1ST SEM

FINAL TERM

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

MODULE 7

Accommodation Theory 

Initially proposed by Jean Piaget, the term accommodation refers to the part of the adaptation process. The process of
accommodation involves altering one's existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.
New schemas may also be developed during this process. 

Consider, for example, how small children learn about different types of animals. A young child may have an existing
schema for dogs. She knows that dogs have four legs, so she might automatically believe that all animals with four
legs are dogs. When she later learns that cats also have four legs, she will undergo a process of accommodation in
which her existing schema for dogs will change and she will also develop a new schema for cats. 

Schemas become more refined, detailed, and nuanced as new information is gathered and accommodated into our
current ideas and beliefs about how the world works 
The Accommodation Theory shares certain premises with the Acculturation Model, but it also differs from it in a
number of significant ways. Like Schumann, Giles is concerned with successful language acquisition. Both seek the
answer to the relationships that hold between the learner's social group (in-group) and the target language community
(out-group). Whereas Schumann explains these relationships in terms of variables that create actual social distance,
Giles does also but in terms of perceived social distance. One is actual; the other perceived. For Schumann, social and
psychological distance are static or they change very slowly over the course of time. Giles treats such variables as
dynamic and fluid in accordance with the shifting views of identity of each group vis-a-vis the other. 

Giles considers, like Gardner, (1979) that motivation is the premium mobile or primary determinant of

L2 proficiency. The learner's level of motivation is a reflection of how individual learners define

themselves in ethnic terms. This is in turn governed by a number of key variables namely: 

DETERMINANTS OF SUCCESSFUL AND UNSUCCESSFUL LEARNING ACCORDING TO THE

ACCOMMODATION THEORY 

Giles (1979) distinguishes two types of change which occur in the L2 speaker’s use of ethnic speech

markers (i.e. linguistic features which mark the ingroup membership of the speaker): 

1. Upward Convergence: it involves the attenuation of ingroup speech markers; it occurs when the

learner is positively motivated toward the outgroup. 

2. Downward Divergence: it involves the accentuation of ethnic ingroup speech markers; it occurs when

the learner is not positively motivated towards the outgroup. 

In language use, the occurrence of upward convergence or downward divergence can fluctuate as a

result of the L2 speaker's ongoing assessment of himself vis-a- vis is relation to his own ingroup and to

the outgroup. It follows therefore that the L2 learner may employ different linguistic forms in varying

situations according to the extent to

ANDERSEN’S NATIVIZATION / DENATIVIZATION THEORY 

Description of the Theory 

Andersen in his Nativization model concerns himself with learning processes. He sees second language

acquisition as the result of two general forces, which he terms nativization and denativization. 

Nativization consists of assimilation wherein the learner makes the input conform to his own

internalized view of what constitutes the L2 system. The learner’s strategy is to simplify the learning

task by building hypotheses based on the knowledge of his L1; knowledge of the world. In a sense he

attends to an “internal norm”. Nativization occurs in pidginization and during the early stages of FLA

(First Language Acquisition) and SLA (Second Language Acquisition). 

On the other hand, denativization involves accommodation, wherein the learner adjusts his internalized

system to make it fit the input. The learner uses 

inferencing strategies which enable him to remodel his interlanguage system according to the “external

norm”. In the book of Ellis (1987), ‘inferencing’ is defined as the means by which the learner forms

hypotheses by attending to the input. It involves forming hypotheses about the target language, either by

attending to specific features in the input, or by using the context of situation to interpret the input.

Denativization is apparent in depidginization (i.e. elaboration or refinement of a pidgin language) which

occurs through the gradual incorporation of forms from an external language source; also apparent in

later stages of foreign language acquisition and SLA. 

Andersen’s Simplified Nativization Model 

The Acculturation and Nativist models focus on the power mechanisms of SLA. They provide

explanations of why L2 learners, unlike first language learners, often fail to achieve native-like
competence. L2 learners may be cut off from the necessary input as a result of social distance, or they

may fail to attend to it as a result of psychological distance. The notions of ‘internal’ and ‘external

norms’ are elegant devices for explaining why early and late interlanguage systems are so very

different. 

Characterizing SLA as the gradual transition of attention from an internal to an external norm explains

the developmental sequence which has been 

observed in SLA and the switch that the learners make from reliance on simplifying to reliance on

inferencing strategies. 

