PH – I FG

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE – I
THEORY ANSWERS TO MMD EXAM QUESTIONS

Compiled by SATHISH KUMAR

 (Answers Set)
FIRST MATE OF A FOREIGN GOING SHIP (PHASE – I)
FUNCTION: CONTROLLING THE OPERATION OF THE SHIPS & CARE FOR PERSONS ON
BOARD
(Management Level)
PAPER: NAVAL ARCHITECTURE PAPER - I

Please Note:
These questions are consolidated by sorting out and manually removing the duplicates of all the questions asked in
PH-1 FG MMD exams for Naval Architecture -I since December-2012 till July-2021 only.
Few questions have been deliberately skipped as their answer forms part of various answers compiled here.
All the answers mentioned are compiled by referring to the following books and publications:

Ship Construction, Corrosion, Painting and welding:

 Reed’s Ship Construction for Marine Students by E.A. STOKOE
 Ship Construction by Edrich Fernandes
 Ship Construction by D.J Eyres and G.J Bruce
 Ship Construction by Capt. Errol Fernandes
Ship Stability:

 Ship Stability for Masters and Mates by Bryan Barrass and D.R. Derrett
 Stability, Trim and Cargo Calculations on MV Hindship and Oil Tankers by Capt.T.K. Joseph and
[Link]
 Ship Stability – I, II & III by Capt. H Subramaniam
Survey & Certification:

 All the latest editions of IMO publications and documents using Lloyds RuleFinder version 9.35.

Maximum effort has been taken to compile these answers only from maritime books and publications.
Very little content has been included by referring the websites.
Some of the answers may be exhaustive so that readers shall have the option of drafting them,

All thebest
All the best mate!!!
Mate!!!

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Questions Answered:
Ship Construction- Sketch (Q.4 as per the pattern)
1. With a sketch, show various views of corrugated bulkhead, showing its connection with the Shell plating and deck.
2. Sketch and label a diagram of watertight corrugated transverse bulkhead and discuss its construction and functional aspects.
State the advantages of corrugation
3. With respect to the transverse watertight bulkheads fitted on ships.
a) Sketch and label one such bulkhead showing its attachments to the sides, top and bottom.
b) Functions of transverse watertight bulkheads.
c) Regulations for the testing of such bulkheads.
Or Draw and label a neat diagram of a flat transverse watertight bulkhead?
4. Sketch, label and describe a corrugated watertight bulkhead. Explain the function of bulkheads, and their number and
location requirements.
5. Sketch, label and describe a corrugated watertight bulkhead. Explain the function of bulkheads, and their number and
location requirements.
6. Sketch and label how an opening in a watertight bulkhead are strengthened and also maintaining its watertight integrity.
7. Draw and label a power operated water-tight door, also list the SOLAS requirements applicable to the operation of such
water tight doors. Or Sketch and describe hydraulically closing Watertight door. Or Sketch and label horizontal sliding
watertight door?
8. With the help of a sketch explain a remote controlled water tight door. Or Discuss salient constructional and operational
features of a hydraulic sliding door?
9. Draw and label the ramp of a ro-ro vessel. Or Sketch and describe the arrangement of ramp doors of Ro-Ro ships and its
effect on ships stability
10. Draw a neat sketch of a bow door ramp.
11. Sketch a hinged type watertight door showing securing arrangements to ensure water tightness

Ship Stability/ Ship Construction- Theory (Q.5 & Q.6 as per the pattern)
12. State the SOLAS requirement for collision bulkhead. Or What are the SOLAS requirements regarding piercing of the collision
bulkhead to allow for dealing with liquid in the fore peak tank?
13. State the testing requirements for collision bulkhead. Or State the testing requirements for collision bulkhead when not
forming part of a tank, forming part of the bulkhead.
14. What are the special strengthening arrangements provided for the bulkheads bounding the tanks for the carriage of oil?
15. Write short notes on Water tight, Weather tight, Oil Tight, corrugated bulkheads, bulkhead deck and wash bulkheads
16. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of corrugated bulkheads over plate type bulkheads?
17. What is cofferdam? Where it is fitted and what are its functions?
18. What are the different categories of watertight door?
19. Describe the various categories of water tight doors, class1, class,2 and class 3.
20. List and explain SOLAS requirements of W.T. door for cargo ships.
21. Describe the requirement of inspection and drills applicable to water tight doors and record keeping of the same. Also
Describe testing requirements of watertight doors, side scuttles and storm valves on passenger ships.
22. Explain the difference between water tight and weather tight doors.
23. Describe testing requirements of main W/T compartments on cargo ships What are KN curves?
24. How do KN Curves assist a Chief Mate of a vessel in determining the Intact Stability of a Ship?
25. Explain how the values of following parameters change with change in vessel’s draughts:
i) KMT ii) LCB iii) MCTC iv) LCF
26. Explain what is Angle of Loll and its corrective actions? Or A Fully loaded ship may roll 25° to either side without causes for
alarm. However, the ship falling over to an angle of loll of 15° to one side is cause for great concern. Justify above statement,
supporting your answer with well arguments. Or A vessel on her voyage at sea has inclined unexpectedly by 5 degrees.
Discuss the various possibilities for this condition.
27. GM alone is not the adequate measure of stability of ship. Justify the above statement with sketches.
28. Explain how an upright vessel with slight initial stern trim experiences a change of trim when moving from SW to RW, ii.
Moving from RW to SW
29. Explain volumetric heeling moment and its effect on the stability of vessel when the ship is loaded with bulk grain.
30. Describe the stability criteria to be satisfied by vessels carrying grain cargo in bulk as required by Intl. Grain code.
31. Required contents of Stability Booklet, as per Intact Stability Code.
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32. With the help of a diagram, explain how can initial GM be obtained from GZ curve of a vessel.
33. Briefly enumerate the information available to you as a mate from curve of statical stability
34. Draw a port and starboard GZ curve for an unstable vessel, a stable but listed vessel.
35. Discuss the effect on statical stability curve for a vessel which is at an angle of loll on the port side. Also suggest the remedial
action to be taken explaining the reasons for same. Or Draw a sketch of statical stability curve for a vessel which is at an
angle of loll. Also suggest the remedial action to be taken explaining the reasons for same.
36. How do the following parameters affect Stability (GZ Curve) a) Beam b) Freeboard or Discuss the effect on stability of ship
due to increased beam and freeboard.
37. Discuss the effects of decreasing beam and increasing freeboard of a ship on her moment of statical stability
38. Discuss the effect of movement of weight both vertically and transversely on statical stability curve.
39. Define critical instant, critical period and Declivity of docks.
40. What are the reasons for desirability of dry docking with the small stern trim?
41. State and explain the conditions necessary from the stability point of view when carrying out routine dry-docking of a ship.
42. List out the various items to be opened and examined in dry dock as part of classification society surveys?
43. How the flag states ensure that their rules and regulations are effectively enforced on the ships registered with them?
44. What precautions will you take for dry docking a loaded ship.

Surveys and Certificates (Q.7 as per the pattern)

45. Describe the frequency of class surveys?
46. When does a certificate become invalid? How is the validity of such a certificate restored after it ceases to be valid?
47. Define and differentiate between statutory and mandatory surveys.
48. Differentiate between harmonized and enhanced survey programs.
49. Explain harmonized system of surveys and certification and Enhanced survey programme
50. Explain what is Close up inspection and ‘Critical areas’, suspect area with reference to Enhanced Survey program. Describe
the contents of “Documents File”.
51. State the objectives and features of ESP with reference to A. Age of the vessel, B. Coating condition, C.
Owners/Ship Officers responsibility, D Access to surveyor
52. With respect to Enhanced Survey, explain the following: Bottom inspection/Survey, Substantial Corrosion.
53. Explain the enhanced survey program and the requirements of surveys for a bulk carrier 15 years old.
54. State the main features of the HSSC? State the circumstances when you will call the surveyor for additional survey?
55. Describe various surveys and their frequency with respect to "Harmonised system of survey" for a general cargo ship.
56. Discuss various certificates covered under HSSC including validity of certificates and types of surveys carried out.
57. Differentiate between the scope of initial survey, intermediate survey, annual survey and renewal survey.
58. Under the system of harmonized surveys and certification, explain how you would prepare for an annual load line inspection.
59. Describe the changes Harmonized system of survey and certification has brought in shipping and how the harmony is
achieved.
60. Briefly describe the scope of initial, annual, intermediate and renewal surveys for loadline certificate.
61. Describe the procedure for preparing the vessel for safety constructions (SAFCON) renewal survey.
62. What is the condition assessment scheme as applied for oil tankers?
63. What condition assessment programme (CAP)
64. Differentiate between CAS and CAP.
65. How will you as Chief Officer, prepare the ship for special survey?
66. What are the survey requirements for an oil tanker undergoing 3rd special survey? What are the preparations to be carried
out for the above vessel prior to the commencement of the survey?

Corrosion/ Painting (Q.9 as per Pattern)

67. Why corrosion prevention on ship’s structure is very important to ensure safety of life and marine environment?
68. Describe Electro chemical corrosion. With a sketch describe corrosion cell.
‘Good understanding of the galvanic series of metals is vital for protection against corrosion’. Discuss its application in
context of shipboard measures employed in preventing corrosion of the ship’s hull.
69. What are the different means of corrosion prevention adopted for the ship’s structure?
70. Write short notes on corrosion, erosion and cavitation.
71. What is meant by Sa 2.0 and Sa 2.5?
72. Choose a suitable type of paint for the following areas giving reasons for your choice [Link] decks, [Link] structure,
[Link]-water ship side. [Link] lockers [Link] tanks, [Link] side area, vii. Boot top area

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73. Write down the components of marine paint and their importance. Give example
74. Describe how anti-fouling paint and anti-corrosive paint acts.
75. Explain the various methods of surface preparation prior to the application of paints.

Welding (Types, Faults, Tests) (Q.8 as per the pattern)

76. Describe the following welding methods used in ship building Electric arc welding, Tungsten inert gas welding
77. Describe and compare the TIG and MIG welding processes.
78. Explain with sketches the various types of weld joints.
79. Describe three types of automatic welding process used in shipyards.
80. Describe the preparation of plate edge for welding?
81. Short notes on Thermit Welding, MIG Welding, Importance of flux in welding.
82. Explain the purpose of flux in welding and differentiate between single pass, multi-pass and back run
83. Describe following Under cut, tack welding, butt weld.
84. Describe the destructive and non-destructive methods of testing welds.
85. How effective weld penetration is achieved while welding thick steel plates?
86. Compare the Submerged Arc Welding and Manual Metal Arc Welding processes.
87. What are the advantages and disadvantages of manual and automatic welding processes used in ship construction?
88. Explain defects in welds using sketches.
89. How is distortion avoided during welding of a structure?
90. Briefly describe good welding practices to minimize these defects
91. Describe the role of classification societies in conducting tests for welding

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 Ship Construction- Sketch (Q.4 as per the pattern)

1. With a sketch, show various views of corrugated bulkhead, showing its connection with the Shell plating and deck.

Stiffened Flat Plate

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2

2. Sketch and label a diagram of watertight corrugated transverse bulkhead and discuss its construction and functional
aspects. State the advantages of corrugation.
FIGURE SAME AS Fig 1.1
Construction and functional aspects of Corrugated transverse bulkhead:
 A corrugated plate is stronger than a flat plate if subject to a bending moment along the corrugations.
 This principle is used in bulkhead construction.
 The corrugations are made in the plating strakes prior to the fabrication of the complete bulkhead.
 the bulkhead will be plated vertically with a uniform thickness equivalent to that required at the base of the bulkhead.
 The stiffeners are not fitted in the corrugated bulkhead.
 The troughs are vertical on transverse bulkheads but must be horizontal on continuous longitudinal bulkheads which
form part of the longitudinal strength of the ship.
 A stiffened flat plate is fitted at the shell to increase the transverse strength.
 This method simplified the fitting of bulkhead to the shell plating where the curvature of the shell is considerable.
 Horizontal diaphragm plates are fitted to prevent collapse of the troughs
 The vertical stiffener is usually necessary if the bulkhead is required to support a deck girder.
 The edges of the corrugated bulkhead which join to the shell plating are fitted with vertical stiffeners and horizontal
stringers to increase its strength.
 The boundaries of the bulkhead are double continuously fillet welded directly to the shell, decks, and tank top.

Advantages of Corrugated Bulkhead:

 The corrugation helps in simplified cleaning especially in small and medium sized product or chemical tankers.
 The corrugation eliminates or reduces the need of stiffeners resulting in a considerable saving in weight.
 The design of corrugations provides more rigidity naturally.

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  Usage of corrugated bulkheads come handy due to ease in fabrication and reduction of welded joints on the bulkhead.
 More flexible shape in shrinkage and expansion by thermal load compared to the flat stiffened bulkhead

3. With respect to the transverse watertight bulkheads fitted on ships.

a) Sketch and label one such bulkhead showing its attachments to the sides, top and bottom.
b) Functions of transverse watertight bulkheads.
c) Regulations for the testing of such bulkheads.
Or Draw and label a neat diagram of a flat transverse watertight bulkhead?

Functions of Transverse Bulkheads:

 They divide the ship into watertight compartments and thus restrict the volume of water which may enter the
ship if the shell plating is damaged.
 They also serve to separate different types of cargo and to divide tanks and machinery spaces from the cargo
spaces.
 In the event of fire, the bulkheads reduce to a great extent the rate of spread.
 The transverse strength of the ship is increased by the bulkheads which have much the same effect as the ends of
a box.
 Longitudinal deck girders and deck longitudinal are supported at the bulkheads which therefore act as pillars,
while at the same time they tie together the deck and tank top.
 They reduce vertical deflection when the compartments are full of cargo.
 A bulkhead that can withstand a load of water in the event of flooding will readily perform the remaining
functions.
Regulations of Testing bulkheads:
 The bulkheads are tested for water-tightness by hosing them using a pressure of 200 kN/m2.
 This test is carried out from the side on which the stiffeners are attached.
 Both the collision bulkhead, as the fore peak bulkhead, and the aft peak bulkhead, provided they do not form the
boundaries of tanks, are to be tested by filling the peaks with water to the level of the load waterline.

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4. Sketch and label forward collision bulkhead? What are the regulations for the positioning of the collision
bulkheads? Or Sketch and describe a collision bulkhead. State its principal function and location in the ship. Or
Explain the importance of collision bulkhead. Describe with the help of a sketch the extra strengthening
required for it.

Principal function and location of a Collision Bulkhead:

 It’s a heavy bulkhead in the forepart of the vessel to withstand damage after impact from collision.
 The collision bulkhead is specified and located so that it is not so far forward as to be damaged on impact.
 Neither should it be too far aft so that the compartment flooded forward causes excessive trim by the bow.
 It should be located not less than 0.05L or 10m whichever is the lesser from forward perpendicular.
 Not more than 0.08L or 0.05L + 3m whichever is the greater from forward perpendicular.
 It is the foremost and watertight bulkhead from the bottom of the ship up to the main deck.

Special strengthening arrangements

 The collision bulkhead is a heavily strengthened structure, its main purpose being limiting the damage on collision
to the part of the bow forward to it.
 The collision bulkhead is stiffened by vertical bulb plates spaced about 600mm apart inside the peak.
 These bulb plates are of usually 180mm thickness.
 Also vertically stiffened with sections of scantlings higher than those on the surrounding structures
 Horizontal plates are fitted because of the excessive taper on the plates which would occur with vertical plating.
 It is also stiffened by triangular stringers of higher scantling, called panting stringers.
 Panting stringers are usually provided at every 2 meters from the bottom, forward of the collision bulkhead.
 Forward of the collision bulkhead web frames are required at not more than five frame spaces apart

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5. Sketch, label and describe a corrugated watertight bulkhead. Explain the function of bulkheads, and their
number and location requirements.

