A Technical Report on

Social Distancing tool using Ultrasonic sensor and Arduino

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

by

Bajarla Ismail :19AT5A0203

R Dileep Reddy :18AT1A0209
Akumalla Arun :19AT5A0214
Shaik Fayaz :19AT5A0219

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

G. PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
(Accredited by NAAC of UGC with “A” Grade, Accredited by NBA (ECE, CSE & EEE)
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Recognized by UGC under 2 (f) & 12 (B) &
Permanently Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur)
Pasupula (v), Nandikotkur Road, Kurnool – 518 452, Andhra Pradesh

2021-2022

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 G. PULLAIAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
(Accredited by NAAC of UGC with “A” Grade, Accredited by NBA (ECE, CSE & EEE)
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Recognized by UGC under 2 (f) & 12 (B) &
Permanently Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Anantapur)
Pasupula (v), Nandikotkur Road, Kurnool – 518 452, Andhra Pradesh

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the socially relevant project report entitled Social Distancing tool
using Ultrasonic sensor and Arduino being submitted by Bajarla Ismail
(19AT5A0203), R Dileep Reddy (18AT1A0209), Akumalla Arun (19AT5A0219), Shaik
Fayaz (19AT5A0219) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree
of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to G. Pullaiah
College of Engineering and Technology, Kurnool.

Dr. G. Pandu Ranga Reddy MTech. Ph.D. Dr. M. Rama Prasad Reddy MTech., Ph.D.
Project Supervisor Head of the Department

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 CHAPTER-I: INTRODUCTION

SOCIAL DISTANCING TOOL USING ULTRASONIC SENSOR

AND ARDUINO

1.1. ABSTRACT:
Coronavirus disease (Covid-19) is an infectious disease that is caused by a
newly discovered virus, known as the coronavirus that comes under the category of
SARS. It has been originated in Wuhan, China, and has spread across the whole world
like the "fire in the forest". Due to the increase in the pandemic day by day, the
number of people infected by it is in the millions and the deaths are in lakhs. The
transmission of the virus is through physical contact from person to person/objects and
gets multiplied to pass to the community. The technique which can help to reduce the
virus is social distancing. This paper proposes a device that gives actual and real-time
information observed by the device. It helps the person to remind of having social
distancing. The hardware, run by the Arduino programmed software, is small and can
be easily carried.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig.1.1: Arduino kit connections with all components

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1.2. DESCRIPTION:
In this project, we will discuss how to measure distance using
ultrasonic sensor HCSR04 and Arduino with circuit diagram and Arduino
code. This HC-SR04 sensor and Arduino circuit also can be used as a
touchless doorbell or distance measuring tool.

1.3. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS:

 HC SR04 Ultrasonic sensor

 Arduino Uno/Nano
 DC Buzzer
 Jumper wires
 Bread board
 LED

1.4. SOFTWARE SPECIFICATIONS:

 Arduino compiler, Arduino IDE
 MC Programming Language: Embedded C

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 CHAPTER- II- WORKING

2.1. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1.1. DEFINITIONS:
An Embedded system is a combination of hardware and software, it is also named
“Firmware”. An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system, which is
completely encapsulated by the device it controls. It is a computer-controlled system. An
embedded system is a specialized system that is a part of a larger system or machine. As a
part of a larger system, it largely determines its functionality. Embedded systems are
electronic devices that incorporate microprocessors in their implementations. The main
purpose of microprocessors is to simplify the system design and improve flexibility. In
embedded systems, the software is often stored in a read-only memory (RAM) chip.
Embedded systems provide several major functions including monitoring the analog
environment by reading data from sensors and controlling actuators.
The general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used
to control, monitor, or assist the operation of equipment, machinery, or plant. “Embedded”
reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. All embedded systems are
including computers or microcontrollers. Some of these computers are however very
simple systems as compared with a personal computer. The very simple embedded systems
are capable of performing only a simple function or set of functions to meet a single
predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application program that enables the
embedded system to the user for a particular purpose in a specific application determines
the functioning of the embedded system the ability to have a program means that the same
embedded system can be used for a variety of different purpose. Controller input comes
from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or activator which (for example)
may start or stop the operation of a machine.

2.1.2. EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

Embedded systems are found in wide range of application areas. Originally, they
were used only for expensive industrial control applications, but as technology brought
down the cost of dedicated processors, they began to appear in moderately expensive
applications such as automobiles, communication and office equipment’s and television
Today's embedded systems are so inexpensive that they are used in almost every electronic

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product in our life. Embedded systems are often designed for mass production.
Some examples of embedded systems:
· Automatic Teller Machines
· Cellular telephone and telephone switches
· Computer network equipment
· Computer printers
· Disk drives
· Engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles
· Home automation products
· Handheld calculators
· Household appliances
· Medical equipment
· Measurement equipment
· Multifunction wrist watches
· Multifunction printers

2.2. SYSTEM STUDY

2.2.1. Feasibility Study
The feasibility of the project is analysed in this phase and the business proposal
is put forth with a very general plan for the project and some cost estimates. During
system analysis, the feasibility study of the proposed system is to be carried out. This
is to ensure that the proposed system is not a burden to the company. For feasibility
analysis, some understanding of the major requirements for the system is essential.
Threes key considerations involved in the feasibility analysis are
 ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY
 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
 SOCIAL FEASIBILITY

2.2.2. Economic Feasibility

This study is carried out to check the economic impact that the system will have
on the organization. The amount of fund that the company can pour into the research and
development of the system is limited. The expenditures must be justified. Thus, the
developed system as well within the budget and this was achieved because most of the
technologies used are freely available. Only the customized products had to be purchased.

