations and experience of earlier foresters, a lot more information is yet to
be collected to explain the unsolved complexities in the lives of trees and crops and the
natural laws governing their reproduction, growth and development.
The knowledge gathered in silvics is applied to the production and care of forest
crops. Thus the practice of silviculture is applied silvics. It deals with the procedure of
obtaining natural regeneration under the various silvicultural systems, artificial regeneration
of various species, and methods of tending young crops, whether natural or artificial to help
them to grow into forests of quality timbers and great economic value.
Forestry, its Scope and Classification
Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation,
conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources.
It is an applied science which is concerned with not only the raising or cultivation of forest
crops but their protection, perpetuation, mensuration, management, valuation and finance as
well utilization of the forest products for the service of the nation. In favourable localities,
this science is applied to get maximum return and so it is called intensive forestry which is
defined as the practice of forestry with the object of obtaining the maximum in volume and
quality of products per unit is through the application of the best techniques of silviculture
and management. When forestry is practiced to achieve more than one purpose, it is called
multiple-use forestry which is defined as the practice of forestry for the simultaneous use of
a forest are for two or more purposes, often in some measure conflicting, e.g., the production
of wood with forest grazing and/or wildlife for conservation.
Based on the objectives, forestry is classified as under:
a) Protection forestry – Protection forestry is the practice of forestry with the
primary object of (1) protecting lands whether those upon which the forest is situated or
those at a distance from it, against wind and water erosion, (2) conserving water supplies for
human consumption, fish culture, etc., (3) reducing hazards from flood damage to human
life and property and (4) amelioration of adverse climatic effects.
b) Commercial forestry – Commercial forestry is the practice of forestry with the
object of producing timber and other forest products as a business enterprise. A specialized
aspect of commercial forestry is to meet the requirement of a particular industry and in that
case it is called industrial forestry which is defined as the practice of forestry to sustain a
given industrial enterprise, such as a saw mill, pulp mill, chemical plant or a combination of
these.
c) Social forestry – Social forestry is the practice of forestry on lands outside the
conventional forest area for the benefit of the rural and urban communities. Supply of fuel
wood to divert cow dung from village hearths to village fields, small timber for rural
housing and agricultural implements, fodder for the cattle of the rural population living far
away from the forest areas, protection of agriculture by creation of diverse ecosystem and
arresting wind and water erosion and creation of recreational forests for the benefit of the
rural as well as urban population are the basic economic and cultural needs of the
community without which there can be no improvement in the conditions of their living.
The application of forestry technology to achieve this social objective is known as social
forestry. This is new dimension recently added to the concept of forestry and includes
within its scope the following:
1) Farm forestry – Farm forestry is the practice of forestry on farms in the form of
raising rows of trees on bunds or boundaries of field and individual trees in private
agriculture land as well as creation of wind breaks, which are protective vegetal screens
created round a farm or an orchard by raising one at two lines of trees fairly close with
shrubs in between.
2) Extension forestry – Extension forestry is the practice of forestry in areas devoid
of tree growth and other vegetation and situated in places away from the conventional forest
areas with the object of increasing the area under tree growth. It includes within its scope
the following:
i) Mixed forestry – Mixed forestry is practice of forestry for raising fodder grass
with scattered fodder trees, fruit trees and fuelwood trees on suitable wastelands, panchayat
land and village commons.
 ii) Shelterbelts – Shelterbelt is defined as a belt of trees and/or shrubs maintained for
the purpose of shelter from wind, sun, snow drift, etc. They are generally more extensive
than the wind breaks covering areas larger than a single farm and sometimes whole regions
on a planned pattern.
iii) Linear strip plantations – These are plantations of fast growing species on
linear strips of land on the sides of public roads, canals and railway lines.
3) Reforestation of degraded forests
4) Recreational forestry – Recreational forestry is the practice of forestry with the
object of raising flowering trees and shrubs mainly to serve as recreation forests for the
urban and rural population. The main object is not to produce timber, grass or leaf fodder
but to raise ornamental trees and shrubs in some area to meet the recreational needs of the
people. This type of forestry is also known as aesthetic forestry which is defined as the
practice of forestry with the object of developing or maintaining a forest of high scenic
value.
Branches in Forestry
Forest Protection
Forest protection is defined as that branch of forestry which is concerned with the
activities directed towards the prevention and control of damage to forests by man, animals,
fire, insects, disease or other injurious and destructive agencies. Knowledge of the injuries
caused to forests by the local human and animal population, both domestic and wild, insects,
fungi and other adverse climatic factors and the preventive and remedial measures to
counteract them, is essential for effective protection of the forests. Thus while silviculture is
concerned with the raising of forest crop, forest protection is concerned with its protection
against various sources of damage.
Forest Mensuration
Forest mensuration is defined as that branch of forestry which deals with the
determination of dimensions, form, volume, age and increment of logs, single trees, stands or
whole woods. Thus while silviculture deals with raising of forest crop, forest mensuration
deals with measurement of diameter and heights of crop so produced, calculation of its
volume, age, etc., for sale and research to decide the best treatment to be given to the crop
while it is being raised.
Forest Utilization
Forest utilization is defined as the branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting,
conversion, disposal and use of the forest produce. Thus while silviculture is concerned with
the cultivation of forest crops, forest utilization is concerned with the harvesting and disposal
of crops so produced.
Forest Economics
Forest economics is defined as those aspects of forestry that deal with the forest as a
productive asset, subject to economic laws. Thus while silviculture is concerned with the
cultivation of forest crop, forest economics works out the cost of production including rental
of land and compound interest on capital spent in raising the crop, and compares it with the
sale proceeds to decide whether raising of the crop is economically profitable or not. It is
also the function of the forest economist to compare the cost of production of a particular
crop by different methods and then decide the most profitable method of raising that crop.
Forest Management
Forest management has been defined as the practical application of the scientific,
technical and economic principles of forestry. Thus while silviculture deals with the
cultivation of forest crop; forest management manages that crop according to the dictates of
the forest policy. Silviculture deals with the techniques and operations which result in the
development of a forest. Forest management prescribes the time and place where the
silvicultural techniques and operations should be carried out so that the objects of
management are achieved.
The various branches of forestry are so closely related that the considerations of one
branch influence the techniques of the other branches. For example, silvicultural techniques
and operations are governed by the consideration of cost and modified to suit the requirement
of protection. Similarly, even the most profitable method of exploitation or harvestings has
to be given up if it is not compatible with silvicultural techniques or the protective
considerations.
Lecture [Link] of Forest - Production function, Protection function nd ameliorative
functions of forests
Role of forests
a) Productive role
It is estimated that the forest products contribute about 1% of world gross domestic
product (GDP). The annual turnover of timber and other wood products from forests is
valued at more than US$200 billion. The demand for commercial timber and other products
is ever increasing, and expected to rise by 50% by 2010. Apart from that, non-timber
products like rubber, cotton, medicinal products, food and so on represent significant
economic value.
1) Food
a) Rhizome : Amarphous campanulatum, Cyprus rotandus
b) Root and aerial : Bauhinia variegate, Dioscorea, Moringa oleifera, Caryota urens,
c) Buds : Dillenia pentagyna, Phoenix sp
d) Sap, latex and Bark : Borassus flabellifer, Cissus rapanda
e) Stems : Cycas pectinata, Dendrocalamus strictus
f) Leaves : Tamarindus indica, Moringa oleifera
g) Flowers : Ficus glomerata, Madhuca indica, Bambax ceiba, Tamarindus indica
h) Fruits : Aegle marmelos, Anacardium occidentale, Anona squamosa.
Artocarpus heterophyllus,Borassus flabellifer, Capparis decidua,
Diospyros melanoxylon, Emblica officinalis, Ferronia elephantum,
Morus alba, Zizyphus spp
i) Seeds : Anacardium occidentale , Juglans regia, Prunus amygdalus,
Tamarindus indica, Dendrocalamus strictus

2) Fuel
Wood is used as fuel for thousands of years, until the advent of coal, oil, gas,
electricity, etc. Wood constitutes as chief source of fuel. Even today more than half of the
total world consumption of wood is for fuel-wood. Wood remains the major source of
domestic fuel in India. Approximately 175 mm3 of wood is used as fuel in the country. It is
estimated that by 2010, most of the 3 billion people who depend on it for their daily living
will find it hard to obtain. Already, rural families spend precious hours in collecting firewood
instead of other productive work, something that causes losses to the tune of US$ 50 billion
to the world economy.
Eg., Acacia spp, Casuarina equisetifolia, Prosopis, Neem, Leucaena leucocephala, etc.,
3. Shelter
Wood is used for construction of buildings.
Eg., Palmyra, Teak, Jack, etc.,
4. Clothing
Rayon cloth eg., Eucalyptus spp

5. Timber
Timber is a major forest produce and is used extensively for various purposes. In India
most of the wood produced is used for construction of houses, agricultural implements,
bridges, sleepers etc., In India 12 mm3 of timber is produced from our forests. More than
1500 species of trees are commercially exploited for timber in different parts of India. It is
used in timber-based industries such as plywood; saw milling, paper and pulp, and particle
boards.
Many species like teak, sal, deodar, babul, sissoo, chirpine, adina, axlewood, rosewood,
dipterocarpus, and etc. yield valuable timber.
6. Industrial wood
Forest provide raw material to large number of industries eg: paper and pulp, plywood
and other boards, packing cases, matches, toys etc.,
Paper and pulp : Bamboos, Eucalyptus, casuarina
Plywood : Teak, Rose wood, Terminalia etc.,
Packing cases : Pinus sp, Silver oak, Fir,
Matchwood : Ailanthus, Simaruba, Bombax
Toys : Adina, Redsanders, rose wood
7. NTFP
i) Fibre and flosses
Fibres are obtained from bast tissue of certain woody plants, which are used for
making ropes. Flosses are obtained from Ceiba pentandra and fibres are obtained from Agave
sisalana, Sterculia urens
ii) Grasses and bamboos
A large variety of grasses are found in the forests. About 30% of the 416 million
livestock population grazes in the forests. Among valuable grasses eg: Sabai (Eulaliopsis
binata) are harvested annually 6.5 million tones and 80,000 tonnes of bamboo are harvested
from forest every year.
iii) Essential oil
India produced about 1500 tonnes of essential oils during 1980, which was utilized in
making soaps, detergents and chemicals eg. Eucalyptus, Bursera, Cymbopogan, Santalum
album etc.,
iv) Oil seeds
Many tree species of Madhuca indica, Pongamia pinnata, Shorea robusta,
Azadirachta indica, Schleichera oleosa, Vateria indica etc., produce oil-bearing seeds, which
are commercially important. Presently these seeds are used in the soap industry. There is a
potential production of about 1 million tonnes of oil every year from forests tree seeds.
v) Tans and dyes
Important tannins are extracted from myrobolan nuts, bark of wattles ([Link],
[Link], [Link]) and Cassia auriculata , leaves of Embelica officinalis and
Anogeissus latifolia, bark of Cleistanthus collinus, fruits of Zizphus xylophora, Cassia fistula,
Terminalia alata, [Link] etc., katha and cutch are obtained from Acacia catechu.
vi) Gums and resins
Gums and resins are exuded by trees as a result of injury to the bark or wood. Gums –
eg: Sterculia urens, Anogeissus latifolia, Lannea coromandalica, Acacia nilotica, Ptercapus
marsupium, Butea monosperma etc.,
Resin is obtained from Pinus roxburghii
vii) Drugs, Spices and Insecticides
Important spices yielding drugs are Rauvolfia serpentina, Hemidesmus indicus,
Dioscorea spp, Atropa spp, Datura innoxia etc,
Spices : Seeds of Carum carvi, barks of Cinnomomum zeylanicum, dried capsules
of Elletaria cardomomum.
Insecticides: Pyrethrum and neem
viii) Tendu and other leaves
 Tendu leaves (bidi leaves) (Diopyrus melanoxylon) and leaves of bauhinia spp, Butea
spp, plates, dona etc.,
ix) Lac and other products
Lac is a resinous secretion of insects which feed on forest trees eg ; Butea
monosperma. Silkworm is feed on Morus alba or Terminalia alata. Honey is produced from
forests.

x) Fodder and grazing

About 30% of 416 million livestock population depend up on forest grazing and leaf
fodder supply. Eg; Luecaena leucocephala, Albizzia lebbeck, Hardwickia binata
xi) Cane
Canes or rattans are the stems of a climber plant and are used for a large number of
household items. It is used to make walking sticks, polo sticks, baskets, picture frames,
screens, and mats.
b) Protective Role
1. Forests as Earth's air purifiers
Forests form an effective sink for the carbon dioxide produced as a result of animal
respiration, burning of fossil fuels, volcanoes and other natural and human-induced
phenomenon. And if that is not all, a by-product of photosynthesis is oxygen. Thus, the
Amazon forests are the Earth's air purifiers, given the large amounts of carbon dioxide they
absorb from the atmosphere.
Forests play a significant role in maintaining the CO2 balance in the atmosphere
without sufficient forest cover all the co2 released in the atmosphere will not be utilised,
resulting in a higher per cent of co2 in the atmosphere.
According to scientists, this will result in warming of the world temperature;
disturbance in the climate etc., The CO2 percent in the atmosphere has already reached 0.042
per cent against the normal of 0.03%. If this increases continuously higher temperature and
other disturbances on the earth may bring unimaginaste miseries to mankind.
2. Climate amelioration
Forest increase local precipitation by about 5 to 10% due to their arographic and
microclimatic effect and create conditions favourable for the condensation of clouds .Forest
reduce temperature and increase humidity. It also reduces evaporation losses.
3. Soil and water conservation
 Forests maintain the productivity of the soil through adding a large quantity of
organic matter and recycling of nutrients. The leaves are used as manure.
Tree crowns reduce the violence of rain and check splash erosion. Forests increase the
infiltration and water holding capacity of the soil, resulting in much lower surface runoff.
This inturn results in checking of soil erosion.
Forest checks floods. Forests intercept 15 to 30% of the caused due to siltation of
river channels caused due to erosion. Forests and trees reduce wind velocity considerably.
Reduction of wind velocity causes considerable reduction in wind erosion, checks shifting of
sand dumes and halts the process of desertification. Forests by reducing erosion check the
siltation of irrigation and hydel resources. Rapid siltation of various reservoirs in the country
is the result of deforestation in the catchment areas of these reservoirs.
Forest protect us from physical, chemical and noise pollution, dust and other
particulates and gaseous pollutants cause serious health problems. Forests protect as from
these pollutants. Forest and trees provide shelter and wind break effect which is beneficial to
agricultural crops, particularly in arid and semiarid areas and increase agricultural production.
4. Wildlife habitats
Trees act as a habitat for wildlife.
Lecture [Link] of Forest based on mode of regeneration, age, composition.
ownership, object of management and growing stock
Classification of Forests
Forests can be classified on the basis of
i) Method of regeneration
ii) Age
iii) Composition
iv) Objects of management
v) Ownership and legal status and
vi) Growing stock
i) Classification based on method of regeneration – Forests can be regenerated
either from seed or from vegetative parts; those which are regenerated from seed are called
high forests and those regenerated by some vegetative method are called coppice forests.
ii) Classification based on age – Even in plantation raised in a particular year, all
the trees are not of the same year because casualties are replaced in the second and third
years. Thus forests having all trees of the same age are usually not found. Therefore forests
are classified on the basis of age into even-aged or regular forest and uneven-aged or
irregular forest. Even-aged or regular forest is defined as a forest composed of even-aged
woods. The term even-aged used in this definition is applied to a stand consisting of trees of
approximately the same age. Differences upto 25% of the rotation age may be allowed in
cases where a stand is not harvested for 100 years or more. Uneven-aged or irregular forest
is defined as a forest composed of trees of markedly different ages. The term uneven-aged
is applied to crops in which individual stems vary widely in age, the range of difference
being usually more than 20 years and, in the case of long rotation crops, more than 25% of
the rotation. Such a forest is called selection forest when all or nearly all age gradations or
age classes are present.
iii) Classification based on composition – A forest may have only one species or
more than one species. On the basis of the number of species present, the forest is classified
into pure or mixed forest. Pure forest is defined as a forest composed of almost entirely of
one species, usually to the extent of not less than 80%. It is also called pure crop or pure
stand. Mixed forest, on the other hand, is defined as a forest composed of trees of two or
more species intermingled in the same canopy; in practice, and by convention, at least 20%
of the canopy must consist of species other than the principal one. The species composing
the mixture may be distinguished as principal, accessory and auxiliary. Principal species is
defined as the species first in importance in a mixed stand either by frequency, volume or
silvicultural value or the species to which the silviculture of a mixed forest is primarily
directed. Accessory species is defined as a useful species of less value than the principal
species, which assists in the growth of the latter and influence to a smaller degree the
method of treatment. Auxiliary species is defined as a species of inferior quality or size, of
relatively little silvicultural value or importance, associated with the principal species. It is
also referred to as secondary species or subsidiary species.
iv) Classification based on objects of management – On the basis of objects of
management, forests are classified into production forest, protection forest, farm forest, fuel
forest, recreation forest, etc. Production forest is a forest managed primarily for its produce.
It is also sometimes referred to as national forest, i.e., a forest which is maintained and
managed to meet the needs of the defense, communications, industry, and other general
purposes of public importance. Protection forest is defined as an area wholly or partly
covered with woody growth, managed primarily to regulate stream flow, prevent erosion,
hold shifting sand or to exert any other beneficial influence. Farm forest is a forest raised on
farms and its adjoining area either as individual scattered trees or a collection of trees to
meet the requirement of fuel and fodder of the farmers and to have a beneficial influence on
agriculture. Fuel forest is a forest raised on village wasteland to supply fuel, small timber,
fodder, etc., to the village communities living far away from government forest.
Recreational forest is a forest which is managed only to meet the recreational needs of the
urban and rural population.
v) Classification based on ownership and legal status – On the basis of ownership,
forests are classified into state forest, communal forest and panchayat forest. State forest is
a forest owned by state. Communal forest is a forest owned and generally managed by a
community such as a village, town, tribal authority or local government, the members of
which share in the produce or proceeds. Panchayat forest is any forest where management is
vested in a village panchayat (i.e., a body of men elected by the villagers from among
themselves for specific administrative or other purposes pertaining to the village).
The state forests are further classified into reserved forest, protected forest and
village forest on the basis of their legal status. A reserved forest is an area so constituted
under the Indian Forest Act or other forest law. A protected forest is an area subject to
limited degree of protection under the provisions of Chapter IV of the Indian Forest Act. A
village forest is a state forest assigned to a village community under the provisions of the
Indian Forest Act.
vi) Classification on the basis of growing stock – On the basis of growing stock,
the forests are classified into normal and abnormal forest. Normal forest is defined as a
forest which for a given site and given objects of management, is ideally constituted as
regards growing stock, age class distribution and increment and from which the annual or
periodic removal of produce equal to the increment can be continued indefinitely without
endangering future yields. Such a forest by reason of its normalcy in these respects serves
as a standard of comparison, for sustained yield management. Abnormal forest is a forest in
which, as compared to an acceptable standard, the quantity of material in the growing stock
is in deficit or in excess or in which the relative proportions of the age or size classes are
defective.
Lecture 4. National Forest Policy 1988- Objectives and salient features