Functions of Bulkheads:

 They divide the ship into watertight compartments and thus restrict the volume of water which may enter the
ship if the shell plating is damaged.
 They also serve to separate different types of cargo and to divide tanks and machinery spaces from the cargo
spaces.
 In the event of fire, the bulkheads reduce to a great extent the rate of spread.
 The transverse strength of the ship is increased by the bulkheads which have much the same effect as the ends of
a box.
 Longitudinal deck girders and deck longitudinal are supported at the bulkheads which therefore act as pillars,
while at the same time they tie together the deck and tank top.
 They reduce vertical deflection when the compartments are full of cargo.
 A bulkhead that can withstand a load of water in the event of flooding will readily perform the remaining
functions.
Number and location requirements for bulkheads:
 The number of transverse bulkheads in a ship depends on her length and the position of the machinery space.
 The minimum bulkheads fitted on a ship are: The forward most transverse water tight bulkhead is called collision
bulkhead, the aft peak bulkhead and other bulkheads fitted on forward and after side of machinery spaces.
 If the machinery space is aft, then either the afterpeak bulkhead or the bulkhead abaft the machinery space can
be dispensed with.
 The collision bulkhead is placed at at-least 1/20th of the ship’s length from the forward perpendicular and it must
be continuous up to the uppermost continuous deck.
 This is because, by ‘Trochoidal theory’ wave height from trough to crest is 1/20 of the wave length, therefore
maximum shearing force usually occurs at about L/20 of ship from each end.
 The collision bulkhead is specified and located so that it is not so far forward as to be damaged on impact.
 Neither should it be too far aft so that the compartment flooded forward causes excessive trim by the bow.
 The aft peak bulkhead encloses the stern tube in a water tight compartment.
 It is located well aft so that the peak when flooded would not cause excessive trim by the stern.

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 Machinery bulkheads provide a self-contained compartment for engines and boilers, preventing damage to these
vital components of the ship by flooding in an adjacent hold
 In the ships more than 90m in length additional bulkheads are required, the number depending upon the length.
 A minimum number of watertight bulkheads will only be found in smaller cargo ships.
 As the size increases the classification society will recommend additional bulkheads, partly to provide greater
transverse strength, and also to increase the amount of subdivision.
 Thus the minimum number of bulkheads for various lengths are as follows as given by LR:-

Length of the Ship No: Bulkheads

Above Not Exceeding Machinery Midships Machinery Aft
65 4 3
65 85 4 4
85 105 5 5
105 115 6 5
115 125 6 6
125 145 7 6
145 165 8 7
165 190 9 8

6. Sketch and label how an opening in a watertight bulkhead are strengthened and also maintaining its watertight
integrity.

 The dimensions of the opening are kept to the minimum.

 The opening results in a major structural discontinuity, resulting in stress concentration around the opening.
 To maintain stress levels below safety limits, the opening is strengthened by doubler plates to increase the
thickness of the bulkhead plate around the opening.
 If a vertical bulkhead stiffener comes in the way of the opening, it is terminated at the upper and lower edges of
the opening.
 However, in some cases stiffener spacing may be increased to avoid this.
 If that’s the case, then scantling of the stiffeners adjacent to the opening are increased from the remaining
stiffeners.

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To maintain watertight integrity:

 If it necessary to penetrate the bulkhead, precautions must be taken to ensure that the bulkhead remains
watertight.
 The above figure shows a bulkhead fitting in the form of a watertight gland for an electric cable.

7. Draw and label a power operated water-tight door, also list the SOLAS requirements applicable to the
operation of such water tight doors. Or Sketch and describe hydraulically closing Watertight door. Or Sketch
and label horizontal sliding watertight door?

SOLAS Requirements on operation of watertight door:

 It shall operate vertically or horizontally

 Maximum clear opening shall be 1.2m.
 be opened or closed from the vicinity of the door as well as from a position above the bulkhead deck.
 It shall be capable of being closed by hand or power with the ship listed 15° either way.
 Indicators for showing whether the door is open or closed shall be provided at the Bridge and at position where
the hand gear is located.
 Electric power from emergency switch board, hydraulic or any other form of power shall close the door from both
sides in 20 to 40 sec.
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 Power shall be capable of closing all doors simultaneously from the Bridge in not more than 60 sec. with the ship
upright, but not for opening the door.
 Audible alarm shall sound when the door is remotely closed, for 5 to 10 sec. before it starts closing, and continue
to sound till it is closed.
 Intermittent visual signal may be given at the door.

8. With the help of a sketch explain a remote controlled water tight door. Or Discuss salient constructional and
operational features of a hydraulic sliding door?
SKETCH SAME AS PREVIOUS Qs.

Remote controlled water tight door:

 It is operated by means of an electric motor which turns a vertical shaft.
 Near the top and bottom of the door, horizontal screw shafts are turned by the vertical shaft through the bevel
gears.
 The door nut moves along the screw shaft within the nut box until any slack is taken up or the spring is fully
compressed, after which the door moves along its wedge-shaped guides on rollers.
 The electric motor is connected to an emergency power source.
 It also comprises of a de-wedging device to release the load from the wedge frame and to avoid overloading the
power unit if the door meets an obstruction.
 The doors can also be closed at the door position and also from a control point.
 If closed from the control point, they may be opened from a local position, switches being fitted on both sides of
the bulkhead, but close automatically when the switch is released.

9. Draw and label the ramp of a ro-ro vessel. Or Sketch and describe the arrangement of ramp doors of Ro-Ro
ships and its effect on ships stability

Arrangement of ramp doors:

 Ro-ro vessels may be fitted with stern doors of the hinge-down or hinge-up type, which if large are articulated.
 Stern doors strengths are equivalent to the strength of the surrounding structure and where they give access to
enclosed superstructures, they are required to close weathertight.

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 Stern doors can be mechanically raised and lowered with wire rope and purchase arrangements, but in general
they are hydraulically opened and closed.
 Stern ramps can be fixed axial ramps, fixed quarter ramps, slewing ramps, or semi-slewing quarter ramps.
 The axial stern ramp may also serve as the stern door and can be lowered or raised hydraulically or by wire rope
arrangements.
 The quarter ramp was designed for ro-ro ships using ports that are not provided with right-angled quays or link
span connections.
 Slewing ramps serve a similar purpose to the quarter ramp, but are more flexible.
 The slewing ramp moves around the stern on a curved guide rail, the movement being affected by the lifting and
lowering wire purchases, which are led to hydraulic winches.

[Link] a neat sketch of a bow door ramp.

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[Link] a hinged type watertight door showing securing arrangements to ensure water tightness

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 Ship Stability/ Ship Construction- Theory (Q.5 & Q.6 as per the pattern)
[Link] the SOLAS requirement for collision bulkhead. Or What are the SOLAS requirements regarding piercing of
the collision bulkhead to allow for dealing with liquid in the fore peak tank?

(SOLAS Regulation 12)

 A collision bulkhead shall be fitted which shall be watertight up to the bulkhead deck of passenger ships and the
freeboard deck of cargo ships
 This bulkhead shall be located at a distance from the forward perpendicular of not less than 0.05L or 10 m,
whichever is the less.
 And not more than 0.08L or 0.05L + 3 m, whichever is the greater.
 No doors, manholes, access openings, ventilation ducts or any other openings shall be fitted in the collision
bulkhead below the bulkhead deck
 The collision bulkhead may be pierced below the bulkhead deck by not more than one pipe for dealing with fluid
in the forepeak tank, provided that the pipe is fitted with a screw-down valve capable of being operated from
above the bulkhead deck, the valve chest being secured inside the forepeak to the collision bulkhead.
 The Administration may, however, authorize the fitting of this valve on the after side of the collision bulkhead
provided that the valve is readily accessible under all service conditions and the space in which it is located is not
a cargo space.
 If the forepeak is divided to hold two different kinds of liquids the Administration may allow the collision
bulkhead to be pierced below the bulkhead by two pipes, provided the Administration is satisfied that there is no
practical alternative to the fitting of such a second pipe.
 Where a long forward superstructure is fitted the collision bulkhead shall be extended weathertight to the deck
next above the bulkhead deck.
 The number of openings in the extension of the collision bulkhead above the freeboard deck shall be restricted to
the minimum compatible with the design and normal operation of the ship. All such openings shall be capable of
being closed weathertight.

[Link] the testing requirements for collision bulkhead. Or State the testing requirements for collision bulkhead
when not forming part of a tank, forming part of the bulkhead.

Initial testing of watertight bulkheads (SOLAS Regulation 11)

 Testing watertight spaces not intended to hold liquids and cargo holds intended to hold ballast by filling them
with water is not compulsory.
 When testing by filling with water is not carried out, a hose test shall be carried out where practicable. This test
shall be carried out in the most advanced stage of the fitting out of the ship.
 Where a hose test is not practicable because of possible damage to machinery, electrical equipment insulation or
outfitting items, it may be replaced by a careful visual examination of welded connections, supported where
deemed necessary by means such as a dye penetrant test or an ultrasonic leak test or an equivalent test
 In any case a thorough inspection of the watertight bulkheads shall be carried out.
 Tanks which are intended to hold liquids, and which form part of the watertight subdivision of the ship, shall be
tested for tightness and structural strength with water to a head corresponding to its design pressure.
 The water head is in no case to be less than the top of the air pipes or to a level of 2.4 m above the top of the
tank, whichever is the greater.

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[Link] are the special strengthening arrangements provided for the bulkheads bounding the tanks for the
carriage of oil?

Strengthening arrangement for oil-tight bulkheads:

Transverse Bulkheads:

 The transverse bulkheads are usually stiffened vertically.

 The stiffeners are bracketed at their ends and supported by horizontal stringers.
 If it is of a corrugated bulkhead, the corrugations would be vertical as it provides an advantage of improving
drainage, allowing easy cleaning and reducing weight.
 Horizontal stringers support the corrugations and vertical webs support if it is a horizontal corrugation in rare
cases.
 Further support is provided by the vertical centre line web, which is as a rule deeper on one side of the bulkhead
than on the other, unless the tank is very long and the web may then be symmetrical either side of the bulkhead.

Longitudinal Bulkheads:
 The longitudinal bulkheads may also in some cases be corrugated.
 But the corrugations must be horizontal otherwise the longitudinal strength would be impaired.
 It may also be conventionally stiffened.
 In rare cases, some ships also have centre line bulkheads fitted with vertical corrugations.
 If it is conventionally stiffened, it’s vertically arranged where the side framing is vertical.
 It is longitudinally arranged if it is longitudinally framed.
 Vertical webs are fitted to the longitudinal bulkhead when this is corrugated or longitudinally framed.
 Corrugated longitudinal bulkheads are only permitted in ships of less than 200m in length.

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[Link] short notes on Water tight, Weather tight, Oil Tight, corrugated bulkheads, bulkhead deck and wash
bulkheads

Water tight Bulkheads:

 As per SOLAS Watertight means having scantlings and arrangements capable of preventing the passage of water
in any direction under the head of water likely to occur in intact and damaged conditions.
 They divide the ship into watertight compartments and thus restrict the volume of water which may enter the
ship if the shell plating is damaged.
 They also serve to separate different types of cargo and to divide tanks and machinery spaces from the cargo
spaces.
 The minimum bulkheads fitted on a ship are: The forward most transverse water tight bulkhead is called collision
bulkhead, the aft peak bulkhead and other bulkheads fitted on forward and after side of machinery spaces.
 If the machinery space is aft, then either the afterpeak bulkhead or the bulkhead abaft the machinery space can
be dispensed with.
 The bulkheads are tested for water-tightness by hosing them using a pressure of 200 kN/m2.
 A bulkhead that can withstand a load of water in the event of flooding will readily perform the remaining
functions.

Weathertight Bulkheads:
 As per SOLAS Weathertight means that in any sea conditions water will not penetrate into the ship.
 That means, a weathertight bulkhead will withstand water pressure from outside only, whereas a watertight
bulkhead will withstand from both the sides.
 Often where a long forward superstructure is fitted the collision bulkhead shall be extended weathertight to the
deck next above the bulkhead deck.

Oil-tight Bulkhead:

 These types of bulkheads are found in more numbers in oil tankers.

 These bulkheads form the boundaries of tanks used for carrying liquid cargoes or fuel.
 The transverse bulkheads are usually stiffened vertically.
 The stiffeners are bracketed at their ends and supported by horizontal stringers
 The longitudinal bulkheads may also in some cases be corrugated.
 But the corrugations must be horizontal otherwise the longitudinal strength would be impaired.

Corrugated bulkheads:
 A corrugated plate is stronger than a flat plate if subject to a bending moment along the corrugations.
 This principle is used in bulkhead construction.
 The corrugations are made in the plating strakes prior to the fabrication of the complete bulkhead.
 the bulkhead will be plated vertically with a uniform thickness equivalent to that required at the base of the bulkhead.
 The stiffeners are not fitted in the corrugated bulkhead.
 Corrugated bulkheads can be watertight, oil-tight and weathertight.
 In case of corrugated oil-tight bulkhead, Horizontal stringers support the corrugations and vertical webs support if it
is a horizontal corrugation in rare cases.

Bulkhead Deck:

 A bulkhead deck is basically the deck level up to which all the watertight bulkheads are extended.
 Margin line is drawn at least 769 mm below the upper surface of the bulkhead deck at ship side.
 On cargo ships the freeboard decks are bulkhead decks.

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 Whereas on passenger ships, SOLAS states that the uppermost deck at any point in the subdivision length to
which the main bulkheads and the ship’s shell are carried watertight and the lowermost deck from which
passenger and crew evacuation will not be impeded by water in any stage of flooding for damage cases.
 Any part of the bulkhead deck in passenger ships considered a horizontal evacuation route for compliance.
 The screw down valve for a pipe piercing the collision bulkhead must be provided above the bulkhead deck.

Wash Bulkhead

[Link] Bulkhead is perforated or partial bulkhead in a tank.

[Link] is used in the oil tanks and ballast tanks to prevent sloshing or excessive movement of liquid in the tank.
[Link] is also used when additional stiffening is carried out for panting in the fore part.
[Link] the panting beams connected to the frames are long, these are supported at the ship’s centre line by a
partial wash bulkhead.
[Link] also found in broader tanks whose width is greater than 50% of ship’s beam. Though a longitudinal bulkhead is
also permitted in such cases.

[Link] are the relative advantages and disadvantages of corrugated bulkheads over plate type bulkheads?
Advantages of Corrugated Bulkhead:

 The corrugation helps in simplified cleaning especially in small and medium sized product or chemical tankers.
 The corrugation eliminates or reduces the need of stiffeners resulting in a considerable saving in weight.
 The design of corrugations provides more rigidity naturally.
 A corrugated plate is stronger than a flat plate if subject to a bending moment or pillar load along the corrugations.
 Usage of corrugated bulkheads come handy due to ease in fabrication and reduction of welded joints on the bulkhead.
 More flexible shape in shrinkage and expansion by thermal load compared to the flat stiffened bulkhead

Disadvantages:

 Since the plating is corrugated prior to its fabrication, the bulkhead will be plated vertically with a uniform
thickness equivalent to that required at the base of the bulkhead.
 This implies that the actual plating will be somewhat heavier than that for a conventional bulkhead, and this will
to a large extent offset any saving in weight gained by not fitting stiffeners.

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[Link] is cofferdam? Where it is fitted and what are its functions?

 A cofferdam means an empty space provided in a ship so that compartments on each side have no common
boundary; a cofferdam may be located vertically or horizontally.
 This empty space avoids intermixing of two different fluid when there is a leak from the boundary separating the
two liquids.
 As a rule, a cofferdam shall be kept gas-tight and must be properly ventilated and of sufficient size to allow
proper inspection, maintenance and safe evacuation.
 The cofferdam is provided with manholes for entry and inspection
 It is also provided with a sounding pipe to check leakage from any of the subordinate tanks
 It is always maintained dry to detect an early leak.
 Some cofferdams are usually provided with bilge suction so that any accumulated water/ oil or water-oil mixture
due to any leakage in the cofferdam can be pumped out using a bilge pump

Construction of Cofferdam:

 The cofferdam in a ship should be provided with stiffeners and girders to withstand liquid sloshing (in case of
leakage), vibratory loads and other loads which may be imposed in service.
 The size of the Cofferdams shall be of sufficient enough for easy access for inspection, and they shall cover the
entire adjacent tank bulkhead.
 The minimum distance between bulkheads should be 600 mm
 The lightering holes should not be cut in the bottom or top third of vertical web diaphragm plates of cofferdam as
this may lead to buckling of the plate.

Location of Cofferdam:

 Between fuel oil tanks which are installed inside the engine room. E.g. diesel oil and heavy fuel oil tank.
 Between freshwater tank and other engine room tanks adjacent to it
 Between lube oil tanks such as Auxiliary engine, main engine, or cylinder oil and lube oil storage tanks
 Between two oil tanks carrying different grades of fuel such as LSFO and HSFO
 The cofferdam is also installed around the main engine lube oil drain or sump tank, mainly to separate it from
other double bottom tanks.
 Between fuel oil tank and fresh water tank to prevent contamination with each other.
 In oil tankers, between cargo tank and machinery space
 The pump room in an oil tanker is also separated using cofferdam from the adjacent tanks
 Pump rooms and ballast tanks can be accepted as cofferdams.
 However, a ballast tank will not be taken as cofferdams if it is a protected slop tank

[Link] are the different categories of watertight door?

As per MSC.1/Circ.1380, following are the types of watertight doors.