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2.2.3. Technical Feasibility
This study is carried out to check the technical feasibility, that is, the
technical requirements of the system. Any system developed must not have a high demand
on the available technical resources. This will lead to high demands on the available
technical resources. This will lead to high demands being placed on the client. The
developed system must have a modest requirement, as only minimal or null changes are
required for implementing this system.
2.2.4. Social Feasibility
The aspect of study is to check the level of acceptance of the system by the
user. This includes the process of training the user to use the system efficiently. The user
must not feel threatened by the system, instead must accept it as a necessity. The level of
acceptance by the users solely depends on the methods that are employed to educate the
user about the system and to make him familiar with it. His level of confidence must be
raised so that he is also able to make some constructive criticism, which is welcomed, as he
is the final user of the system.

2.3. LITERATURE SURVEY

Literature survey is the most important step in Hardware and software development
process. Before developing the tool it is necessary to determine the time factor, economy n
company strength. Once these things r satisfied, the ten next steps are to determine which
operating system and language can be used for developing the tool. Once
the programmers start building the tool the programmers need a lot of external support.
This support can be obtained from senior programmers, from the book, or from websites.
Before building the system the above considerations r taken into account for developing
the proposed system.

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 CHAPTER-III: HARDWARE AND MODELS

3.1. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION:

3.1.1. ARDUINO UNO:
The Arduino UNO is the best board to get started with electronics and coding. If
this is your first experience tinkering with the platform, the UNO is the most robust board
you can start playing with. The UNO is the most used and documented board of the whole
Arduino family.

Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P (datasheet). It

has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs,
a 16 MHz ceramic resonator (CSTCE16M0V53-R0), a USB connection, a power jack, an
ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything needed to support the
microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with an AC-
to-DC adapter or battery to get started. You can tinker with your Uno without worrying too
much about doing something wrong, in the worst-case scenario you can replace the chip
for a few dollars and start over again. "Uno" means one in Italian and was chosen to mark
the release of Arduino Software (IDE) 1.0. The Uno board and version 1.0 of Arduino
Software (IDE) were the reference versions of Arduino, now evolved to newer releases.
The Uno board is the first in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for
the Arduino platform; for an extensive list of current, past, or outdated boards see the
Arduino index of boards.
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and
software. Arduino boards can read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or a
Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED,
publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of
instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino
programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based
on Processing.

Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday
objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students,
hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-source

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platform, their contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible
knowledge that can be of great help to novices and experts alike.
Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast
prototyping, aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming. As
soon as it reached a wider community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new
needs and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT
applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments. All Arduino boards are
completely open-source, empowering users to build them independently and eventually
adapt them to their particular needs. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing
through the contributions of users worldwide.

Arduino is an open-source programmable circuit board that can be integrated into a

wide variety of maker space projects both simple and complex. This board contains
a microcontroller that can be programmed to sense and control objects in the physical
world. By responding to sensors and inputs, the Arduino can interact with a large array of
outputs such as LEDs, motors, and displays. Because of its flexibility and low
cost, Arduino has become a very popular choice for makers and maker spaces looking to
create interactive hardware projects.
Arduino was introduced back in 2005 in Italy by Massimo Banzi as a way for non-
engineers to have access to a low-cost, simple tool for creating hardware projects. Since
the board is open-source, it is released under a Creative Commons license which allows
anyone to produce their board. If you search the web, you will find there are hundreds of
Arduino compatible clones and variations available but the only official boards have
Arduino in their name.
Arduino is a great platform for prototyping projects and inventions but can be
confusing when having to choose the right board. If you’re brand new to this, you might
have always thought that there was just one “Arduino” board and that’s it. In reality, there
are many variations of the official Arduino boards and then there are hundreds more from
competitors who offer clones. But don’t worry, we’re going to show you which one to start
with later on in this tutorial.
Below are a few examples of the different types of Arduino boards out there. The
boards with the name Arduino on them are the official boards but there are also a lot of
really great clones on the market. One of the best reasons to buy a clone is the fact they are
generally less expensive than their official counterpart. Adafruit and Sparkfun for example,
sell variations of the Arduino boards which cost less but still have the same quality as the
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originals. One word of caution, be careful when buying boards from companies you don’t
know.

Fig.3.1: Types of Arduino kits are used in present scenario

The Arduino Uno is an open-source microcontroller board based on
the Microchip ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino. cc. The board is
equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that may be interfaced to
various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The board has 14 digital I/O pins (six
capable of PWM output), 6 analog I/O pins, and is programmable with the Arduino
IDE (Integrated Development Environment), via a type B USB cable. It can be powered by
a USB cable or by an external 9-volt battery, though it accepts voltages between 7 and 20
volts. It is similar to the Arduino Nano and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is
distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available
on the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are
also available.
The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet flexible enough for
advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Teachers and students use it to build
low-cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics principles, or to get started
with programming and robotics. Designers and architects build interactive prototypes,
musicians and artists use them for installations and to experiment with new musical
instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many of the projects exhibited at the Maker
Faire, for example. Arduino is a key tool to learn new things. Anyone - children, hobbyists,
artists, programmers - can start tinkering just following the step-by-step instructions of a
kit, or sharing ideas online with other members of the Arduino community.