Forest Policy

The term forest policy connotes actions of a Government for the preservation,
maintenance, enhancement of forests and the optimum utilisation of forest resources to attain
national welfare. It is defined as a set of principles or guidelines adopted by a Government to
attain fixed objectives in forestry for the welfare of the nation.

 Forest policy has to undergo changes according to the changed circumstances.

Initially, the orientation was mostly towards obtaining the required timber.
 Subsequently efforts were made to plant for replacing the felling.
 This was later followed by systematic conservation of forests through
protective steps to guard against unregulated felling.
 Then regeneration and afforestation had become an integral part of forest
conservation policy to compensate for the felling and also to augment
resources.
 In the present times, forest policy has attained a new dimension to solve
problems arising out of rising trends of environmental hazards caused mainly
by deforestation.

National Forest Policy 1988

The aim of this forest policy is to ensure environmental stability and maintenance of
ecological balance for the sustenance of all life forms, humans, animal and plant. This
national forest policy is enunciated due to the following need:

 To meet the increasing energy demands of the population

 To obey the new directive principles and duties given in the Indian constitution
 Constitutional amendments of 1976 and is stress on environment
 Marked growth of forest based industries in this era
 Need for the guidelines on conservation of wildlife

Basic objectives

 To maintain the environmental stability and ecological restoration through reservation

 To check soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas and mitigation of floods

 To check the sand dune extension in deserts and coastal lands

 To increase the forests and tree cover on the denuded and degraded lands

 To meet the requirements of the tribal peoples

 To conserve the natural heritage

 To increase the productivity of the forests to meet the various needs

 To encourage the substitution of wood and reduction of wood usage

Essential of forest management

 Existing forest should be protected and its productivity improved

 Diversion of agricultural lands to forestry should be discouraged

 Conservation of biodiversity should be strengthened through national park, sanctuary

and biosphere reserves

 A forestation programme encouraged to meet the local requirement of fuel wood

Management strategy
  The area under forest should be a minimum of 1/3rd of the total geographical area. In
which hills and mountainous region should have 2/3rd cover

 Afforestation, social forestry and farm forestry programme are encouraged

 Rights and concessions of the local peoples are suitability addressed

 Diversion of forest lands for non- forestry purposes is discouraged

 Wildlife conservation is given more importance

 Shifting cultivation practices are discouraged and cultivation of perennial crops

through horticulture and tree forming is encouraged

 Fire and grazing management is given special consideration

 Forest based industries are advised to meet their raw materials requirements from
outside the forest

 Forest extension , research and personal management are more emphasized

Draft National Forest Policy 2017

Less forest on hilly areas: Although the policy continues with the national goal of
maintaining a minimum of one-third of the geographical area under forest or tree cover, Hills
and mountainous regions may not be required to maintain two-thirds of the geographical area
under forest cover.

Board to monitor management of forests: The policy states that a National Board of
Forestry and State Boards of Forestry are to be established to ensure monitoring of the spread
of the forest areas and management of forest cover.

Technology to minimize damage to forests: The policy states that forest land diversion
projects related to mining, quarrying, construction of dams, roads and other linear
infrastructure need to adopt special caution. Use of state-of-the-art technology which causes
minimum pollution and damage should be promoted.
Green tax on citizens: The draft National Forest Policy (NFP) proposes the levy of a green
tax for facilitating ecologically responsible behaviour and supplementing financial resources
essential to address forestry woes.

Undermines FRA 2006: NFP ignores Forests Rights Act, 2006, which empowers local gram
panchayats, especially in tribal areas close to India’s forests, and proposes a joint forest
management-like mechanism to enhance agro-forestry.

New Mission: The policy proposes to launch a new Community Forest Management
Mission, bringing government, community and private land under the new proposed
management system.

Provisions for responsible tourism: It calls for developing “sound ecotourism models” with
the focus on conservation while supplementing the livelihood needs of local communities.

Climate change to emerge as important factor in policy: It states that Climate change
concerns should be effectively factored into all the forest and wildlife areas management
plans and community ecosystem management plans.

Purchase of wildlife corridors: The draft policy indicates that CAMPA funds from
diversion of forest land by industry are to be used for purchasing wildlife corridors from
people.
Lecture : 5 Forest regeneration, Natural regeneration - natural regeneration from seed
and vegetative parts, coppicing, pollarding, root suckers

Forest regeneration

Regeneration is ‘the renewal of a forest crop by natural or artificial means

Natural Regeneration

Natural regeneration is the renewal of forest crop by self down seed/coppice/root

suckers/ it also refers to crop so obtained. Seedling crop is a crop consisting of seedling
neither of planted nor of coppice or root sucker origin but originating in situ from natural
forest.

II) Natural regeneration from seed: seed is the matured ovule which acts as propagule for
propagation of plants. Natural regeneration from seed depends on various factors vi, seed
production, dispersal, germination and other external factors.

a) Seed production: seed production of a species depends on species, age, size of crown
and climate.
1) Species : the silvicultural and genetic characters influence seed production of a
species .certain species produces seeds every year (Neem), whereas some species
produces biannually or at an interval of 3-5 years.
2) Age: Plant age has direct correlation with seed production. Young and over
matured trees yield poor quality seeds in merger quantity. The middle aged trees
give sufficient and good quality seeds.
3) Size of the crown: The bigger the crown means higher the possibility to get
maximum seeds from the trees. This enhances more entrapment of solar energy
which helps photosynthesis.
4) Climate: climatic elements has positive correlation with seed yield. The
favourable climate enhances plant establishment, flowering and seed production.
The adverse factors such as heavy wind and drought decreases and seed
production.
b) Seed dispersal: seed dispersal refers to the movement of seed materials from one
place to other through various dispersing agents. The various agents involved in the
seed dispersal are wind, water, gravity, animals and human beings.
1) Seed dispersal by wind: conifers,populas,salix,Holiptelia interifolia
2) Seed dispersal by water: Mangroves spp, Dalbergia, Teak, Jamun
3) Seed dispersal by gravity: Oak
4) Seed dispersal by birds: Mulberry, Diospyrus
5) Seed dispersal by animal: Prosopis, zizyphus

c) Seed germination: The growth process of a matured seed, characterized by the

emergence or a stem and root from it is called germination.. it is the process whereby
the seed sprouts and begin to grow. Germination in plants refers to the process by
which a seed begins to sprout and grow into a seedling under the right growing
condition

Germination capacity is the percentage by number of seeds given sample that

actually germinate, irrespective of time.

Germination energy is the percentage by number of seeds in a given sample that

have germinated up to time when the rate of germination reaches peak.

Plant Percent : Plant percent is the number seeds in a sample that develop into
seedling at the end of the first growing season

Seedling Percent : Is defined as a year in which a given species produces abundant

first year seedling

Factors affecting seed germination

i) Internal Factors
1) Permeability to water : The impermeability of seeds to water prevents
seed germination and vice versa. Moisture is very essential for
germination. If the seed has hard seed coat, it prevent moisture reaching
the seed embryo and therefore prevents germination
 2) Permeability to oxygen : The impermeability of seeds to oxygen prevents
seed germination and vice versa
3) Development of embryo : in some species germination immediately after
harvest is not common because of immature embryo inside. it takes some
time for embryo development after is maturation.
4) After ripening Process: certain seeds requires after ripening process for
its fullest development. in these seeds germination is possible after
completion of this period only
5) Viability: Viability of the seed refers the potential capacity of the seed to
germinate. generally recalcitrant seeds have less viability whereas
orthodox seeds have longer viability.
6) Size of seed : Bigger seeds generally give higher germination percentage
than small seeds. it is general thumb rule but this varies with different
species.
ii) External Factors
1. Moisture : Moisture is very essential in order to initiate the primary
biochemical reaction necessary for seed germination. it is also required for
softening of seed coat and leaching out of unwanted chemicals in it.
Excess soil moisture creates anaerobic conditions and dry condition causes
desiccation of seeds and hence both are not suitable for seed germination.
2. Air : soil air is essential for the respiration of living deeds. hence optimum
soil aeration is essential for seed germination.
3. Temperature : Low temperature inactivates the living cells whereas high
temperature destructs the enzymes and kill plants. hence, high and low
temperature doesn’t favour seed germination.
4. Light: Germination is independent of light mostly. But after germination,
light is essential for food generation through photosynthesis by young
seedling. there are certain species, which requires light for its germination
[Link] fistula
5. Seed Bed: in order to get better germination , the seed beds are prepared
using well drained loamy soil in such a way that it could provide optimum
air,moisture and physical support for germinating seed.
 d) Seedling Establishment

Establishment is defined as the development of a new crop, to a stage when young

regeneration is considered safe from normal adverse influences such as frost, drought and
weeds.
1) Soil conditions and characteristics
Optimum soil conditions such as good drainage, moisture, aeration and
nutrition status facilitates better establishment of seedlings. shallow depth,
stoniness and erosion has adverse effect on the seedling establishment.
2) Climatic factors
Climatic elements such as rainfall, light, wind etc.., determine the
establishment and development of vegetation. optimum light condition in terms of
light duration and quality is needed for better establishment of seedlings. extreme
temperature is not ideal for seedling establishment. Rainfall determines the
availability of moisture to seedlings. hence sufficient rainfall with uniform
distribution is essential for better establishment.
3) Presence of weeds
A severe weed condition prolongs the seedling establishment of seedlings
because it reduces the availability of moisture, nutrients, light and space.
4) Grazing and browsing
Grazing causes destruction to established seedlings in an area. in order to
reduce the grazing impact, fencing is inevitable.
5) Burning
Forest fire destroy the seedlings and causes seedling mortality. protection of
planted areas from fire is inevitable for any afforestation programs.
6) Drip
It refers the uprooting of seedlings by rainfall drop from the crown/leaves. it is
highly harmful for the establishment of seedlings.
7) Competition of crop
In mixed forest/plantations, competition by the next crop determines the
establishment of seedling concerned. in general, intense competition decreases
the establishment of seedling. E.g Strobilanthus for teak
8) Composition of crop
Mixed crop composition enhances better seedling establishment than the
monocropping.
9) Development of roots
After germination, seedlings develop both roots and shoots. higher the
development of roots facilitates better establishment of seedlings. this depends on
the genetic characteristics of the species concerned.

II) Natural regeneration by coppices

Specific plants regenerates themselves by vegetative parts i.e., other than
seeds. this kind of natural regeneration arises either from coppices or root suckers.
Coppice can be of either seedling coppice or stool coppice. seedling coppice is
defines as the coppice shoots arising from the base of the seedlings that have been
cut or burnt back. stool coppice refers to the coppice arising from a living stump
or stool
Generally each stump produces many coppices. these coppices can be reduced
in to one or two poles at the end of first year to obtain a good, clear pole. among
these two poles, one good pole is retained at the end of second or third year and it
can be retained up to the end of rotation.
Factors affecting the regeneration from coppices
1) Species: Coppicing ability of the species vary according to its genetic make up or
inherent nature. Based on this, plant species are classified as strong coppice, fair
coppice, bad coppice and do not coppice.
2) Age of the tree: young trees and saplings produce good coppices than the older
trees due to the smooth bark in outside
3) Season of coppicing: Coppicing little before the start of spring is better. this
provides sufficient growing period for the coppice produced. besides this, the
stored food anchors the regeneration activities in plant.
4) Height of stump: Height of stump is liable to be damaged by wild animals
whereas low stump is susceptible to stump splitting, termite attack and rotting.
Hence an optimum stump height is 15-25 CM is ideal. this varies with species.
certain species (Casuarina equisetifolia) produce good coppices when high stump
is retained.
 5) Method of cutting: Smooth clean cut with out splitting along one direction gives
better coppices. this drains the rain water easily and prevents rotting.

6) Rotation: Coppicing vigour decreases with number of rotation. hence, with

increasing rotation, the coppicing ability of the trees decreases.
III) Natural regeneration by root suckers
A secondary shoot, rising from the roots of a certain tree or shrub species that
can grow into a mature individual is called as root suckers. root suckers method is
not commonly applied for regeneration inside the forest naturally. this is
applicable to Dalbergia sissoo.
In this method trenches are dug continuously or discontinuously around the
tree in such a way that it causes severing roots. the root suckers arise from these
severed points are cared well to develop in to a matured plant.
Lecture 6. Artificial regeneration – objectives, choice between natural and artificial
regeneration, essential preliminary considerations.

ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

Artificial regeneration is defined as ‘ the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting or

other artificial methods ’

 Reforestation:

Restocking of a felled or otherwise cleared woodland by Artificial means

 Afforestation:

Establishment of a forest by Artificial means on an area from which forest

vegetation has always long bean absent

Choice between natural and artificial regeneration

 Yield

 Crop composition

 Risk of damage by pests

 Risk of loss and deterioration of soil

 Genetical considerations

 Time and cost

ESSENTIAL PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATION

• Selection of site

• Choice of species

• Choice of method of artificial regeneration

• Spacing

• Arrangement of staff and Organization of Work

I) SITE SELECTION

 Local vegetation is the best indicator

 Spp. environmental requirement matched to site with respect to climatic, edaphic and
loc al condition

 Approachability of site, topographical conditions and wildlife considerations are taken

in to account
 II) CHOICE OF SPECIES

 According to human needs-Protection, Production, aesthetic and other

environmental consideration

 Good timber, economic and other useful values

 Adoptable to the climatic conditions prevailing in the area

 Soil condition should be consider

 Species should improve the soil fertility and reduce the soil erosion

 Resist to pest, disease and other adverse factors

 Fast growing one

 Not produce any allelopathic effect

 Should not alter floristic composition

 Should not became weed in future

III) CHOICE OF METHOD OF ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION

 It can be done either sowing or planting

 Choice of these methods depends on – species to be raised, condition of the

site, availability of seed and cost

1) Sowing

2) Planting

Sowing

 Sowing is the process of planting seeds

 It’s refers to scattering or impregnating the seed over the ground for growing
plants

 Good quality seeds (Clean and healthy seeds) should be selected to produce a
high yield

Sowing Depth

 Deep as well as shallow sowing is not advisable

 Deep sowing prevents emergence of cotyledons from subsurface to surface

  Shallow sowing, seed are Liable to be eroded during water and also liable to
eaten by birds

 Generally the soil depth of about 2-3 times the size of the seed

Advantage Disadvantage
It consumes less time and costs Needs huge quantity of seeds
Roots grow well without any containers Birds and animals eat the seeds
Seedling Mortality is higher
Weed problem is higher
Rate of growth is very slow

Planting

 Planting refers to the act or operation of setting the seedlings in the ground for
propagation of plants

Planting Time

 Climate play important role to appropriate planting time

 Newly planted trees do best when exposed to moderate temperature and

rainfall

 Seedling need time to root and acclimatize before onset of intense heat and
dryness of summer or freezing temperature of winter

 Early spring / on set of monsoon is the best time for planting

 In case of severe winter – better to plant before snow fall

 Planting refers to the act or operation of setting the seedlings in the ground for
propagation of plants

Season of Planting

1. Monsoon planting

2. Pre-monsoon Planting

3. Winter Planting

4. Spring Planting

Planting Methods

 Digging Hole is most important – both too deep and too narrow not suitable
  Deep pits – roots don’t have access to sufficient oxygen to ensure proper
growth

 Narrow Pits – root structure can’t expand

 General rule – trees should be transplanted no deeper than the soil in which
they grown originally (Width of the hole 3 times the DM of the root ball )

Types of Planting

1. Entire Planting [Link] Planting

1) Entire Planting

The whole plant is lifted from the nursery bed and planted in the field for further growing

a) Planting naked root seedling

b) Seedling is removed from nursery bed and soil around the root is removed

c) Roots treated with biofertilizer / fungicides before planting

d) Planted in the centre of the pits prepared in the field

e) Roots of the seedling are spread out and soil is pressed compactly for good
contact

f) Collar region of the seedling 2-3 CM above then ground level

b) Planting seedling with ball of earth

 Ball planting is defined as the planting of seedlings with ball of earth

containing their roots without any disturbance to roots

 Matured seedling detached from he wetted nursery bed with a ball of earth of
sufficient size

 Main disadvantage is damage of balls during transportation

 It’s labour intensive process

c) Planting seedlings in containers

 The plant containers may be basket, polybags or anything elase

 Planting containers are removed before planting in the pits without disturbing
the roots

II) Stump Planting

Stump is a specially prepared seedling in which shoots are cut above the collar region
and roots are pruned leaving primary roots at defined length
Stump preparation

 Seedlings of 1-2 cm diameter /pencil size collar thickness suitable for stump
planting

 Seedlings have only one tap root system with 30 cm or more length

 Shoots of selected seedlings are cut at 2 cm above the collar region and
removed

 Lateral and secondary roots are removed by a sharp cut

 Tap root is cut a length of 22 cm from the collar region

 Stump treated with biofertilizers inoculants / pesticides for better protection

IV) Spacing

Spacing is defined as the distance between the plants put out in a plantation or standing
crop. This is also referred as espacement .

Spacing classified as closer spacing and wider spacing

Advantages and Disadvantages of wider spacing

Advantages

 It saves seeds and plants

 Cost of plantation is reduced

 Labour requirement is less

Disadvantages
 Danger of soil deterioration as canopy takes longer
time to close
 Tree become branchy and produce knotty timber

 Higher weed growth

 Weeding process is labour intensive and cost

consuming
Advantages and Disadvantages of closer spacing
Advantages

 Checks the weed growth

 Reduce detoriation of soil

  Thinning became easier and produces short term
return
 Boles of trees are cleaner due to natural pruning

Disadvantages
 Large quantities of seeds/plants required

 Increase the cost of plantation

 Labour requirement is higher

Factors governing spacing

 Rate of growth

 Habit of branching

 No of annual rings/centimeter

 Height of planting material

 Site factors

 Inter-cultivation

 Market for small-sized timber

 Objective of production

 Cost

V) Arrangement of staff and labour

 Seed Collection

 Seed Processing

 Seed Storage

 Seed Testing

 Seed Treatment

 Preparation Planting

 Planting

 After Care
Seed Collection

Seeds of superior quality are collected from genetically superior trees

This considers

 Tree form

 Size

 Height

 Diameter

 Pest and disease resistance

Time of Seed Collection: After ripening but before dispersal

Methods of Collection:

1. Collection from the ground after naturally falling

2. Collection from the ground shaking the tree

3. Collection by lopping branches

4. Collection from the standing trees

Seed Processing

I) Seed extraction

 Pulp is removed in fleshy seeds

 Seed coat is broken in case of hard seeds

 Light feathery seeds are subjected to simple threshing of seeds

II) Drying , cleaning and grading

 Drying: The drying can be done in sun or shade.

 Cleaning: It refers the removal of all other material from the seed lot. This is achieved
by hand picking, separation by water, winnowing and sieving.

 Grading: The cleaned seeds are graded according to its weight, colour, size or any
other desirable character.

Seed Storage

 The seeds are stored in gunny bags, cloth bags or paper covers.

 These are suitably stored in the well protected seed storage rooms
 Seed Testing

 Seed testing is to be done for determining the genuineness, purity and seed viability.

 Purity of seed is determined by cleaning a weighted sample of seed and weighting

cleaned seed and then expressing it as a percentage of a former.

 The viability of seed is determined by direct inspection, physical test, chemical test,
germination test and x ray technique.

Seed treatment

The various seed treatment enhances the germination of seeds. Following are the common
pre-sowing treatments for seeds.

1) Mechanical treatment: In this method, the hard impervious coat of seeds is cut so that
moisture may reach inside.

2) Chemical treatment: soaking various chemical solutions softens the hard coat and
renders them permeable to water and air. Example: Sulphuric acid soaking of Acacia
nilotica seeds for ten minutes followed by washing in water.

3) Water treatment: In this treatment cold or hot water is used for seed treatment. If cold
water is used, seed is soaked for 24-48 hours. In case of hot water, seeds are soaked in
boiled water and allowed to cool.

4) Weathering: Weathering refers to the exposure of seeds to sun, wind and rain which
causes cracking of hard seed coat.

5) Passage through animal body: Example: Acacia nilotica

Preparation of planting

The treated seeds are sown in poly bag or nursery bed or nursery bed in a nursery. The
nursery raised material or seedlings are used in various planting program. The planting
material may be of any of the followings kinds:

• Seedling with or with out ball of earth.

• Seedlings raised in polythene bags.

• Root and shoot cuttings.

• Branch and stem cuttings.

Planting

Planting program involves the following:

a. Boundary demarcation
 b. Marking and felling

c. Soil and planting map preparation

d. Fencing

e. Soil preparation

f. Sowing and planting

After care

i) Beating up and weeding

ii) Fire and general protection

Lecture 7. Silvicultural practices for Eucalyptus spp, Casuarina equisetifolia, Tectona
grandis, Ailanthus excelsa
Teak (Tectona grandis)
Scientif Name : Tectona grandis
English Name : Thekku
Tamil Name : Teak
Hindi Name : Sagwan
Family : Verbenaceae
Distribution
Native to Southeast Asia (India, Myanmar, Thailand and Western Laos), Teak,
is the most important of the three species in the genus ([Link], [Link]). A
tare combination of durability, dimensional stability and strength properties make Teak
a paragon of timber and as of date faces no threat of being eclipsed by any other timber
species. Its latitudinal limits are 9° N - 25° N and its longitudinal limits 70° E - 100° E. In
its natural habitat, teak occurs in mixed deciduous forests normally constituting a small
number of individuals but occasionally in pure stands. Since 1840 it is raised in plantations
in India and Myanmar.
Physiognomy
 A large, deciduous tree, it may reach a height of 30 to 40 m under favorable
conditions. On good sites, clean boles of 15 to 30 m length are obtained.
 Fluting and buttresses are often found at the base of the trees. Bark is thick, grey or
lightish brown
 Leaves are large (25 – 50 cm in length and 15-35 cm in width), elliptic or obovate
 The flowers are small, whitish and appear in large panicles containing upto a few
thousand flower buds which open only a few at a time during the flowering period of
2 to 4 weeks.
 The fruit is a hard, irregularly rounded drupe containing 4 seed chambersIts natural
habitat it comes to flowering in 6-8 year.
 Flowering generally occurs during June - July.
 The fruits attain full size and mature in about four months after fertilization (i.e.
during October- November).
Silvicultural Characters
Teak seedlings are sensitive to frost and drought. It is a strong light-demander,
intolerant of suppression and weeds. It is a fire resistant; seedlings and saplings killed back
by fire and frost. It coppices and pollards vigorously, up to about middle age.
Climate and Soil
The tree grows under a wide ambit of pedo climatic situations from sea level up to an
altitude of 1200m and in a precipitation range of less than 900 mm to more than 2500 mm.
The most suitable soil for teak is the deep, well drained alluvium having relatively high
contents of calcium and phosphorus. It tolerates a pH range of6.5 to 8.0 but good growth is
attained on soils of pH 6.5 and an annual rainfall or 1500 mm. Teak is a pronounced light
demander and does not tolerate suppression at any period of its growth. It is also fairly fire
tolerant.
Nursery Technique
The unit of sowing is the fruit (drupe) which for practical reasons is termed seed;
seeds that have been stored for at least one year germinate better than fresh seed. If use of
seeds of the same year is necessitated they before sowing are subjected to a process of
alternate wetting and drying of 24 hr duration each for 14 days. Use of large seeds more than
14 mm in diameter gives better germination. Seeds are sown @ 1 kg m-2 on raised nursery
beds 10 m long, 1 m wide and 0.5 m in height and covered with soil to a depth equivalent to
the fruit diameter.
To prevent soil erosion beds are reinforced on the sides with bamboo splits or other
such material. Germination commences in about 15 days, accelerates during the next 15
days, declines thereafter. Majority of germinates will have appeared in 40 days, when the
germinability is around 40 per cent. The beds are watered twice daily for the first two
months, once daily for the next three months and on alternate days thereafter. Super sized
seedlings called "wolf' smother others. For field planting only stumps prepared from one
year old seedlings are used as these promote faster growth and ideal bole form. Stumps are
prepared by cutting away from the seedling everything except 2.5 cm of the shoot and 22.5
cm of the root. The stem portion receives an oblique cut and the root portion an horizontal
cut. All laterals from the tap root are pruned away. The stumps should preferably be planted
within 2 to 3 days.
Planting
Stumps are flush planted (in level with the ground) at a spacing of 2 x 2 m in crow
bar pits. The initial plant density of 25000 ha-t is reduced in a phased manner to an ultimate
80 to 100 ha-t by an operation called thinning. A total of four thinning is given in the 5th,
10th, 18th and 28th years and at each thinning the existing population is reduced by half. The
first two thinning are mechanical and are done according to a rule of thumb, in the first
thinning alternate diagonal rows are removed; in the second thinning alternate rows are
felled. The 3rd and 4th are silvicultural thinning in that they are restricted only to diseased
and malformed trees. Trees possessing clean bole, cylindrical bole, straight bole, less taper,
small crown and less fluting are retained. Final felling is done at the end of 60 years. A
single tree will yield 1.5 m3 of timber. Its rotation is 40-60 years'; its yield is about 6500
[Link] of stem wood per acre.
Utilization
Teak wood is globally renowned for its strength, durability, dimensional stability,
working quality and non-corrosive property when in contact with metal. The durability is
attributable to the deposition of polyphenols in its heartwood. On account of these
outstanding properties, Teak is sometimes hailed as the Queen of timbers. Increasingly large
quantities of Teak are used by the plywood industry for high grade commercial and tea-chest
categories of plywood. Lops and tops and other rejects serve as fuel wood. The seeds
contain oil to the extent of 44.5% and the oil is used in soap manufacture. Teak leaves are
often used as platters.
Casuarina
Scientific Name : Casuarina equisetifolia
English Name : Beaf wood
Tamil Name : Savukku
Hindi Name : Janlisaru
Family : Casuarinaceae
Distribution
Casuarina is indigenous on the sandy shores and dunes along the Bengal coast,
Tenasserim, Andaman and Nicobar islands, etc. It has been raised in many parts of the
country as a coastal plantation, an ornamental garden tree and an inland sand dune plantation.
Physiognomy
 It is a large evergreen tree with a straight stem. The foliage is feathery and comprises
of a number of long, slender, drooping, jointed, angled, leafless branches rising from rough,
woody branches. The jointed branchlets are green and perform the function of leaves. They
are partly deciduous. Casuarina resembles a feathery, coniferous tree in appearance. The bark
is brown, fibrous, rough and exfoliates in longitudinal stripes. The tree may grow upto a
height of about 35 m or so; though it generally does not have a life of more than 50 years,
becoming hollow and unsound in about 35 years. By habit, casuarina is gregarious in its
natural state, forming pure crops. There is little or no undergrowth except grassy patches and
a few coastal shrubs.
Phenology
It is generally evergreen. Pieces of the jointed branchlets are shed all round the year.
Flowering occurs twice a year once from February to April and again from September to
October. Fruit ripening occurs in June and again in December. Seeds are viable for about six
months or so, though it is always better to use fresh seed
Silvicultural Characters
Strong light demander and drought resistant. Susceptible to fire. Coppices badly.
Young plants susceptible to browsing.
Climate and Soil
Absolute maximum and minimum temperature is 35°C-49°C and -4° to 18°C. Normal
annual rainfall 750-4,500 mm. best suited soil is alluvial soil having a considerable
proportion of sand and good moisture supply. Also survive on poorly drained sites.
Nursery Technique
Seed is sown in the nursery in May, 5 cm apart in lines 23 cm apart and watered till
the break of rains. Seedlings should be shaded during the hot weather. They are suitable for
making stumps and/or entire transplanting when I year old. In Assam, 2 year old plants are
transplanted, when 1-2 m high even taller. In West Bengal, practice is to plant out seedlings
about 30 cm high, with ball of earth. One year old stock is used for making stumps.
Planting
Direct sowing may be done in raised patches 3.7 m x 3.7 m, just before the
commencement of rains, using 3 to 6 seeds per patch. In taungya plantations of Uttar Pradesh
direct sowing are done in continuous lines. It has been successful in comparatively high
rainfall region of Assam, West Bengal and Kerala. For stump planting, stumps are prepared
from 1 or 2 years old nursery raised seedlings, keeping only 4 cm of shoot and 30 cm of root
and running all side roots. Planting may be done in crow-bar holes or in pits of 30 cm3
Utilization. Semal wood is very soft and light. Untreated wood is highly perishable and
extremely durable under water. It is in great demand as matchwood; is very suitable for light
plywood containers. It is also used for packing-cases, shingles, well-curbs, brush handles,
dug-outs, etc. Floss from semal seeds is the Silk Cotton or Indian Kapok of commerce, which
is used for stuffing cushions, pillows upholstery, packing, etc. Bark exudes a gum, known as
mocharas, which is of great medicinal value. Inner bark yields a good fibre, suitable for
cordage.
Eucalyptus
Scientific Name: Eucalyptus tereticornis
English Name: Eucalyptus hybrid
Tamil Name: Thailam
Family: Myrtaceae
Distribution
Native to Australia, E. tereticornis was first introduced in the Nandi hills (Karnataka)
by Tiuppu Sultan between 1782 - 1790. Now it is grown over one lakh ha in Peninsular India.
Extensive plantations have been raised to meet the needs of fuel wood, small timber and
pulpwood in Punjab and Haryana, where area under forest is negligible. It has been planted in
strips, 3-6 rows deep along highways, canals and railways. Large scale plantations of the
species were taken up in Uttar Pradesh from 1962 onwards.
Physiognomy
It is a tall tree with stout trunk, attains a height of 50 m. It is an evergreen, glabrous
tree usually secreting an aromatic gum. The leaves and flowers contain conspicuous oil
glands. Leaves of the saplings are generally opposite, sessile, cordate and held horizontal;
those of the adult tree as a rule are alternate, petiolate and held vertical. Flowers are borne in
umbels usually pedunculate. Calyx tube encloses the ovary which is covered with a
deciduous operculum. The operculum is much longer than calyx and is formed by the union
of the petals and falls off entire when the stamens emerge. Flowers are white in colour. Fruit
consisting of the enlarged calyx-tube is usually hard and woody, full of resin sacs. Seeds are
numerous but a large proportion of these is abortive and sterile seeds outnumber fertile ones.
Bark is grey, exfoliating in long flakes.
Phenology
It flowers almost throughout the year. The capsules are collected six months after
anthesis when they just turn dark brown. If the capsule is left for long on the tree it will burst
and shatter the seeds. Hence capsules are collected and kept in trays / tarpaulins. After sun-
drying for 3 or 4 days, the empty capsules are removed. Mature seeds are dark brown / black
in colour. The seeds retain viability for up to 5 years.
Silvicultural Characters
It is a light demander. It produces good coppices freely and vigorously. It is a fast
growing species and adaptability to a wide range of soil and climatic condition
Climate and Soil
It grows up to an altitude of 500 m. It is sensitive to frost. It grows in alluvial, black
cotton, gravelly, lateritic and skeletal rocky and murram soils and even on shifting sand
dunes. Highly calcareous, very saline and alkaline soils, clay and kantar pan is limiting.
Deep, fertile and well-drained loamy soil gives best growth. Temperature range tolerated is 0-
48°C. It is
suited for the plains receiving a rainfall of 800-1000 mm. The tree prefers sandy loam to
loamy soils within a pH range of6.00 - 7.5.
Nursery Techniques
Seeds are sown in raised beds measuring 1 x 1 x 0.15 m. after wetting the bed, sieved
seeds @ 5 g m-2 are mixed with a small quantity of sand and evenly spread on the bed. The
seeds are covered with a film of soil. The nursery beds need to be kept moist by watering at
least twice daily. A mulch of hay prevents soil erosion during watering. Watering is done
through a fine rose. BHC 10% has to be applied on the bed to prevent ants/termites. Five and
10 days after sowing 2% copper fungicide must be applied. Germination starts on the 5thday.
Since seedlings are sensitive to extreme sunlight, the bed has to be protected by a shade-
screen during the first fortnight. Thirty day old seedlings are gently lifted from the bed and
containerized in 200 gauge polypots measuring 20 x 10 cm. The polypots are filled with 4:
1:1 mixture of red soil, sand and FYM. After wetting the filled polybags seedling are pricked
one per polypot. The pricked out seedlings should be provided shade for a week and watered
twice a day. Six month old seedlings are used for planting. The containers must be shifted
once every fortnight from the second month to prevent rooting.
Planting
The seedlings are field planted at a spacing of 2 x 2 m in pits measuring 30 cm3.
Quality of seedlings is determined by the thickness of the root collar region than by height.
The trees are felled at the end of seven years. Thereafter two coppices are taken at intervals of
five year each. Coppice management is important in eucalyptus. Hundreds of new shoots
develop on the margin of the cut stem. Felling of the trees prior to or immediately after the
monsoon helps in rapid callus formation and thicker coppice shoots. Care should be taken to
fell the trees with a gentle slope at the cut so that rainwater does not collect as a pool and
cause decay of the callus tissue. Though hundreds of coppice shoots develop yet only four to
five stems ultimately remain on the stump and the others are edged out in natural
competition. There is no need to manually regulate the number of coppices as nature itself
does the job. The health and number of coppice stems are positively related to the diameter of
the stump. The productivity of coppice plantation is generally higher by 20 -25 % than the
first seedling plantation. At the end of the second coppice growth it is necessary to uproot the
roots. Its rotation is about 8 - 10 years. The productivity of rainfed plantations in Tamil Nadu
Plains ranges from 50 -75 t per ha at the end of seven years. The ratio of first, second and
third harvests are 1:1.2:0.8.
Utilization
Eucalyptus wood is the main stay of paper industry in Tamil Nadu. Currently, it is used
for making packing cases and 70% of the requirement in Himachal Pradesh for apple
transport is met by this species. Leaves contain oil. Bark yields oxalic acid. It is preferred by
the farmers by virtue of several desiderata like (i) fast growth; (ii) not browsed by cattle; (iii)
immunity to pests and diseases; (iv) good coppicing ability.
Ailanthus excelsa
Scientific Name : Ailanthus excelsa
English Name : Tree of Heaven
Tamil Name : Pimaram, Pinari, and Perumaram
Hindi Name : Arna, Ardu, Maharukh, Arusa
Family : Simarubiaceae
Distribution
Ailanthus excelsa is considered a native of the Indian peninsula, but occurs
throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of India, especially in the dry districts of
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and the Deccan plateau. It
is not found in the high rainfall regions of the West Coast.
Physiognomy
It is a large deciduous tree, attains a height of 18-24 m. Bark is light grey and smooth
in young trees, with large conspicuous leaf scars, rough, granular and grayish brown in older
ones. Leaves are pinnately compound, up to 1m long, with 8-14 pairs of leaflets and an
unpleasant smell when crushed. In seedlings and saplings imparipinnate leaves are the rule
for the first three or four years, after which the terminal leaflet becomes reduced in size or is
represented by a mere prolongation of the rachis and finally the typical abruptly paripinnate
leaves are formed about the fourth or fifth season. The fruit is a red one-seeded samara 5-7.5
cm long and 1.2-1.5 cm wide, prominently veined, acute at both ends and twisted at the base;
about 9 to 10 fruits weigh one g. The fruit being winged is adapted for dissemination by
wind.
Phenology
The panicles of small yellowish flowers appear in February - March and the fruits
ripen in May - June. Old leaves fall during February and new ones appear in March - April.
In Central India, flowers appear during February and March and in the North during April.
Silvicultural Characters
It is a strong light demander and is susceptible to frost and prolonged drought, though
poles and trees are resistant. It coppices well and produces root suckers freely. It is very
susceptible to water-logging and wind break.
Climate and Soil
It grows well in semi-arid and semi moist regions, both in the plains and the hills. In
Rajasthan, it grows in areas with an average annual rainfall of 400 mm. It avoids moist areas
with high monsoon rainfall. The average mean temperature is about 10o C and maximum
o
about 30 e. Average annual temperature is above 27°e. Though it can grow on a wide
variety of soils, it thrives best on porous sandy loams. It avoids clay with poor drainage and
waterlogged areas. It can be grown on shallow dry soils but growth is poor.
Nursery Techniques
 For maximum viability and vigour, fruits are collected when the colour of the pericarp
changes from yellowish brown to brown. The samaras are dried in the sun. These lose their
viability in about four months. Nicked samaras are kept in wet gunnies for 48 hour. At the
end of storage sprouted samaras are separated and sown in polybags. By this method, the
number of empty containers is considerably minimized. Samaras number about 9600 in a kg.
Germination takes about 5-12 days and is completed in about 30 days. The radical and
plumule emerge through the winged covering, the cotyledons being carried up and the testa
usually left inside the fruit. The hypocotyl arches somewhat at first, soon straightening. The
cotyledons usually persist for about 2-3 months after which they turn yellow and fall.
Planting
Nine month old seedlings are planted at a spacing of 5 x 5m. Seedling growth is fairly
fast attaining a height of 0.2, 0.6, 2.4 and 4.2 m at the end of first, second, third and fourth
growing seasons respectively.
Utilization
A ten year old tree approximately yields 50-75 tonnes of match wood. The wood is
soft, white, very light but fairly strong and easy to saw. It is used for match splints, packing
cases, fishing catamarans and floats. It is also used for commercial plywood. The wood is
perishable in the open but not under water. It is grown as shade and avenue tree in hotter
parts of India. It yields an inferior type of gum. Its bark and gum are of medicinal value.
Leaves are highly palatable and nutritious fodder for sheep and goats; and extensively used in
Rajasthan. The green fodder yield is 500-700 kg twice a year. The chemical composition of
the leaves shows that the leaves are rich in crude protein, ether extract and calcium but poor
in phosphorus when dry or when chaffed with twigs. The crude fibre content is also low.
Green leaves are considered highly palatable and animals relish them more than dry leaves
even when the latter are treated with molasses. Digestibility coefficients are fairly high for all
nutrients except either extract whose digestion from leaves in the ruminants is low.
Lec 8 Silvicultural practices for Melia dubia, Leucaena leucocephala. Tending
operations - Weeding, Cleaning, Thinning and pruning.
Melia dubia
Melia Dubia is the fastest growing tree and the wood from this tree is used in Plywood
Industry. 400 trees can be planted in an acre that fetches 15-20 lakhs in6-7years. Synonym:
Melia composite willd. Family: Miliaceae. A large tree, attaining a height of 20 m. with a
spreading crown and a cylindrical straight bole of 9 m. length X 1.2-1.5 m. girth found in
Sikkim Himalayas, North Bengal. Upper Assam, Khasi Hills, hills of Orissa, [Link],
Deccan and Western Ghats at altitudes of 1500 – 1800 [Link] grows rapidly and is used for
reforestation purposes. (Troup, I 186: Burkill, II 1443: Bor, 253) and yields a useful timber.
Cultivation
In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 37.5 – 47.5
°C and the absolute minimum from 0–15 °C. It does well in moist regions, with a mean
annual rainfall exceeding 1000 mm. The mean relative humidity in July varies from 70–90%
and in January from 50–80 %. It is commonly found in the hills at elevations ranging from
600 – 1800m. The rooted saplings are planted onset of the monsoon or during the monsoon.
The suggested pit size is 2’ x 2’-0.60m Cube. Espacement of 3.5 m x 3.5 m is recommended.
This will give better girth in shorter duration.