TYPE A: This type of doors may be left open and are to be closed only during an emergency.

TYPE B: This type of watertight doors should be closed and are made to remain open only when personnel
are working in the adjacent compartment.

TYPE C: This type of watertight doors is to be kept closed all the time. It may be opened only for sufficient
time when personnel are passing through the door compartment.

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TYPE D: This type of watertight doors is not SOLAS compliant. These doors shall be closed before the
voyage commences and shall be kept closed during navigation. These doors cannot be upgraded to
another category.

Watertight doors can be further classified as per their design, such as

 Hinged type
 Sliding type.

[Link] the various categories of water tight doors, class1, class,2 and class 3.

As per CFR 170.250

Watertight doors, except doors between cargo spaces, are classed as follows:

(1) Class 1 - Hinged door.

(2) Class 2 - Sliding door, operated by hand gear only.

(3) Class 3 - Sliding door, operated by power and by hand gear.

Class 1 - Hinged Door:

 Hinged watertight doors may be fitted to watertight bulkheads in passenger ships, above decks which are 2.2m or
more above the load waterline.
 Similar doors are fitted in cargo ships to weather deck openings which are required to be watertight.
 The doors are secured by clips which may be fitted to the door or to the frame.
 The clips are forced against brass wedges.
 The hinges must be fitted with gunmetal pins.
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 Suitable packing is fitted round the door to ensure that it is watertight.

Class 2- Sliding door, operated by hand gear only:

 Often vertical sliding doors are operated by hand gear only.

 It is closed by means of a vertical screw thread which turns in a gunmetal nut secured to the door.
 The screw is turned by a spindle which extends above the bulkhead deck, fitted with a crank handle allowing
complete circular motion.
 A similar crank must be fitted at the door. The door runs in vertical grooves which are tapered towards the
bottom, the door having similar taper, so that a tight gearing fir is obtained when the door is closed.
 Brass facing strips are fitted to both the door and the frame.
 An indicator must be fitted at the control position above the bulkhead deck showing the status of the door.

Class 3 - Sliding door, operated by power and by hand gear.

 It is operated by means of an electric motor which turns a vertical shaft.

 Near the top and bottom of the door, horizontal screw shafts are turned by the vertical shaft through the bevel
gears.
 The door nut moves along the screw shaft within the nut box until any slack is taken up or the spring is fully
compressed, after which the door moves along its wedge-shaped guides on rollers.
 The electric motor is connected to an emergency power source.
 It also comprises of a de-wedging device to release the load from the wedge frame and to avoid overloading the
power unit if the door meets an obstruction.
 The doors can also be closed at the door position and also from a control point.
 If closed from the control point, they may be opened from a local position, switches being fitted on both sides of
the bulkhead, but close automatically when the switch is released.

[Link] and explain SOLAS requirements of W.T. door for cargo ships.

 In all ships design of all watertight doors shall be to the satisfaction of the Administration.
 The frames of vertical watertight doors shall have no groove at the bottom in which dirt might lodge and prevent
the door closing properly
 Watertight doors shall be tested by water pressure to a head of water they might sustain in a final or
intermediate stage of flooding.
 Where testing of individual doors is not carried out because of possible damage to insulation or outfitting items,
testing of individual doors may be replaced by a prototype pressure test of each type and size of door with a test
pressure corresponding at least to the head required for the intended location.
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 The prototype test shall be carried out before the door is fitted
 The installation method and procedure for fitting the door on board shall correspond to that of the prototype test
 When fitted on board, each door shall be checked for proper seating between the bulkhead, the frame and the
door.
 Watertight doors or ramps fitted internally subdivide large cargo spaces shall be closed before the voyage
commences and shall be kept closed during navigation; the time of opening such doors in port and of closing
them before the ship leaves port shall be entered in the log-book.
 On oil tankers, where there is permanent access from a pipe tunnel to the main pump-room, a watertight door
shall be fitted.
 This watertight door shall be capable of being manually closed from outside the main pump-room entrance.
 And shall be kept closed during normal operations of the ship except when access to the pipe tunnel is required.
 Watertight doors need not be insulated.

[Link] the requirement of inspection and drills applicable to water tight doors and record keeping of the
same. Also Describe testing requirements of watertight doors, side scuttles and storm valves on passenger
ships.

Periodical operation and inspection of watertight doors (SOLAS CH-II, REG 21):
 Drills for the operating of watertight doors shall take place weekly.
 In ships in which the voyage exceeds one week in duration a complete drill shall be held before leaving port.
 All watertight doors, both hinged and power operated, in watertight bulkheads, in use at sea, shall be operated
daily.
 The watertight doors and all mechanisms and indicators connected therewith, all valves, the closing of which is
necessary to make a compartment watertight, and all valves the operation of which is necessary for damage
control cross connections shall be periodically inspected at sea at least once a week
 A record of all drills and inspections required by this regulation shall be entered in the log-book with an explicit
record of any defects which may be disclosed

Testing Requirements of Watertight Doors:

 In passenger ships and cargo ships watertight doors shall be tested by water pressure to a head of water they
might sustain in a final or intermediate stage of flooding.
 Watertight doors shall be tested by water pressure to a head of water they might sustain in a final or
intermediate stage of flooding.
 Where testing of individual doors is not carried out because of possible damage to insulation or outfitting items,
testing of individual door may be replaced by a prototype pressure test of each type and size of door with a test
pressure corresponding at least to the head required for the intended location.
 The prototype test shall be carried out before the door is fitted
 The installation method and procedure for fitting the door on board shall correspond to that of the prototype test
 When fitted on board, each door shall be checked for proper seating between the bulkhead, the frame and the
door.

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[Link] the difference between water tight and weather tight doors.

[Link] Watertight Door Weathertight Door

1 As per SOLAS, Watertight means having scantlings As per SOLAS Weathertight means that in any sea
and arrangements capable of preventing the conditions water will not penetrate into the ship.
passage of water in any direction under the head
of water likely to occur in intact and damaged
conditions.
2 Thus, a watertight door can withstand water Thus, a weathertight door can withstand water
pressure on both the sides of the door. pressure only on one side of the door.

3 Usually fitted below the waterlines. Fitted above the waterlines.

4 Found in engine room compartments, bow Found mostly on weather decks. E.g.
thruster rooms etc. Accommodation entrance doors.

5 Watertight doors can be hinged type or sliding Usually hinged type with clip handle
door.
6 They can be operated by hand and or by power. Mostly hand operated.
7 Watertight doors shall be tested by water pressure A weathertight door is generally tested with a high-
to a head of water they might sustain in a final or pressure hose, which is directed at the seal. It can
intermediate stage of flooding withstand a small head of water not more than the
height of the door.
8 If it is power operated, they shall have an No such requirements. But doors must be clearly
operating console at navigation bridge as well. marked with arrows to indicate closing and opening
They shall have a means of indication indicating of door.
whether the door is open or closed.

[Link] testing requirements of main W/T compartments on cargo ships.

SOLAS CH II Reg.11

 Testing watertight spaces not intended to hold liquids and cargo holds intended to hold ballast by filling them
with water is not compulsory.
 When testing by filling with water is not carried out, a hose test shall be carried out where practicable.
 This test shall be carried out in the most advanced stage of the fitting out of the ship.
 Where a hose test is not practicable because of possible damage to machinery, electrical equipment insulation or
outfitting items, it may be replaced by a careful visual examination of welded connections, supported where
deemed necessary by means such as a dye penetrant test or an ultrasonic leak test or an equivalent test.
 In any case a thorough inspection of the watertight bulkheads shall be carried out.
 The forepeak, double bottom (including duct keels) and inner skins shall be tested with water to a head up to the
bulkhead deck.
 Tanks which are intended to hold liquids, and which form part of the watertight subdivision of the ship, shall be
tested for tightness and structural strength with water to a head corresponding to its design pressure.
 The water head is in no case to be less than the top of the air pipes or to a level of 2.4 m above the top of the
tank, whichever is the greater.
 The tests referred above are for the purpose of ensuring that the subdivision structural arrangements are
watertight and are not to be regarded as a test of the fitness of any compartment for the storage of oil fuel or for
other special purposes.

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[Link] are KN curves? How do KN Curves assist a Chief Mate of a vessel in determining the Intact Stability of a
Ship?
Cross Curves of Stability:
 A curve of statical stability is a curve constructed for the displacement and KG of each voyage.
 The information required to construct such a curve is given by the ship yard in the form of cross curves or in the
form of KN curves.
 GZ is a function of KG, KM and the angle of heel θ. The shipyard constructs the curve using SW displacement.
 The graph is constructed for an assumed value of KG which is stated clearly therein.
 Thus, in order to obtain the values for the appropriate KG value of the ship, a correction has to be applied.
 When the actual KG is less than the assumed Kg, then the correction is positive and if the actual KG is more than
the assumed kg then the correction is negative.
 The KG mentioned here is fluid KG, i.e. KG + FSC.
 While applying the correction, there is a possibility of subtracting or adding when it must have been done the
other way.
 In order to eliminate this possibility of error, the shipyards draw the cross curves for an assumed value of zero kg.
 Thence the righting lever is called as KN instead of GZ.
 Since the fluid KG of the voyage is always positive, the correction is always to be subtracted from KN to obtain GZ
for the actual KG of the ship.
 Such curves of stability using KG as 0 is known as KN curves.
 Thus, the chief officer gets the necessary data from the KN curves to determining the intact stability of a ship.
 The information determined from the curves are
Initial GM
Angle of flooding
The righting lever,
Area under GZ curve up to 30° angle of heel etc.
 These values help in determining whether the ship has met minimum intact stability criteria.

[Link] how the values of following parameters change with change in vessel’s draughts:
i) KMT ii) LCB iii) MCTC iv) LCF

 When a vessel moves from water of one density to another, its underwater volume changes due to the
change in density.
 This happens as the ship has to displace same mass of water.
Mass = U/W Volume X Density.
 When the density of the water increases, then the volume of water displaced must decrease to keep the
mass of water displaced constant, and vice versa.

Below is the effect of density change on various elements,

KMT:
 When a vessel is heeled, the force of buoyance acting vertically upwards through a new position COB,
cuts the centre line of the ship at a point called the transverse metacentre.
 Its position M is indicated by its height above the keel.
 Point B is the centre of buoyance which is the centroid of underwater volume.
 As the density changes, the underwater volume changes resulting in change in B and this will affect the
KMt.

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B) LCB
 The centre of buoyance of a ship is the point through which the force of buoyancy considered to act
vertically upwards, with a force equal the weight of the water displaced.
 It is the geometric centre of the underwater volume.
 As the density changes, underwater volume will also change thereby affecting the position of B.
 It is indicated as distance from the AP , i.e. LCB.

C) MCTC
 It is the moment required to change the trim by 1cm.
 MCTC = W X GML / 100L
 As the underwater volume changes due to density, it affects MCTC which
 MCTC is directly proportional to change in density.
 That is if density increases, MCTC will increase and vice versa.

D) LCF

 Centre of floatation is the centroid of waterplane area.

 It is point about which the ship trims, in other words the fulcrum of the ship.
 It is indicated as the distance from the AP as LCF.
 The ships water plane area will change due to the change in under water volume of the ship when
the density of water changes. This, effects the change in LCF.

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[Link] what is Angle of Loll and its corrective actions? Or A Fully loaded ship may roll 25° to either side
without causes for alarm. However, the ship falling over to an angle of loll of 15° to one side is cause for great
concern. Justify above statement, supporting your answer with well arguments. Or A vessel on her voyage at
sea has inclined unexpectedly by 5 degrees. Discuss the various possibilities for this condition.

Angle of Loll

 KM increases as the angle of heel increases until it reaches a maximum value at some large angle of
heel.
 As the unstable vessel heels over more and more, it may happen that at some angle of heel, KM
increases sufficiently to equal to KG.
 The vessel would then be in neutral equilibrium and angle at which this happens is called the angle of
loll.
 In other words, as the angle of heel increases, the centre of buoyance will move out still further to the
low side.
 If the COB moves out to a position vertically under G, the capsizing moment will have disappeared.
 The angle at which this occurs is called the angle of loll
 It will be noticed that at the angle of loll, the GZ is zero. G remains on the centre line.
 If the ship is heeled beyond the angle of loll, the centre of buoyancy will move out still further to the
low side and there will be a moment to return her to the angle of loll.
 From this it can be seen that the ship will oscillate about the angle of loll instead of about the vertical.
 If the COB does not move out far enough to get vertically under G, the ship will capsize.
Action to correct angle of loll:

 First make sure that the heel is due to a negative GM and not due to uneven distribution of the weights
on board.

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 To correct this, it will be necessary to lower the position of the effective COG sufficiently to bring it
below the initial metacentre.
 Any slack tanks should be topped up to eliminate the virtual rise of G due to free surface effect.
 If there are any weights which can be lowered within the ship, they should be lowered.
 Assuming that vessel is still in angle of loll and assuming having DB tanks empty, following must be
done:
 When we start filling the DB tanks with water, free surface effect is created resulting in rise of G.
 Thus, those which have the smallest area can be filled first so that the increase in list is cut to a
minimum.
 Tanks should be filled one at a time and if the tank is divided at centre line, then low side tank must be
filled first.
 If high side is filled first, the ship will start to right herself but will then roll suddenly over to take up a
larger angle of loll on the other side or perhaps even capsize.
 Whereas if we fill the low side tank first, it will increase the list further, will also increase the GM due to
free surface effect, but in this case the list is gradual and controlled.

 In the above figure (b), the shift of G to Gv is due to the free surface effect and from Gv to G1 is due to
added weight of water.
 Thus, when more water is added the centre of gravity of the ship will gradually move downwards and
the list will start to decrease.
 As the list decreases, water may be run into the other side of the tank
 The water will then be running in much more quickly, causing G to move downwards more quickly
 The ship cannot roll suddenly over to the other side as there is more water in the low side than in the high side.
 If sufficient weight of water is loaded to bring G on the centre line below M, the ship should complete the
operation upright.

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[Link] alone is not the adequate measure of stability of ship. Justify the above statement with sketches.

Intact Stability Requirement:

Following are the parameters that a vessel should meet in order to be a stable ship as per the code on intact
stability.
 The area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) should not be less than 0.055 metre-radians up to θ = 30° angle
of heel and not less than 0.09 metre-radians up to θ = 40° or the angle of down-flooding θf if this angle is less than
40°
 Additionally, the area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) between the angles of heel of 30° and 40° or
between 30° and θf, if this angle is less than 40°, should not be less than 0.03 metre-radians.
 The righting lever GZ should be at least 0.20 m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30°
 The maximum righting arm should occur at an angle of heel preferably exceeding 30° but not less than 25°
 The initial metacentric height GM should not be less than 0.15 m.
 On passenger ships, the angle of heel on account of crowding of passengers to one side should not exceed 10°
 Thus, for each voyage GZ curves are drawn and made sure that the ship satisfies all the above criteria.

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[Link] how an upright vessel with slight initial stern trim experiences a change of trim when moving from SW
to RW, ii. Moving from RW to SW

Vessel in SW After reaching RW

EFFECT ON VESSEL WHEN CHANGE IN DENSITY OF WATER:

 When a vessel moves from water of one density to another, its underwater volume changes due to the
change in density.
 This happens as the ship has to displace same mass of water.
Mass = U/W Volume X Density.
 When the density of the water increases, then the volume of water displaced must decrease to keep the
mass of water displaced constant, and vice versa.

A. Change of trim when moving from SW TO RW

 When a vessel moves from SW to RW its underwater volume increases due to decrease in the density of
water.
 COB is the centroid of the underwater volume of the ship.
 From the above figure it can be seen that in water level WL in saltwater, LCB is more than LCG and the
couple formed would result in stern trim.
 When the vessel moves from saltwater RD to river water RD, the underwater volume increases and due
to change in shape of the underwater volume, the B has now shifted aft of G, i.e. LCB is less than LCG.
 The LCG will not change as there isn’t any change in weight distribution onboard assuming consumption
are negligible.
 The ship would alter her trim until her COB becomes vertically below COG.
 In this case as the LCG is lesser after reaching RW, the ship would trim by head.

B. Change of trim when moving from RW TO SW

 When a vessel moves from SW to RW its underwater volume decreases due to decrease in the density
of water.
 Vessel having a stern trim in RW would have its LCB more than LCG.
 From the figure, it can be seen that the water level WL1 in RW would decrease to WL in SW.
 When the vessel moves from RW density to SW density, the underwater volume would decrease and
due to change in shape of the underwater volume, the B has now shifter further aft from its initial
position.
 This has resulted in increase in the stern trim as initial LCB is greater than final LCB, while the LCG remains same
throughout assuming consumption are negligible.