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 There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for
physical computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's
Handyboard, and many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy
details of microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino
also simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantages
for teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems:
 Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other
microcontroller platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can
be assembled by hand, and even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than
$50
 Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX,
and Linux operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to
Windows.
 Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to-
use for beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as
well. For teachers, it's conveniently based on the Processing programming
environment, so students learning to program in that environment will be familiar
with how the Arduino IDE works.
 Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as an
open-source tool, available for extension by experienced programmers. The
language can be expanded through C++ libraries, and people wanting to understand
the technical details can make the leap from Arduino to the AVR C programming
language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code directly into
your Arduino programs if you want to.
 Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the Arduino boards are
published under a Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers can
make their version of the module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively
inexperienced users can build the breadboard version of the module to understand
how it works and save money.

 The word "no" means "one" in Italian and was chosen to mark the initial release
of Arduino Software. The Uno board is the first in a series of USB-based Arduino
boards; it and version 1.0 of the Arduino IDE were the reference versions of
Arduino, which have now evolved to newer releases. The ATmega328 on the board

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 comes preprogrammed with a bootloader that allows uploading new code to it
without the use of an external hardware programmer.
 While the Uno communicates using the original STK500 protocol, it differs from
all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip.
Instead, it uses the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as
a USB-to-serial converter.

Fig: 3.2: Compatible Arduino kits, Description& pins which are used

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 Fig: 3.3: A Typical Arduino UNO Kit with pins

Fig:3.4: Complete pin elaboration in all the components that are used

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Board Breakdown
Here are the components that make up an Arduino board and what each of their functions
are.

1. Reset Button – This will restart any code that is loaded to the Arduino board
2. AREF – Stands for “Analog Reference” and is used to set an external reference
voltage
3. Ground Pin – There are a few ground pins on the Arduino and they all work the same
4. Digital Input/Output –  Pins 0-13 can be used for digital input or output
5. PWM – The pins marked with the (~) symbol can simulate analog output
6. USB Connection – Used for powering up your Arduino and uploading sketches
7. TX/RX – Transmit and receive data indication LEDs
8. ATmega Microcontroller –  This is the brains and is where the programs are stored
9. Power LED Indicator – This LED lights up anytime the board is plugged in a power
source
10. Voltage Regulator – This controls the amount of voltage going into the Arduino board
11. DC Power Barrel Jack  – This is used for powering your Arduino with a power
supply
12. 3.3V Pin – This pin supplies 3.3 volts of power to your projects
13. 5V Pin – This pin supplies 5 volts of power to your projects
14. Ground Pins –  There are a few ground pins on the Arduino and they all work the
same
15. Analog Pins –  These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor and convert it to
digital

2.1.1. Arduino Power Supply:

The Arduino Uno needs a power source in order for it to operate and can be powered in a
variety of ways.  You can do what most people do and connect the board directly to your
computer via a USB cable.  If you want your project to be mobile, consider using a 9V
battery pack to give it juice.  The last method would be to use a 9V AC power supply.

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 Fig.3.5: Arduino kit Power Supply Adapter and Cable

3.1.2. Arduino Breadboard

Another very important item when working with Arduino is a solderless breadboard.  This
device allows you to prototype your Arduino project without having to permanently solder
the circuit together.  Using a breadboard allows you to create temporary prototypes and
experiment with different circuit designs.  Inside the holes (tie points) of the plastic
housing, are metal clips which are connected to each other by strips of conductive material.

Fig.3.6: A Typical Bread Board

On a side note, the breadboard is not powered on its own and needs power brought to it
from the Arduino board using jumper wires.  These wires are also used to form the circuit
by connecting resistors, switches and other components together.

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 Fig.3.7: Connecting wires/ Patch Chords

Here is a visual of what a completed Arduino circuit looks like when connected to a
breadboard.

Fig.3.8: Final kit made with all connections

 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin is high value, the
LED is on, when the pin is low, it is off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it is using an external
power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the
power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector
(5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins
bypasses the regulator, and can damage the board.

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 3V3: A 3.3-volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is
50 mA.
 GND: Ground pins.
 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuine board provides the voltage reference with
which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF
pin voltage and select the appropriate power source, or enable voltage translators on
the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.
 Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields that block the one on the board.

3.1.3. Special pin functions:

Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input or
output, under software control (using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead()
functions). They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as the
recommended operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by
default) of 20-50K ohm. A maximum of 40mA must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to
avoid permanent damage to the microcontroller. The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0
through A5; each provides 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default,
they measure from ground to 5 volts, though it is possible to change the upper end of the
range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
 Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX)
TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the
ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL serial chip.
 External interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM (pulse-width modulation): pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Can provide 8-bit
PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and 13
(SCK). These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
 TWI (two-wire interface) / I²C: pin SDA (A4) and pin SCL (A5). Support TWI
communication using the Wire library.
 AREF (analog reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs.

3.1.4. Communication:

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 The Arduino/Genuino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a
computer, another Arduino/Genuine board, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328
provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX)
and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB
and appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The 16U2 firmware uses the
standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows,
a .inf file is required. Arduino Software (IDE) includes a serial monitor which allows
simple textual data to be sent to and from the board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board
will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to
the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1). A SoftwareSerial library
allows serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.