Implications of the Theory to Language Teaching 

While accepting that in the final analysis SLA is dependent on input and on a preparedness of the

learner to convert input into intake, a comprehensive theory of SLA will also need to consider how

input becomes intake and how this is integrated into the existing interlanguage system. In particular, it

will need to consider whether intake is controlled by the way the input is shaped in interaction involving

the learner and other speakers or whether it is controlled by the structure of the internal processing

mechanisms themselves - the differential contribution of environment and ‘blackbox’. 

The Nativization model addresses naturalistic SLA, where the L2 learner has contact with the target

language community. It is not clear whether the model is also applicable to classroom SLA (i.e. foreign

language instruction), where no such contact is possible. 

SCHUMANN’S ACCULTURATION MODEL 

Social Factors 

Social factors either inhibit or promote contact between the second 8 | Page

language group (2LL group) and the target language group (TL group). The assumption is that the

greater the social distance between the two groups, the more difficult it is for members of 2LL group to

acquire the language of the TL group. (Schumann 1976). 

The first factor is the social dominance pattern between the 2LL group and the TL group. If the 2LL

group is politically, culturally, technically or economically superior (or consider themselves superior)
than the TL group, they will tend not to learn the target language. The reverse situation is also true, i.e.

if the 2LL group is inferior (or consider themselves inferior) to the TL group, social distance can arise

between the two groups and the 2LL group will tend to resist learning the target language. 

The second social factor affecting language learning involves three integration strategies, namely

assimilation, preservation and acculturation. 

• Assimilation - involves giving up one’s life-style and values in favor of another. 

• Preservation - is the opposite extreme because it involves maintaining one’s culture. 

• Acculturation - represents the compromise procedure of adapting to the way of life and language of

the TL group. 

Needless to say, the best of the three strategies is assimilation since it leads 9 | Page

to maximum contact between the two groups and facilitates language learning. The next best is

acculturation since it yields varying degrees of contact between the two groups. The third, preservation,

results in social distance and will give rise to resistance in language learning. 

The third social factor is enclosure or the amount of sharing of such social constructs as schools,

churches, recreational facilities, professions and trades that the 2LL group enjoys with the TL group.

Such a sharing enhances contact between the two groups and consequently facilitates the language

learning process. On the other hand, the fewer social constructs the 2LL group shares with the TL

group, the more it will encounter difficulties in learning the TL. 

Cohesiveness and size of the 2LL group is the fourth social factor in language learning. If the group

tends to be always together to such an extent it separates itself from the other group, then its cohesion

will make language learning difficult, since it will give rise to social distance between the two groups. If

the group is large, then interaction within the group will increase while opportunities for contact with

members of the other group will decrease. This can result, likewise, in social distance and can add

difficulties to language learning. 

Congruence and similarity between the life-style and value systems of the 2LL and TL groups constitute

the fifth social factor, since it affects the 

amount of contact between groups. Thus, if the language of the two groups belong to the same language

family, there will probably be close similarity between their language structures. Both of them will

enhance points of contact between the two groups, and language learning will be facilitated. 
 The sixth social factor is attitude. For language learning to be made easier, it is important that the

members of the 2LL group hold positive ethnic stereotypes about the TL group. If it holds a negative

stereotype of the TL group or if both the 2LL and TL groups have negative attitudinal orientation

towards each other, then social distance can emerge and set up obstacles to effective language learning. 

The intended length of residence in the TL area is the seventh social factor in language learning. If the

2LL group intends to stay longer in the TL area, this fact will tend to reduce social distance and

ameliorate motivation; if the 2LL group intends to stay in the area permanently, the chances of success

in learning the TL are enhanced. 

The seven social factors mentioned above should not be considered independent of each other. In fact,

the opposite is true. Schumann (1976) points out that they interact such that one affects the other. For

example, a group’s cohesiveness may result in high enclosure and affect attitudinal orientation.

Moreover, each category is not discrete but a continuum, e.g. the terms ‘dominant’ and ‘non-dominant’

represent the extreme points on a continuum and a group’s dominance pattern may be assigned

anywhere between the two extremes.