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 Vessel in RW After reaching SW

[Link] volumetric heeling moment and its effect on the stability of vessel when the ship is loaded with bulk
grain.

Volumetric Heelling Moment:

 Grain heeling moments are produced by a grain shift.

 It is assumed that the centre of gravity in a filled compartment is at the volumetric centre of the whole cargo
space.
 Volumetric heeling moment is the product of volume of the shifted grain multiplied by horizontal distance
between its intitial and final centres of gravity.
 Volumetric heeling moments are expressed in m4.
 It is assumed to be equal to the volume of void multiplied by shift of their centroid.
 It is common practice to calculate and tabulate the volumetric heeling moment of different compartments
instead of weight heeling moment.
 Ship may load the grain of different stowage factors. To obtain the actual weight heeling moment for a particular
grain the volumetric heeling moment is divided by the stowage factor of that grain.

௏ுி ௠ర
Grain heeling moment
ௌி ௠ య௧
Effect of volumetric heeling moment on ship stability:

 Even when a hold is completely filled with grain, it will settle down and create a void space due to ship’s vibration
and other movements.
 This pace allows cargo to move from side to side in conjunction with the rolling and pitching of the vessel.
 Grain has a low angle of repose and liable to shift easily.
 Thus, partly filled compartments are more dangerous as there is large void space.
 Shifting of grain is the greatest hazard involved in carriage of grain.
 As the cargo shifts, the vessel lists to one side.
 Therefore, the heeling moments for the ship are to be kept as small as possible.
 The calculation for grain stability is to find out whether the ship would be stable if there is a shift of grain due to
the void space left after completion of loading.

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[Link] the stability criteria to be satisfied by vessels carrying grain cargo in bulk as required by Intl. Grain
code.

As per International code for the safe carriage of grain in bulk (Part A, CH.7):
 The angle of heel due to the shift of grain shall not be greater than 12° or in case of ships constructed on or after
1st Jan 94 the angle at which the deck edge is immersed, whichever is the lesser.
 In the statical stability diagram, the net or residual area between the heeling arm curve and the righting arm
curve up to the angle of heel of maximum difference between the ordinates of the two curves, or 40° or the angle
of flooding (θ1), whichever is the least, shall in all conditions of loading be not less than 0.075 metre-radians
 the initial metacentric height, after correction for the free surface effects of liquids in tanks, shall be not less than
0.30 m.
 After loading, the master shall ensure that the ship is upright before proceeding to sea.

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[Link] contents of Stability Booklet, as per Intact Stability Code.

As per International Code on Intact Stability (Part-B, Ch-3.6):

 Stability data and associated plans should be drawn up in the working language of the ship.
 Each ship should be provided with a stability booklet, approved by the administration.
 The format of the stability booklet and information included will vary dependent on the ship type and operation.
 However, the stability booklet would contain following information in common:
i. a general description of the ship;
ii. instructions on the use of the booklet;
iii. 3 general arrangement plans showing watertight compartments, closures, vents, down-flooding angles,
permanent ballast, allowable deck loadings and freeboard diagrams;
iv. hydrostatic curves or tables and cross curves of stability calculated on a free-trimming basis, for the ranges
of displacement and trim anticipated in normal operating conditions;
v. capacity plan or tables showing capacities and centres of gravity for each cargo stowage space
vi. tank sounding tables showing capacities, centres of gravity, and free surface data for each tank;
vii. information on loading restrictions, such as maximum KG or minimum GM curve or table that can be used to
determine compliance with the applicable stability criteria
viii. standard operating conditions and examples for developing other acceptable loading conditions using the
information contained in the stability booklet;
ix. a brief description of the stability calculations done including assumptions;
x. general precautions for preventing unintentional flooding;
xi. information concerning the use of any special cross-flooding fittings with descriptions of damage conditions
which may require cross-flooding
xii. any other necessary guidance for the safe operation of the ship under normal and emergency conditions
xiii. a table of contents and index for each booklet
xiv. inclining test report for the ship, or:
.14.1 where the stability data is based on a sister ship, the inclining test report of that sister ship along with
the lightship measurement report for the ship in question; or

14.2 where lightship particulars are determined by other methods than from inclining of the ship or its sister,
a summary of the method used to determine those particulars; ‘
xv. recommendation for determination of ship's stability by means of an in-service inclining test

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[Link] the help of a diagram, explain how can initial GM be obtained from GZ curve of a vessel.

 A curve of statical stability is a graph wherein the righting lever GZ is plotted against the angle of heel.
 It is drawn for the displacement and KG of that voyage.

Initial Metacentric height:

 A tangent is drawn to the curve at the origin.
 A perpendicular is erected at 57.3° (1 radian) heel to meet the tangent.
 The distance of the point of intersection from the base line, measured on the GZ scale, indicates the initial GM.

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[Link] enumerate the information available to you as a mate from curve of statical stability

Curve of STATICAL STABILITY:

 A cure of statical stability is a graph wherein the righting lever GZ is plotted against the angle of heel.
 It is drawn, by the chief officer, for the displacement and KG of that voyage.

The information that may be obtained from a curve of statical stability is as follows:

 The maximum value of GZ.

 The angle of heel at which maximum GZ occurs.
 The angle of vanishing stability. This is the angle of heel at which GZ becomes zero again.
 The range of positive stability. In normal cases, this would be from zero degrees to the angle of vanishing stability
but in cases where the ship is initially unstable, it will not be from zero degrees onwards but from some other
value as shown later in this chapter.
 The initial metacentric height. A tangent is drawn. A perpendicular is erected at 57.3° (1 radian) heel to meet the
tangent. The distance of the point of intersection from the base line, measured on the GZ scale, indicates the
initial GM.
 The angle of heel at which the deck edge immerses. This is the angle of heel at which the point of contraflexure of
the curve occurs.
 The moment of stability at any given angle of heel. The GZ for the given angle of heel is obtained from the curve
and multiplied by the displacement of the ship.
 The dynamical stability of the ship at any given angle of heel. This is the work done in heeling the ship to the
given angle.
 The curve would be the same whether ship is heeled to starboard or to port. The only difference would be the
direction of GZ.
 The information required to construct the curves for the displacement and KG of the voyage is supplied by the
shipyard in the form of either cross curves or KN curves and available in vessels stability booklet.

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[Link] a port and starboard GZ curve for an unstable vessel, a stable but listed vessel.

The curve would be the same whether ship is heeled to starboard or to port. The only difference would be the
direction of GZ. When heeled to port, GZ acts to starboard, and when heeled to starboard, GZ act to port.

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[Link] the effect on statical stability curve for a vessel which is at an angle of loll on the port side. Also suggest
the remedial action to be taken explaining the reasons for same. Or Draw a sketch of statical stability curve for
a vessel which is at an angle of loll. Also suggest the remedial action to be taken explaining the reasons for
same.

 Above is the curve of statical stability for an unstable vessel, i.e. having negative GM.
 The curve for a listed vessel would be same irrespective of which side it’s listed. The only difference being the
direction of GZ.
 Note from the above figure that the GZ at angle of loll is zero.
 At angles of heel less than the angle of loll the righting levers are negative, whilst beyond the angle of loll the
righting levers are positive up to the angle of vanishing stability.
 The range of stability in this case is measured from the angle of loll and not from the 0.

Corrective action:

 To correct this, it will be necessary to lower the position of the effective COG sufficiently to bring it
below the initial metacentre.
 Any slack tanks should be topped up to eliminate the virtual rise of G due to free surface effect.
 Assuming that vessel is still in angle of loll and assuming having DB tanks empty, following must be
done:
 When we start filling the DB tanks with water, free surface effect is created resulting in rise of G.
 Thus, those which have the smallest area can be filled first so that the increase in list is cut to a
minimum.
 Tanks should be filled one at a time and if the tank is divided at centre line, then port side tank (low
side) must be filled first.
 If starboard side tank (high side) is filled first, the ship will start to right herself but will then roll
suddenly over to take up a larger angle of loll on the other side or perhaps even capsize.
 Whereas if we fill the port side tank (low side) first, it will increase the list further, will also increase the
GM due to free surface effect, but in this case the list is gradual and controlled.

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 In the above figure, the shift of G to Gv is due to the free surface effect and from Gv to G1 is due to
added weight of water.
 Thus, when more water is added the centre of gravity of the ship will gradually move downwards and
the list will start to decrease.
 As the list decreases, water may be run into the other side of the tank
 The water will then be running in much more quickly, causing G to move downwards more quickly
 The ship cannot roll suddenly over to the other side as there is more water in the low side than in the high side.
 If sufficient weight of water is loaded to bring G on the centre line below M, the ship should complete the
operation upright.

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[Link] do the following parameters affect Stability (GZ Curve) a) Beam b) Freeboard or Discuss the effect on
stability of ship due to increased beam and freeboard.

A. Beam

 Let curve A in Figure represent the curve of stability for a certain box-shaped vessel whose deck edge becomes
immersed at about 17 degrees heel.
 Let the draft, freeboard and KG remain unchanged, but increase in the beam.
 For a ship-shaped vessel BM = I/V, and for a box-shaped vessel BM = B2/12d.
 Therefore, an increase in beam will produce an increase in BM
 Hence the GM will also be increased, as will the righting levers at all angles of heel.
 The range of stability is also increased. The new curve of stability would appear as curve B in Figure.

 The angle of heel at which the deck edge becomes immersed, has been reduced.
 The increase in the beam, as shown in Figure (b), will result in the deck edge becoming immersed at a smaller
angle of heel.
 When the deck edge becomes immersed, the breadth of the water-plane will decrease and this will manifest itself
in the curve by a reduction in the rate of increase of the GZs with increase in heel.

B. Freeboard
 Let the draft, KG, and the beam, remain unchanged, but let the freeboard be increased from f1 to f2. The effect
of this is shown by curve C in the first figure.
 There will be no effect on the stability curve from the origin up to the angle of heel at which the original deck
edge was immersed.

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 When the vessel is now inclined beyond this angle of heel, the increase in the freeboard will cause an increase in
the water-plane area and, thus, the righting levers will also be increased.
 This is shown in above figure, where WL represents the original breadth of the water-plane when heeled x
degrees, and WL1 represents the breadth of the water-plane area for the same angle of heel but with the
increased freeboard.
 Thus, the vessel can heel further over before her deck edge is immersed, because a2>a1 .
 From the above it may be concluded that an increase in freeboard has no effect on the stability of the vessel up
to the angle of heel at which the original deck edge became immersed, but beyond this angle of heel all of the
righting levers will be increased in length. The maximum GZ and the angle at which it occurs will be increased as
also will be the range of stability.

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[Link] the effects of decreasing beam and increasing freeboard of a ship on her moment of statical stability

Decreasing Beam:

 Let curve B in Figure represent the curve of stability for a certain box-shaped vessel whose deck edge becomes
immersed at about 12 degrees heel.
 Let the draft, freeboard and KG remain unchanged, but decrease in the beam.
 For a ship-shaped vessel BM = I/V, and for a box-shaped vessel BM = B2/12d.
 Therefore, a decrease in beam will produce a decrease in BM
 Hence the GM will also be decreased, as will the righting levers at all angles of heel.
 The range of stability is also decreased.

 The angle of heel at which the deck edge becomes immersed has been increased.
 The decrease in the beam, as shown in Figure (a), will result in the deck edge becoming immersed at a larger
angle of heel.
 When the deck edge becomes immersed, the breadth of the water-plane will increase and this will manifest itself
in the curve by a reduction in the rate of decrease of the GZs with decrease in heel.

Increased Freeboard
 Let the draft, KG, and the beam, remain unchanged, but let the freeboard be increased from f1 to f2. The effect
of this is shown by curve C in the first figure.
 There will be no effect on the stability curve from the origin up to the angle of heel at which the original deck
edge was immersed.

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 When the vessel is now inclined beyond this angle of heel, the increase in the freeboard will cause an increase in
the water-plane area and, thus, the righting levers will also be increased.
 This is shown in above figure, where WL represents the original breadth of the water-plane when heeled x
degrees, and WL1 represents the breadth of the water-plane area for the same angle of heel but with the
increased freeboard.
 Thus, the vessel can heel further over before her deck edge is immersed, because a2>a1.
 From the above it may be concluded that an increase in freeboard has no effect on the stability of the vessel up
to the angle of heel at which the original deck edge became immersed, but beyond this angle of heel all of the
righting levers will be increased in length. The maximum GZ and the angle at which it occurs will be increased as
also will be the range of stability.

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[Link] the effect of movement of weight both vertically and transversely on statical stability curve.

Effect of movement of weight Vertically on Statical Stability Curve:

 GZ values at different angles of heel are given in the KN curves.

 Some vertical shift of weights will result in vertical shift of G.
 The GZ values for the new condition are obtained by GG1 SIN θ.
 Add this value for a downward shift of G and subtract for upward shift.
 The KG used in these calculations to determine GZ are fluid KG, i.e. KG + FSC
 When the G increases, GM reduces, the GZ values would decrease for all values.
 Whereas when G decreases, provides better stability by increase in GZ values throughout all angles of heel.

Effect of movement of weight horizontally on Statical Stability Curve:

 Horizontal shift of weights will result in horizontal shift of G.

 The GZ values for the new condition are obtained by first calculating GG1 COS θ.
 If the weight is also shifted vertically, GZ values at the various angles of heel are determined by the expression,
GZ = KN – KG SIN θ
 Then this value is subtracted from GZ valued obtained above. The corrected GZ values so obtained are plotted as
a curve of statical stability.
 The list is then read off, where the curve attains zero value.
 At earlier angles, the vessel has a negative GZ (heeling lever), while at larger angles, she has positive GZ values
(Righting Lever)
 Thought the GZ values are negative initially, this is not due to a negative GM.
 As the G shifts transversely, the vessel lists till the COB once again comes in the same vertical line as the centre of
gravity.
 At this list, she attains static equilibrium

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[Link] critical instant, critical period and Declivity of docks.

Critical Instant:
 It is the moment just before the vessel takes blocks overall.
 The up thrust of bilge block acts on the stern frame (sole piece)
 The up thrust is maximum at this point.
 Maximum loss of GM occurs at this instant
ெ ஼்஼ ௑ ்
 Calculated using the formula P =
ூ

Critical Period:
 During dry docking the ship, until the stern has taken to the blocks, the ship is floating freely.
 Whatever trim, GM, etc. that she had while entering the dock will be unaffected until the stern touches the keel
blocks.
 After the stern has taken to the blocks, part of the weight of the ship gets transferred to the blocks.
 The interval, from the instant the stern takes to the blocks till the instant the bow also takes to the blocks, is
called the critical period.
 This is because, during this period the ship suffers steadily increasing virtual loss of GM.

Declivity of docks:
 Dry docks are trimmed by the stern i.e. the bottom of the dry dock slopes towards the caisson.
 This slope or trim is called the declivity of the dock
 This causes residual water to flow into pits from which it is pumped out totally emptying the dock
 It is expressed in terms of metre rise per 100m.
 It is desirable for vessels like tugs and fishing trawlers with a rise of keel to be repaired in a dock with some
declivity as they run with good propeller immersion because of the deep draft aft of these vessels.

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[Link] are the reasons for desirability of dry docking with the small stern trim?
 During dry docking the ship, until the stern has taken to the blocks, the ship is floating freely.
 One of the main reasons for stern trim is to make sure that the sole piece sits first on the block as it is constructed
with additional strength to undergo the up thrust while dry docking.
 After the stern has taken to the blocks, part of the weight of the ship gets transferred to the blocks.
 The interval, from the instant the stern takes to the blocks till the instant the bow also takes to the blocks, is
called the critical period.
 Though it is ideal to dock with zero ballast, the stern trim would be large.
 If the stern trim is larger, critical period would be longer.
 That is more time to bring the vessel from stern on the block to full ship on the blocks.
 As the ship’s GM would be least during this period, this duration is kept as low as possible.
 Trim by head would bring the bows in contact with the keel blocks, and the load of the ship will come on it, which
could damage the bows, as it is not strengthened for this purpose.
 Also, it is difficult for the docking master to align the vessel on the docks if it’s in an even keel condition or
negligible stern trim.

[Link] and explain the conditions necessary from the stability point of view when carrying out routine dry-
docking of a ship.

Pre-Docking Stability Condition:

 Ship’s displacement should be as light as possible considering that the ship is in operational condition. Cargo
should not be there and ballast should be minimum.
 There should not be any list.
 Vessel must have a small stern trim.
 Have large GM (Positive), so that residual virtual GM at the critical instant arrived at is sufficiently large to avoide
vessel becoming unstable and also to allow for possible inaccuracies.
 Have FSE as low as possible.