3.1.5Automatic (Software) Reset:

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino/Genuino Uno board is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by software
running on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines (DTR) of the
ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a 100 nanofarad
capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset
the chip.
This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to a computer
running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software
(via USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno.
While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new
code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is
opened.

3.1.6. The Compilation Process:

The Arduino code is actually just plain old c without all the header part (the
includes and all). when you press the 'compile' button, the IDE saves the current file as
arduino.c in the 'lib/build' directory then it calls a make file contained in the 'lib' directory.
This makefile copies arduino.c as prog.c into 'lib/tmp' adding 'wiringlite.inc' as the
beginning of it. this operation makes the arduino/wiring code into a proper c file (called
prog.c).
After this, it copies all the files in the 'core' directory into 'lib/tmp'. these files are the
implementation of the various arduino/wiring commands adding to these files adds
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commands to the language
The core files are supported by pascal stang's procyon avr-lib that is contained in
the 'lib/avrlib' directory
At this point the code contained in lib/tmp is ready to be compiled with the c compiler
contained in 'tools'. If the make operation is succesfull then you'll have prog.hex ready to
be downloaded into the processor.
NOTE:the next release will see each architecture (avr/pic/8051) to treated as a 'plug-in' to
the IDE so that the user can just select from a menu the microcontroller board to use and
the IDE will pick the right compilation sequence.

3.2. ULTRASONIC SENSOR:

Ultrasonic sensors (also known as transceivers when they both send and receive,
but more generally called transducers) work on a principle similar to radar or sonar which
evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves
respectively. Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the
echo which is received back by the sensor. Sensors calculate the time interval between
sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object.

This technology can be used for measuring wind speed and direction (anemometer),
tank or channel level, and speed through air or water. For measuring speed or direction a
device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the relative distances to
particulates in the air or water. To measure tank or channel level, the sensor measures the
distance to the surface of the fluid. Further applications
include: humidifiers, sonar, medical ultra sonography, burglar alarms and non-destructive
testing.

Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the ultrasonic range,
above 18,000 hertz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then upon receiving the echo
turn the sound waves into electrical energy which can be measured and displayed.

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 Fig3.8: Ultrasonic Sensor

3.2.1. Ultrasonic Sensor Working:

Fig.3.9: Working of Ultrasonic Sensor

The working principle of the HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor is quite simple. If emit
ultrasound at 40000Hz which travels through the air. If there is any object or obstacle
on the path it will bounce back to the module. Now considering the travel time and
speed of the sound we can calculate the distance.

Fig.3.10: Distance Measurement using Social Distancing Sensor

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3.3. BUZZER:
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may
mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric (piezo for short). Typical uses of buzzers
and beepers include alarm devices, timers, and confirmation of user input such as a mouse
click or keystroke.

Fig.3.11: Buzzer

3.4. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

LEDs are special diodes that emit light when connected in a circuit. They are
frequently used as "pilot" lights in electronic appliances to indicate whether the circuit is
closed or not. A clear (or often colored) epoxy case enclosed the heart of an LED, the
semi-conductor chip.

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 Fig.3.12. LED View

Fig.3.12: LED Symbol

LED’s must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labeled a or + for
anode and k or - for cathode. The negative side of an LED lead is indicated in two ways:

Fig.3.13: LED Internal View

1) By the flat side of the bulb.
2) By the shorter of the two wires extending from the LED.
If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official
identification method). The negative lead should be connected to the negative terminal of a
battery. LED's operate at relative low voltages between about 1 and 4 volts, and draw
currents between about 10 and 40 mille amperes. Voltages and currents substantially about
these values can melt a LED chip. The most important part of light emitting diode (LED) is
the semi-conductor chip located in the center of the bulb as shown below. The chip has two
regions separated by a junction. The p region is dominated by positive electric charges, and
the n region is dominated by negative electric charges. The junction acts as a barrier to the
flow of electrons between the p and n regions. Only when sufficient voltage is applied to
the semi-conductor chip, can the current flow and the electron cross the junction into the p
region? In the absence of the large enough electric potential difference (voltage) across
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the LED leads, the junction presents an electric potential barrier to the flow of electrons.
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness.

Fig.3.14: Light Emitting Diode

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon)
is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area
(less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation
pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources
of comparable output.

3.5. BREAD BOARD:

Breadboards are temporary work boards for electronic circuits. The general shape
of a breadboard is shown in Fig. 6.3. Compatible with most breadboards, 24-gauge wire is
used to connect circuits; solid wire, not stranded. Sometimes, kits may be available with
various colors of fixed lengths to specifically fit breadboards. These are a nice
convenience.

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 Fig: 3.15: A Typical Bread Board

The horizontal rows are connected throughout the row and may make a complete row with
the addition of a simple jumper at the center point. These rows are noted with red and blue
or black markings.

Fig. 3.16: Description of bread board

Breadboard (plugboard) has sets of miniature sockets laid out on a 0.1 inch grid
which will accept the manual insertion of component leads and tinned copper wire (TCW)
links. It has rows of contacts interconnected in groups placed either side of the center
line of the board, where the integrated circuits (ICs) are inserted, giving multiple contacts
on each IC pin. At each side of the board, there are long rows of common contacts, which
are used for the power supplies. Some types of breadboard are supplied in blocks that link
together to accommodate larger circuits, or are mounted on a base with built-in power
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supplies.

