December 1st, 2022

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‫ِم‬ ‫ِن‬ ‫ِب ِم‬
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critical thinking training - batch 02

CRITICAL
THINKING
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critical thinking training - batch 02

PART ONE
fundamentals
fundamentals

CRITICAL
THINKING IS AN Becoming mentally fit is hard work. And thinking
independently can be a little scary at times. But

ADVENTURE. in the end you’ll be a smarter, stronger, more

confident thinker.
December 1st, 2022

WHAT IS
fundamentals

CRITICAL THINKING
A general term given to a wide range of cognitive skills and intellectual
dispositions needed to effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate
arguments and truth claims; to discover and overcome personal
preconceptions and biases; to formulate and present convincing reasons
in sup-port of conclusions; and to make reasonable, intelligent decisions
about what to believe and what to do.
December 1st, 2022

STANDARDS
of critical thinking
 01
fundamentals

CRITICAL THINKING STANDARDS

01 clarity 05 consistency

02 Precision 06 logical correctness

03 accuracy 07 completness

04 relevance 08 fairness
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1. CLARITY
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"Everything that can be said can be

said clearly. "
Ludwig Wittgenstein

Before we can effectively evaluate a person’s argument or claim, we need to understand

clearly what he or she is saying. Unfortunately, that can be difficult because people often fail to
express themselves clearly. Sometimes this lack of clarity is due to laziness, carelessness, or a
lack of skill.

Self-understanding can be achieved only if we value and pursue clarity of thought.

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2. PRECISION
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"Really valuable ideas can only be had

at the price of close attention."
Charles S. Peirce

Critical thinkers also understand the importance of precise thinking in daily life. They
understand that to cut through the confusions and uncertainties that surround many everyday
problems and issues, it is often necessary to insist on precise answers to precise questions:
What exactly is the problem we’re facing? What exactly are the alternatives? What exactly
are the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative? Only when we habitually seek
such precision are we truly critical thinkers.
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3. ACCURACY
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No one can navigate well through life

without an accurate map by which to steer.
Knowledge is the possession of such a map,
and truth is what the map gives us, linking
us to reality.
Tom Morris

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There is a well-known saying about computers: “Garbage in, garbage out.”

Simply put, this means that if you put bad information into a computer, bad information is
exactly what you will get out of it. Much the same is true of human thinking. No matter how
brilliant you may be, you’re almost guaranteed to make bad decisions if your decisions
are based on false information.

Critical thinkers don’t merely value the truth; they have a passion for accurate, timely
information. As consumers, citizens, workers, and parents, they strive to make decisions
that are as informed as possible. Socrates’ famous statement that the unexamined life is
not worth living, they never stop learning, growing, and inquiring.

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4. RELEVANCE
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No tedious and irrelevant discussion can be

allowed; what is said should be pertinent.
Plato

Anyone who has ever sat through a boring school assembly or watched a mud-

slinging political debate can appreciate the importance of staying focused on relevant
ideas and information. A favorite debaters’ trick is to try to distract an audience’s
attention by raising an irrelevant issue.
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5. CONSISTENCY
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The guiding principle of rational behavior is

consistency.
Deborah J. Bennett

It is easy to see why consistency is essential to critical thinking. Logic tells us that if a

person holds inconsistent beliefs, at least one of those beliefs must be false. Critical
thinkers prize truth and so are constantly on the lookout for inconsistencies, both in
their own thinking and in the arguments and assertions of others.

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Inconsistency that we should avoid.

LOGICAL INCONSISTENCY PRACTICAL INCONSISTENCY

It involves saying or believing inconsistent It involves saying one thing and doing

things (i.e things that cannot both or all be another.

true) about a particular matter.

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Critical thinking helps us become aware of such unconscious practical

inconsistencies, allowing us to deal with them on a conscious and rational basis.

It is also common, of course, for people to unknowingly hold inconsistent beliefs

about a particular subject. In fact, as Socrates pointed out long ago, such
unconscious logical inconsistency is far more common than most people suspect.
As we shall see, for example, many today claim that “morality is relative,” while
holding a variety of views that imply that it is not relative.