Growth statistics
The growth is rapid. Gambles’s specimens gave 8 – 12 rings/dm of radius (mean
annual girth increment 5.3 – 8 cm) for a Tamil Nadu specimen, and 28 rings/dm (mean
annual girth increment 2.3 cm) for a specimen from Bengal. North Kanara in Karnataka
specimen showed 12-16 rings/dm of radius (TALBOT, 1909) giving a mean annual girth
increment of 4 –5.3 cm. Trees grown in the Calcutta Botanical gardens from specimen from
Malbar origin are said to have reached in 7 years an average height of 14m and a girth of 112
cm at breast height. This rate of growth is equivalent to 4 rings/ dm of radius. Even in
comparatively dry regions with a rainfall of 750 – 1000 mm, a height of 3 – 4.5 m is obtained
in plantations, against 6-7.5 m in more favourable locations.
Utilization
 Fastest Growing Timber
 Melia dubia tree holds promise of good returns for rots
 Melia dubia plantation usage
 Integrating Melia dubia in agroforestry farms as an alternate pulpwood species.
Leucaena leucocephala
Taxonomic name: Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.)
Common names: Subabul (India).
Description
The genus Leucaena is distinguished from all other Mimosoid legumes by its hairy
anthers which are easily visible with a hand lens. Leucaena leucocephala is distinguished
from other species of Leucaena by its intermediate leaflets and large pods in clusters of 5-20
per flower head. It forms a small to medium-sized thornless tree 3-15 (20) m tall and 5-50cm
bole diameter. The leaves are bipinnate with an elliptic convex extrafloral nectary on the
petiole, 4-9 pairs of pinnae and 13-21 pairs of leaflets per pinna. The leaflets are 9-16mm
long and 2-4.5mm wide, nearly sessile and strongly asymmetric linear oblong and acute at the
apex. The flowers occur in 12-21mm diameter heads, are cream-white, with ten free stamens
per flower and hairy anthers. The pods occur in crowded clusters of 5-20 per flower head and
are 11-19cm long and 15-21mm wide pendulous, flattened and papery, and passively
dehiscent with 8-18 seeds per pod. Three subspecies are recognised, two of which - subsp.
leucocephala and subsp. glabrata have been introduced pantropically.
Soil:
The species grows well in loamy soils, clayey loam and sandy loam. It has a long
strong tap root and can penetrate deep in compacted soils. The species has foliage which
fertilizes the soil, as the fallen leaves decompose fast and form good humus to add soil
nutrients. The species is an excellent nitrogen fixer thereby helps to augment the soil fertility.
Temperature:
The species tolerates high temperature of the tropics. Heavy frost kills the plant, light
only defoliates the tree. It is a light demander and grows slowly under the shade, though
tolerates partial shade.
Rain fall:
The species grows best where the rainfall is between 1000 to 3000 mm. It however
tolerates dry season extending 8 to 10 months, but the productivity is reduced.
Utilization:
All parts of the tree are useful. Foliage is a good fodder for cattle, though due to
mimosine, which form 3-5% of the dry matter, there is a fear of its ill effects on the health of
the cattle. However upto 10 to 15% of the diet of cattle can be lucaena fodder without ill
effects. Even curry is made of this leaf. The seeds are safe as a coffee beverage. The pods can
be spread on roofs to insulate from heat.
The wood is good for small furniture, as poles and for plywood core etc. Unripe pods
are also eaten by goats and cattle.
It is a good fuel with heating value of 4640 k/cal per kg, when harvested from
plantations of 2 to 5 years age and the heating value increases with maturity of trees.
As pulpwood, subabul is among the best tropical hard woods. The pulp is high in
holocellulose and low in silica, ash, lignin, alcohol benzene solubles and hot water solubles.
All these are important for pulp and rayon. The pulp yield is as high as 50 to 52%. The fibre
is shorter than in softwoods, but is within the acceptable range. It has however low tearing
strength, low folding endurance and average tensile strength, compared to others softwood
pulps.
Subabul is a good crop for greening the degraded and denuded lands, as it improves
the soil condition. It is a good plant for shelter belts and wind breaks for horticulture crops. It
is a good fibre break as well.
PLANTATION TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES
SEEDS:
Seeds come out of pods which grow in clusters, from mostly self pollinated flowers,
which look like fluffy white ball. The seed has a waxy white coat, and needs to be treated. In
a KG, giant types have about 20,000 seeds. In general there are 30,000 seeds in a Kg of 100%
purity with about 6% moisture.
SEED COLLECTION:
Ripe pods should be collected before they split and dried in the sun for 3 to 4 days.
The pods then split, when seeds can be gathered by sieving. Seeds are viable for three to four
years.
PRETREATMENT:
As the seed coat is hard, they need pretreatment before sowing: This can be done with
any of the following ways.
Soaking the seed in hot water (800) for Two to Three minutes, or in cold water for 3
to 4 days.
Concentrated Sulphuric acid can also be applied for 15 minutes to soften the seed.
Germination occurs in seven days with 70 to 80% germinating.
Planting:
Direct sowing of seed during monsoons gives good result, but the plants grow slower
than nursery raised seedlings and if there is prolonged drought the germinated seed may dry
up.
NURSERY TECHNIQUES
BAG CULTURE:
Pretreated seed should be sown in poly gags of 5" x 8 " (12.5 x 20 Cms), filled with
soil mixture to which Rhizobium inoculum (Soil from older plantations) is added at 250 gms
for 20 Kgs of seed.
Pretreated seed can be sown in nursery beds of 40' x 4' thinly covered with soil (soil
cover should be 3/4th the thickness of seed). Seedlings when 10cms tall, can be pricked out
and planted in poly bags filled with soil mixture.
STUMP PLANTING:
As the species is a good coppicer, recent trails with stump planting has given good
success. Good pretreated seed be sown on nursery beds.
Beds should be formed with red earth, sand, farmyard manure and local soil, to which
soil from the older plantation is added. When the seedlings are 3 to 4 months old, and when
the collar thickness is that of an index finer, they be taken out of the beds and stumps formed
by cutting the shoots and roots. The stump should be of the thickness between thumb and
index finer. The length should be between 9" to 12" (22.3 to 30 cms.). The hair roots and the
long thin tail of the tap root should be cut with a sharp tool. The stump should have only
about 20 Cms of the shoot.
This stump can be transported in wet Hessian bags. Before bagging, the stumps be
made into bundles of 50-100, and dipped in a puddle of red loamy soil to which a little
quantity of Gum is added. This soil coat will prevent dryage of the stumps during transport
and storage. They should be planted within 3 days of formation.
Stump planting has advantages in costs and handling and transport. As planting can be done
in crow bar holes, costs on digging of pits for bags can be saved. Once the stump establishes
and puts on growth, the plantation will be as good as that raised with bag plants.
SPACING
Spacing can be varied to suit the end use. For purposes of fodder, the spacing can be
50 x 50 cm. For fuel wood the spacing can be 1m x 1m; for Pulpwood, as the minimum girth
is 10 cms, and if harvesting is done in the fourth year, the best spacing will be 3 m x 1.5 m.
Farmers are planting in general at 50" x 50" spacing.
In general, the spacing should be closer in poorer soils and wider in fertile rich soils.
Season of Planting:
Planting should be done during rains when the moisture is available at depths of 12".
Bagged seedlings be planted in 30 cms cube pits.
Stumps should be planted in crow bar holes. The planted stump should be firmed up
on all sides. Care should be taken to see that no hollow is allowed to remain in the crow bar
hole.
After Care:
Weeds are a major cause of failure or slow establishment. Regular weeding, till plants
are one to two meters tall, gives best results. Weeding with soil working round the plants to a
radius of 0.5 m should be done at least thrice in the first year, and as many times as needed in
the subsequent years.
If the planting is done at 3 x 1.5 m spacing, the space in between rows, can be
ploughed with a tractor. Such operation gives very good result. Irrigation if possible
accelerates the growth. Singling of multiple shoots, by retaining one or two at each plant, will
give good girth increment of the retained shoot. If pruning is to be done to collect green
manure or cattle fodder, it should be limited to 2/3rd the bole, leaving intact the 1/3rd crown.
Thinning:
Thinning is defined as a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of
improving the growth and form of the trees that remain, without permanently breaking the
canopy. Thinning is a tending operation carried out in a crop beyond the sapling stage and up
to the beginning of regeneration period. Thinning principles are so formulated that these are
applicable only to pure even aged or relatively even, aged crop or even aged groups of the
trees in a crop.
Thinning principles have been developed on the basis of natural development of the
stand. Thus, thinning, takes place naturally in a density stocked forest under the law of
Survival of the fittest.
Method of Tending Operation - Thinning
Following Methods of Thinning can be Adopted:
1) Mechanical Thinning,
2) Ordinary Thinning,
3) Crown Thinning,
1) Mechanical Thinning:
This type of thinning is usually applied in young crops or young plantations before the
crown differentiation has taken place. In teak plantations of Kerala, first and second thinning
carried out at the age of 4 and 8 years are usually mechanical thinning and consists of the
removal of alternate diagonal lines or rows of trees reducing the stocking from 2,500 trees per
ha to 1250 trees per ha after the first mechanical thinning and then to 625 trees per hectare
after second thinning with spacing 2 in x 2 in to about 2.85 in x 2.85 in and then ultimately to
4 in x 4 in after second thinning.
2) Ordinary Thinning:
This is called as "Low Thinning". In ordinary thinning, the trees are removed from
lower crown classes. Ordinary thinning has been devised to follow the nature i.e. those trees,
which have been unsuccessful in the struggle of existence, are removed first. Ordinary
thinning is the most commonly used thinning practice in forestry. It is most for light
demander species. This method of thinning is useful and may be economically applied in
species and areas where small size timber has a market.
The method is simple in execution. Removal of lower crown classes suitable for area
where there is no danger of soil deterioration. Forests infested with climbers and where there
is risk of crown fire. Ordinary thinning has several commands.
Grades of Ordinary Thinning:
i) Light Thinning (A Grade): This is limited to the removal of dead, dying, diseased and
suppressed trees.
ii) Moderate Thinning (B Grade): This consists in the further removal of defective eliminated
stems and whips.
iii) Heavy Thinning (C Grade): This consists in the further removal of the remaining
dominated stems and such of the defective co-dominants as can be removed without making
lasting gaps in the canopy.
iv) Very Heavy Thinning (D Grade): The distinguishing features of this grade is that, it also
takes some of the dominate, subject to the some condition of not making any lasting break in
the canopy.
v) Extremely Heavy Thinning (E Grade): This is the heaviest thinning that can do in a crop
without making permanent gaps in the canopy. More of the dominant stems even of class (a)
are removed.
3) Crown Thinning:
The less promising one being removed in the interest of the best individuals; the dominated
and suppressed stems are retained unless they are dead, drying or diseased. Aims at removing
the inferior trees from among the dominant class.
Pruning:
Pruning is defined as the elimination of branches in order to obtain trees with clean
bole. The elimination of branches by physical and biotic agencies of the environment is
called Natural pruning. Removal of branches from the selected portions of the tree by
mechanical means is referred as artificial pruning. Pruning occurs naturally when the crop is
dense enough particularly in younger stage. The process of natural pruning completes in three
stages namely:
i) Killing of branches,
ii) Shedding of dead branches and
iii) Halting over of the entire branch stub
Lecture 10. Forest Mensuration - Objectives- Diameter measurements, instruments
used in diameter measurement

