Chapter One
Introduction
• Objective
– To understand AI and related concept
(Knowledge base and intelligent system)
– Understand the components of AI system
– Get a feel of application areas of AI
– Get a feel of scholars view to define AI
– Briefly discuss the difference between Expert
system and other systems
12/17/2022 1
Introduction
• Intelligence is a general mental capability that
involves the ability to reason, plan, solve
problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas
and language, and learn.
• Intelligence draws on a variety of mental
processes, including memory, learning,
perception, decision-making, thinking, and
reasoning.
12/17/2022 2
Human Intelligence
How does our brain work when we solve a problem?
Do we think it over and suddenly find an answer?
What do we do when solving a complicated factorization problem, a puzzle
or a mystery?
How do people Reason?
They create categories and relate one concept to another: Reasoning by analogy:
– From the fact that: A is like B. M is in A. N is in B. Can we say “M is like
N”?
They use specific rules : rule-based reasoning
– if ‘a’ then ’b’ and if ‘b’ then ‘c’ THEN a b c
They use Past Experience – “CASES” (case-based reasoning)
- Similarities of current and previous case
- Store cases using key attributes
They Use “Expectations” (probabilistic reasoning)
With the help of previous experience they use Heuristics - “Rule of thumb” to
guess the probability of occurrence of events or guess solution for the
problem at hand.
12/17/2022 3
Deductive and inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning: exact reasoning. It
deals with exact facts and exact
conclusions
– Gravity makes things fall. Hence, the apple that
hit my head was due to gravity.
• Inductive reasoning: reasoning from a set
of facts or individual cases to a general
conclusion
– How much to Buy ? The base costs is X, extra
cost is Y, plus tax is at Z. Hence, it is better to
deal at XYZ.
– Can we cut cost ? Heating cost X, lighting Y,
parts Z, total cost is XYZ which is greater than
our revenue R. Hence, we must cut costs.
12/17/2022 4
Introduction
• The term AI is first used by John McCarthy (1956)
who considers it to mean the science and
engineering of making intelligent machine.
12/17/2022 5
Introduction
• AI system is used in control, planning, and scheduling,
recognition of handwriting, natural language, speech and
face
• Memory of Intelligent system is used to store knowledge
base which is the key for success for artificial intelligent
systems.
• AI attempt to understand intelligent entities as well as to
build them in order to understand human behavior.
• The idea is to develop an intelligent systems that has
human level intelligence or better if possible.
12/17/2022 6
Introduction cont…
• AI system possess
– Natural language processing to enable it to
communicate successfully in human language
– Knowledge representation to store what it knows or
hears
– Automated reasoning to use the stored information to
answer questions and to draw new conclusions
– Machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to
detect and extrapolate patterns
– Computer vision to perceive objects
– Robotics to manipulate objects and move about
–12/17/2022
And others 7
Views of defining AI
• What is AI (Artificial Intelligence)
– Different scholars define AI differently
(A) AI as a system (B) AI as a system
that think humanly that think rationally
Concerned with
Concerned with
thought processing
behaviors of agents
and reasoning
(C) AI as a system (D) AI as a system
that Act humanly that Act rationally
12/17/2022 8
Views of defining AI
measures success of AI in
terms of human being
performance
(A) AI as a system (C) AI as a system
that think humanly that Act humanly
measures success of AI in
terms of ideal concept of
intelligence (rationality)
(B) AI as a system (D) AI as a system
that think rationally that Act rationally
12/17/2022 9
Views of defining AI
• AI as systems that think humanly
– “The automation of activities that we associate
with human thinking, activities such as decision-
making, problem solving, learning …” (Bellman
definition, 1978)
– “The exciting new effort to make computers think
… machines with minds, in the full and literal
sense” (Haugeland definition, 1985)
12/17/2022 10
Thinking humanly: cognitive modeling
• Requires:
– Scientific theories of internal activities of the brain
– How human thinks?
• How to validate a given agent think humanly?
• The answer Requires either
1. Predicting and testing the behavior of human subjects from
his/her thinking point of view (top-down) or
2. Direct identification from neurological data (bottom-up)
• Study on Mental processing logic of human being
(cognitive science) is not yet fertile
12/17/2022 11
Views of defining AI
• AI as systems that act humanly
– “The art of creating machines that perform
functions that require intelligence when performed
by people.” (Kurzweil definition, 1990)
– “The study of how to make computers do things at
which, at the moment, people are better.” (Rich
and Knight definition, 1991)
12/17/2022 12
Acting humanly: Turing Test
Turing (1950) on his famous paper "Computing machinery and
intelligence":
"Can machines think?" "Can machines behave intelligently?"