Small Stern Trim:

 During dry docking the ship, until the stern has taken to the blocks, the ship is floating freely.
 One of the main reasons for stern trim is to make sure that the sole piece sits first on the block as it is constructed
with additional strength to undergo the up thrust while dry docking.
 The interval, from the instant the stern takes to the blocks till the instant the bow also takes to the blocks, is
called the critical period.
 If the stern trim is larger, critical period would be longer.
 As the ship’s GM would be least during this period, this duration is kept as low as possible.
 Trim by head would bring the bows in contact with the keel blocks, and the load of the ship will come on it, which
could damage the bows, as it is not strengthened for this purpose.

Positive GM:
 After the vessel initially touches the block and the critical period commences, the water is steadily
pumped out, resulting in further loss of buoyancy/ increase in the up thrust
 This steadily increase until the instant before the ship is on the blocks overall after which it is
supported by the side shores/ bilge blocks. This instant is called the critical instant.
 The increase in the loss of buoyancy from the commencement of the critical period causes a steadily
increasing virtual loss of GM and it is extremely important that until the vessel is fully supported
either by side shores or bottom blocks the initial GM is sufficient to accommodate this virtual loss in
GM without becoming negative and turning unstable.
 The virtual loss of GM at any time during the process may be calculated by

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 ௉ ௑ ௄ீ
GM =
ௐ ି௉
 The virtual loss of GM as calculated by the foregoing formulae is approximate only.
 Therefore, the only practical solution is to ensure that the residual virtual GM at the critical instant arrived at by
using the formulae is sufficiently large to accommodate the possible inaccuracy.

Free Surface Effect:

 During the critical period, the most dangerous time is at the end of the critical period, called the critical instant.
 This is when P, acting at the stern frame only is maximum.
 Also, maximum virtual loss of GM occurs.
 During the critical period FSC increases until the ship sits overall.
 If the vessel has large FSC prior docking, then its effect on virtual loss of GM would be large.
 Thus, the FSC is kept as low as possible.
 After the ships sits overall, there isn’t any possibility of roll and FSE ceases to exist.

[Link] out the various items to be opened and examined in dry dock as part of classification society surveys?

Areas inspected during a dry docking include: shell plating, cathodic protection fittings, rudder stem frame,
propeller, anchors and chain cable

Other key items examined are as follows:

Echo Sounder:

 The echo sounders are serviced and the cables are checked for continuity and earth after cleaning the
connections in the terminal box.
 The transducer plates are cleaned and a coat of fish oil applied on the transducers.
 Also, the water-tightness of the terminal are checked.

SPEED LOG OR DOPPLER SPEED LOG

 The ships are fitted with a Doppler speed log. This equipment is to be serviced and calibrated.
 The dry dock provides the best situation for verification since any transducers fitted underwater can be
thoroughly checked and renewed if they are faulty.

SACRIFICIAL ZINC ANODES OR IMPRESSED CURRENT SYSTEM

 All zinc sacrificial anodes are to be renewed. Most of them would be completely wasted, if any un-wasted anodes
are found they are not of good quality and hence must be renewed.
 The number of zinc anodes should not be reduced as they are calculated as a total quantity of zinc to be
distributed all over the hull surface especially on the bilge keels, the stern portion and on the rudder.
 The total mass of zinc used is proportional to wetted surface area of the ship and the mass of the propeller.
 If the ship is fitted with an impressed current system then it must be serviced and calibrated.

SEA CHESTS CLEANING AND PAINTING

 All ships are fitted with at least 2-3 sea chests in the machinery space area. They are high sea suction, the low sea
suction and the emergency fire pump sea suction.
 Their suction grids are to be dismantled and cleaned.
 The internal surface of the chests has to be scraped clean of all growth.
 In case of doubt the casing, plate thicknesses have to be gauged for thickness and renewed as necessary.

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 After cleaning they are to be painted in accordance to the ship’s hull painting specification.
 Zinc anodes in the sea chests are to be renewed.

CLEANING AND PAINTING OF CHAIN LOCKER

 The chain wells are cleaned of mud and accumulated water.

 Then painted with a slow drying chlorinated rubber-based paint.
 This work can only be done in dry dock since the anchors and chains are taken out into the dry dock

ANCHOR CABLES RANGING AND CALIBRATION

 Both the anchors along with their cables are lowered into the dock bottom and the chains are ranged to enable
the chains to be calibrated.
 The diameters of the links are checked and noted and shown to the surveyor.
 Links on any chain length which have wasted are discarded by renewing the chain length utilizing the spare chain
length.
 The ship always carries one spare length as per regulations. This length is attached to either the port or starboard
anchors.
 It is a good practice to turn the chains end to end at each dry docking so that the link wear is uniform

RUDDER PINTLE CLEARANCES, JUMPING CLEARANCE, ANY REPAIRS AND HYDRAULIC TESTING

 The rudder bottom plug is opened out in dry dock.

 If accumulated water comes out, it indicates the rudder plating is cracked and hence sea water has found its way
into the rudder making it heavy causing the rudder movement sluggish.
 Hence the location of the damage has to be found out and then suitably repaired
 The pintle bush clearance for top and bottom pintles are to be measured using long feeler gauges.
 The allowable pintle bush clearance is 1.5 mm for pintle dia up to 200 mm. For dia exceeding 200 mm the
clearance is proportionately increased.
 If the clearances are excessive the bushes are to be renewed after dismantling the rudder. The clearances are
taken at port, starboard, forward and aft and the maximum of these is the clearance.
 The verification of jumping clearance is carried out by comparing the clearance at the jumping bar under the
rudder skeg with the clearance at the steering gear X- head .
 The clearance at the X-head should be more than the jumping clearance to prevent the X- head interfering with
the Rams and damaging the Rams.
 Jumping clearance can increase by wear of the rudder pedestal bearings or by the jumping bar falling off the
rudder if the welding holding the bar has given way.
 If the pedestal bearing has worn off the rudder is to be jacked up and the pedestal bearing halves dismantled, the
bearings built up by welding and suitably machined.

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[Link] the flag states ensure that their rules and regulations are effectively enforced on the ships
registered with them?

Flag state: It is the country in which a ship is registered under its national law. The ship’s flag displays the
nationality of the ship, under whose laws the ship is plying in the international waters.

 A country after ratifying a convention, incorporates the convention into its national laws.
 This enforces statutory merchant shipping regulations for the flag state. E.g. Merchant Shipping Act for India.
 The flag state also sets, monitor and enforce standards of safety and pollution prevention on its vessels. Also sets
the standards of competency amongst seafarers. This can be in addition to the convention it has ratified and
incorporated into its law.
 In order to make sure the rules and regulations are effectively enforced on the ships registered with them, it
conducts surveys and inspections in accordance with the domestic and international regulations.
 Only flag state approved equipment must be used on vessels. Eg. GMDSS equipment.
 They conduct flag state inspection as per the ratified convention, mostly the frequency based on harmonized
system of survey and certification, Enhanced Survey Programme and Condition assessment scheme.

Flag State Inspection:

 The flag state inspections are conducted either directly by flag state authorities or in most cases by
RECONDNIZED ORGANISATIONS.
 In most cases RO’s are nothing but classification societies as they are well equipped with the knowledge,
expertise and widespread availability of surveyors across the world.
 The inspection verifies the actual condition of the registered ships conform to the certificates they carry. The
scope of the verification includes:
Hull, equipment and manning;
Safety management; and
Security systems
 Ensure that the ship’s crew can effectively:
Co-ordinate their activities in an emergency situation;
Perform functions vital to safety; and
Prevent or mitigate pollution

Inspection Process:

 Qualified surveyors from the flag or RO conduct flag State control inspections
 The master receives an inspection report upon the completion of an inspection
 The master is required to rectify any deficiencies in accordance with the conditions stated in the inspection report
 The flag may detain a vessel if it’s unsafe or violated any requirements or regulations of the flag.

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[Link] precautions will you take for dry docking a loaded ship.
 When the vessel is in loaded condition it has to be docked with special care.
 A special advice from the class is to be taken but not mandatory prior deciding to dry dock the ship in loaded
condition.
 This is to evaluate whether the vessel could take additional stresses when dry docked in loaded condition.
 Almost zero trim is preferred while arriving to the dry dock.
 Though it will be difficult to align the ship due to less or nil trim, it desired to be so to avoid excessive stresses on
the sole piece.
 This is compensated by strengthening of keel blocks and bilges blocks.
 Also, a greater number of keel blocks are kept to support the vessel when compared for a vessel drydocking in
light condition.
 In order to minimise the stresses at the sides, as soon as vessel sits overall on the blocks, bilge blocks must be
positioned and built up under the side girder.
 In addition to the above, breast bilge shores placed against frames.
 The side cholks can be hydraulic or manually placed.

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 Surveys and Certificates (Q.7 as per the pattern)
[Link] the frequency of class surveys?

Surveys by classifications society:

Initial Survey
Annual Survey
Intermediate Survey
Special Survey

Initial Survey:
 The initial survey of ships in service is carried out on ships that are submitted to the Register for classification for
the first time or when changing class.

Annual Survey
 It is aimed at establishing that the ship sufficiently meets the conditions of class retainment, as well as to check
the operation of mechanisms, devices and installations, to which the requirements of the Rules for the
Classification and Construction of Sea-Going Ships are applied.
 An annual survey must be conducted within three months before or after each anniversary date of the certificate.

Intermediate Survey:
 It includes checking of hull structures, machinery, boilers and pressure vessels, equipment and supplies, electrical
equipment to ensure that they remain in good condition for the type of ship operation, for which they are
intended.
 Intermediate survey shall be conducted during or between the second and third annual surveys

Special Survey
 It is conducted for the renewal of the class and aimed at establishing that the technical condition of the ship and
changes in the composition and design of its facilities meet the requirements of the Rules.
 Special survey is conducted at intervals that do not exceed 5 years, with the renewal of the class, as a rule, for the
next five-year period.

[Link] does a certificate become invalid? How is the validity of such a certificate restored after it ceases to be
valid?

Reasons for a certificate becoming invalid:

During identification of deficiency:

 During an inspection when it is determined that the condition of the ship or its equipment does not correspond
substantially with the particulars of the certificate or is such that the ship is not fit to proceed to sea without
danger to the ship, or persons on board, the surveyor shall immediately ensure that corrective action is taken and
shall in due course notify the Administration.
 If such corrective action is not taken the relevant certificate should be withdrawn and the Administration shall be
notified immediately.
 And if the ship is in the port of another Party, the appropriate authorities of the port State shall also be notified
immediately.
 When this has been notified to the appropriate authorities of the port State, the port State concerned shall give
the surveyor any necessary assistance to carry out their obligations under this regulation.

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 When applicable, the port State concerned shall ensure that the ship shall not sail until it can proceed to sea, or
leave port for the purpose of proceeding to the appropriate repair yard, without danger to the ship or persons on
board

Also as per HSSC, resolution A.1140 (31)

 A certificate ceases to be valid if the periodical, intermediate or annual survey, as appropriate, or the inspection
of the outside of the ship's bottom is not completed within the periods specified in the relevant regulation or
article.

Restoring Certificate:

When deficiency is identified:

 If a statutory certificate becomes invalid, the ship owner should try to rectify the problem at the earliest.
 Once it has been rectified, the administration as well as the port state control is notified.
 The administration will determine the scope and extent of additional inspections, surveys or audits of shipboard
and shore-based safety management systems of a Company
 The administration or RO will inspect the vessel thoroughly relating to the condition of the ship or its equipment
corresponding to the particular certificate.
 The findings of the audit are reported to the administration who meticulously evaluate and will decide on
restoring the certificate consequently allowing the ship to sail out.
 Only on receipt of such information, the vessel may sail out from the port.

When validity of the certificate expired: as per HSSC, resolution A.1140 (31)

 The validity of the certificate should be restored by carrying out the appropriate survey which, in such
circumstances, should consist of the requirements of the survey that was not carried out, but its thoroughness
and stringency should have regard to the time this survey was allowed to lapse
 The Administration concerned should then ascertain why the survey was allowed to lapse and consider further
action.

[Link] and differentiate between statutory and mandatory surveys.

Statutory Surveys:
 A ship needs to follow the laws of the flag state whose flag it is flying. That is the laws of the country where the
ship is registered.
 Once a convention is ratified by a country, it is incorporated into its national law.
 Thus, certificates issued as per the convention ratified by the country are statutory certificates.
 Example – A country has ratified SOLAS MARPOL, MLC etc, all the certificates issued under these conventions are
statutory certificates.
 And all the surveys inspecting the condition of the ship and or its equipment corresponding to these certificates
are statutory surveys.
 Surveys are conducted as Initial, Annual, Intermediate and Renewal surveys.
 Vessel failing to comply with these regulations is violating the law as the conventions is incorporated and made as
national laws.
Mandatory Surveys:
 If the visiting country requires the ship to follow a certain regulation or if the visiting country has ratified a
convention but not by the ship’s flag, then the certificate issued under those conventions become mandatory for
the ship to trade in this country.

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 For example, if a ship’s flag state has not ratified MLC, but the ship is visiting a country which has ratified MLC,
then the ship must carry MLC certificate which in this case becomes a mandatory certificate.
 Surveys related to these certificates are mandatory surveys.
 Other mandatory certificates are Certificate of entry for P&I club, Certificate of financial responsibility (COFR)
only for US etc.
 Vessel failing to comply will not be considered as violating the law, but will not allowed to trade in the country by
which the certificate is made mandatory.

[Link] between harmonized and enhanced survey programs.

S. No Harmonized System of Surveys and Enhanced Survey Programme

Certification
1 It is a system that simplifies survey and It is not a separate survey, but provides detailed
certification of ships. information on which ships are inspected and when
and what should be inspected.
2 It is applicable to all ships. It is applicable only to bulk carrier and oil tankers.
3 It involves surveys such as Initial survey, Annual ESP guides on overall survey and close up survey of
survey, Intermediate Survey, Periodical Survey, these ships.
Renewal survey, Bottom inspection and
Additional survey.
4 This avoids duplication of survey works and also This enhances the safety of bulk carrier and oil
allows the ship to plan the survey in a more tankers and special emphasis on thickness
relaxed and professional manner. measurement.
5 This is applicable to certificates issued under ESP code provides detailed information on the
SOLAS, MARPOL, Load Line, BWM, IBC, IGC and inspection of ship’s hull and structure during each
Polar code. All the inspection requirement of type of survey except initial survey.
relevant code and conventions are followed.
6 It provides windows for renewing and A detailed survey programme must be created and
revalidating the certificates. sent for the surveyor prior surveys.
7 No separate file is maintained with inspection A separate ESP file is maintained that includes
records. survey reports related to hull structure, condition
evaluation report and thickness measurement
report.

49. Explain harmonized system of surveys and certification and Enhanced survey programme.

Harmonized System of Surveys and Certification (HSSC) (Resolution A.1140(31))

 HSSC simplifies and systemizes the survey and certification of ships.
 This will ensure that survey works will not be duplicated e.g. survey for load line or cargo ship safety construction
is more or less same with logical changes.
 If a ship undergoes survey of one, the survey of other will only overlap and once conducted can be valid for both.
A single survey covering both certifications will save a lot of time and money.
 This will also allow the ship to plan the survey in a more relaxed and professional manner.
 The total number of surveys will be reduced and maintenance and work on board will be more systematic and
ships will not be out of service at different times for different surveys.
 Types of surveys under HSSC:
Initial Survey
Annual Survey
Intermediate Survey
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 Renewal Survey
Ships bottom survey

Enhanced Survey Programme (Solas CH XI-1, ESP Code):

 Enhanced survey programme is not a separate survey.
 ESP provides specific guidelines about what to inspect during these surveys.
 ESP is applicable only to bulk carrier and oil tankers.
 It covers the minimum requirements for the inspection of ship’s hull and structure during each type of survey.
 The overall survey is intended to report the overall condition of the hull structure.
 The Code contains the minimum extent of examination, thickness measurements and tank testing.
 The survey shall be extended when substantial corrosion and/or structural defects are found and include
additional close-up survey when necessary
 The ESP code briefs on when and how to inspect the ships as per the code.
 The process of ESP involves
i. Preparing a survey programme
ii. Survey is conducted
iii. Condition Evaluation report and thickness measurement reports are made
iv. Reports are sent to flag state.

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[Link] what is Close up inspection and ‘Critical areas’, suspect area with reference to Enhanced Survey
program. Describe the contents of “Documents File”.