Forest mensuration is the branch of forestry that deals with the determination of
dimensions (e.g., diameter, height, volume, etc.), form, age and increment of single trees,
stands or whole forests, either standing or after felling. Forest mensuration concerns with
measurements of area, volume, weight of wood, bark, fruits, etc.
Objectives of the forest mensuration
(a) Basis for value estimation for sale of forest produces
(b) Basis of management: sustainable utilization of forest produces requires knowledge
of the quantum of timber standing in forest and its annual increment.
(c) Measurement for research: In forest research experiment, measurements of woods
are essential to identify the best treatment and method of management.
(d) Measurement for planning: the future planning of forest management required
estimating the demand of wood, and other forest products. Forest mensuration
supplies essential basic statistical data for these planning.
Scope of forest mensuration
The wide scope of forest mensuration is concerned with foresters, contractors, forest
labourers and different wood users. It involves all peoples starting from cutting of wood, its
conversion, sale and use. It augments the forecast of yields in future. It applies both for
standing trees and crops as well as felled timber. It’s also concerned with the measurement in
wildlife management, watershed management, insects and diseases incidence, recreation,
tourism and other aspects of forestry.
Diameter measurement
In logs, the diameters are measured are at thick end, thin end and at the middle of the logs

The average value is considered as a diameter of log

In case of standing trees, the diameter or girth can be measured at breast height

Breast height is defined as the universally adopted standard height for measuring girth,
diameters and basal area of standing trees.

In India, Burma, America and union of south Africa and Malaya, it is taken as 1.37m(4ft 6 in)
above ground level while it s 1.3m(4ft 3in) in Europe united kingdom, FAO and other
commonwealth countries

Standard rules governing breast height measurement

 BH marked by means of a measuring stick at 1.37m above ground level.
 BH marked by intersecting vertical and horizontal lines 12 cm long – painted white –
cross mark.
 On sloping ground – dbh measured on uphill side – dead leaves or needles removed.
 Leaning tree – dbh along tree stem and not vertically on flat side of lean trees growing
on flat ground, and uphill side for trees on sloping ground.
 DBH should not be measured at 1.37m if the stem is abnormal at the level; shifted up
or down as little as possible to a more normal position.
 Forking of tree – above BH – one tree; below BH – separate trees; forking renders BH
point abnormal, either 1 or 2 depending on place of measurement.
 Buttress formation – BH taken at lowest point above which abnormal formation not
likely to extend.
 Height of Cross-Mark above ground level should always be recorded for each tree
measured.
 Moss, creepers, lichens – removed before measurements.
  Diameter measurements – recorded in cm and to nearest multiple of 2 mm (in British
system inch and nearest tenth of an inch); girth – measured in m and to nearest cm (in
British system, in ft and to the nearest inch).
Instrument used in diameter measurement
The most commonly used instruments for diameter or girth measurement are wooden
scale, calipers, tape, Biltmore stick, sector fork, pentaprism, barr and stround dendrometer,
wedge-prism and tele-relaskop. The choice of instrument depends upon i) whether the tree is
standing or felled, ii) the condition in which the logs are lying and iii) degree of accuracy
required.
1) Wooden scale:
Flat wooden piece marked in cm & mm. its available in two sizes, viz., 30 cm and 60 cm.
the 30 cm wooden scale is about 3 cm wide but the 60 cm wooden scale is about 1.5 cm wide
and has folding arrangement at every 15 cm length. It’s used for measure dm of stump or end
sections of log Used in stump and stems analysis to measure radius at successive decade
marks. While measuring diameter with wooden scale, the following rules should be observed:
– The diameter measure along the line passing through pith
– In Eccentric stumps – two dm (major axis & right angles to it)
– Measure from the first cm not from zero mark
– Scale should be placed along edges before measurement
– Eye should be just above the mark before measurement. This reduces the parallar
error in reading.
2) Calipers:
To measure dm of standing trees and logs. Consists of graduated rule and two arms – one
is fixed and other movable. For research purpose – cm and mm graduation. Routine forest
work – cm and dm class in diff. colour paints. Length – not exceeds 120 cm.
Method of use
 Hold the two arms in both hands
 Before taking measurement move the movable arm outwards exceeding the girth of
the tree
 Then fix in the tree – move inwards
 All the tree sides should touch before taking reading
 Movable arm perpendicular to arm and parallel to fixed arm
  Slightly press before taking reading – to squeeze any loose bark
Precautions in use and error from non-observance
 Place the caliper with well opened arms and must not be forced on the tree.
 Take the readings before removing from tree
 If tree Cross Section is elliptical, take two measurements – one in Major axis and other in
Minor axis
 Take the readings in real major and minor axis
 Place the caliper in right angles to the axis of tree
 The two arms and scale arm sh. be in contact with tree – movable arm right angle to
the scale arm
Advantages
 DM can be read directly – used in precise scientific work
 The points of arms touching the tree – always in sight
 By pressing with arms loose barks – crushed
 Adaptable to unskilled labour
 Errors are both +ve and –ve - neutralize to give more accurate results than tape (give
only positive errors)
Disadvantages
 Not accurate when not in adjustment
 To carry & handle large sized calliper – difficult
 Taking two measurements in steep hilly terrain – very difficult
 Movable arm often sticks – wasting lot of time
3) Tape
Tape is a band of cloth, reinforced cloth, plastic or steel about 1.5 cm wide and of
varying length. Tape is used to measures the girth of trees and logs. Its graduated in
centimeter and millimeter. The ends are plated with some metal to prevent their rearing off.
Tapes are provided hook at the extremity to fix in look and to protect them from the
influences of water. These are in length due to expansion.
Precautions in use
 Tape should not be too old
 If the ends broken – take reading from the next cm mark
 Must lie flat on tree not in twisted manner
  Must lie in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the tree
 Make sure that no climber or shrub vitiated before taking reading
 It should not be trailed on the ground
Advantages
 Convenient to carry
 Constant adjustment is not required
 Only one measurement is enough
 Logs lying on ground – one dm reading with tape is easy than caliper
 The errors in tape is always positive – adjustment can be done easily
 Tape touches all round the tree – but in caliper only at 3 points
 Calipers give different readings for same tree – with different men using them – tape
do not suffer from this defect

Disadvantages
 Rough tree bark – tape exaggerate the reading
 Time consuming work in dense shrub growth
 Not all the sides of the tree is seen
 As it has to swung round the tree – not applied to in a plane at right angles to axis of
tree
 Due to elasticity true girth measurement – difficult
Lecture 11. Height measurement, instrumental methods of height measurement - Tree
form, form factor, Volume estimation of standing and felled trees
Height measurement of standing tree
Objective
 After diameter or girth, the other important measurement of trees is its height.
 Height of standing tree is measured of find out its volume because height is one of the
important components of tree volume.
 Height of selected trees in a forest are also required to read volume tables, form factor
tables, yield tables, etc
Tree height
Total height of standing tree is straight line distance from the tip of the leading shoot
(or from the highest point of the crown where there is no leader) to the ground level, usually
measured on slopes from the uphill side of the tree.
 Bole height – it is the distance between ground level and crown point. The crown
point is the position of the first crown forming living or dead branch.
 Commercial bole height – it is the height of bole that is usually fit for utilization as
timber
 Height of standard timber bole – it is the height of the bole from the ground level
up to the point where diameter average over bark is 20 cm.
 Stump height – it is the height of the top of the stump above ground. It gives the
height of the trees stem which is left attached to the ground after felling.
 Crown length – it is the vertical measurement of the crown of a tree from the tip to
the point half way between the lowest green branches forming green crown all round
and the lowest green on the green branches on the bole.
 Crown height – it is the height of the crown as measured vertically from the ground
level to the point half way between the lowest green branch and the green branches
forming green crown all round.
There are three methods of height measurement.
1. Ocular method.
2. Non – instrumental methods.
3. Instrumental methods.
Ocular method
Estimating heights of the trees by eye, a height scale has to be fixed in mind. This is
easily done by measuring the heights of a few trees with some instruments before the start of
the work and that of a few trees again in the height to be measured and records them.
Non – instrumental methods
 The height of the tree can be calculated either by instrument or without instruments
them.
 Since height measurements by instrument is slow and therefore expansive and by
ocular estimate.
 The tree is not truly vertical.
 All the instrumental methods and non – instrumental methods based on assumption
that the tree is vertical.
 But the heights of leaning tree can be calculated by any height measuring instrument
if the angle of lean is also measured.
There are two methods in non – instrumental methods
1. Shadow method
2. Single pole method
Shadow methods

Single pole method

 In this method observer holds a pole about 1.5m length.
 Vertically at arm’s length in one hand in such a way that the portion of the pole above
the hand is equal in length to the distance of the pole from the eye.

Instrumental methods
 The instruments used in height measurement of trees are called hypsometers, altimeter
and clinometers.
There are two methods of instrumental methods,
1. Similar triangles.
2. Trigonometric principles.
1. Similar triangles
 Two triangles are said to be similar, when the corresponding angles are equal and the
corresponding sides are proportional. The facts of two triangles are similar is
established by one of the following conditions:
 Each angles of a triangle is equal to its corresponding angle of the other triangle
  Each side of a triangle is proportional to the corresponding side of the other triangle;
and
 One angle of triangle is equal to one angle of the other and the corresponding sides
which subtend the equal angles are proportional
(a) If the base of the tree is visible
There are some principle follow by the similar triangles
(i) The tree is vertical.
(ii) The tip and the base of the tree are simultaneously visible.

(b) If the base of the tree is not visible

(c) Let AB be a tree whose base is not visible from E (observer’s eye).
(d) BD be a staff of height equal to observer’s eyes height placed against the tree and ad
be plump line of known length suspended at known distance.

Trigonomeric principles
 In the right angled triangles, the trigonometric ratios of the angles other than the right
angle can be defined in terms of sides of the triangles.
 There are two methods of these trigonometric principles
1. Tangent method
2. Sine methods
I - Tangent methods
 Tangent method means that the height of the tree is calculated with the help of the
tangents of the angle.
 The top and bases of the tree and the distance of the observer from the tree the
following situations are generally met with:
1. On level ground
Let AB be the tree which is being observer EF standing on the same horizontal plane as
the tree. Let as angle are α,

2. On sloping ground
Where the observer is standing at such a place that the top of the tree is above the eye
level and the base below it.

3. On sloping ground
Where the top and base of the tree are above the eye level
4. On sloping ground
Where the base and top of the tree are below the eye level.