Critical thinking helps us recognize such logical inconsistencies or, still better, avoid
them altogether.

WAIT
A MINUTE!
RELAX AND TAKE A DEEP BREATHE!

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6. LOGICAL CORRECTNESS

fundamentals

Intelligence means a person who can see implications

and arrive at conclusions.
Talmud

To think logically is to reason correctly—that is, to draw well-founded conclusions from

the beliefs we hold. To think critically we need accurate and well supported beliefs. But,
just as important, we need to be able to reason from those beliefs to conclusions that
logically follow from them.

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7. COMPLETENESS

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It is only when there is completeness and

exhaustiveness that there is scholarship.
Hsün Tzu

In most contexts, we rightly prefer deep and complete thinking to shallow and superficial

thinking. Thus, we justly condemn slipshod criminal investigations, hasty jury deliberations,

superficial news stories, sketchy driving directions, and snap medical diagnoses. Of course,
there are times when it is impossible or inappropriate to discuss an issue in depth; no one
would expect, for example, a thorough and wide-ranging discussion of the ethics of human
genetic research in a short newspaper editorial. Generally speaking, however, thinking is
better when it is deep rather than shallow, thorough rather than superficial.

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8. FAIRNESS

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Closed- mindedness means premature

intellectual old age.
John Dewey

Critical thinking demands that our thinking be fair—that is, open minded, impartial, and free of distorting

biases and preconceptions. That can be very difficult to achieve. Even the most superficial acquaintance
with history and the social sciences tells us that people are often strongly disposed to resist unfamiliar
ideas, to prejudge issues, to stereotype outsiders, and to identify truth with their own self-interest or the
interests of their nation or group. It is probably unrealistic to suppose that our thinking could ever be
completely free of biases and preconceptions; to some extent we all perceive reality in ways that are
powerfully shaped by our individual life experiences and cultural backgrounds. But as difficult as it may be
to achieve, basic fair-mindedness is clearly an essential attribute of a critical thinker

fundamentals

BARRIERS
to critical thinking
fundamentals

If critical thinking is so
important, why is it that
uncritical thinking is so
common ?
fundamentals

The most common barriers to critical thinking:

closed-mindedness
bias prejudice
narrow-mindedness

poor reading skills
rationalization
peer pressure
Lack of relevant background information

relativistic
thinking distrust
in reason

conformism
stereotyping
superstition
scapegoating

provincialism

sociocentrism (group-centered thinking)

unwarranted assumptions egocentrism (self-centered thinking)
fundamentals

Some powerful impediments in critical thinking

1. EGOCENTRISM

”The tendency to see reality as centered on oneself“

.Selfish, self-absorbed people who view their interests, ideas, and values as superior to everyone else’s

Self-interested Self-serving
thinking bias

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SELF-INTERESTED
THINKING

“The tendency to accept and defend beliefs that harmonize with one’s self-interest”.

It is a major obstacle to critical thinking.

Everyone finds it tempting at times to reason that “this benefits me, therefore it must be good”; but from a
critical thinking standpoint, such “reasoning” is a sham. Implicit in such thinking is the assumption that “What
is most important is what I want and need.” But why should I, or anyone else, accept such an arbitrary and
obviously self-serving assumption? What makes your wants and needs more important than everyone else’s?

SELF-SERVING

BIASNESS

as better in some respect than one actually is.”
“The tendency to overrate oneself—to see oneself

Studies show that self-serving bias is an extremely common trait. In one survey one million high school seniors
were asked to rate themselves on their “ability to get along with others.” Not a single respondent rated himself
below average in such ability.9 Other surveys have shown that 90 percent of business managers and more
than 90 percent of college professors rate their performance as better than average.
We all like to feel good about ourselves. Nobody likes to think of himself or herself as being “below average” in
some important respect.

fundamentals

OVERCONFIDENCE IS AN OBSTACLE TO GENUINE

PERSONAL AND INTELLECTUAL GROWTH.