Fig: 3.17: A Typical bread board connections

2.7. Breadboarding Techniques:
The breadboard is both the designer's playground and proving ground. It is there
that Reality resides, and paper (or computer) designs meet their ruler. More than anything
else, breadboarding is an iterative procedure, an odd amalgam of experience guiding an
innocent, ignorant, explorative spirit. A key is to be willing to try things out, sometimes for
not very good reasons. Invent problems and solutions, guess carefully and wildly, throw
rocks and see what comes loose. Invent and design experiments, and follow them wherever
they lead. Reticence to try things is probably the number one cause of breadboards that
“don’t work”. Implementing the above approach to life begins with the physical
construction methods used to build the breadboard.
A high speed breadboard must start with a ground plane. Additionally, bypassing,
component layout and connections should be consistent with high speed operations.
Because of these considerations there is a common misconception that breadboarding high
speed circuits is time consuming and difficult. This is simply not true. For high speed
circuits of moderate complexity a complete and electrically correct breadboard can be
assembled in 10 minutes if all necessary components are on hand. The key to rapid
breadboarding is to identify critical circuit nodes and design the layout to suit them. This
permits most of the breadboard's construction to be fairly sloppy, saving time and effort.
Additionally, use all degrees of freedom in making connections and mounting components.
Don’t be bashful about bending IC pins to suit desired low capacitance connections, or air
wiring components to achieve rapid or electrically optimum layout. Save time by using
components, such as bypass capacitors, as mechanical supports for other components, such
as amplifiers. It is true that eventual printed circuit construction is required, but when
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initially breadboarding forget about PC and production constraints. Later, when the circuit
works, and is well understood, PC adaptations can be taken care of.
3.6. Jumper Wires:

Fig: 3.18: Jumper or connecting cables

A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, jumper cable, DuPont wire, or
DuPont cable – named for one manufacturer of them) is an electrical wire, or group of
them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or sometimes without them – simply
"tinned"), which is normally used to interconnect the components of a breadboard or other
prototype or test circuit, internally or with other equipment or components, without
soldering.
Types:
 Male to Male
 Female to Male
 Female to Female
A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, jumper cable, DuPont wire or cable)
is an electrical wire, or group of them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or
sometimes without them – simply "tinned"), which is normally used to interconnect the
components of a breadboard or other prototype or test.
The difference between each is in the end point of the wire. Male ends have a pin
protruding and can plug into things, while female ends do not and are used to plug things
into. SHOWA jumper wire (NSL: New Showa Lead) is a lead-free tin-plated annealed
copper wire. Tin plating is tin: 99.2%, copper: 0.8%. In general, it is said that hot plating is
difficult to control the plating thickness compared with electroplating, but we control the
plating thickness by the original processing method.
A jumper wire is a short insulated wire with bare (stripped of insulation) ends. You
use jumper wires, such as the one shown in the following figure, to connect two points in a
breadboard circuit. Gauged devices allow you to strip insulation without worrying about
cutting the wire underneath the insulation. When you set a jumper, you place a plug on the
prongs that completes a contact. In effect, the jumper acts as a switch by closing (or
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opening) an electrical circuit. Jumpers can be added or removed to change the function or
performance of a PC component. A group of jumpers is sometimes called a jumper block.
3.7. POWER SUPPLY:
input power supply for the project 5v,1Amp

Fig:3.19: Power Supply adapter

3.8. PCB:

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electrical or electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between
sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate. Components are generally soldered onto the
PCB to both electrically connect and mechanically fasten them to it.

Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. They are also
used in some electrical products, such as passive switch boxes.

Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction, both once popular

but now rarely used. PCBs require additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but
manufacturing and assembly can be automated. Electronic computer-aided design software
is available to do much of the work of layout. Mass-producing circuits with PCBs is
cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods, as components are mounted and wired
in one operation. Large numbers of PCBs can be fabricated at the same time, and the
layout only has to be done once. PCBs can also be made manually in small quantities, with
reduced benefits.

PCBs can be single-sided (one copper layer), double-sided (two copper layers on both
sides of one substrate layer), or multi-layer (outer and inner layers of copper, alternating
with layers of substrate). Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density,
because circuit traces on the inner layers would otherwise take up surface space between
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components. The rise in popularity of multilayer PCBs with more than two, and especially
with more than four, copper planes was concurrent with the adoption of surface mount
technology. However, multilayer PCBs make repair, analysis, and field modification of
circuits much more difficult and usually impractical.

A basic PCB consists of a flat sheet of insulating material and a layer of copper foil,
laminated to the substrate. Chemical etching divides the copper into separate conducting
lines called tracks or circuit traces, pads for connections, vias to pass connections between
layers of copper, and features such as solid conductive areas for electromagnetic
shielding or other purposes. The tracks function as wires fixed in place, and are insulated
from each other by air and the board substrate material. The surface of a PCB may have a
coating that protects the copper from corrosion and reduces the chances of
solder shorts between traces or undesired electrical contact with stray bare wires. For its
function in helping to prevent solder shorts, the coating is called solder resist or solder
mask.