II – Sine method
According to sine law in the triangles
Lecture 12. Social Forestry and its branches - Extension Forestry and Urban forestry
The word Social forestry was coined by Westoby and used in the Ninth
Commonwealth Forestry Congress in 1968. According to Prasad (1985) “Forestry outside the
conventional forests which primarily aims at providing continuous flow of goods and services
for the benefit of people. This definition implies that the production of forest goods for the
needs of the local people is Social forestry. Thus, social forestry aims at growing forests of
the choice of the local population.
Shah (1985) stated that Conceptually Social forestry deals with poor people to
produce goods such as fuel, fodder etc. to meet the needs of the local community particularly
under privileged section.
Objectives of Social forestry
The objectives of Social forestry adopted by the Commission (1976) were based on
the economic needs of the community aimed at improving the conditions of living.
The main objectives are
i) Fuel wood supply to the rural area and replacement of cow dung
ii) Small timber supply
iii) Fodder supply
iv) Protection of agricultural fields against wind and recreational needs
Components and Benefits of Social Forestry
Components of Social forestry
The scope or components of social forestry defined by the Commission includes Farm
forestry, Extension forestry, reforestation in degraded forests and Recreation forestry.
1. Farm Forestry
Farm forestry is the name given to programmes which promote commercial tree
growing by farmers on their own land
Farm forestry was defined by NCA (1976) as the practice of forestry in all its aspects
in and the around the farms or village lands integrated with other farm operations.
2. Extension Forestry
Extension forestry is the practice of forestry in areas devoid of tree growth and other
vegetation situated in places away from the conventional forest areas with the object of
increasing the area under tree growth .
It includes the following.
i) Mixed forestry
Mixed forestry is the practice of forestry for raising fodder grass with scattered fodder
trees, fruit trees and fuel wood trees on suitable wastelands, panchayat lands and village
commons
ii) Shelterbelts
Shelterbelt is defined as a belt of trees and or shrubs maintained for the purpose of
shelter from wind, sun, snow drift, etc.
iii) Linear Strip plantations
These are the plantations of fast growing species on linear strips of land
3. Rehabilitation of Degraded forests
The degraded area under forests needs immediate attention for ecological restoration
and for meeting the socio economic needs of the communities living in and around such
areas.
4. Recreation Forestry
Recreation forestry is the practice of forestry with the object of raising flowering trees
and shrubs mainly to serve as recreation forests for the urban and rural population. This type
of forestry is also known as Aesthetic forestry which is defined as the practice of forestry
with the object of developing or maintaining a forest of high scenic value.
Benefits of Social forestry
i) Increase the supply of fuel wood and fodder
ii) Generate rural employment
iii) Maintain ecological balance
iv) Appropriate use of wastelands
v) Promote village and cottage industries
vi) Induce environmental and tree consciousness among people
vii) Relieve pressures from natural forests
viii) Stabilize agricultural production
Lecture 13. Agroforestry, definition- Importance- Agroforestry systems - Shifting
Cultivation, Taungya, Alley cropping, Wind break, Shelter belt, Home garden
Agroforestry – definition, scope and history
Definition
Agroforestry is any sustainable land-use system that maintains or increases total
yields by combining food crops (annuals) with tree crops (perennials) and/or livestock on
the same unit of land, either alternately or at the same time, using management practices
that suit the social and cultural characteristics of the local people and the economic and
ecological conditions of the area.
or
Agroforestry is a collective name for a land-use system and technology whereby
woody perennials are deliberately used on the same land management unit as agricultural
crops and/or animals in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In an
agroforestry system there are both ecological and economical interactions between the
various components.
Concepts of Agroforestry
Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems involving trees combined
with crops and/or animals on the same unit of land. It combines i) production of multiple
outputs with protection of resource base; ii) places emphasis on the use of multiple
indigenous trees and shrubs; iii) particularly suitable for low-input conditions and fragile
environments ;iv) It involves the interplay of socio-cultural values more than in most other
land-use systems; and v)It is structurally and functionally more complex than monoculture.
Agro forestry classification
[Link] Cultivation
Fallows are cropland left without crops for periods ranging from one season to
several years. The objective of improved fallow species in shifting cultivation is to recover
depleted soil nutrients. Once the soil has recovered, crops are reintroduced for one or more
seasons.
Shifting cultivation is a pattern of land use and a system of production of crops under
which plots of land are cleared, cultivated for a short period for raising one, two or three
crops, after which the land is allowed to rest longer than the period of cultivation. However,
during the period of rest the land reverts to some modified form of its original cover
 This system is practised extensively in the north-eastern hill region comprising the
states of Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura and the two Union territories of
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram and to some extent Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka states. It is called 'jhum' in the north-eastern hill region and
'podu' in AP and Orissa states and considered most destructive for forest areas.
The main feature of the improved fallow system of agroforestry is that trees and
shrubs are not grown with crops on the same plot at the same time. The fallow periods vary
from region to region but are presently becoming shorter due to an increasingly acute land
shortage. The best species for the fallow system should induce good nitrogen fixation in the
soil.
Species: While the main function of the fallow is to maintain or restore soil fertility and
reduce erosion, some plants can be introduced primarily for their economic value. Species
choice should not be exclusively confined to 'soil improvers'; plants with marketable
products should also be considered. Plants included in improved fallows should be
compatible with future crops, free of any negative physical or chemical effects on the soil and
not in competition with the crops to be planted later on the same site.
Establishment: Improved fallows can be established in a variety of ways and at various
stages of the fallow. Methods might include:
 Direct seeding of clean tilled, harvested plots;
 Selective cutting of bush, followed by enrichment planting with tall seedlings;
 Introducing tall seedlings and cuttings into poor-quality fallows on degraded land;
 Planting tree seedlings in closely spaced, deep planting holes or furrows within blocks
of cleared cropland.
The exact techniques vary with the previous land use, value of the fallow vegetation
condition of the land and expected duration of the fallow.
II. Taungya System
The taungya (taung = hill, ya = cultivation) is a Burmese word coined in Burma in
1850s. The taungya system was introduced into India by Brandis in 1890 and the first
taungya plantations were raised in 1896 in North Bengal. It is practised in the states of
Kerala, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh and to a lesser extent in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Orissa, Karnataka and the north-eastern hill region. In southern India, the system is called
'kumri'. It is practised in areas with an assured annual rainfall of over 1200-1500 mm.
 This is a modified form of shifting cultivation in which the labour is permitted to raise
crops in an area but only side by side with the forest species planted by it. This labour is
responsible for the upkeep of a plantation. The practice consists of land preparation, tree
planting, growing agricultural crops for 1-3 years, until shade becomes too dense, and then
moving on to repeat the cycle in a different area. In some cases crops may be grown one year
before the trees are planted. A large variety of crops and trees, depending on the soil and
climatic conditions.
Crops and trees grown in Tamil Nadu
a) Trees
Tectona grandis
Bamboo
Santalum album
Tamarindus indica
Acacia nilotica
Acacia mearnsii
Ceiba pentandra
Cashew, Rubber
b) Crops
Millet, pulses, groundnut, cotton
Types of Taungya systems
Taungya systems are of three types:
(a) Departmental Taungya: Under this, agricultural crops and plantation are raised by the
forest department by employing a number of labourers on daily wages. The main aim of
raising crops along with the plantation is to keep down weed growth.
(b) Leased Taungya: The plantation land is given on lease to the person who offers the
highest money for raising crops for a specified number of years and ensures care of tree
plantation.
(c) Village Taungya: This is the most successful of the three taungya systems. In this, crops
are raised by the people who have settled down in a village inside the forest for this purpose.
Usually each family has about 0.8 to 1.7 ha of land to raise trees and cultivate crops for 3 to 4
years.
Advantages offered by the taungya system are:
(i) Artificial regeneration of the forest is obtained cheaply
(ii) Problems of unemployment are solved
(iii) Helps towards maximum utilisation of the site
(iv) Low cost method of forest plantation establishment
(v) In every case highly remunerative to the forest departments
(vi) Provision of food crops from forest land
(vii) Weed, climber growth etc. is eliminated.
Disadvantages of the taungya system
(i) Loss of soil fertility and exposure of soil
(ii) Danger of epidemics
(iii) Legal problems created
(iv) Susceptibility of land to accelerated erosion increases
(v) It is a form of exploitation of human labour.
The taungya farmers are given the following concessions as a part and parcel of
success of the system
(i) Free grazing for animals;
(i) Free timber for house construction and agricultural implements
(ii) Schooling facilities for children
(iii) Monitory loan at nominal interest
(iv) Water supply through excavation of wells and construction of ponds.
[Link] Cropping (Hedgerow Intercropping):
Alley cropping, also known as hedgerow intercropping, involves managing rows of
closely planted (within row) woody plants with annual crops planted in alleys in between
hedges. The woody plants are cut regularly and leaves and twigs are used as mulch on the
cropped alleys in order to reduce evaporation from the soil surface, suppress weeds and/or
add nutrients and organic matter to the top soil. Where nitrogen is required for crop
production, nitrogen-fixing plants are the main components of the hedgerows.
The primary purpose of alley cropping is to maintain or increase crop yields by
improvement of the soil and microclimate and weed control. Farmers may also obtain tree
products from the hedgerows, including fuelwood, building poles, food, medicine and fodder
and on sloping land, the hedgerows and prunings may help to control erosion. Alley cropping
usually works best in places where people feel a need to intensify crop production but face
soil fertility problems. This situation is often characteristic of crowded, densely populated
areas, but may also occur wherever some farmers wish or forced to increase production on a
plot of limited size.
Design: Woody plants are introduced as hedgerows in farm fields to maximise the positive
and minimise the negative effects of trees on crop management and yields. Without doubt,
trees compete with farm crops for soil nutrients, soil moisture and light. However, the right
kind of trees at the right spacing, with proper management, may actually produce a net
increase in yields from croplands. Trees may also provide new products such as fuelwood,
fodder or food, in addition to the annual crops.
The position and spacing of hedgerow and crop plants in an alley-cropping system
depend on plant species, climate, slope, soil conditions and the space required for the
movement of people and tillage equipment. Ideally, hedgerows should be positioned in an
east-west direction so that plants on both sides receive full sunlight during the day. The
spacing used in fields is usually 4 to 8 metres between rows and 25 cm to 2 metres between
trees within rows. The closer spacing is generally used in humid areas and the wider spacing
in subhumid or semi-arid regions.
The position and spacing of hedgerows may also be affected by slope and the
placement and design of soil and water conservation structures when these are combined with
alley cropping. On sloping land hedgerows should always be placed on the contour. If this
means that they do not have the desirable east-west orientation, then they may need regular
thinning to prevent excessive shading of adjacent crops.
Species for hedgerow intercropping: Alley cropping usually includes leguminous trees to
improve soil fertility through nitrogen fixation; hence an ideal alley-cropping tree or shrub
species should have following characteristics
 It should have a sparse, small crown to permit sunlight penetration or should resprout
rapidly after pruning, coppicing, pollarding or lopping.
 It should form a deep taproot system with few lateral root branches near the surface
so as not to compete with crop roots.
 It should have shallow lateral roots that are easily 'pruned' by ploughing along the
hedgerow, without serious damage to the plants.
  The leaf litter or some portion of it, should decompose at a rate that makes nutrients
available when they are needed in the cropping cycle.
 Ideally, trees and shrubs used for alley cropping should fix nitrogen and should also
produce wood, food, fodder, medicine or other products used by farmers or other
local community.
 The species selected should grow well under the specific limitations of the site such
as saline or acid soils, drought, flooding, heavy winds, insect pests or other hazards.
[Link] siamea, Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium, Callianda calothyrsus
and
Sesbania sesban are commonly used tree species for alley cropping.
IV. Shelter-belt:
These are belts/blocks consisting of several rows of trees established at right angles
to the prevailing wind. The purposes are:
a) To deflect air currents,
b) To reduce the velocity of prevailing winds,
c) To provide general protection to the leeward areas against the effects of wind erosion,
d) To protect the leeward areas from the desiccating effects of hot wind,
e) To provide food, fodder, timber etc.
The following are the main characteristics of shelter-belts:
i) Shape and composition: Shelter-belts have a typical triangular shape. This can usually be
brought about by raising tall trees in the centre.
ii) Density and width: A certain degree of penetration by winds is planned as by raising a
solid wall, the protection decreases very fast on the leeward side. Shelter-belts up to 50 m
width are considered ideal under Indian conditions.
iii) Height and spacing: The ratio of height and width should be roughly 1:10. However, this
figure may vary with local conditions.
iv) Orientation: Orientation of shelter-belts depends on the direction and velocity of the
prevailing winds. Shelter-belts may be raised in quadrangles if the wind direction tends to
change very often.
v) Length: Length is an important consideration as far as shelterbelts are concerned. The
minimum length of a shelter-belt should be about 25 times its height,
vi) Choice of species: The following species are recommended:
Grasses: Saccharum spontaneum, S. munja, Panicum antidotale,
Cencnrus sp.
Shrubs: Calotropis procera, Clerodendron phlomoides, Cassia auriculata, Dodonaia
viscosa
Trees: Acacia arabica, A. leucopholea, Dalbergia sissoo, Lannea coromandelica,
Eucalyptus spp., Tamarix, articulata, Parkinsonia aculeata, Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis
spicigera,
Casuarina equisetifolia.
V. Wind-break:
Wind-breaks are strips of trees and/or shrubs planted to protect fields, homes, canals
or other areas from wind and blowing soil or sand.
The important reasons for which wind-breaks are planted include:
 to protect livestock from cold winds
 to protect crops and pastures from hot, drying winds
 to reduce/prevent soil erosion
 to provide habitat for wildlife
 to reduce evaporation from farmlands
 to improve the microclimate for growing crops and to shelter people and livestock,
 to retard grass fire
 for fencing and boundary demarcation
When properly designed and maintained, windbreaks reduce the speed of the wind
and thus its ability to carry and deposit soil and sand. They also improve growing conditions
by decreasing water evaporation from soil and plants and can be used to reduce evaporation
from water surfaces, such as irrigation ponds, canals or streams. In addition, wind-breaks can
provide wide range of useful products, from poles and fuelwood to fruit, fodder, fibre and
mulch.
i) Permeability: A wind-break works by filtering and breaking the force of the wind. For most
purposes, permeable wind-breaks which allow some wind to pass through are the most
[Link] slight movement of air through the wind-breaks forms a cushion of slow-moving
air on both upwind and downwind sides. This deflects the main volume of wind upwards and
prevents it from descending for some distance. Thus, the wind velocity in the protected area
may be reduced to between 25 and 75 per cent of the wind speed.
Dense wind-breaks produce a small area of still air in a narrow strip behind the trees,
but further downwind there may be considerable turbulance. However, dense wind-breaks
may be desirable when a high level of protection is needed for small areas such as around
homesteads and work areas or for vulnerable livestock such as newborn lambs, calves etc.
The desired permeability can be obtained by carefully selecting tree shrub species.
Species such as Eucalyptus and Casuarina will form el wind-breaks but most native species
are more permeable.
ii) Orientation: For best results, plant wind-breaks at right angles to winds from which
protection is needed. Wind-breaks planted north-south are a good compromises as they
provide protection from winds coming from the western quarter. They also give better
shading of adjacent crops and pastures than wind-breaks planted east-west.
iii) Height: The wind-break height determines the size of the sheltered area. The taller the
wind-break, the greater the area it protects. On level ground a windbreak will reduce the
speed of wind for about 25 times the tree height on down windside. Maximum reduction of
wind speed is in the area 5 to 15 times the tree height away from the wind break. On the
upwind side some protection is gained up to a distance of 5 times the tree height away from
the windbreak. Thus a wind break 20 m tall will give some protection from 100 m on the
upwind side to 500 m on the downwind side.
iv) Length: Wind breaks are most effective when they stretch without major gaps for
distances exceeding 12 times the mature height of the trees.
v) Number of rows: A single row wind break should be used only where land is so valuable
that only a small amount of space can be spared for tree planting. If a single row wind break
is to be planted, tree species that retain their foliage to the ground and give a fairly dense
growth should be selected. Eucalyptus is generally unsuitable as single-row wind-breaks
because of their habit of losing their lower limbs. The main disadvantage of a single row is
that if one tree is lost, gap is created, which reduces the efficiency of the entire wind break.
Wind breaks of three to five rows are more effective for most farm situations and are less
affected by gaps caused by mission trees. Tall growing species should be planted in the centre
rows and small bushy species in the outside rows
vi) Tree spacing: Distance between trees varies with the relative importance of the protective
versus productive purposes of the wind break. Where the products of wind breaks have a high
priority, then land-users may favour greater number of shorter strips and a higher proportion
of small trees and shrubs which provide products such as fodder and fuelwood. If the by
product is timber, the height of wind breaks and the intervals between them can be increased.
When the interest is to protect valuable crops, the wind breaks should be as tall and as far
apart as possible to obtain the more protection. In dry areas, individual plants should be
widely spaced so that they do not compete with each other for the available soil moisture.
vii) Gaps: Gaps are required for gates and tracks, but because of the funneling effect through
gaps, wind velocity in these areas can be substantially increased. In multi row wind breaks
this can be eliminated by angling the gap at about 45 degrees to the prevailing wind direction.
Alternatively, a few plant, trees or shrubs can be used on either side of the gate or track to
broaden the gap and reduce the funneling effect. Other solutions are to plant five or six trees
at an angle to the main belt as a wing or to plant a second short row to cover the gaps.
viii) Species: In general, trees with narrow, vertical growth are ideal for wind breaks to
minimise the land removed from crop production. Some fast-growing species should be used
to establish the desired effect as rapidly as possible. Some of the tree species used for wind-
breaks are Eucalyptus, Cassia, Prosopis, Leucaena, Casuarina, Acacia, Grevillea, Syzygium,
Dalbergia etc.
VI. Home gardens
This system is found extensively in high rainfall areas in tropical South and South
east Asia. This practice finds expression in the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu with humid
tropical climates and where coconut is the main crop. Many species of trees, bushes ,
vegetables and other herbaceous plants are grown in dense and in random or spatial and
temporal arrangements. Most home gardens also support a variety of animals. Fodder grass
and legumes are also grown to meet the fodder requirement of cattle. In India, every
homestead has around 0.20 to 0.50 ha land for personal production.
Home gardens represent land use systems involving deliberate management of
multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and perennial agricultural
crops and livestock within the compounds of individual houses. The whole tree- crop-
animal units are being intensively managed by family labour. Home gardens can also be
called as Multitier system or Multitier cropping
Home gardens are highly productive, sustainable and very practicable. Food
production is primary function of most home gardens.
Structure of Home Gardens: Home gardens are characterized by high species diversity and
usually
3-4 vertical canopy strata. The layered configuration and compatible species admixture are
the most conspicuous characteristics of all home gardens. Generally all home gardens consist
of a herbaceous layer near the ground, a tree layer at the upper levels and an intermediate
layer. The lower layer can be partitioned in to two, the lowermost being at less than 1.0m in
height, dominated by different vegetables and the second layer of 1.0 -3.0/m height
comprising food crops such as banana, papaya and so on. The upper tree layer can also be
divided into two, consisting of emergent, full grown timber and fruit trees occupying the
upper most layers of 25m height and medium size trees of 10-20m occupying the next lower
layer. The intermediate layer of 5-10m height is dominated by various fruit trees.
Choice of species:
a) Woody species: Anacardium occidentale,Artocarpus heterophyllus, Citrus sp, Psiduim
guajava, Mangifera indica, Azadirachta indica, Cocus nucifera,
b) Herbaceous species: Bhendi, Onion, cabbage, Pumpkin, Sweet potato, Banana, Beans,
etc.
Lecture 14. Tree and crop combination in Agroforestry- Tree crop interaction in
Agroforestry

Tree-Crop Interaction

• Interactions literally mean influence or mutual or reciprocal action.