Operational test for intelligent behavior: the Imitation Game
Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a 30% chance
of fooling a person for 5 minutes
Anticipated all major arguments against AI in following 50
years
Active areas of research to achieve this: Machine learning,
NLP, Computer vision, etc
12/17/2022 13
Introduction cont…
• AI as systems that think rationally
– A system is said to be rational if it does the “right thing”
given what it knows.
– “The study of mental faculties through the use of
computational models.” (Charniak and McDermott
definition, 1985)
– “The study of the computations that make it possible to
perceive, reason, and act.” (Winston definition, 1992)
12/17/2022 14
Thinking rationally: "laws of thought"
• Right thinking is related to irrefutable reasoning process
• Require structure that always gave correct conclusion given
correct premises
• Logic is the key to design and implement an agent that think
rationally
• Several Greek schools developed various forms of logic: notation
and rules of derivation for thoughts;
• Direct line through mathematics and philosophy to modern AI
• Problems:
1. Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by logical deliberation
(unable to take informal knowledge for decision making
process)
2. What is the purpose of thinking? What thoughts should I have?
(there is a big difference between being able to solve a problem
“in principle” and doing so “in practice”
12/17/2022 15
Introduction cont…
• AI as systems that act rationally
– “Computational intelligence is the study of the
design of intelligent agent” (Poole, et al definition,
1998)
– “AI … is concerned with intelligent behavior in
artifacts.” (Nilsson definition, 1998)
– The course advocates to agents that act rationally
12/17/2022 16
Acting rationally: rational agent
• Means acting so as to achieve one’s goals, given one’s
beliefs.
• In this approach, AI is viewed as the study and construction
of rational agent
• Rational behavior: doing the right thing
• The right thing: is the action/decision which is expected to
maximize goal achievement, given the available information
• Doesn't necessarily involve thinking
– e.g., blinking reflex
• One way of acting rationally is to reason logically to the
action. This indicates, making correct inference is part of
being a rational agent
• But rationality doesn’t require correct inference because
some time without having correct thing to do, agent must
act rationally
12/17/2022 17
Introduction cont…
• AI follows all the four approach but tension existing
between approaches which are centered around human
and rationality.
• Human centered approach must be empirical science,
involving hypothesis and experimental confirmation.
• A rationalist approach involves a combination of
mathematics and engineering
• This course focus on the study of a rational agent that
think and act rationally.
12/17/2022 18
Some Application areas of AI
12/17/2022 19
AI prehistory
• Philosophy Logic, methods of reasoning, mind as
physical system foundations of learning,
language, rationality
• Mathematics Formal representation and proof
algorithms, computation, (un) decidability,
(in) tractability, probability
• Economics Decision theory
• Neuroscience physical substrate for mental activity
• Psychology phenomena of perception and motor
control, experimental techniques
• Computer building fast computers
engineering
• Control theory design systems that maximize an objective
function over time
• Linguistics knowledge representation, syntax,
grammar
12/17/2022 20
History of AI
• Warren McClloch and Walter Pitts (1943)
– 1st AI work: Boolean circuit model of the brain
– Drew on three sources
1. Knowledge of the basic physiology and function of neurons in
the brain
2. The formal analysis of propositional logic due to Russell and
Whitehead
3. Turing’s theory of computation
They proposed a model of artificial neurons
They showed any computable function could be
computed by some network of connected neurons
They also suggested that suitably defined networks
could learn
12/17/2022 21
History of AI
– Claude Shannon (1950) and Alan Turing (1953)
Write a chess program
• Marvin Minisky and Dean Edmonds (1951)
Built the 1st neural network computer
12/17/2022 22
History of AI Cont..
• Newell and Simon develop a reasoning program called the
Logic Theorist (LT) before Dartmouth workshop
• They then come up with the General Problem Solver
(GPS)
• GPS, unlike LT, is designed to imitate human problem
solving protocols and it is the 1st program to embody the
“thinking humanly” approach of AI
• Herbert Gelernter, 1959 constructed the Geometry
12/17/2022 23
Theorem Prover (GTP)
History of AI Cont..
• Arthur Samuel, 1952 wrote a series of checker
programs
– It can learn, which disprove the idea that computer can
only do what they are told to do
– His program play better than the creator
• John Mcarty, 1958 at MIT
– Define the 2nd old high level programming language,
LISP which is the 1st and dominant AI programming
language
– Invent time sharing concept with his friend to avoid the
problem of time as a resource.
12/17/2022 24
History of AI Cont..
• 1958 is also marked the year that Marvin Minisky
moved to MIT
• Minisky supervised a series of students who choose
limited problems that appeared to require intelligence
to solve (this problems known as Micro world)
• The most dominant micro world problem is the block
world
• It consists of a set of solid blocks placed on top of the
table
12/17/2022 25
Summary on history of AI
• 1943 McCulloch & Pitts: Boolean circuit model of brain
• 1950 Turing's "Computing Machinery and Intelligence"
• 1956 Dartmouth meeting: "Artificial Intelligence" adopted
• 1952—69 Look, Ma, no hands!