MODULE 8
Krashen’s Five Hypotheses 
Explanation of Hypothesis  Application for Teaching

The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis  According to this theory, the optimal way a language is
According to Krashen, there are two ways of developing learned is through natural communication. As a second
language ability. Acquisition involves the subconscious language teacher, the ideal is to create a situation wherein
acceptance of knowledge where information is stored in language is used in order to fulfill authentic purposes.
the brain through the use of communication; this is the This is turn, will help students to ‘acquire’ the language
process used for developing native languages. Learning, instead of just ‘learning’ it.
on the other hand, is the conscious acceptance of
knowledge ‘about’ a language (i.e. the grammar or
form). Krashen states that this is often the product of
formal language instruction.
 The Monitor hypothesis  As an SL teacher it will always be a challenge to strike a
This hypothesis further explains how acquisition and balance between encouraging accuracy and fluency in
learning are used; the acquisition system, initiates an your students. This balance will depend on numerous
utterance and the learning system  variables including the language level of the students, the
‘monitors’ the utterance to inspect and correct errors. context of language use and the personal goals of each
Krashen states that monitoring can make some student. This balance is also known as Communicative
contribution to the accuracy of an utterance but its use competency. 
should be limited. He suggests that the ‘monitor’ can
sometimes act as a barrier as it forces the learner to slow
down and focus more on accuracy as opposed to
fluency. 
The Natural Order hypothesis  According to this hypothesis, teachers should be aware that
According to Krashen, learners acquire parts of language certain structures of a languageare easier to acquire than
in a predictable order. For any given language, certain others and thereforelanguage structures should be taught in
grammatical structures are acquired early while others an order that is conducive to learning. Teachers should start
are acquired later in the process. This hypothesis by introducing language concepts that are relatively easy
suggests that this natural order of acquisition occurs  for learners to acquire and then use scaffolding to introduce
independently of deliberate teaching and therefore more difficult concepts.
teachers cannot change the order of a grammatical
teaching sequence.

 
The Input hypothesis  This hypothesis highlights the importance of using
This hypothesis suggests that language acquisition occurs the Target Language in the classroom. The goal of
when learners receive messages that they can understand, a any language program is for learners to be able to
concept also known as comprehensible input. However, communicate effectively. By providing as much 
Krashen also suggests that this comprehensible input comprehensible input as possible, especially in
should be one step beyond the learner’s current language situations when learners are not exposed to theTL
ability, represented as i + 1, in order to allow learners to outside of the classroom, the teacher is able to create a
continue to progress with their language development. more effective opportunity for 
language acquisition.

The Affective Filter hypothesis  In any aspect of education, it is always important to

According to Krashen one obstacle that manifests itself create a safe, welcoming environment in which
during language acquisition is theaffective filter; that is a students can learn. In language education this may
'screen' that is influencedby emotional variables that can be especially  
prevent learning. This hypothetical filter does not impact important since in order to take in and produce
acquisition directly but rather prevents input from reaching language, learners need to feel that they are able to
the language acquisition part of the brain. According to make mistakes and take risks. This relates to directly
Krashen the affective filter can be prompted by many to Krashen’s hypothesis of the affective filter. To learn
different variables including anxiety, self-confidence, more about creating a positive classroom
motivation and stress.  environment, 
The Reading Hypothesis 
This hypothesis basically states that the more we read in a
SL the greater our vocabulary will be. It is important to involve reading in the language
classroom to increase knowledge of the language and
the way it is used in real-life contexts.
 Discourse Theory - has resulted from a theory of language use. The theory emphasizes that language
development should be viewed within the framework of how the learner discovers the meaning capacity of
language by taking part in communication. It is the technical term for “conversation” t is derived from the
Latin word “discursus” which means running to and from and denotes written and spoken communication. 

4 | Page
Language can be learned by communicating with the target language speaker.  Learners discover the
potential meaning of language by participating in communication. 

Communication is treated as the matrix of linguistic knowledge…. …. such that if we want to acquire a
second language, the main ways to learn is by making a lot of interaction with the target language
speaker. 
Even for the first language acquisition to be successful, interaction, rather than exposure is required. 

It is said that first language acquisition is related to this theory. Michael A.K. Halliday thinks that the
process of first language acquisition is actually the process of learning how to communicate in that
language. 

Hatch agrees with Halliday and perceives little difference between the first language acquisition process
and the process of second language acquisition. She thinks that only through communication discourses
can the learner acquire the second language. 

Implications of the discourse theory to language learning and teaching: a. The classroom teacher should
encourage interaction among learners. b. It is important for teachers to be acutely aware of the rules of
conversation in the second language and aid learners both perceive those rules and follow them in their
own conversations 
c. Discourse analysis shows that many classroom interactions follow an I-R-F (initiate-response-
feedback) pattern, which restricts the opportunity to negotiate meaning. 