ARE YOU OVERCONFIDENT

IN YOUR BELIEFS?

fundamentals

Here’s a simple test to determine if

you are.
For each of the following ten items, provide a low and a high guess such that you are 90
percent sure the correct answer falls between the two. Your challenge is to be neither
too narrow (i.e., overconfident) nor too wide (i.e., underconfident).

If you successfully meet the challenge, you should have 10 percent misses—that is,
exactly one miss.

fundamentals

90% Confidence Range high low

Length of Nile River (in miles)
Socrates' age at death
Diameter of the moon (in miles)
Current population of Qatar
Deepest known point in the ocean (in feet)
Age of an oldest star in the universe
Air distance from Pakistan to Iran (in miles)
How many species of fish are known
How long does spacecraft takes to get to mars
Remaining hectares of forests in the world

fundamentals

Some powerful impediments in critical thinking

2. SOCIOCENTRISM

”Just as egocentrism can hinder rational thinking by focusing excessively on the self“
.It can hinder rational thinking by focusing excessively on the group

Group Bias Conformism

fundamentals

GROUP BIAS

“THE TENDENCY TO SEE ONE’S OWN GROUP AS BEING INHERENTLY BETTER THAN OTHERS.”
(nation, tribe, sect, peer group, and the like)

Most people absorb group bias unconsciously, usually from early childhood. It is common,
for example, for people to grow up thinking that their society’s beliefs, institutions, and
values are better than those of other societies.

Most people outgrow such childish nationalistic biases to some extent, few of us manage
to outgrow them completely. Clearly, this kind of “mine-is-better” thinking lies at the root
of a great deal of human conflict, intolerance, and oppression.

fundamentals

CONFORMISM

THE CROWD”
“TENDENCY TO FOLLOW
To conform (often unthinkingly) to authority or to group standards of conduct and belief.

When fifty million people say a foolish thing it is still

a foolish thing.
Anatole France

 fundamentals

Some powerful impediments in critical thinking

3. UNWARRANTED
ASSUMPTIONS
“An assumption is something we take for granted, something we believe to be true without any
proof or conclusive evidence.”

Warranted assumptions
ALMOST EVERYTHING WE THINK AND

DO IS BASED ON ASSUMPTIONS.
ALTHOUGH WE OFTEN HEAR THE
INJUNCTION “DON’T ASSUME,”

Unwarranted assumptions

fundamentals

WARRANTED ASSUMPTIONS

You go to class at the scheduled time because you assume that class is being

held at its normal hour and in its same place. You don’t call the professor each
day to ask if class is being held; you just assume that it is. Such assumptions are
warranted, which means that we have good
reason to hold them. When you see a
driver coming toward you with the turn signal on, you have good reason to
believe that the driver intends to turn. You may be incorrect, and it might be safer
to withhold action until you are certain, but your assumption is not unreasonable.

fundamentals

UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTIONS

Unwarranted assumptions, however, are unreasonable. An unwarranted

assumption is something taken for
granted without good reason. Such
assumptions often prevent us from seeing things clearly. For example, our

assume that he or she feels the same
attraction for someone might cause us to
way and thus to interpret that person’s actions incorrectly.

fundamentals

Some powerful impediments in critical thinking

4. STEREOTYPE

“ Stereotypes are arrived at through a process known as hasty generalization, in which one
draws a conclusion about a large class of things (in this case, people) from a small sample.”

When we form an opinion of someone that is based not on his or her individual qualities

but, rather, on his or her membership in a particular group, we are assuming that all or
virtually all members of that group are alike. Because people are not identical, no
matter what race or other similarities they share, stereotypical conceptions will often be
false or misleading.

fundamentals

EXERCISE
fundamentals

READ THE STORY

AND ANSWER THE
QUESTIONS THAT
FOLLOW.
fundamentals

Some powerful impediments in critical thinking

5. WISHFUL
THINKING
“Believing something because it makes one feel good, not because
there is good reason for thinking that it is true.”