Close up Inspection:

 As per ESP Code, it is a survey where the details of structural components are within the close visual inspection
range of the surveyor, i.e. normally within reach of hand.
 As part of the survey planning document, this section must include the minimum requirements for close-up
surveys at renewal surveys.
 A detailed information on areas to be inspected as per the age of the vessel is provided in the ESP code, Annex 1
for bulk carriers and Annex 2 for oil tankers.

Critical Areas and suspect Areas:

 Suspect areas are locations showing substantial corrosion and/or are considered by the surveyor to be prone to
rapid wastage.
 These areas are identified based on earlier inspections, surveys etc.
 As per ESP code substantial corrosion is an extent of corrosion such that assessment of corrosion pattern
indicates a wastage in excess of 75% of allowable margins, but within acceptable limits.
 From the below figure, any area which is Ta +0.25td are identified as critical and suspect areas in survey planning
document.

Contents of Document File:

 Reports of structural surveys

 Condition evaluation report (executive hull summary report)
 Thickness measurement reports

The survey report file shall be available also in the owner's and the Administration's offices

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[Link] the objectives and features of ESP with reference to A. Age of the vessel, B. Coating condition,
C. Owners/Ship Officers responsibility, D Access to surveyor

A Age of the vessel:

 ESP compliance shall commence from the first renewal survey.

 For ships of less than 15 years of age, alternate inspections of the ship's bottom not conducted in conjunction
with the renewal survey may be carried out with the ship afloat
 For ships of 15 years of age and over, inspection of the outside of the ship's bottom should be carried out with
the ship in dry-dock
 For ships of 10 - 15 years of age, overall survey of two selected cargo holds shall be carried out during its annual
survey.
 For ships of more than 15 years of age, overall survey of all cargo holds shall be carried out during its annual
survey.
 All piping and penetrations in cargo holds, including overboard piping, shall be examined if more than 10 years of
age of the ship during its annual survey.
 During Intermediate Survey, for ships of 5 to 10 years of age, an overall survey of water ballast tanks selected by
the surveyor shall be carried out.
 During Intermediate Survey, for ships of more than 10 years of age, an overall survey of all water ballast tanks
shall be carried out.

B Coating Condition:

 For ballast tanks, where a hard protective coating is found in POOR condition as and it is not renewed, or where a
soft or semi-hard coating has been applied, or where a hard protective coating has not been applied from the
time of constructions, the tanks in question shall be examined at annual intervals.
 A ballast tank where a hard-protective coating was not applied from the time of construction and found in poor
condition, the examination shall be extended to other ballast tanks of the same type.
 Where a hard-protective coating is provided in cargo holds and is found in GOOD condition, the extent of close-
up surveys and thickness measurements may be specially considered.
 For ships under the IACS Common Structural Rules, the annual thickness gauging may be omitted where a
protective coating has been applied in accordance with the coating manufacturer's requirements and is
maintained in GOOD condition.
 On oil tankers, the ballast tanks shall be examined annually where the condition of the coating is less than GOOD,
i.e. even if it is considered as FAIR as defined in the code, the tanks must be annually examined.
 Where a hard-protective coating is provided in cargo tanks and is found in GOOD condition, the extent of close-
up surveys and thickness measurements may be specially considered.

C Owners/Ship Officers responsibility

 The owner must complete the survey planning questionnaire.

 The owner in co-operation with the administration prepares a survey programme by considering various criteria
set out in the ESP code.
 The owner shall provide the necessary facilities for a safe execution of the survey.
 The surveyor(s) shall always be accompanied by, at least, one responsible person, assigned by the owner,
experienced in tank and enclosed space inspection
 Proper preparation and the close cooperation between the attending surveyor(s) and the owner's
representatives on board prior to and during the survey are an essential part in the safe and efficient conduct of
the survey.

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 Communication between attending surveyor(s) the thickness measurement company operator(s) and owner's
representative(s) concerning findings shall be carried out during the meeting.
 Adequate and safe lighting shall be provided for the safe and efficient conduct of the survey
 Adequate protective clothing shall be made available and used (e.g. safety helmet, gloves, safety shoes, etc.)
during the survey
 Explosimeter, oxygen-meter, breathing apparatus, lifelines, riding belts with rope and hook and whistles together
with instructions and guidance on their use shall be made available during the survey. A safety checklist shall be
provided

D Access to surveyor

 For overall surveys, means shall be provided to enable the surveyor to examine the structure in a safe and
practical way
 For close-up surveys, one or more of the following means for access, acceptable to the surveyor, shall be
provided
permanent staging and passages through structures
temporary staging and passages through structures
hydraulic arm vehicles such as conventional cherry pickers, lifts and moveable platforms
portable ladders
boats or rafts or other equivalent means

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[Link] respect to Enhanced Survey, explain the following: Bottom inspection/Survey, Substantial Corrosion.

Bottom inspection/Survey:

 A survey in dry-dock should be a part of the renewal survey.

 There should be a minimum of two inspections of the outside of the ship's bottom during the five-year period of
the certificate. In all cases, the maximum interval between bottom inspections should not exceed 36 months.
 For ships of 15 years of age and over, inspection of the outside of the ship's bottom should be carried out with
the ship in dry-dock
 For ships of less than 15 years of age, alternate inspections of the ship's bottom not conducted in conjunction
with the renewal survey may be carried out with the ship afloat.

Substantial Corrosion:

 Substantial corrosion is an extent of corrosion such that assessment of corrosion pattern indicates a wastage in
excess of 75% of allowable margins, but within acceptable limits. From the above figure, any area which is Ta
+0.25td are identified as critical and suspect areas in survey planning document

 For ships built under the IACS Common Structural Rules, substantial corrosion is an extent of corrosion such that
the assessment of the corrosion pattern indicates a measured thickness between t ren + 0.5mm and tren. Renewal
thickness (tren) is the minimum allowable thickness, in mm, below which renewal of structural members shall be
carried out.

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[Link] the enhanced survey program and the requirements of surveys for a bulk carrier 15 years old.

Enhanced Survey Programme (SOLAS CH XI-1, ESP Code):

 Enhanced survey programme is not a separate survey.
 ESP provides specific guidelines about what to inspect during these surveys.
 ESP is applicable only to bulk carrier and oil tankers.
 It covers the minimum requirements for the inspection of ship’s hull and structure during each type of survey.
 The overall survey is intended to report the overall condition of the hull structure.
 The Code contains the minimum extent of examination, thickness measurements and tank testing.
 The survey shall be extended when substantial corrosion and/or structural defects are found and include
additional close-up survey when necessary
 The ESP code briefs on when and how to inspect the ships as per the code.
 The process of ESP involves
v. Preparing a survey programme
vi. Survey is conducted
vii. Condition Evaluation report and thickness measurement reports are made
viii. Reports are sent to flag state.

Bulk Carriers of 15 years old:

Renewal Survey:

 For ships of 15 years of age and over, inspection of the outside of the ship's bottom should be carried out with
the ship in dry-dock.
 An overall survey of all tanks and spaces shall be carried out at the renewal survey
 Fuel oil tanks in the cargo length area shall be surveyed Half, minimum two.
 All transverse webs with associated plating and longitudinals as applicable in each water ballast tank
 All transverse bulkheads including stiffening system in each water ballast tank.
 All ordinary transverse frames for transverse framing systems or all longitudinals for longitudinal framing systems
on side shell and inner side plating at forward, middle and aft parts in all double-side tanks

Intermediate survey:

 The requirements of the intermediate survey shall be to the same extent as the previous renewal survey.
However, internal examination of fuel oil tanks and pressure testing of all tanks shall not be required unless
deemed necessary by the attending surveyor
 a survey in dry-dock shall be part of the intermediate survey
 The overall and close-up surveys and thickness measurements, as applicable, of the lower portions of the cargo
holds and water ballast tanks shall be carried out in accordance with the applicable requirements for
intermediate surveys, if not already performed.

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[Link] the main features of the HSSC? State the circumstances when you will call the surveyor for additional
survey?
Features of Harmonized System of Surveys and Certification (HSSC) (Resolution A.1140(31))
 HSSC simplifies and systemizes the survey and certification of ships.
 This will ensure that survey works will not be duplicated e.g. survey for load line or cargo ship safety construction
is more or less same with logical changes.
 If a ship undergoes survey of one, the survey of other will only overlap and once conducted can be valid for both.
A single survey covering both certifications will save a lot of time and money.
 This will also allow the ship to plan the survey in a more relaxed and professional manner.
 The total number of surveys will be reduced and maintenance and work on board will be more systematic and
ships will not be out of service at different times for different surveys.

 Types of surveys under HSSC:

Initial Survey
Annual Survey
Intermediate Survey
Periodical Survey
Renewal Survey
Ships bottom survey
Additional Survey
 A maximum period of validity of 5 years for all certificates for cargo ships
 A maximum period of validity of 12 months for the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate
 A system for the extension of certificates limited to 3 months to enable a ship to complete its voyage or one
month for ships engaged on short voyages
 The period of validity of the new certificate starts from the expiry of the existing certificate before its extension if
the extension was granted
 A flexible system for the inspection of the outside of the ship’s bottom on the following conditions:
1. a minimum of two inspections during any 5 years period
2. the interval between any two such inspections may not exceed 36 months
 A provision for a Cargo Ship Safety Certificate, as an alternative to separate Cargo Ship Safety Construction, Cargo
Ship Safety Equipment and Cargo Ship Radio Certificates.
 A flexible system concerning the frequency and the period of validity of certificates provided that the minimum
pattern of the survey is maintained.

Circumstances for Additional Survey:

As per IMO resolution A.1140(31):

 An additional survey is an inspection, either general or partial according to the circumstances, to be made after:

o a repair resulting from investigations or whenever any important repairs or renewals are made; or
o change, replacement, or significant repair of the structure, equipment, systems, fittings, arrangements and
material
 Also, when ballast water management systems (BWMS) are retrofitted on an existing ship to which an
International Ballast Water Management Certificate was previously issued.
 Whenever an accident occurs to a ship or a defect is discovered which affects the safety or integrity of the ship or
the efficiency or completeness of its equipment.
 If a ship is in a port where the required survey cannot be completed, and where the Convention allows the
Administration to extend the certificate an additional survey, equivalent to at least the same scope of an annual
survey required by the relevant certificate(s) should be carried out.

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[Link] various surveys and their frequency with respect to "Harmonised system of survey" for a general
cargo ship.

List of surveys under HSSC:

Initial surveys
Annual surveys
Intermediate surveys
Periodical Surveys
Renewal surveys
Bottom Inspection Survey
Additional surveys

Initial Survey:
It is a complete inspection before a ship is put into service of all the items relating to a particular certificate, to
ensure that the relevant requirements are complied with and that these items are satisfactory for the service for
which the ship is intended.

Annual surveys
It is a general inspection of the items relating to the particular certificate to ensure that they have been
maintained and remain satisfactory for the service for which the ship is intended.

Periodical survey
It is an inspection of the items relating to the particular certificate to ensure that they are in a satisfactory
condition and fit for the service for which the ship is intended.

Renewal survey
It is the same as a periodical survey but also leads to the issue of a new certificate.

Intermediate survey
It is an inspection of specified items relevant to the particular certificate to ensure that they are in a satisfactory
condition and fit for the service for which the ship is intended.

Inspection of the outside of the ship's bottom:

It is an inspection of the underwater part of the ship and related items to ensure that they are in a satisfactory
condition and fit for the service for which the ship is intended.

Additional survey:
An additional survey is an inspection, either general or partial according to the circumstances, to be made after:

o a repair resulting from investigations or whenever any important repairs or renewals are made; or
o change, replacement, or significant repair of the structure, equipment, systems, fittings, arrangements and
material

Frequency of surveys:

Initial Survey:
The initial survey should be held before the ship is put in service, or when a new instrument applies to an existing
ship, and the appropriate certificate is issued for the first time.

Annual Survey:
The annual survey should be held within three months before or after each anniversary date of the certificate.
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 Intermediate Survey:
The intermediate survey should be held within three months before or after the second anniversary date or
within three months before or after the third anniversary date of the appropriate certificate and should take the
place of one of the annual surveys.

Periodical Survey:
The periodical survey should be held within three months before or after the second anniversary date or within
three months before or after the third anniversary date in the case of the cargo ship safety equipment certificate
and should take the place of one of the annual surveys; in the case of the cargo ship safety radio certificate, it
should be held within three months before or after each anniversary date.

Renewal Survey:

The renewal survey should be held before the appropriate certificate is renewed.

The cargo ship safety construction renewal survey may be commenced at the fourth annual survey and may be
progressed during the succeeding year with a view to completion by the fifth anniversary date.

The survey items of the fourth annual survey should not be credited to the completion of the renewal survey

Ship’s Bottom Inspection:

There should be a minimum of two inspections of the outside of the ship's bottom during any five-year

One such inspection should be carried out on or after the fourth annual survey in conjunction with the renewal of
the Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate or the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate.

Where the Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate or the Cargo Ship Safety Certificate has been extended this
five-year period may be extended to coincide with the validity of the certificate.

In all cases the interval between any two such inspections should not exceed 36 months.

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[Link] various certificates covered under HSSC including validity of certificates and types of surveys carried
out.

S. No List of Certificate Validity Applicable Surveys

Initial Survey
Annual Survey
1 CARGO SHIP SAFETY EQUIPMENT 5 years
Periodical Survey
Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
CARGO SHIP SAFETY CONSTRUCTION Annual Survey
2 5 years
CERTIFICATE Intermediate Survey
Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
3 CARGO SHIP SAFETY RADIO CERTIFICATE 5 years Periodical Survey
Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
4 PASSENGER SHIP SAFETY CERTIFICATE 12 months
Renewal Survey
INTERNATIONAL LOAD LINE CERTIFICATE OR Initial Survey
5 INTERNATIONAL LOAD LINE EXEMPTION 5 years Annual Survey
CERTIFICATE Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION PREVENTION Annual Survey
6 5 years
CERTIFICATE Intermediate Survey
Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
INTERNATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION
Annual Survey
7 CERTIFICATE FOR THE CARRIAGE OF NOXIOUS 5 years
Intermediate Survey
LIQUID SUBSTANCES IN BULK
Renewal Survey
INTERNATIONAL SEWAGE POLLUTION Initial Survey
8 5 years
PREVENTION CERTIFICATE Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
INTERNATIONAL AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION Annual Survey
9 5 years
CERTIFICATE AND THE NOX TECHNICAL CODE Intermediate Survey
Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
Annual Survey
INTERNATIONAL BALLAST WATER
10 5 years Intermediate Survey
MANAGEMENT CERTIFICATE
Renewal Survey
Additional Survey
INTERNATIONAL CERTIFICATE OF FITNESS FOR Initial Survey
THE CARRIAGE OF DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN Annual Survey
11 BULK AND THE CERTIFICATE OF FITNESS FOR 5 years Intermediate Survey
THE CARRIAGE OF DANGEROUS CHEMICALS IN Renewal Survey
BULK
Initial Survey
INTERNATIONAL CERTIFICATE OF FITNESS FOR Annual Survey
12 5 years
THE CARRIAGE OF LIQUEFIED GASES IN BULK Intermediate Survey
Renewal Survey
Initial Survey
Annual Survey
POLAR SHIP CERTIFICATE ADDITIONAL TO SOLAS
13 5 years Intermediate Survey
CERTIFICATES
Periodical Survey
Renewal Survey

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[Link] between the scope of initial survey, intermediate survey, annual survey and renewal survey.

Initial Survey:

The initial survey should consist of:

 An examination of the plans, diagrams, specifications, calculations and other technical documentation to verify
that the structure, machinery and equipment comply with the requirements relevant to the particular certificate
 An inspection of the structure, machinery and equipment to ensure that the materials, scantlings, construction
and arrangements, as appropriate, are in accordance with the approved plans, diagrams, specifications,
calculations and other technical documentation and that the workmanship and installation are in all respects
satisfactory
 A check that all the certificates, record books, operating manuals and other instructions and documentation
specified in the requirements relevant to the particular certificate have been placed on board the ship.

Annual Survey:

The Annual Survey should consist of

 Certificate examination, a visual examination of a sufficient extent of the ship and its equipment, and certain
tests to confirm that their condition is being properly maintained
 It should also include a visual examination to confirm that no unapproved modifications have been made to the
ship and its equipment
 The content of each annual survey is given in the respective guidelines; the thoroughness and stringency of the
survey should depend upon the condition of the ship and its equipment
 Should any doubt arise as to the maintenance of the condition of the ship or its equipment, further examination
and testing should be conducted as considered necessary

Intermediate Survey:

The intermediate survey should consist of:

 An inspection of items relevant to the particular certificate to ensure that they are in a satisfactory condition and
are fit for the service for which the ship is intended
 When specifying items of hull and machinery for detailed examination, due account should be taken of any
continuous survey schemes that may be applied by classification societies.