THE UNIVERSAL HYPOTHESIS (Chomsky 1976, 1986) 

2. Universal Grammar -UG- All languages have certain basic structures in common, these are called
universals. 
Grammar offer a certain limited number of possibilities E.g. Word order 75% of the
world’s languages use this order SUBJECT 
Ella • She VERB • come • eats OBJECT • frutas • fruits L1 L2 

LANGUAGE IS AN INNATE FACULTY We are born with a set of rules about language in our heads.
It’s wired into the brains 
5 | Page
UG: the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human
languages. 
UG: is a theory of knowledge: its concern is with the internal structure of the human mind. 
The nature of this knowledge is inseparable from the problem of how it is acquired.

MODULE 13
The grammar translation
method is a method of
teaching foreign languages
derived from the classical
method of teaching Greek and
Latin. In grammar-translation
classes, students learn
grammatical rules and then
apply those rules by
translating sentences between
the target language and the
native language. Advanced
students may be required to
translate whole texts
word-for-word. The method
has two main goals: to enable

students to read and translate literature written in the target language, and to further students’ general
intellectual development. 

Characteristics: 

a. Classes are taught in the mother tongue 

b. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. c. Little or no
attention is given to pronunciation. 
d. Reading of difficult texts is begun early. 
e. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given. How to Use the
Grammar Translation Method 
It also provides some ideas on how to use the grammar translation method in teaching English as a
second or foreign language.
Goals of Grammar Translation Method 
Characteristics of the Grammar Translation Method 
1. Focuses on Reading and Writing 
2. Uses Vocabulary Words 
3. Uses the Sentence as the Basic Unit of Teaching 
4. Adopts a Deductive Approach 
5. New Terms are Explained in the Native Language 
6. Emphasizes Accuracy 

How to Use The Grammar Translation Method: Some Teaching Ideas To enable the
students to: 

read literature in a target language, and 

memorize grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language. 
The target language is a foreign language which a person intends to learn. 

how to use the grammar translation method 

GTM emphasizes reading and writing. 
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD The following are the six
characteristics of the Grammar Translation Method: 

1. FOCUSES ON READING AND WRITING 

The primary focus of GTM is on reading and writing with little or no systematic attention to listening and
speaking. 

Here is an excellent tip by OnTESOL on how to read with comprehension. 

On TESOL tips on how to teach reading skills with comprehension, among others. 

2. USES VOCABULARY WORDS 

Vocabulary words are chosen from the reading text used. Teachers teach vocabulary words through
memorization, bilingual word list, and dictionary. 

3. USES THE SENTENCE AS THE BASIC UNIT OF TEACHING 

The basic unit of teaching and language practice is the sentence. Most of the lesson is in sentence
translation from and into the target language. 
 4. ADOPTS A DEDUCTIVE APPROACH 
Deductive method is used in grammar. Rules are presented and studied. Then, students will practice
through translation exercises. 

5. NEW TERMS ARE EXPLAINED IN THE NATIVE LANGUAGE 

New grammatical or vocabulary items in the target language are explained in students’ native language to
compare the target language and the students’ native language. 

6. EMPHASIZES ACCURACY 
Students are expected to attain high standards in translation. They must be accurate in translating the
sentences into their target language and vice-versa.
HOW TO USE THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD: SOME TEACHING IDEAS With the goals and
characteristics of the GTM, the following activities can be done in the classroom: 

Ask the students to take 5 vocabulary words from their favorite song and then translate it into English. 
In teaching a particular lesson in grammar, ask the students to memorize the rules, and they should give
their sentences as samples. 
Ask the students to take down their friends’ conversations in their native language and then translate it
into English. 
Ask students to write 10 verbs from the article assigned to them, and then they should give the synonyms
and antonyms. 
Ask students to memorize at least 5 words per day in English and give their native language equivalent. 
Some school administrators or teachers may disagree with the idea of using the native language in
explaining vocabulary words or grammar rules because they want the students to be exposed only to the
target language to acquire and master it effectively. 

However, there is no hard and fast rule of what the best method or strategy is. It would be best if the
teacher will use different ways and find out what is suited to his/her students by conducting action
research. 

Action research can help improve the learning process of people learning a new language. It seeks to
improve the English language teachers on their skills, techniques, and strategies to enable students to
learn the target language quickly. It aims to do things better through enhanced instruction. 