A printed circuit board can have multiple copper layers. A two-layer board has copper on
both sides; multi layer boards sandwich additional copper layers between layers of
insulating material. Conductors on different layers are connected with vias, which are
copper-plated holes that function as electrical tunnels through the insulating substrate.
Through-hole component leads sometimes also effectively function as vias. After two-
layer PCBs, the next step up is usually four-layer. Often two layers are dedicated as power
supply and ground planes, and the other two are used for signal wiring between
components.

"Through hole" components are mounted by their wire leads passing through the board and
soldered to traces on the other side. "Surface mount" components are attached by their
leads to copper traces on the same side of the board. A board may use both methods for
mounting components. PCBs with only through-hole mounted components are now
uncommon. Surface mounting is used for transistors, diodes, IC chips, resistors and
capacitors. Through-hole mounting may be used for some large components such
as electrolytic capacitors and connectors.

The pattern to be etched into each copper layer of a PCB is called the "artwork". The
etching is usually done using photoresist which is coated onto the PCB, then exposed to
light projected in the pattern of the artwork. The resist material protects the copper from
dissolution into the etching solution. The etched board is then cleaned. A PCB design can

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be mass-reproduced in a way similar to the way photographs can be mass-duplicated
from film negatives using a photographic printer.

In multi-layer boards, the layers of material are laminated together in an alternating

sandwich: copper, substrate, copper, substrate, copper, etc.; each plane of copper is etched,
and any internal vias (that will not extend to both outer surfaces of the finished multilayer
board) are plated-through, before the layers are laminated together. Only the outer layers
need be coated; the inner copper layers are protected by the adjacent substrate layers.

FR-4 glass epoxy is the most common insulating substrate. Another substrate material
is cotton paper impregnated with phenolic resin, often tan or brown.

When a PCB has no components installed, it is less ambiguously called a printed wiring
board (PWB) or etched wiring board. However, the term "printed wiring board" has fallen
into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit
assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). In informal
usage, the term "printed circuit board" most commonly means "printed circuit assembly"
(with components). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card
assembly (CCA),[4] and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. "Card" is
another widely used informal term for a "printed circuit assembly". For
example, expansion card.

A PCB may be "silkscreen" printed with a legend identifying the components, test points,
or identifying text. Originally, an actual silkscreen printing process was used for this
purpose, but today other, finer quality printing methods are usually used instead. Normally
the screen printing is not significant to the function of the PCBA.

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 Fig.3.20: Model PCB used

A minimal PCB for a single component, used for prototyping, is called a breakout board.
The purpose of a breakout board is to "break out" the leads of a component on separate
terminals so that manual connections to them can be made easily. Breakout boards are
especially used for surface-mount components or any components with fine lead pitch.

Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate.

3.9. Characteristics:

The first PCBs used through-hole technology, mounting electronic components

by leads inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on
the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unpleated component side, or more
compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal
installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and
diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in
the board (often bending leads located on the back of the board in opposite directions to
improve the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends.
Leads may be soldered either manually or by a wave soldering machine.
Through-hole manufacture adds to board cost by requiring many holes to be drilled
accurately, and it limits the available routing area for signal traces on layers immediately
below the top layer on multi-layer boards, since the holes must pass through all layers to
the opposite side. Once surface-mounting came into use, small-sized SMD components
were used where possible, with through-hole mounting only of components unsuitably
large for surface-mounting due to power requirements or mechanical limitations, or subject
to mechanical stress which might damage the PCB (e.g. by lifting the copper off the board
surface).

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 CHAPTER- IV: IMPLEMENTATION

IMPLEMENTATION:
4.1. HARDWARE INSTALLATION:

The USB standard requires a 1.5 kΩ pullup resistor on D+, but this board is known to have
a wrong value (R10 on the board). It ships with either a 10 kΩ resistor or a 4.7 kΩ resistor,
but it should be replaced with a 1.5 kΩ resistor, or put an appropriate resistor value (e.g
1.8 kΩ) in between PA12 and 3.3V. It is also true that some PCs are tolerant of incorrect
value so, before you change the resistance, you can try if it works in your case.
4.2. TEST PLAN:
Check the power supply connections
· Insert smart card in to the smart card reader · Check LEDs
· Check Microcontroller minimum requirements
· Welcome message will be printed on LCD
· Consumed units and available units are displayed on LCD
· A message will be displayed if there is no smart card
4.2.1. Window – Files.
Now use from the menu Project – Select Device for Target and select a CPU for your
project. The Select Device dialog box shows the μVision2 device database. Just select the
microcontroller you use. We are using for our examples the Philips 80C51RD+ CPU. This