Renewal Survey:

The renewal survey should consist of:

 An inspection, with tests when necessary, of the structure, machinery and equipment to ensure that the
requirements relevant to the particular certificate are complied with and that they are in a satisfactory condition
and are fit for the service for which the ship is intended.
 The renewal survey should also consist of a check that all the certificates, record books, operating manuals and
other instructions and documentation specified in the requirements relevant to the particular certificate are on
board the ship.

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[Link] the system of harmonized surveys and certification, explain how you would prepare for an annual load
line inspection.

As per the resolution A.1140(31), Annex – 2 survey guidelines under 1966 LL convention, modified by 1988
protocol, following are the items to be checked during an annual load line survey:

 Checking, in general, that there has been no deterioration in the strength of the hull
 Checking the positions of the deck line and load line which, if necessary, are to be re-marked and re-painted
 Checking the positions of the deck line and load line which, if necessary, are to be re-marked and re-painted
 Examining the superstructure end bulkheads and the openings therein
 Examining the means of securing the weathertightness of cargo hatchways, other hatchways and other openings
on the freeboard and superstructure decks
 Examining the ventilators and air pipes, including their coamings and closing appliances
 Examining the watertight integrity of the closures to any openings in the ship's side below the freeboard deck
 Examining the scuppers, inlets and discharges
 Examining the garbage chutes
 Examining the means provided to minimize water ingress through the spurling pipes and chain lockers
 Examining the sidescuttles and deadlights examining the bulwarks including the provision of freeing ports, special
attention being given to any freeing ports fitted with shutters
 Examining the guardrails, gangways, walkways and other means provided for the protection of the crew and
means for safe passage of the crew
 Examining the special requirements for ships permitted to sail with type "A" or type "B-minus" freeboards
checking, when applicable, the fittings and appliances for timber deck cargoes
 Checking that the stability and, where applicable, the loading and ballasting information is available
 Checking whether any new equipment has been fitted and, if so, confirm that it has been approved before
installation and that any changes are reflected in the appropriate certificate
 Validity of all trading certificates.

[Link] the changes Harmonized system of survey and certification has brought in shipping and how the
harmony is achieved.

 The Items to be surveyed under the various IMO certificates often overlapped each other also resulting in
certificates issued on separate dates.
 Their periodical surveys also became due separately.
 Thus, in a ship in general the same item was being surveyed twice under separate certificates.
 The surveyor had to board the vessel several times in a year to carry out surveys which became due for various
certificates on varying dates and most of the items being examined overlapped.
 This created lot of hassle for the shipowner, ships officers and also to the certifying authority as well.
 Thus, to avoid this, IMO introduced the harmonised system of surveys and certification.
 Under this system, all certificates are issued on the same date so that all subsequent surveys for all certificates
fall due on the same dates.
 Prior HSSC, cargo ship safety equipment certificates validity was only three years. Also Cargo ship safety
radiotelegraphy certificate was only for one year. Cargo ship safety construction and IOPP certificate had five year
validity.
 Thus, different certificate had different validity.
 Under HSSC, One year standard interval between surveys, based on initial, annual, intermediate, periodical and
renewal surveys as appropriate
 Also, it provides window period for all type of surveys.
 A maximum period of validity of 5 years for all certificates for cargo ships
 A maximum period of validity of 12 months for the Passenger Ship Safety Certificate

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 A provision for a Cargo Ship Safety Certificate, as an alternative to separate Cargo Ship Safety Construction, Cargo
Ship Safety Equipment and Cargo Ship Radio Certificates.
 A flexible system concerning the frequency and the period of validity of certificates provided that the minimum
pattern of the survey is maintained.

[Link] describe the scope of initial, annual, intermediate and renewal surveys for loadline certificate.

As per latest resolution on HSSC, A 1140 (31), Annex 2:

For the Initial Load Line Survey, following must be done

 examining the structural strength at the draught corresponding to the assigned freeboard
 examining the intact stability, and, where applicable, the damaged stability information and the loading and
ballasting information that is to be supplied to the master, and, where not dispensed by the Administration,
inclining experimental data and
 determining the freeboard, including specifying and considering the conditions of assignment for the freeboard
For the load line the survey during construction and after installation should consist of:
 checking that, as far as its strength is concerned, the ship has been constructed in accordance with the approved
plans
 confirming that the deck line and load line mark are properly positioned
 witnessing the inclining experiment or lightweight survey
 examining the superstructure end bulkheads and the openings therein
 examining the means of securing the weathertightness of cargo hatchways, other hatchways and other openings
on the freeboard and superstructure decks
 examining the ventilators and air pipes, including their coamings and closing appliances
 examining the watertight integrity of the closures to any openings in the ship's side below the freeboard deck
 examining the scuppers, inlets and discharges
 examining the garbage chutes
 examining the spurling pipes and cable lockers
 examining the sidescuttles and deadlights
 examining the bulwarks including the provision of freeing ports, special attention being given to any freeing ports
fitted with shutters
 examining the guardrails, gangways, walkways and other means provided for the protection of the crew and
means for safe passage of the crew
 examining the special requirements for ships permitted to sail with type "A" or type "B-minus" freeboards and
 checking, when applicable, the fittings and appliances for timber deck cargoes
 For the load line the check that certificates, etc., have been placed on board should consist of:
 checking that the loading and ballasting information has been supplied to the master
 For the load line the completion of the initial survey should consist of:
 after a satisfactory survey, issuing the International Load Line Certificate or International Load Line Exemption
Certificate

Annual Inspection for load line:

 Checking, in general, that there has been no deterioration in the strength of the hull
 Checking the positions of the deck line and load line which, if necessary, are to be re-marked and re-painted
 Checking the positions of the deck line and load line which, if necessary, are to be re-marked and re-painted
 Examining the superstructure end bulkheads and the openings therein
 Examining the means of securing the weathertightness of cargo hatchways, other hatchways and other openings
on the freeboard and superstructure decks
 Examining the ventilators and air pipes, including their coamings and closing appliances
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 Examining the watertight integrity of the closures to any openings in the ship's side below the freeboard deck
 Examining the scuppers, inlets and discharges
 Examining the garbage chutes
 Examining the means provided to minimize water ingress through the spurling pipes and chain lockers
 Examining the sidescuttles and deadlights examining the bulwarks including the provision of freeing ports, special
attention being given to any freeing ports fitted with shutters
 Examining the guardrails, gangways, walkways and other means provided for the protection of the crew and
means for safe passage of the crew
 Examining the special requirements for ships permitted to sail with type "A" or type "B-minus" freeboards
checking, when applicable, the fittings and appliances for timber deck cargoes
 Checking that the stability and, where applicable, the loading and ballasting information is available
 Checking whether any new equipment has been fitted and, if so, confirm that it has been approved before
installation and that any changes are reflected in the appropriate certificate
 Validity of all trading certificates.

Intermediate Survey for loadline:

 Intermediate survey is not applicable for International Load Line Certificate or International Load Line Exemption
Certificate as per HSSC

Renewal Survey:

 The checks that are done during the annual survey.

 Examining the hull to ensure that its strength is sufficient for the draught corresponding to the freeboard
assigned
 Checking the validity of all the trading certificates.
 after a satisfactory survey, issuing the International Load Line Certificate or International Load Line Exemption
Certificate

[Link] the procedure for preparing the vessel for safety constructions (SAFCON) renewal survey.

Renewal Survey for SAFCON:

 Checking the validity of all the trading certificates.

All the inspection carried out during an annual inspection such as:
 examining, in general and as far as can be seen, the hull and its closing appliances
 examining the anchoring and mooring equipment as far as can be seen; for ships built after 1 January 2007,
confirming that the towing and mooring equipment is properly marked with any restriction associated with its
safe operation
 examining, for bulk carriers of 150 m and above, where appropriate, the ship's structure in accordance with the
Ship Construction File, taking into account identified areas that need special attention
 examining the collision and the other watertight bulkheads as far as can be seen
 examining and testing (locally and remotely) all the watertight doors in watertight bulkheads
 examining the arrangements for closing openings in the shell plating below the freeboard deck
 examining each bilge pump and confirming that the bilge pumping system for each watertight compartment is
satisfactory
 confirming that the drainage from enclosed cargo spaces situated on the freeboard deck is satisfactory
 examining visually the drainage facilities for blockage or other damage and confirming the provision of means to
prevent blockage of drainage arrangements, for closed vehicle and ro-ro spaces and special category spaces
where fixed pressure water-spraying systems are used

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 confirming that the means of communication between the navigation bridge and steering gear compartment and
the means of indicating the angular position of the rudder are operating satisfactorily
 confirming that with ships having emergency steering positions there are means of relaying heading information
and, when appropriate, of supplying visual compass readings to the emergency steering position
 confirming, when appropriate and as far as is practicable when examining internal spaces on oil tankers and bulk
carriers, that the means of access to cargo and other spaces remain in good condition
 examining the functionality of bilge well alarms to all cargo holds and conveyor tunnels
 for bulk carriers, examining the hold, ballast and dry space water level detectors and their audible and visual
alarms
 for bulk carriers, checking the arrangements for availability of draining and pumping systems forward of the
collision bulkhead
 confirming that the ship's identification number is permanently marked
 confirming, where applicable, that an appropriate portable atmosphere testing instrument or instruments is on
board, and that suitable means are provided for the calibration of all such instruments; and checking the
appropriateness of the testing and calibration
 confirming that the coating system in dedicated SWB tanks in ships and double side skin spaces arranged in bulk
carriers of 150 m in length and upward when appropriate is maintained and that maintenance, repair and partial
recoating are recorded in the coating technical file
 confirming, for bulk carriers, that the loading instrument is on board and functioning

All the inspection carried out during an renewal inspection such as:

 examining the cargo tank openings, including gaskets, covers, coamings and screen
 examining the cargo tank pressure/vacuum valves and devices to prevent the passage of flame
 examining the devices to prevent the passage of flame on vents to all bunker, oily-ballast and oily-slop tanks and
void spaces, as far as practicable
 examining the cargo tank venting, cargo tank purging and gas freeing and other ventilation systems
 examining the cargo, crude oil washing, ballast and stripping systems both on deck and in the cargo pump-rooms
and the bunker system on deck;
 confirming that potential sources of ignition in or near the cargo pump-room are eliminated, such as loose gear,
combustible materials, etc., that there are no signs of undue leakage and that access ladders are in good
condition
 examining all pump-room bulkheads for signs of oil leakage or fractures and, in particular, the sealing
arrangements of all penetrations of cargo pump-room bulkheads
 confirming that the pump-room ventilation system is operational, ducting intact, dampers operational and
screens clean
 verifying that installed pressure gauges on cargo discharge lines and level indicator systems are operational
 examining access to bow arrangement
 examining the towing arrangement for tankers of not less than 20,000 tonnes deadweight
 confirming that the corrosion prevention system fitted to dedicated ballast water tanks of oil tankers and bulk
carriers when appropriate is maintained
 confirming that the coating system in cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers, when appropriate, is maintained and
that in-service maintenance and repair activities are recorded in the coating technical file
 examining, for oil tankers of 150 m in length and above, where appropriate, the ship's structure in accordance
with the Ship Construction File, taking into account identified areas that need special attention, and verifying that
the Ship Construction File is updated, where applicable
 for ships over 5 years of age, an internal examination of representative spaces used for water ballast
 for ships over 10 years of age, other than gas carriers and ships engaged in the carriage of dry cargoes only, an
internal examination of selected cargo spaces

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 for ships over 15 years of age, engaged in the carriage of dry cargoes only, an internal examination of selected
cargo spaces

In addition to the above, below are specifically done during renewal survey:

 examination of sea valves and their connections to the hull

 examination of anchoring and mooring equipment, for which purpose the anchors should be lowered and raised
using the windlass
 for bulk carriers, examining and testing the hold, ballast and dry space water level detectors and their audible and
visual alarms
 After a satisfactory survey, the Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate should be issued.

[Link] is the condition assessment scheme as applied for oil tankers?

As per IMO resolution MEPC.94(46):

 The Condition Assessment Scheme (CAS) is intended to complement the requirements of Annex B of the
Guidelines on the enhanced programme of inspections during surveys of bulk carriers and oil tankers
 The CAS is to verify that the structural condition of single hull oil tankers is acceptable and subsequent periodical
surveys are satisfactorily completed and effective maintenance is carried out by the ship’s operator, will continue
to be acceptable for a continued period of operation
 The Scheme requires that compliance with the CAS is assessed during the Enhanced Survey Programme of
Inspections concurrent with intermediate or renewal surveys

Application:

 Category 1 oil tanker (Pre-MARPOL Tankers)

 Category 2 oil tanker” means oil tankers of 20,000 tons deadweight and above carrying crude oil, fuel oil, heavy
diesel oil or lubricating oil as cargo, and of 30,000 tons deadweight and above carrying other oils, which do
comply with the protectively located segregated ballast tank requirements (MARPOL tankers), while
 Category 3 oil tanker” means an oil tanker of 5,000 tons deadweight and above but less than the tonnage
specified for Category 1 and 2 tankers

SCOPE:

 The CAS shall apply to surveys of the hull structure in way of cargo tanks, pump rooms, cofferdams, pipe tunnels,
void spaces within the cargo area and all ballast tanks

Process:

 Company notifies the flag of its intention to carry out CAS and this shall be made not less than 8 months from the
planned commencement of survey.
 Upon receipt of this notification, flag sends the survey questionnaire and this shall be sent in not less than 7
months from the planned commencement of survey
 The company completes the questionnaire and sends back to RO/flag and shall be sent in not less than 5 months
from the planned commencement of survey.
 The Survey Plan for the CAS shall be completed and submitted in signed order by the Company to the RO not less
than 2 months prior to the planned commencement of the CAS survey.
 Overall survey, close up survey and thickness measurement are carried out during the survey.
 A detailed survey report is made on the extent and result of the survey.
 The survey report is reviewed by the RO headquarters and sent to the flag for its review.
 The flag reviewed the final survey report and issued Statement of compliance certificate.

Inspected areas and items:

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Closeup survey:

 All web frame rings, in all ballast tanks (Complete transverse web frame ring including adjacent structural
members.)
 All web frame rings, in a cargo wing tank (Complete transverse bulkhead, including girder and stiffener systems
and adjacent members.)
 A minimum of 30% of all web frame rings, in each remaining cargo wing tank (Complete transverse web frame
ring including adjacent structural members.)
 All transverse bulkheads, in all cargo and ballast tanks (Complete transverse bulkhead, including girder and
stiffener systems and adjacent members.)
 A minimum of 30% of deck and bottom transverses including adjacent structural members, in each cargo centre
tank.
 Additional complete transverse web frame rings or deck and bottom transverse including adjacent structural
members as considered necessary by the attending surveyor.

Overall Survey:

 An overall survey of all spaces set out in Scope of CAS shall be carried out which includes surveys of the hull
structure in way of cargo tanks, pump rooms, cofferdams, pipe tunnels, void spaces within the cargo area and all
ballast tanks.

Thickness Measurement:

 Within the cargo area: Each deck plate, three transverse sections, each bottom plate
 Measurements of structural members subject to close-up survey according for general assessment and recording
of corrosion pattern.
 Suspect areas
 Selected wind and water strakes outside the cargo area.
 All wind and water strakes within the cargo area.
 Internal structure in the fore and aft peak tanks
 All exposed main deck plates outside the cargo area and all exposed first tier superstructure deck plates

[Link] condition assessment programme (CAP)

 The Condition Assessment Program is a voluntary service that provides an independent evaluation of the
condition of a vessel.
 It shall be availed from the class or also from third party service providers.
 It is not a statutory programme.

Application:

The CAP is applicable to oil tankers and bulk carriers of 15 years of age and above, and may well be used for ships at
other ages and for other types of ships.

Purpose:

 Its main objective is the commercial aspect of it.

 It provides ship owners with a document and statement of ship’s actual condition such as structural strength,
machinery, and maintenance of ship’s life, etc
 He in turn uses it towards cargo owners and/or authorities in connection with entry into new charters or renewal
of existing ones beyond expire dates.
 The main purpose of CAP is to evaluate and report the vessel’s condition above minimum class standard.

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Scope:

 The scope for CAP is more comprehensive than for class surveys with respect to extent and analysis of thickness
measurements, structural strength evaluation, and reporting.
 Although CAP inspections may be carried out at the same time with class surveys, and a joint CAP/Class team may
be onboard, CAP is reported completely separate.
 CAP consists of two modules. One is CAP for hull structures (HCAP) and the other is CAP for machinery/cargo
systems (MCAP)
 HCAP is to include check of documents and records, overall, internal and close-up surveys, thickness
measurements and analysis, as well as strength assessment including longitudinal strength calculations, re-
assessment of scantlings and fatigue strength assessment.
 MCAP includes a check of documents and records, an overall survey of machinery/cargo systems, function test,
oil sample analysis and vibration measurement.