• Component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the

performance of other component.

Interaction helps to know

• How the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the
environment.

• How the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others.

Relevance in Agroforestry

• Tree-crop interaction – most important aspect in agroforestry

• Positive and negative effects

• Improvement in soil fertility, soil conservation, nutrient cycling, weed control,

sustainability – Results of +ve interaction

• Competition for light, nutrients, space and moisture leads to negative effects

• Quantification of competitive effect of components – an important tool in designing

agroforestry system

• Aim – Maximize complementarity while reducing competition

ICRAF Equation for tree crop interaction

Developed for assessing the viability of an agroforestry system

Tree Crop Interaction equation

where

I – Tree crop interaction

F–Positive effects of tree and crop

yield through soil fertility enrichment

C–Negative effects through competition

for growth resources
1.F > C : Positive interaction; AF system is productive &
beneficial

2. F < C : Negative interaction; unproductive and harmful AF system

3. F= C : Neutral interaction

TypesofTCI (Based on bioeconomic perspective)

Complementary interaction

 Refers to positive interaction between the components

 Increase in one component results in proportionate increase in the other component

e.g., Multistorey cropping

Supplementary interaction

 Complementary force equals competitive force

 Increase in one component does not increase / decrease the other component

Competitive interaction

 Refers to negative interaction between the components

 Increase in one component results in decrease in the other component

Types of TCI (Based on effect of interactions

1. Positive interaction

2. Negative interaction

1. Positive interactions

 Refers to the beneficial effect of one component on the other and its influence on the
productivity of the overall system

a. Increased production and productivity

b. Soil improvement

c. Nutrient cycling

d. Microclimate amelioration
Increased production and productivity

• Overall productivity of an intercropping system is generally greater than that of an

monocroping.

• Reason – capture of more growth resources like light, water / improved soil fertility

Example : Poplar based agroforestry

 Deciduous nature of poplar allows intercrops

 Preparatory and cultural operations done in poplar complement the main and
intercrops

Soil improvement

 A typical AF system is sustainable and always helps to improve the soil

 “Use of land is an important index in the growth of civilization for land has been the
silent partner in the rise and fall of civilizations”

 Reduction in runoff

 Nitrogen enrichment through NFTs

 Improvement in soil physical conditions

 Effective recycling of nutrients

 Moderating effect of trees on soil acidity and alkalinity

 Creation of better microclimate

Nutrient cycling

 Transfer of nutrients from one component to another in the soil-plant system

 From trees to crops : Pruning, litter fall, root decomposition

 Nutrients deposited in sub soil layers through leaching and infiltration

 Long tap roots of trees pump nutrients from the subsoil and return them back through
litter-fall

 Litter on decomposition releases nutrients back to the surface soil which in turn is
made available for the crops

Microclimate amelioration

 Interception of light, heat, moisture and reduction of wind velocity

 Reduced wind speed : reduces evapo-transpiration

  E.g., Windbreaks and shelterbelts – Improved crop yield due to alteration in
microclimate

Negative Interactions

Refers to non beneficial effects of one component on another and their resultant
influence on productivity

 Competition for light, water and nutrients

 Allelopathy

 Pest and disease incidence

Competition

• Immediate supply of a single necessary factor falls below the combined demands of
the plant – Competition begins

Other name : Allelospoly

Light

• Productivity of a system depends upon its capacity to utilize solar energy

• In monoculture of trees, light interception is inefficient in the initial years

• Monoculture promotes weed growth

• Intercropping in the earlier stages of tree growth aids in better utilization of solar
light

• Competition depends upon tree density, age of trees and spatial arrangement

• Most important limiting factor when soil fertility & moisture are adequate

Moisture

• Underground competition for moisture is relatively more than above ground

competition in most AF systems

• Competition for water occurs in almost all AF systems except in places where rainfall
is distributed equally throughout the year

• Productivity of the system depends upon the severity of drought, length of dry period
and drought tolerance of the species

• Shallow rooted trees compete more

• Judicious selection of tree species and crops is an effective management tool

Nutrients

• Merit of AF system is judged by the yield of agrl. crop

• Yield reduction in crop component mostly due to nutrient competition

• Effect of nutrient competition is more pronounced in the crop component

• Can be managed by selection of trees and crops which occupy different strata beneath
the ground

Allelopathy

• Inhibition of plant growth by release of chemical compounds by another plant

• Chemical compounds generally released by action of rain / litter decomposition

• Leaves are the most potent source of allelochemicals

• An improved understanding of allelopathy can improve the potential use of

allelopathic substances to control crops in weed management.
Lec 15. National Agroforestry Policy 2014 , objectives and salient features

National Agroforestry Policy 2014

 A policy which deals with problems faced by agroforestry sector, including adverse
policies, weak markets and improve of institutional finance

 Approved by the Cabinet in February 2014.

 India became the world's first country to adopt a comprehensive Agroforestry policy.

Basic objectives

 Promote agroforestry to increase farm income and reduce climate risk.

 Simultaneously provide raw material to wood based industries.

 Thus create new avenues for rural employment, and reduce pressure on jungle.

Bodies

Main boss

 National level board to promote Agroforestry

 It’ll coordinate among various ministries and departments at union and state level

 It’ll provide ~4k-5k crore rupees per year for agroforestry program

Nodal agency

 Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC)

 Under Agriculture ministry.

Simplify rules

 At present, multiple rules and regulations by Forest dept, revenue department, the
bodies under Forest rights act (FRA), PESA act etc.

 Policy aims to simplify and streamline such rules.

Land reform

 Farmer / private sector has no motivation to look after a tree for 10-20 years, if the
land rights are not firmly established.

 Therefore, Policy wants state Governments to give settle tenancy rights for farmers,
computerization of land records, use satellite imagery to find existing trees in
farmland etc.
  This will also help gauging agroforestry’s contribution to GDP and fine tune future
planning accordingly.

Research

 ICAR’s 30+ centres involved in agroforestry research. But hardly any of their
innovations implemented on ground. So, Policy wants two things:

 Setup National Institute of Agroforestry with regional centres in each agro-climatic

zones.

 Give farmers quality seeds, technology and guidance.

loan and insurance

 Each state Government will have to make list of 20 trees suitable for agroforestry in
their area.

 This will help NABARD, banks and insurance companies to design tailor made loan
and insurance products for each region.

Fancy things

Convergence Among various schemes for rural Development

 such as MNREGA, Bambo Mission, NRLM, RKVY [Link] Public

private partnership (PPP) for agroforestry

 On road side/canal side/barren community land/other non-forest waste lands.

Education

 Include agroforestry in the school syllabus, to motivate younger generation to

grow and protect trees.

Awareness

 With help of NGOs, SHG, media, Krishivigyan Kendra, cooperatives, ATMA-

[Link]. Management agencies etc.
Lecture 16. Forest Utilization - Definition - Wood products - solid wood and composite
wood.

Forest Utilization

Branch of forestry which deals with harvesting, marketing conservation and applying
the forest produce to a variety of uses eg. Timber, fuel, charcoal, pulp wood, ply wood

Classification of Wood

Solid wood

Solid wood is a term most commonly used to distinguish between ordinary lumber
and engineered wood, but it also refers to structures that do not have hollow spaces.

Engineered wood products are manufactured by binding together wood strands,

fibers, or veneers with adhesives to form a composite material.

Types of solid wood

Hardwood

This type of timber is produced from broad leaf trees that lose their leaves in winter – a
deciduous tree. The term hardwood does not mean that the timber is hard

Mahogany – reddish in colour, always looks good when varnished or waxed

Softwood
 This type of timber is produced from trees that do not lose their leaves (coniferous).

Softwood trees grow much quicker than the hardwood ones, they are therefore
cheaper to buy and far more available. Softwood is used for construction of houses and
furniture, and outdoor uses such as fencing

The term softwood does not mean that the timber is soft , as pitch pine is one of the
most difficult timbers to work with, yet is a member of this group

Composite wood

Composite wood, also called engineered wood, man-made wood, or manufactured

board, includes a range of derivative wood products which are manufactured by binding or
fixing the strands, particles, fibres, or veneers or boards of wood, together with adhesives, or
other methods of fixation to form composite materials

Types of composite wood

Plywood

Plywood, a wood structural panel, is sometimes called the original engineered wood
product. Plywood is manufactured from sheets of cross-laminated veneer and bonded under
heat and pressure with durable, moisture-resistant adhesives.

By alternating the grain direction of the veneers from layer to layer, or “cross-
orienting”, panel strength and stiffness in both directions are maximized

Particle board

 Particle board is manufactured from wood chips, sawmill shavings, or even sawdust,
and a synthetic resin or other suitable binder, which is pressed and extruded.

 Particle board is cheaper, denser and more uniform than conventional wood and
plywood and is substituted for them when cost is more important than strength and
appearance.

 A major disadvantage of particleboard is that it is very prone to expansion and

discoloration due to moisture, particularly when it is not covered with paint or another
sealer.
Oriented strand board

 Oriented strand board (OSB) is a wood structural panel manufactured from

rectangular-shaped strands of wood that are oriented lengthwise and then arranged in
layers, laid up into mats, and bonded together with moisture-resistant, heat-cured
adhesives.

 The individual layers are cross-oriented to provide strength and stiffness to the panel.

 Produced in huge, continuous mats, OSB is a solid panel product of consistent quality
with no laps, gaps or voids.

Blockboard

Blockboard is a board which consists of a core made of wooden strips (usually of

softwood) between the two layers of plywood. Here the wooden strips are placed edge-to-
edge and are enclosed between hardwood veneer sheets which are glued together under high
pressure.
Lecture [Link] Utilization - Non Wood Forest Products - fibres , floss, bamboo, tan,
dye, resin, oleoresin

NTFP
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are any product or service other than timber that
is produced in forests. They include fruits and nuts, vegetables,, medicinal plants, resins,
essences and a range of barks and fibres such as bamboo, rattans, and a host of other palms
and grasses.
i) Fibre and flosses
Fibres are obtained from bast tissue of certain woody plants, which are used for
making ropes. Flosses are obtained from Ceiba pentandra and fibres are obtained from Agave
sisalana, Sterculia urens
ii) Grasses and bamboos
A large variety of grasses are found in the forests. About 30% of the 416 million
livestock population grazes in the forests. Among valuable grasses eg: Sabai (Eulaliopsis
binata) are harvested annually 6.5 million tones and 80,000 tonnes of bamboo are harvested
from forest every year.
iii) Essential oil
India produced about 1500 tonnes of essential oils during 1980, which was utilized in
making soaps, detergents and chemicals eg. Eucalyptus, Bursera, Cymbopogan, Santalum
album etc.,
iv) Oil seeds
Many tree species of Madhuca indica, Pongamia pinnata, Shorea robusta,
Azadirachta indica, Schleichera oleosa, Vateria indica etc., produce oil-bearing seeds, which
are commercially important. Presently these seeds are used in the soap industry. There is a
potential production of about 1 million tonnes of oil every year from forests tree seeds.
v) Tans and dyes
Important tannins are extracted from myrobolan nuts, bark of wattles ([Link],
[Link], [Link]) and Cassia auriculata , leaves of Embelica officinalis and
Anogeissus latifolia, bark of Cleistanthus collinus, fruits of Zizphus xylophora, Cassia fistula,
Terminalia alata, [Link] etc., katha and cutch are obtained from Acacia catechu.
vi) Gums and resins
 Gums and resins are exuded by trees as a result of injury to the bark or wood. Gums –
eg: Sterculia urens, Anogeissus latifolia, Lannea coromandalica, Acacia nilotica, Ptercapus
marsupium, Butea monosperma etc.,
Resin is obtained from Pinus roxburghii
vii) Drugs, Spices and Insecticides
Important spices yielding drugs are Rauvolfia serpentina, Hemidesmus indicus,
Dioscorea spp, Atropa spp, Datura innoxia etc,
Spices : Seeds of Carum carvi, barks of Cinnomomum zeylanicum, dried capsules
of Elletaria cardomomum.
Insecticides: Pyrethrum and neem
viii) Tendu and other leaves
Tendu leaves (bidi leaves) (Diopyrus melanoxylon) and leaves of bauhinia spp, Butea
spp, plates, dona etc.,
ix) Lac and other products
Lac is a resinous secretion of insects which feed on forest trees eg ; Butea
monosperma. Silkworm is feed on Morus alba or Terminalia alata. Honey is produced from
forests.
x) Fodder and grazing
About 30% of 416 million livestock population depend up on forest grazing and leaf
fodder supply. Eg; Luecaena leucocephala, Albizzia lebbeck, Hardwickia binata
xi) Cane
Canes or rattans are the stems of a climber plant and are used for a large number of
household items. It is used to make walking sticks, polo sticks, baskets, picture frames,
screens, and mats.
 Glossary

1. Afforestation: Establishing a forest by artificial means on an area on which not forest

vegetation has existed for a long time in the past.
2. Age classification: The division of a crop according to difference in age OR the
allotment of woods to age classes.
3. Age crop: The age of a regular crop corresponding to its crop diameters.
4. Alpine: Zone of vegetation where winter is server, slow fall heavy, the mean annual
temperature is 450F and the mean January temperature below 300F. In India
Himalayan at the altitude above 10,000 ft.
5. Basal area: The area of the cross section of a stem at breast height, when applied to a
crop, the sum of basal areas of all the stems or the total basal areas per unit area.
6. Bole: The main stem of a tree.
7. Breast height: Almost universally adopted as the standard height for measuring the
girth, diameter and a basal areas of standing trees. India 4’6” (1.37m). In U.K. and
most commonwealth countries 4’.3” (1.30m)
8. Coppice: When certain plants or seedling are cut from near ground level, they
produce a flush of fresh shoots. This is known as coppicing
9. Coupe: A felling area, usually one of an annual series unless otherwise stated.
Preferable numbered with Roman numbers as, I, II, III etc.
10. Crown: The upper branchy part of the tree above the bole.
11. Dendrology: The identification and systematic classification of trees.
12. Felling: Felling comprise of removal of trees either singly or in small groups
scattered all over the forest.
13. Forestry: Forestry has been defined as ‘the theory and practice of all that constitutes
the creation, conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of
their resources.
14. Log: The stem of a tree or a length of stem or branch after felling and trimming.
15. Logging: Operation comprising felling of trees, limbing, bucking and transportation
of the resulting product out of the forest timber harvesting (Bucking-Act of being)
16. Lopping: It pertains to the cutting of branches or even young stems. This leads to the
development of new shoots. It is carried out on Diospyros (Temburni) for bidi
industry, also in number of broad leaved species for fuel and fodder and as Quercus
incana (Indiana oak), morus etc, for rearing silkworm.
17. Pole: A young tree from the time when the lower branches begin to fall off to the time
when rate of height growth begins to slow down and crown expansion becomes
marked.
18. Pollarding: This is a process in which the branch of a plant is cut off in order to
produce a flush of new shoots. Pollarding is carried out at a height which is above the
reach of browsing animals. It has been widely adopted on salix trees in Kashmir
Valley. (Willow), Hard-wickia binata in A.P. (Anjan), Grewia oppositifolia in U.P.
Hills (Silver oak type)
19. Pricking out: When the seedlings have to be kept in the nursery for more than a year,
it must be transferred to beds, other than the seedling beds. This is known as pricking
out or to transplant small seedlings individually in to nursery beds or boxes.