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selection sets necessary tool options for the 80C51RD+ device and simplifies in this way
the tool
Configuration
4.2.2. Building Projects and Creating a HEX Files
Typical, the tool settings under Options – Target are all you need to start a new application.
You may translate all source files and line the application with a click on the Build Target
toolbar icon. When you build an application with syntax errors, μVision2 will display
errors and warning messages in the Output Window – Build page. A double click on a
message line opens the source file on the correct location in a μVision2 editor window.
Once you have
successfully generated your application you can start debugging. After you have tested
your application, it is required to create an Intel HEX file to download the software into an
EPROM programmer or simulator. μVision2 creates HEX files with each build process
when Create HEX file under Options for Target – Output is enabled. You may start your
PROM
programming utility after the make process when you specify the program under the option
Run User Program #1.
4.2.3. CPU Simulation:
μVision2 simulates up to 16 Mbytes of memory from which areas can be mapped for read,
write, or code execution access. The μVision2 simulator traps and reports illegal memory
accesses. In addition to memory mapping, the simulator also provides support for the
integrated peripherals of the various 8051 derivatives. The on-chip peripherals of the CPU
you have selected are configured from the Device
4.2.4. Database selection:
You have made when you create your project target. Refer to page 58 for more information
about selecting a device. You may select and display the on-chip peripheral components
using the Debug menu. You can also change the aspects of each peripheral using the
controls in the dialog boxes.
4.2.5. Start Debugging:
You start the debug mode of μVision2 with the Debug – Start/Stop Debug Session
command. Depending on the Options for Target – Debug configuration, μVision2 will load
the application program and run the startup code μVision2 saves the editor screen layout
and restores the screen layout of the last debug session. If the program execution stops,
μVision2 opens an editor window with the source text or shows CPU instructions in the
disassembly window. The next executable statement is marked with a yellow arrow.
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During debugging, most editor features are still available. For example, you can use the
find command or correct program errors. Program source text of your application is shown
in the same windows. The
μVision2 debug mode differs from the edit mode in the following aspects: The “Debug
Menu and Debug Commands” described on page 28 are available. The additional debug
windows are discussed in the following. The project structure or tool parameters cannot be
modified. All build commands are disabled.
4.2.6. Disassembly Window:
The Disassembly window shows your target program as mixed source and assembly
program or just assembly code. A trace history of previously executed instructions may be
displayed with Debug – View Trace Records. To enable the trace history, set Debug –
Enable/Disable Trace Recording. If you select the Disassembly Window as the active
window all program step commands work on CPU instruction level rather than program
source lines. You can select a text line and set or modify code breakpoints using toolbar
buttons or the context menu commands.

4.3. SENSORS:
With some simple code, the Arduino can control and interact with a wide variety
of sensors - things that can measure light, temperature, degree of
flex, pressure, proximity, acceleration, carbon
monoxide, radioactivity, humidity, barometric pressure, you name it, you can sense it!

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 Fig:4.1: Just a few of the sensors that are easily compatible with Arduino

Arduino is an open source development platform. This document describes how to use the
platform on Gentoo. Note that in addition to official and clone Arduino products based on
Atmel AVR microprocessors, the environment can also support other Atmel AVR
microprocessors

4.4. PREPARE THE KERNEL FOR USB CONNECTION

The arduino boards will be connected via USB to the computer. With this connection it is
possible to write binaries to the atmega microprocessor and get debug messages from the
board during run mode. Different boards have different USB interface chips. In case you
prefer to use ICSP programming with an external adapter you don't need this for
programming any more, but you may still need it for debugging.

4.5. HARDWARE INSTALLATION:

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The USB standard requires a 1.5 kΩ pullup resistor on D+, but this board is known to have
a wrong value (R10 on the board). It ships with either a 10 kΩ resistor or a 4.7 kΩ resistor,
but it should be replaced with a 1.5 kΩ resistor, or put an appropriate resistor value (e.g
1.8 kΩ) in between PA12 and 3.3V. It is also true that some PCs are tolerant of incorrect
value so, before you change the resistance, you can try if it works in your case.

4.6. SOFTWARE INSTALLATION:

A bootloader needs to be flashed using USB to Serial or ST-Link (SWD). See Flashing the
bootloader.
Note that after first flashing the bootloader you may have to place the board into "perpetual
bootloader" mode before you can upload a sketch; place a resistor between pin PC14 and
3.3V, and then reset the board. You should now be able to flash a blank sketch, remove the
resistor, and restart the board, after which uploading new sketches should work as
expected. If you find that the IDE successfully resets your board, but dfu-util complains
about no DFU-devices being present you may have to edit the maple-upload script in tools-
folder. Find the line where it calls upload-reset, and increase the value given to it.
4.7. COMMUNICATING WITH ARDUINO THROUGH PC
Another major problem related to the Arduino board was the communication with it from
PC. Since, we require RS-232 to TTL conversion for the communication, so we tried some
methods:
1. Firstly we used the MAX-232 IC to communicate with the Arduino as with the 8051 but
due to large voltage drop and mismatch in the speed, it failed to communicate.
2. Next, we tried to use a dedicated AVR as USB to Serial converter as in the original
arduino board, the difference being DIP AVR used by us instead of the SMD
Mega16U2 controller. But, unfortunately we were unable to communicate through it.
At last we had no other choice but to complete the project in time by using the FTDI
FT-232R chip for USB to Serial conversion.

CHAPTER- V: TESTING, SOURCE CODES & ADVANTAGES

TESTING OF PROJECT
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With the knowledge of operation of the system was tested step by step to the transistor
output and the load was connected across the collector terminal of the transistor.
5.1 ASSEMBLING
The whole system was packed in a plastic casing and provision was made for the IR to
sense light from the outside.