A MAN HEARS WHAT

HE WANTS TO HEAR
AND DISREGARDS THE REST.
PAUL SIMON

fundamentals

Have you ever been guilty of wishful thinking—believing something

not because you had good evidence for it but simply because you
wished it were true? If so, you’re not alone. Throughout human
history, reason has battled with wishful thinking and has usually
come out the loser. People fear the unknown and invent comforting
myths to render the universe less hostile and more predictable.

fundamentals

characteristics
OF CRITICAL THINKERS
C HAVE A PASSIONATE DRIVE FOR CLARITY,
PRECISION, ACCURACY, AND OTHER CRITICAL
THINKING STANDARDS.
01
OFTEN THINK IN WAYS THAT ARE UNCLEAR,
IMPRECISE, AND INACCURATE.
U
R

N
I C
T T ARE SKILLED AT UNDERSTANDING,
ANALYZING, AND EVALUATING ARGUMENTS
AND VIEWPOINTS.
02
OFTEN MISUNDERSTAND OR EVALUATE
UNFAIR ARGUMENTS AND VIEWPOINTS.
R T
I H

I H
C I T I
A N THINK INDEPENDENTLY AND ARE NOT
AFRAID TO DISAGREE WITH GROUP OPINION. 03
TEND TO ENGAGE IN “GROUPTHINK,”
UNCRITICALLY FOLLOWING THE BELIEFS I N
L K

AND VALUES OF THE CROWD.

C K
E

E A
R ARE AWARE OF THE BIASES AND
PRECONCEPTIONS THAT SHAPE THE WAY
04
LACK AWARENESS OF THEIR OWN BIASES
AND PRECONCEPTIONS.
L R
S THEY PERCEIVE THE WORLD.

S
C U
R BASE THEIR BELIEFS ON FACTS AND EVIDENCE
OFTEN BASE BELIEFS ON MERE PERSONAL
N
I RATHER THAN ON PERSONAL PREFERENCE OR
SELF-INTEREST.
05 PREFERENCE OR SELF INTEREST. C
T T R T

I H REASON LOGICALLY AND DRAW THINK ILLOGICALLY AND DRAW

I H
C I APPROPRIATE CONCLUSIONS FROM
EVIDENCE AND DATA.
06 UNSUPPORTED CONCLUSIONS FROM
EVIDENCE AND DATA.
T I
N

A N I

L K LISTEN OPEN-MINDEDLY TO OPPOSING ARE CLOSED-MINDED AND RESIST

C K
E POINTS OF VIEW AND WELCOME CRITICISMS
OF BELIEFS AND ASSUMPTIONS..
07 CRITICISMS OF BELIEFS AND
ASSUMPTIONS.
A E
R

L R
S S
fundamentals

ACTIVITY
LEFT IS RIGHT,
SO IS RIGHT
ACTIVITY

OVERVIEW:
Participants will take a test that reveals which hemisphere of the brain dominates their thinking and
will then work in groups to generate creative responses to a hypothetical prompt.

OBJECTIVE:
To provide participants with information regarding their personal thinking styles.

SUPPLIES:
Copies of Worksheet #16-1, one per participant (Note: At first, only half of the participants will receive
the worksheet.)

TIME:
15–20 minutes
ACTIVITY

DIRECTIONS:

Sit in front of your partner. Do not let him or her see this paper. Read the directions
to yourself before giving your partner the test. Do NOT read these directions aloud. Explain that
you are going to ask ten questions. You are actually not at all concerned about the answers
given because... YOU ARE GOING TO WATCH THE PERSON’S EYES TO SEE IN WHICH
DIRECTION HE OR SHE FIRST GLANCES WHEN WORKING OUT THE ANSWER.

Place a check in the appropriate column. If the person glances to his or her left, check
the left column. Similarly, check the right column if the person glances immediately to his or her
right, or if the person glances up and then to the right. If your partner does not look in either
direction, do not check either box. Now you’re ready to read the questions to your partner.
critical thinking training batch 02

thank you!
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