20. Protected forests: A legal terms for an area subjected to limited degrees of protection
under the provision of Chapter IV of the Indian Forest Act.
21. Pruning: Means the cutting of branches from the bole in order to maintain the
quality of timber.
22. Raft: An assemblage of logs, timbers or bamboos tied together or enclosed within a
boom for transport by floating.
23. Reforestation: Re-establishing a forest, by artificial means on an area which
previously bore forest vegetation, and which may have been felled or otherwise
cleared in the recent past.
24. Reserved forests: an area so constituted under the Indian Forest Act or other Forests
law.
25. Scrub: Inferior growth consisting chiefly of small or stunted trees and shrubs.
26. Seed orchards: are plantations which may raised exclusively with the aim of
producing seed.
a. Seed Production areas or seed stands: Which are area set aside exclusively
for the purpose (i) to produce seed of high quality from genetically superior
trees available in the stand (ii) to concentrate seed collecting operation in a
small sphere or area. The seed stands are established by removal of the inferior
frees, seed orchards are plantation of genetically superior trees isolated to
reduce pollination from genetically inferior once. Seeds orchards may be of
two types: (i) Clonal: raised by grafting clones of superior trees on 2-3 year
old seedlings (2) Seedling raised from obtained from seeds of superior trees.
27. Shelter belts: is a wide zone of trees, shrubs and grasses, planted in rows, usually at
right angles to the direction of the prevailing winds. Its aims are:
28. Silviculture: The terms silviculture, commonly refers only to certain aspects of
theory and practice of raising forests crops. OR Silviculture pertains to the
establishment, development, are and reproduction of forests crops.
29. Stand: An aggregation of trees or other growth possessing sufficient uniformity in
composition, constitution, age arrangement or condition, to be distinguished from
adjacent crops and forming a silvicultural unit.
30. Succession: The gradual replacement of one community by another in the
development of vegetation towards a climax
31. Taungya system: It was first evolved in Burma in 1850 as a mode of replanting vast
teak areas. Taungya is a Burmas word. (Toung hill, ya - cultivation). This is a
modified from of shifting cultivation of which the labour has permission to raise crop
on the land, but, with this, they are responsible for planting, of the forest species, also
for protection and well being of the plantation. After about five years or so, they are
required to move to another patch of land.
32. Tending: Tending is a board terms given to operation which are carried out for the
well being of forest crops, at any stage of it life, involving operation both on the crop
itself and on its competing vegetation e.g. weeding, cleaning, thinning, improvement
feeling etc. However, tending does not include operation concerning, regeneration
such as regeneration feeling, soil working, control burning etc.
a. To deflect the air current.
b. To protect the leeward area from the desiccating effects of hot winds.
c. To provide general protection
d. To reduce the velocity of prevailing winds
33. Unclassed forest: Forest land owned by Government but not constituted in to a
reserved, village or protected forest.
34. Wind breaks: Is a protective plantation in a certain area, against strong winds. It is
usually comprised of a few rows of trees (or shrubs) spaces at 0.5 to 2.5 m apart.)
 Model Question Paper
PART-A

FOR 111 Introduction to Forestry (1+1)

I. Choose the correct answer

1. A plant community predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, usually with a
closed canopy is also called
a) Forest
b) Forestry
c) Forest management
d) Forest classification
Answer : Forest
2. Aggregation of trees occupying a specific area sufficiently uniform in composition
(species), age arrangement is called
a) Forest
b) Ecosystem
c) Stand
d) Silvis
Answer: Stand
3. High forest is obtained from
a) Coppice
b) Root suckers
c) Grafting
d) Seed
Answer: Seed
4. The species first in importance in a mixed stand either by frequency, volume or
silvicultural value is called
a) Accessory species
b) Principal species
c) Auxiliary species
d) None of the above
Answer: Principal species
5. A tree canopy density of 40 - 70% is
a)Dense Forest
b)Very dense Forest
c) Open Forest
d) Moderate dense Forest
Answer : Moderate dense forest

6. Study of life history and general characteristics of forest trees is

a) Silvics
 b) Forest Management
c) Forest Biology
d) None
Answer :Silvics
7. Set of principles or guidelines adopted by Government to attain fixed objectives in forestry
for the welfare of the nation is called
a) Policy
b) Act
c)A and B
d) None of the above
Answer : Policy
8. National Forest policy 1894 classified government owned forest as

a) Preservation forest, Commercial forest ,Minor forest and Pasture land

b) Protected forest, National forest , Village forest and Tree lands

c) state forest , central forest and village forest

d) Protected and producted forest

Answer : Preservation forest, Commercial forest ,Minor forest and Pasture land
9. Afforestation, social forestry and farm forestry programme are encouraged under which
forest policy

a) Indian Forest Policy 1952

b) Indian Forest Policy 1894

c) Indian Forest Policy 1988

d) Indian Forest Policy 1980

Answer : Indian Forest Policy 1988

10. The potential capacity of a seed to germinate is called
a) Viability
b) Germination
c) Germinative capacity
d) None
Answer : Viability
11. Which one of the species is best example for root suckers

a) Dalbergia sissoo

b) Tectona grandis

c) Sandalum album

d) Dalbergia latifolia
Answer: Dalbergia sissoo

12. Establishment of a forest by Artificial means on an area from which forest vegetation has
always long been absent

a) Afforestation

b) Rotation

c) Planting

d) Reforestation

Answer: Afforestation

[Link] operation carried out for the benefit of a crop, at any stage of its life between the
seedling & mature stage is called

a) Cultural operation

b) Cleaning

c) Weeding

d) Tending

Answer: Tending

14. Crown development refers the expansion of crown measured as

a) Crown length and Crown height

b) Crown length and crown width

c) Crown height and crown width

d) crown length

Answer: Crown length and Crown width

15. The Father of Indian Forestry is

a) O’Conolly

b) Dietrich Brandis

c) Voelckar

d) Gadgil

Answer : Dietrich Brandis

II. Fill in the blanks

 1. Forest is defined as an area of land proclaimed to be forest under a which forest law------
a) Indian Forest Act 1926
b) Indian Forest Act 1927
c) Indian Forest Act 1928
d) Indian Forest Act 1929
Answer: Indian Forest Act 1927
[Link] unit of silviculture is ---------------
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Answer : Stand

[Link] is regenerated from vegetative part is term as --------------

a) Pure forest
b) state forest
c) high forest
d) coppice forest
Answer: Coppice Forest

4. --------------- is defined as a forest composed of almost entirely of one species, usually to

the extent of not less than 80%.

a) Mixed forest

b) State forest

c) Pure forest

d) Village forest

Answer: Pure forest

5. 53 per cent of the total forest area falls under -------------- category

a) Protected forest

b) Producted forest

c) Village forest

d) Panchayat forest

Answer: Protected forest

6. The art and science of cultivating forest crops -------------

a) Silviculture
b) Silvics
c) Stand
d) Forest
Answer : Silviculture
[Link] Forestry experiment in India started at --------- century
a) 17th century
b) 18th century
c) 19th century
d) 20th century
Answer : 19th century
8.----------- is the first forest policy of independent India

a) Indian Forest policy 1950

b) Indian Forest policy 1951

c) Indian Forest Policy 1952

d) Indian Forest Policy 1953

Answer : Indian Forest Policy 1952

[Link] renewal of a forest crop by natural or artificial means is called -------------

a) Rotation

b) Regeneration

c) Felling

d) Development

Answer: Regeneration
10.------------species disperse the seed by Water
a)Dalbergia

b) Oaks

c) Teak

d) Mulberry

Answer : Teak

11. -------------- is the percentage by number of seeds given sample that actually germinate,
irrespective of time
a) Germination Capacity

b) Germination energy

c) Plant Percent
d) Seedling Year

Answer: Germination Capacity

12. ---------------is the number seeds in a sample that develop into seedling at the end of the
first growing season

a) Germination Capacity

b) Germination energy

c) Plant Percent

d) Seedling Year

Answer: Plant Percent

13.--------------is the process of planting seeds

a) Planting

b) Coppice

c) Sowing

d) Root suckers

Answer: Sowing

14. --------------- defined as the distance between the plants put out in a plantation or standing
crop

a) Spacing

b) Espacement

c)Weeding

d) A and B

Answer: A and B

15. Removal of the lower branches of a tree is called _____.

a) Thinning

b) Cutting back

c) Pinching

d) Pruning

Answer : Pruning
III. Match the following

1. Forest Protection a) Timber, Paper and Playwood

2. Forest Mensuration b) Cost of production of species

3. Forest utilization c) Prevention and control of pest

4. Forest Economics d) Volume, Height and Diameter

a) 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c

b) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b

c) 1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b

d) 1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b

Answer: 1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b

II

1. National Forest Policy 1894 a) Environment stability and ecological balance

2. National Forest Policy 1952 b) To satisfied British Govt

3. National Forest Policy 1988 c) Green Tax

4. National Forest Policy 2017 d) Permanent need of our country

a) 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c

b) 1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b

c) 1-d,2-b,3-a,4-c

d) 1-a,2-d,3-b,4-c

Answer: 1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c

III

1. Dominant trees a. Trees with ½ to 5/8 of the height of the tallest trees

2. Dominated trees b. Trees of upper most canopy

3. Suppressed trees c. Bent over or badly leaning trees

4. Dead and moribund tree d. Height of 3/4th of the tallest trees

a) 1-b, 2-d, 3-a,4-c

b) 1-b, 2-d, 3-c,4-a

c) 1-d, 2-b, 3-a,4-c

d) 1-b, 2-d, 3-a,4-c

Answer: 1-b, 2-d, 3-a, 4-c

IV

[Link] Production a. Wind

[Link] Dispersal b. Development of root

[Link] c. Age of the tree

[Link] d. Viability

a) 1-c, 2-a,3-d,4-b

b) 1-a, 2-c,3-d,4-b

c) 1-b, 2-a,3-d,4-c

d) 1-c, 2-d,3-a,4-b

Answer: 1-c, 2-a,3-d,4-b

 PART – B

Short notes
Read the following passage and answer the questions (1 – 4)
Ranger want to natural forest for classification forest based on age, composition,
regeneration and forest cover help him to classify the forest based on above mention
criteria
1) High forest is regenerated from
a) Seed
b) Coppice
c) Seed and Coppice
d) Root suckers
Answer: Seed
2) Age difference of species in natural forest up to 25% of the rotation age it means is
called
a) Pure forest
b) Mixed forest
c) Even Aged forest
d) Un Even forest
Answer: Even aged forest
3) In a natural forest group of trees at least 20% of the canopy must consist of species
other than the principal one is called
a) Pure forest
b) Mixed forest
c) Even Aged forest
d) Un Even forest
Answer: Mixed forest
4) In a forest the tree cover of canopy density of 70% and above is coming under the
classification of
a) Dense forest
b) Very dense forest
c) Moderate dense forest
d) Open forest
Answer: Very dense forest
Read the following passage and answer the questions (5 – 8)
Student want to select certain branch of forestry in order to raising the forest crop
based on the silviculture objectives help him find correct branch to match his objectives

5) If he want to Produce of quality timber which branch is most appropriate for him
a) Forest Mensuration
b) Forest Utilization
c) Forest Protection
d) Forest economies
Answer: Forest Protection
6) If he want Produce of species economic value which branch is most appropriate for
him
a) Forest Mensuration
b) Forest Utilization
c) Forest Protection
d) Forest economies
Answer: Forest economies
7) If he want to Produce of Timber, Plywood and Pulpwood which branch is most
appropriate for him
a) Forest Mensuration
b) Forest Utilization
e) Forest Protection
f) Forest economies
Answer: b) Forest Utilization
8) If he want to Measure and calculate the volume of species which branch is most
appropriate for him
a) Forest Mensuration
b) Forest Utilization
c) Forest Protection
d) Forest economies
Answer: Forest Mensuration

Read the following passage and answer the questions (9 – 12)

Student want to refer objectives of various Indian forest policies help him to find objectives
National Forest Policy 1894,1952, 1988
9) Which forest policy mention the objective of to promote general well being of country
and basic requirement of the people

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 1894

10) Which forest policy mention the objective Balance and complementary land use
system

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 1952

11) Which forest policy mention the objective Environment stability and Ecological
balance

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

 d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 1988

12) Supports the Government Vermin Policy is mentioned in which Forest policy

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 2016

Read the following passage and answer the questions (17 – 20)

Ranger want to classify the forest based on Forest policies help him to find classification
based above mention forest policies

17) Preservation and Commercial forest Classification mentioned in which forest Policy

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 1894

18) Protection and National forest Classification mentioned in which forest Policy

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 1952

19) Minor forest and Pasture land coming under

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 1894

20) Village forest and tree lands coming under

a) National Forest Policy 1894

b) National Forest Policy 1952

c) National Forest Policy 1988

d) National Forest policy 2016

Answer: National Forest Policy 1894

Read the following passage and answer the questions (21 – 24)

Researcher have a project to regenerate forest based on different regeneration method help
him to find suitable method

21. If he want to establish forest based on process by which plants replace or re-establish
themselves means which method is suitable for him
a) Natural regeneration
b) Artificial regeneration
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a or b

Answer: Natural regeneration

22. If he want to establish forest based on process by Sowing or Planting means which
method is suitable for him
a) Natural regeneration
b) Artificial regeneration
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a or b

Answer: Artificial regeneration

23. Establishing forest based on Restocking of a felled or otherwise cleared woodland is

called
a) Afforestation
b) Reforestation
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a or b

Answer: Reforestation

24. Establishing forest based on area from which forest vegetation has always long been
absent

a) Afforestation
b) Reforestation
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a or b

Answer: Afforestation
Read the following passage and answer the questions (25 – 28)

In a natural regeneration process student need to know how species like Teak, Casuarina,
Mulberry and Acacia disperse seed themselves, help him to find seed dispersal of above
mention tree species
25. Seed dispersal of Casuarina
a) By Wind
b) By water
c) By Birds
d) By Animals

Answer: By Wind
26. Seed dispersal of Teak
a) By Wind
b) By water
c) By Birds
d) By Animals

Answer: By water
27. Seed dispersal of Mulberry
a) By Wind
b) By water
c) By Birds
d) By Animals

Answer: By Birds
28. Seed dispersal of Acacia
a) By Wind
b) By water
c) By Birds
d) By Animals

Answer: By Animals
Read the following passage and answer the questions (29 – 32)

Help him student to Find out Process and Factors influencing Natural regeneration Process

29. Natural regeneration depends on

a) Seed Production
b) Seed Dispersal and Germination
c) Seedling Establishment
d) All the above

Answer: All the above

[Link] of the crown and Age of trees influence which Process in natural regeneration
a) Seed Production
b) Seed Dispersal
c) Seedling Establishment
d) Germination

Answer: Seed Production

31. Viability influence which Process in natural regeneration
a) Seed Production
b) Seed Dispersal
c) Seedling Establishment
d) Germination

Answer: Germination

32. Drip influence which Process in natural regeneration

a) Seed Production
b) Seed Dispersal
c) Seedling Establishment
d) Germination

Answer: Seedling Establishment

Read the following passage and answer the questions (29 – 32)
Based on the picture mentioned below answer the following question

29. Shoot coppice arising from the base of seedling that have been cut or burnt back is called
a) Seedling coppice
b) Stool coppice
c) Root suckers
e) Coppice

Answer: Seedling coppice

30. Shoot coppice arising from the stool or a living stump

a) Seedling coppice

b) Stool coppice

c) Root suckers

e) Coppice

Answer: Stool coppice

31Secondary shot, rising from the roots of a certain tree

a) Seedling coppice
b) Stool coppice
c) Root suckers
e) Coppice
Answer: Root suckers

32. Shoot arising from an adventitious bud at the base of a woody plant

a)Seedling coppice
b) Stool coppice
c) Root suckers
e) Coppice

Answer: Coppice
Read the following passage and answer the questions (33 – 36)
Students went to forest they want to classify trees based on tree canopy help him to
classify tree in correct order
33. The trees of upper most canopy
a) Dominant trees
b) Dominated trees
c) Suppressed trees
d) Diseased trees

Answer: Dominant trees

34. Trees with a height of 3/4th of the tallest trees are referred as
a) Dominant trees
b) Dominated trees
c) Suppressed trees
d) Diseased trees
Answer: Dominated trees

35. Trees with ½ to 5/8 of the height of the tallest trees are referred as
a) Dominant trees
b) Dominated trees
c) Suppressed trees
d) Diseased trees
Answer: Suppressed trees

36. Trees that are infected with parasites

a) Dominant trees
b) Dominated trees
c) Suppressed trees
d) Diseased trees
Answer: Diseased trees
Read the following passage and answer the questions (37 – 40)
Find out correct symbol for Crown classes based on the picture mention below

37. Abbreviation and symbol for Dominant trees

a) class symbol I; abb-D
b) class symbol II; abb-d
c) class symbol III; abb-s
d) class symbol IV; abb-k
Answer : class symbol I; abb-D
38. Abbreviation and symbol for Dominated trees
a) class symbol I; abb-D
b) class symbol II; abb-d
c) class symbol III; abb-s
d) class symbol IV; abb-k
Answer : class symbol II; abb-d
39. Abbreviation and symbol for Suppressed trees
a) class symbol I; abb-D
b) class symbol II; abb-d
c) class symbol III; abb-s
d) class symbol IV; abb-k
Answer : class symbol III; abb-s
40. Abbreviation and symbol for Diseased trees
a) class symbol I; abb-D
b) class symbol II; abb-d
c) class symbol III; abb-s
d) class symbol IV; abb-k
Answer : class symbol IV; abb-k