So, for those who would like to work on this as action research, what are you waiting for? These tips on
how to use the grammar translation method can jumpstart your research activity. 

Sample Activities 

1. The students answer questions in the target language based on their comprehension of a story read. 
2. The students are directed to find synonyms and/or antonyms of given words in an essay. 
3. The teacher are asked to translate, for example, the story of Cinderella, from English to the native
language of the students.

MODULE 14

The Direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not
exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and
uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts
with the Grammar Translation Method and other traditional
approaches.

The basic idea of the Direct Method

was that second language learning
should be more like first language
learning (lots of oral interaction,
spontaneous use of the language, no
translation between first and second
languages, and little or no analysis of
grammatical rules)

Direct Method of Language Teaching

“Teach the language not about the
language”
Direct Method is also known as:
Natural Method Phonetical Method
Anti-Grammatical Reform Method

Method
Background• In the mid and late 19 century, Europe experienced a wave of increasing
opportunities of communication, due to industrialization and international trade and travel.•• A
need was felt to develop oral proficiency in foreign languages.• Language teachers had already
found Grammar-translation method inadequate and ineffective in developing communicative
ability in learners. They strongly advocate an alternative method in which language was
presented in contexts and the mother tongue was avoided.• Its principal advocates were
Pendergast and Sauveur who proposed what they called Natural
Method that suggest radical change from Grammar- translation. It is this method that later on
came to be known as the Direct Method

The Direct Method is named “direct” because meaning should be connected directly with the
target language without translation into the native language. Concept/ Target Meaning
language L1 Target concept language

Theoretical Assumption:• Language can be learnt only through demonstration. Instead of

analytical procedures of explaining grammar rules, students must be encourage to use
language naturally and spontaneously so that they induce grammar.
The learning of second language was seen as parallel to the acquisition of the childs first
language.• This method therefore emphasize the importance of sounds , simple sentences and
direct association of language with object and person of immediate environment- the
classroom, the home, the garden, etc.

Basic Principles• 1. Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target language. The
teacher should demonstrate, not explain or translate. NEVER TRANSLATE:• DEMONSTRATE

Basic Principles2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught. BASIC VOCABULARY
IS GIVEN FIRST3. Vocabulary is taught through known words, demonstration, authentic
objects (realia), pictures, and miming.

Basic Principles4.Grammar is taught inductively. There may never be an explicit grammar rule
given.

DO NOT GIVE RULES: MAKE THEM FIGURE OUT THE RULE. Basic
Principles5. New teaching points are introduced orally.

ORAL TRANSMISSION6. Both speech and listening comprehension are taught. Basic
Principles7. The teacher, by asking the student to make a choice, gets him to correct his own
error.

LEARNING BY SELF- CORRECTION8. The syllabus is based on situations or topics, not

usually on linguistic structures.

Basic Principles9. Correct pronunciation is emphasized.

10. Students should learn to think in the target language as soon as possible Basic
Principles11.The purpose of language learning is communication; therefore students need to
learn how to ask questions as well as answer them.• COMMUNICATION-FIRST
PREFERENCE
Techniques• Q & A: The teacher asks questions of any nature and the students answer.
 Dictation: The teacher chooses a grade appropriate passage and reads the text• aloud.
Teacher reads the passage three times
Reading Aloud: Students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or dialogue out loud.
Techniques• Map Drawing: Students are given a map without labeled then the students label it
by using the directions the teacher gives.

Paragraph Writing : The students are asked to write a passage in their own words.
Advantages• One of its positive points is that it promises to teach the language and Not about
the language.

It is a natural method which teaches language in the same way the mother tongue is acquired.
Only the target language is used and the learning is contextualized.

Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real
communication in the target language. It is one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of
vocabulary through realias.

Criticism• In spite of its achievements, the direct method fell short from fulfilling the needs of
educational systems. One of its major shortcomings is that it was hard for public schools to
integrate it. As R. Brown (1994:56) points out, the Direct Method “did not take well in public
schools where the constraints of budget, classroom size, time, and teacher background (native
speakers or native like fluency) made such a method difficult to use.”• After a short popularity in
the beginning of the 20th century, it soon began to lose its appeal because of these constraints.
It then paved the way to the Audio-lingual Method.

Characteristics:

a. Classes are taught in the mother tongue

b. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. c. Little or no
attention is given to pronunciation.
d. Reading of difficult texts is begun early.
e. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.