5.2. SOFTWARE INSTALLATION:

A bootloader needs to be flashed using USB to Serial or ST-Link (SWD). See Flashing the
bootloader.
Note that after first flashing the bootloader you may have to place the board into "perpetual
bootloader" mode before you can upload a sketch; place a resistor between pin PC14 and
3.3V, and then reset the board. You should now be able to flash a blank sketch, remove the
resistor, and restart the board, after which uploading new sketches should work as
expected. If you find that the IDE successfully resets your board, but dfu-util complains
about no DFU-devices being present you may have to edit the maple-upload script in tools-
folder. Find the line where it calls upload-reset, and increase the value given to it.
Software program: (Main Source Code)
const int trigPin = 9;
const int echoPin = 10;
long duration;
int distanceCm, distanceInch;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(trigPin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(echoPin, INPUT);
pinMode(11,OUTPUT);
pinMode(12,OUTPUT);
}
void loop() {
digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);
delayMicroseconds(2);
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digitalWrite(trigPin, HIGH);
delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(trigPin, LOW);
duration = pulseIn(echoPin, HIGH);
distanceCm= duration*0.034/2;
distanceInch = duration*0.0133/2;
Serial.println("Distance: ");
Serial.println(distanceCm);
if(distanceCm < 100)
{
digitalWrite(11,HIGH);
digitalWrite(12,HIGH);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(11,LOW);
digitalWrite(12,LOW);
}
}

5.3.TESTING:
5.3.1. System Testing
The purpose of testing is to discover errors. Testing is the process of trying to
discover every conceivable fault or weakness in a work product. It provides a way to check
the functionality of components, sub assemblies, assemblies and/or a finished product It is
the process of exercising software with the intent of ensuring that the
Software system meets its requirements and user expectations and does not fail in an
unacceptable manner. There are various types of test. Each test type addresses a specific
testing requirement.
5.4. TYPES OF TESTS:
5.4.1. Unit testing

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 Unit testing involves the design of test cases that validate that the internal program
logic is functioning properly, and that program inputs produce valid outputs. All decision
branches and internal code flow should be validated. It is the testing of individual software
units of the application .it is done after the completion of an individual unit before
integration. This is a structural testing, that relies on knowledge of its construction and is
invasive. Unit tests perform basic tests at component level and test a specific business
process, application, and/or system configuration. Unit tests ensure that each unique path
of a business process performs accurately to the documented specifications and contains
clearly defined inputs and expected results.
5.4.2. Integration testing
Integration tests are designed to test integrated software components to determine
if they actually run as one program. Testing is event driven and is more concerned with
the basic outcome of screens or fields. Integration tests demonstrate that although the
components were individually satisfaction, as shown by successfully unit testing, the
combination of components is correct and consistent. Integration testing is specifically
aimed at exposing the problems that arise from the combination of components.
5.4.3. Functional test
Functional tests provide systematic demonstrations that functions tested are available
as specified by the business and technical requirements, system documentation, and user
manuals.
Functional testing is centered on the following items:
Valid Input : identified classes of valid input must be accepted.
Invalid Input : identified classes of invalid input must be rejected.
Functions : identified functions must be exercised.
Output : identified classes of application outputs must be exercised.
Systems/Procedures: interfacing systems or procedures must be invoked.
Organization and preparation of functional tests is focused on requirements, key
functions, or special test cases. In addition, systematic coverage pertaining to identify
Business process flows; data fields, predefined processes, and successive processes must
be considered for testing. Before functional testing is complete, additional tests are
identified and the effective value of current tests is determined.
5.4.4. .System Test
System testing ensures that the entire integrated software system meets requirements. It
tests a configuration to ensure known and predictable results. An example of system testing

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is the configuration oriented system integration test. System testing is based on process
descriptions and flows, emphasizing pre-driven process links and integration points.
5.4.5. White Box Testing
White Box Testing is a testing in which in which the software tester has knowledge of
the inner workings, structure and language of the software, or at least its purpose. It is
purpose. It is used to test areas that cannot be reached from a black box level.
5.4.6. Black Box Testing
Black Box Testing is testing the software without any knowledge of the inner
workings, structure or language of the module being tested. Black box tests, as most other
kinds of tests, must be written from a definitive source document, such as specification or
requirements document, such as specification or requirements document. It is a testing in
which the software under test is treated, as a black box .you cannot “see” into it. The test
provides inputs and responds to outputs without considering how the software works.
5.4.7. Unit Testing:
Unit testing is usually conducted as part of a combined code and unit test phase of
the software lifecycle, although it is not uncommon for coding and unit testing to be
conducted as two distinct phases.
Test strategy and approach
Field testing will be performed manually and functional tests will be written in
detail.
5.5. TEST OBJECTIVES
 All field entries must work properly.
 Pages must be activated from the identified link.
 The entry screen, messages and responses must not be delayed.
5.6. FEATURES TO BE TESTED
 Verify that the entries are of the correct format
 No duplicate entries should be allowed
 All links should take the user to the correct page.
Integration Testing
Software integration testing is the incremental integration testing of two or more
integrated software components on a single platform to produce failures caused by
interface defects.
The task of the integration test is to check that components or software
applications, e.g. components in a software system or – one step up – software applications
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at the company level – interact without error.
5.7. TEST RESULTS: All the test cases mentioned above passed successfully. No defects
encountered.
5.7.1. Acceptance Testing
User Acceptance Testing is a critical phase of any project and requires significant
participation by the end user. It also ensures that the system meets the functional
requirements.
5.8. TEST RESULTS: All the test cases mentioned above passed successfully. No defects
encountered.

CHAPTER- VI: RESULTS & CONCLUSION

System testing ensures that the entire integrated software system meets requirements. It
tests a configuration to ensure known and predictable results. An example of system testing
is the configuration-oriented system integration test. System testing is based on process
descriptions and flows, emphasizing pre-driven process links and integration points

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