• 1950s Early AI programs, including Samuel's checkers
program, Newell & Simon's Logic Theorist,
Gelernter's Geometry Engine
• 1965 Robinson's complete algorithm for logical reasoning
• 1966—73 AI discovers computational complexity
Neural network research almost disappears
• 1969—79 Early development of knowledge-based systems
• 1980-- AI becomes an industry
• 1986-- Neural networks return to popularity
• 1987-- AI becomes a science
• 1995-- The emergence of intelligent agents
12/17/2022 26
Basic Kinds of Systems
• System is a set of components that interact to
each other in a logical way to achieve specific
goals.
• There are different types of system based on
the services, the user type, and the method of
operations
• Some of the systems includes:
– Information Systems
– Database Management System
– Information Retrieval System
12/17/2022 27
– Expert System
• Information Systems
– Is a system whether automated or manual, that comprises
people, machines, and/or methods organized to collect,
process, transmit, and disseminate data that represent user
information
– Provides the information to the appropriate user at the right
time and place.
• Data Base Management System
– DBMS is a software designed for the purpose of managing a
database
– A database is a structured collection of records or data that is
stored in a computer so that a program can consult it to answer
queries.
12/17/2022 28
• Information Retrieval System
– It is the science of
• searching for information in documents,
• searching for documents themselves
• searching for metadata which describe documents, or
• searching within database, whether relational stand-
alone databases or hyper textually-networked databases
such as the World Wide Web.
– It is used to reduce information overloading
12/17/2022 29
Expert system
• An expert system, also known as a knowledge based
system, is a computer program that contains some of
the subject-specific (domain specific) knowledge of one
or more human experts.
• Is a system with two basic components:
– Knowledge base, which model the knowledge of an
expert in the area under consideration
– Inference engine
• When it is used by non expert user, it can serve as an
expert that guide the user to make an expert decision.
(doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc)
12/17/2022 30
Expert system
• Examples:
• Dendral, MYCIN, PUFF, ELIZA, BTDS, etc.
• Dendral expert system:
– The primary aim to aid organic chemists with
identification of unknown organic molecules by
analyzing information from mass spectrometry
graphs and the knowledge of chemistry
12/17/2022 31
Expert system
• MYCIN:
– Written in LISP around 1970s and derived from Dendral
expert system
– was designed to diagnose infectious blood diseases and
recommend antibiotics, with the dosage adjusted for
patient's body weight
– It would query the physician/patient running the
program via a long series of simple yes/no or textual
questions.
– At the end, it provides
• a list of possible cause bacteria ranked from high to low based
on the probability of each diagnosis,
• its confidence in each diagnosis' probability
• the reasoning behind each diagnosis
12/17/2022 32
– It has around ~50 rules
Expert system
• PUFF:
– PUFF can diagnose the presence and severity of lung
disease and produce reports for the patient's file
– Is an Expert System that interprets lung function test
data and has become a working tool in the pulmonary
physiology lab of a large number of hospital
– Puff went into production at Pacific Medical Center in
San Francisco in 1977.
– Several hundred copies have been sold and are in use
around the world.
12/17/2022 33
Expert system
• ELIZA :
– ELIZA is a very well-known artificial intelligence program
designed to emulate a Rogerian psychotherapist.
– The basic elements of Carl Rogers' new way of therapy was to
have a more personal relationship with the patient, to help the
patient reach a state of realization that they can help themselves
– ELIZA was showcased for a number of years at the MIT AI
Laboratory.
– ELIZA has no reasoning ability, cannot learn
– ELIZA only appears to understand because "she" uses canned
responses based on keywords, as well as string substitution
– Visit and interact with ELIZA at http://www-ai.ijs.si/eliza/eliza.html
12/17/2022 34
Expert system
• ELIZA :
– Eliza: Hello. I am ELIZA. How can I help you?
– You: I am Leykun
– Eliza: How long have you been Leykun?
– You: ten years
– Eliza: Please go on.
– You: do you know Ethiopia
– Eliza: Oh, i know ethiopia.
– You: do you understand Amharic
– Eliza: Oh, i understand amharic.
12/17/2022 35
Strong AI vs. Weak AI
• AI is the concept that it is possible for a machine to think in the
same sense as human do.
• Strong AI: argues that is possible that one day a computer will be
invented which can be called a mind in the fullest sense of the
word. That means,
– Computers can think, reason, imagine, etc. and do all the things
that we currently associate with human brain.
• Weak AI: argues that computers can only appear to think and are
not actually conscious in the same way as human brains are.
12/17/2022 36
• AI Demo
12/17/2022 37
