Chapter 2
Computer System
Structures
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Computer System
Architecture
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Computer-System
Operation
A general-purpose computer system consists of one or more
CPUs and a number of device controllers.
Each device controller is in charge of a specific type of
device.
Each device controller has a local buffer.
The CPU and device controllers can execute concurrently.
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt.
Interrupt indicates the occurrence of an event from either
the hardware or software.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Interrupt Handling
When the CPU is interrupted, it stops what it is doing and
immediately transfers execution to a fixed location.
o The fixed location contains the starting address of the interrupt
service routine.
Interrupt vector provide the address of the interrupt service
routine for the interrupting device.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Interrupt Handling (Cont)
Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt.
The OS preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers
and the program counter.
After the interrupt is serviced, the saved return address is
loaded into the program counter.
o The interrupted computation resumes.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Interrupt Handling
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Synchronous I/O
Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only
upon I/O completion.
o Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
o Wait loop (contention for memory access).
o At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Asynchronous I/O
Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program without
waiting for I/O completion.
o System call – request to the operating system to allow
user to wait for I/O completion.
o Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state.
o Operating system indexes into I/O device table to
determine device status and to modify table entry to
include interrupt.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Two I/O Methods
Synchronous Asynchronous
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly.
o A volatile storage device that loses its contents when
power is turned off.
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that
provides nonvolatile storage capacity.
o It is capable to hold large quantities of data permanently.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
o Speed
o Cost
o Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system;
main memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary
storage.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Storage Device Hierarchy
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Caching
Migration of A From Disk to Register
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Dual-Mode Operation
In order to ensure the proper execution of the operating
system, the computer system must be able to distinguish
between the execution of operating system code and user-
defined code.
Provide hardware support to differentiate between at least
two modes of operations.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Modes of Operation
User Mode Kernel Mode
• user program executes in • monitor executes in kernel
user mode mode
• certain areas of memory are • privileged instructions may
protected from user access be executed
• certain instructions may not • protected areas of memory
be executed may be accessed
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013),
Operating System Concepts
Dual-Mode Operation
Mode bit is added to computer hardware to indicate the current mode:
kernel (0) or user (1).
When an interrupt or fault occurs, hardware switches to kernel mode.
Privileged instructions can be issued only in monitor mode.
In the kernel mode, the software has complete control of the processor
and all instruction, registers and memory.
This level of control is not necessary and for safety is not desirable for
user programs.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
I/O Protection
All I/O instructions are privileged instructions; user
program cannot issue I/O instructions directly.
o User program must executes a system call to request that
the operating system to perform I/O.
Must ensure that a user program could never gain control
of the computer in monitor mode (i.e., a user program, as
part of its execution, stores a new address in the interrupt
vector).
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Use of A System Call to
Perform I/O
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Memory Protection
The computer system must provide memory protection at
least for the interrupt vector and the interrupt service
routines.
In order to have memory protection, two registers are used
to determine the range of legal addresses a program may
access:
o Base register – holds the smallest legal physical memory address.
o Limit register – contains the size of the range
Memory outside the defined range is protected.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Use of A Base and Limit
Register
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Hardware Address
Protection
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Hardware Address
Protection
When executing in kernel mode, the operating system has
unrestricted access to both monitor and user’s memory.
o Operating system is allowed to load users’ programs into
users’ memory, to access and modify parameters of
system calls.
The load instructions for the base and limit registers are
privileged instructions.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
CPU Protection
Timer – interrupts computer after specified period to
ensure operating system maintains control over CPU.
o Every time the clock ticks, the counter is decremented.
o When timer reaches the value 0, an interrupt occurs.
When timer interrupts, control transfers to the operating
system.
Load-timer is a privileged instruction.
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
Summary
Computer-system operation Dual-mode operation
Interrupt handling I/O protection
I/O structure Memory protection
Storage structure / Storage CPU protection
hierarchy
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Adapted from Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne (2013), Operating System Concepts