CAP Rating System:

For Hull:

Rating Level 1: “Very Good Condition”

Rating Level 2: “Good Condition”
Rating Level 3: “Satisfactory Condition”
Rating Level 4: “Unsatisfactory Condition”

For Machinery / Cargo system:

Rating Grade 1: “Very Good Condition”

Rating Grade 2: “Good Condition”
Rating Grade 3: “Satisfactory Condition”
Rating Grade 4: “Unsatisfactory Condition”

The above ratings are provided for each individual item such as each WBT, each COT, main deck, winches,
machineries etc.

CAP Certificate

A CAP Certificate is issued after completion of the Condition Assessment Program.

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[Link] between CAS and CAP.

S. No Condition Assessment Scheme Condition Assessment Programme

1 It is statutory scheme that needs to be followed It is not a statutory requirement to undergo CAP.
under IMO resolution MEPC.94(46).
2 Applicable only to oil tankers. Applicable to both oil tankers and bulk carriers.
3 Main objective is to evaluate the condition of the Main objective is the commercial aspect of it, to
vessel for its continuous safe operation. submit to the cargo owners, charterers etc. stating
the vessel is meeting above the minimum class
requirements.
4 Flag state or RO conducts the survey. Class or any other third-party service provider shall
conduct the survey.
5. Includes survey of structural strength by overall Includes survey of structural strength by overall
survey, close up survey and thickness survey, close up survey, thickness measurement,
measurement of various spaces and structures. longitudinal strength calculations, re-assessment of
scantlings and fatigue strength assessment. Also,
overall survey of machinery and cargo systems
6 Flag issues the Statement of Compliance after The service provider issues a CAP certificate as well
successful completion of survey and evaluation of as rating
the final report. It is kept as a supplement to the
IOPP certificate.
7 Validity of the certificate is 5 years and 6 months No validity for the certificate.
from the date of completion of CAS survey.

[Link] will you as Chief Officer, prepare the ship for special survey?

Special Survey:

 It is conducted for the renewal of the class and aimed at establishing that the technical condition of the ship and
changes in the composition and design of its facilities meet the requirements of the Rules.
 Special survey is conducted at intervals that do not exceed 5 years, with the renewal of the class, as a rule, for the
next five-year period.

Preparations:

 The holds, ’tween decks, peaks, deep tanks, engine and boiler spaces, and other spaces, are to be cleared and
cleaned as necessary, and the bilges and limbers all fore and aft are to be cleaned and prepared for examination.
 The steelwork is to be exposed and cleaned and rust removed as may be required for its proper examination by
the Surveyor
 All tanks are to be cleaned as necessary to permit examination
 The chain locker is to be cleaned internally. The chain cables are to be ranged for inspection. The anchors are to
be cleaned and placed in an accessible position for inspection
 Mechanically-operated hatch covers are to be tested to confirm satisfactory operation including stowage; and
securing in open condition; proper fit and efficiency of sealing in closed conditions; operational testing of
hydraulic and power components.
 The effectiveness of sealing arrangements of all hatch covers is to be checked by carrying out hose testing or
equivalent.
 Mooring ropes must be checked for satisfactory conditions.
 Fire protection, detection and extinction system must be in efficient condition.
 Cargo holds transvers web frames, transverse bulkheads and coamings are to be examined.

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 All deck plating and underdeck structure inside line of hatch openings between all cargo hold hatches must be
inspected.
 All cargo piping on deck, including Crude Oil Washing (COW) piping, and cargo and ballast piping are to be
examined and tested under working conditions to ensure that tightness and condition remain satisfactory.
 All cargo tanks, and salt-water ballast tanks including double bottom tanks, pump rooms, pipe tunnels,
cofferdams and void spaces bounding cargo tanks/cargo holds, deck and outer hull are to be examined
 Cargo tank testing to be carried out by the ship’s crew under the direction of the Master
 Examination of cargo tank openings including gaskets, covers, coamings and screens.
 Examination of cargo tank venting arrangements including secondary means of venting, or over/under pressure
alarms where fitted, with associated pressure/vacuum valves and flame screens
 Examination of flame screens on vents to all bunker, oily ballast and oily slop tanks and void spaces, so far as
practicable
 Verification that the pump room ventilation system is operational, ducting intact, dampers operational and
screens are clean
 Examination of the condition of all piping systems in the cargo pump room so far as practicable
 Verification that installed pressure gauges on cargo discharge lines and level indicator systems are operational
 Verification that at least one portable instrument for measuring flammable vapour concentrations is available,
together with a sufficient set of spares and a suitable means of calibration.
 Examination of any inert gas system
 Examination of the cargo heating/cooling system sampling arrangements where fitted
 Verification that wheelhouse doors and windows, side scuttles and windows in superstructure and deckhouse
ends facing the cargo area are in good condition.
 the freeboard marks on the ship's side to be checked.
 The means of communication between the navigating bridge and the machinery control positions, as well as the
bridge and the alternative steering position, if fitted, are to be tested

[Link] are the survey requirements for an oil tanker undergoing 3rd special survey? What are the preparations
to be carried out for the above vessel prior to the commencement of the survey?

Requirements:

 Tank testing must be carried out for all ballast tank boundaries and all cargo tank boundaries.
During close up survey following must be inspected:
 All web frame rings in all ballast tanks and cargo tanks
 All transverse bulkheads– in all cargo and ballast tanks
Thickness measurement shall be carried out in the following spaces:
 Within the cargo area
 Each deck plates
 2 transverse sections
 Selected wind and water strakes outside the cargo area
 All wind and water strakes within the cargo area
 Apart from the above requirements, inspections carried out during annual and other inspections as per special
survey are carried out.

Preparation:

 All cargo piping on deck, including Crude Oil Washing (COW) piping, and cargo and ballast piping are to be
examined and tested under working conditions to ensure that tightness and condition remain satisfactory.
 All cargo tanks, and salt-water ballast tanks including double bottom tanks, pump rooms, pipe tunnels,
cofferdams and void spaces bounding cargo tanks/cargo holds, deck and outer hull are to be examined

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 Cargo tank testing to be carried out by the ship’s crew under the direction of the Master
 Examination of cargo tank openings including gaskets, covers, coamings and screens.
 Examination of cargo tank venting arrangements including secondary means of venting, or over/under pressure
alarms where fitted, with associated pressure/vacuum valves and flame screens
 Examination of flame screens on vents to all bunker, oily ballast and oily slop tanks and void spaces, so far as
practicable
 Verification that the pump room ventilation system is operational, ducting intact, dampers operational and
screens are clean
 Examination of the condition of all piping systems in the cargo pump room so far as practicable
 Verification that installed pressure gauges on cargo discharge lines and level indicator systems are operational
 Verification that at least one portable instrument for measuring flammable vapor concentrations is available,
together with a sufficient set of spares and a suitable means of calibration.
 Examination of any inert gas system
 Examination of the cargo heating/cooling system sampling arrangements where fitted
 Verification that wheelhouse doors and windows, side scuttles and windows in superstructure and deckhouse
ends facing the cargo area are in good condition.

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 Corrosion/ Painting (Q.9 as per Pattern)

[Link] corrosion prevention on ship’s structure is very important to ensure safety of life and marine
environment?
 There is a natural tendency for nearly all metals to react with their environment.
 The result of this reaction is the creation of a corrosion product that is generally a substance of very similar
chemical composition to the original mineral from which the metal was produced.
 Structural weakening: Since stress-bearing components of ships are made of steel, any serious corrosion causes
structural weakness, compromising safety
 A sufficiently weakened structure can catastrophically fail.
 Corrosion around openings, often caused by salt water trapped under rubber seals, weakens the effectiveness of
these seals and allows water and dirt to enter enclosed areas.
 The accumulated dirt forms a sponge which retains any water ingress, forming stagnant pools of salty water,
causing further corrosion.
 The weakening of seals mentioned above can also cause water to enter electrical connection boxes and
equipment, causing short circuits and the corrosion of electrical connections.
 Corrosion-weakened seals may cause ingress of enough water to destabilise the ship.
 All the above affects the safety of life and marine environment.

[Link] Electro chemical corrosion. With a sketch describe corrosion cell.

Good understanding of the galvanic series of metals is vital for protection against corrosion. Discuss its
application in context of shipboard measures employed in preventing corrosion of the ship’s hull.
 Local corrosion occurs at a faster rate than general corrosion and is the result of and electro-chemical process.
 Here we have two reactions, namely the ANODIC reaction where dissolution of the iron (Fe) occurs and
CATHODIC reaction where the oxygen is consumed.
 This occurs on different parts of the surface and results in local corrosion or pitting.
 See the figure showing a corrosion cell set up by breaks in the mill scale or paint film on the plate surface.
 This electro chemical reaction is increased where dissimilar metals are placed in an electrolyte.
 The relative rates of corrosion among different metals is directly related to the galvanic series.
 In order of nobility of metals, the more noble the less corrosion, the order is as follows:

Galvanic Series:

Noble (cathodic or protected) end

Platinum,
Gold
Silver
Titanium
Stainless steels, Passive
Nickel, passive
High-duty bronzes
Copper
Nickel, active
Mill scale
Naval brass
Lead, tin
Stainless steels, active
Iron, steel, cast iron
Aluminium alloys
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 Aluminium
Zinc
Magnesium
Ignoble (anodic or corroding) end
 In the marine environment, sea water acts as electrolyte and the more noble metal is cathodically protected
while the less noble metals become the anode and get corroded.

Following are the areas of the ship where dissimilar metals are present and are most liable to corrosion:

1. Stern region due to the bronze propeller

2. In the vicinity of engine room inlets and discharges.
3. Port holes.
4. Valve fittings in tanks.
5. Welded seams
6. Aluminium superstructures like masthouses etc.
7. Areas in which the metals may have a different electrical potential
8. Areas where water accumulates, like the deck stringer.

Above understanding of galvanic series and places onboard the ship of its existence assists in selecting the corrosion
control method for those areas.

[Link] are the different means of corrosion prevention adopted for the ship’s structure?
 The control of corrosion may be broadly considered in two forms, cathodic protection and the application of
protective coatings, i.e. paints
 There are two main types of cathodic protection installation, sacrificial anode systems and impressed current
systems

Cathodic Protection:

 This technique can only be used where concerned metals are immersed in an electrolyte.
 The principle involved in this process is that the anodic corrosion reaction is either suppressed by the application
of an opposing current or the anode is of a type which allows itself to be consumed.

Sacrificial Anode System:

 Metals such as aluminium or zinc are fitted to the ship side or in the tank at strategic positions which form the
anode of the corrosion cell making the steel of the ship’s plating the cathode.
 The sacrificial anodes are gradually corroded away and have a life of about 2-4 years when they have to be
replaced, usually at dry dock.
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 This system is suitable both for ship’s side protection as well as in cargo and ballast tanks.
 Anodes can be typically seen in the vicinity of the propeller, in the vicinity of E/R inlets and discharges, and in the
forward portion near the bow thruster.

Impressed Current Type:

 These systems are fitted for protection of the immersed portions of the external hull only.
 A voltage difference is maintained between hull and fitted anodes, which will protect the hull against corrosion.
 The system consists of a source of direct current, anodes and apparatus for measuring and controlling the
current.
 The amount of the impressed current will vary with the area to be protected, ship speed, salinity and condition of
the paint work.
 For normal operating conditions, the potential difference is maintained by means of an externally mounted silver
chloride cell detecting the voltage difference between itself and the hull.
 This potential difference is fed back to a controller which impresses the same amount of current on to several
anodes positioned on the hull.
 The anodes used are usually of permanent noble metals such as lead or silver.
 In this may, any corrosion cells which might exist are exactly cancelled and corrosion is controlled.
 The propeller shaft and rudderstock have to be specially grounded in order to ensure continuity with the hull.

Painting:

 The plate is suitably prepared, primed and finished off with a suitable top coat.
 This method of protection excludes water and oxygen from the plate surface and as long as the paint remains
intact, this method of corrosion control is very effective and comparatively cheap.
 Work done in efficient surface preparation is wasted unless backed up by suitable paint correctly applied.
 The priming coat is perhaps the most important and must adhere to the plate.
 The subsequent coats must form a hard wearing, watertight cover.
 The coats of paint must be applied on clean, dry surfaces to be completely effective.

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70. Write short notes on corrosion, erosion and cavitation.

Corrosion:

 There is a natural tendency for nearly all metals to react with their environment.
 The result of this reaction is the creation of a corrosion product that is generally a substance of very similar
chemical composition to the original mineral from which the metal was produced.
 Corrosion id due to chemical or electro-chemical reaction of metal with its environment.
 Chemical corrosion is when a metal reacts with the atmosphere to return to their natural state.
 It can be explained by simple formula Fe + O2 + H2O = Rust.
 This means that the rust will not form unless both oxygen and water are present.
 Electro chemical consists of anodic and cathodic reaction. Anodic reaction dissolute the iron and cathodic
reaction consumes oxygen.

Erosion:

 Erosion may be defined as the destruction of a material by the abrasive action of a liquid or gas.
 The wastage or wearing away is purely mechanical with no electro-chemical reaction.
 This process usually occurs in pipelines etc. where the flow of liquid together with particles in suspension cause
erosion of the pipeline.
 In some parts of the ship, for example the shipside, there may be a combined effect of corrosion and erosion.
 In these places the erosion removes the outer and exposes fresh surfaces for corrosion.

Cavitation:

 Cavitation damage is associated with a rapidly flowing liquid environment.

 At certain regions in the flow, the local pressures drop below that of the absolute vapor pressure.
 Vapor cavities, i.e. areas of partial vacuum, are formed locally, but when the pressure increases clear of this
region the vapor cavities collapse or implode.
 This collapse occurs with the release of considerable energy, and if it occurs adjacent to a metal surface damage
result.
 The damage shows itself as pitting, which is thought to be predominantly due to the effects of the mechanical
damage

[Link] is meant by Sa 2.0 and Sa 2.5?

 Good surface preparations is essential for coating.
 Surface preparation standards are stipulated by various bodies throughout the world to designate the cleanliness
condition of blasted steel, prior to applying a protective coating.
 Commonly Swedish standards are often used. They are:
Sa 1 – Brush Off
Sa 2 – Commercial
Sa 2.5 – Near white metal
Sa 3.0 White metal.
 Sa 1 Brush Off - Loose mill scale, loose rust and foreign particles are removed.
 Sa 2 Commercial - Mill scale, rust and foreign particles are substantially removed and grey metal is visible.
 Sa 2.5 Near White Metal - Mill scale, rust and foreign particles are removed to the extent that only traces remain
in the form of spots or stripes. The cleaned surface will show varying shades of grey.
 Sa 3.0 White Metal - Visible mill scale, rust and foreign particles are entirely removed. The cleaned surface should
have a uniform metallic colour but may show varying shades of grey when viewed at different angles.
 Sa 2.5 is common as a reasonably achievable standard for shipyards.

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[Link] a suitable type of paint for the following areas giving reasons for your choice [Link] decks, [Link]
structure, [Link]-water ship side. [Link] lockers [Link] tanks, [Link] side area, vii. Boot top area

Super structures & Top side area:

 Red lead or zinc chromate-based primers are commonly used.

 White finishing paints are extensively used for superstructures.
 These are usually oleo-resinous or alkyd paints that may be based on ‘nonyellowing’ oils, linseed oil-based paints
that yellow on exposure being avoided on modern ships.
 Polysiloxane epoxy hybrid coatings also can be used as aesthetic topcoats
 A special antirust-stain finish may be applied to the and superstructures
 This finish contains an active pigment that chemically combines with rust to produce a colourless, water-soluble
material. As a result, rust stains are not visible
 Where aluminium alloy superstructures are fitted, under no circumstance should lead-based paints be applied;
zinc chromate paints are generally supplied for application to aluminium.

Main Deck

 Paint systems for decks should be very resistant to corrosion and the influences of weather.
 They should be non-slip (even when the decks are wet) and resistant to impact, scratching, and abrasion, as well
as resistant to (sea) water, fuel oils, lubricating greases, cleaning agents, and cargo spills
 For the main deck the most common deck coating systems are two-component epoxies, polyurethanes, and zinc
silicates
 Epoxy/polyurethane systems often consist of a primer, a thick mid-coat, and an easily recoat able topcoat.
 The topcoat can be made anti-skid by adding an aggregate such as non-sparking silica, pumice powder, or
aluminium oxide.
 For zinc silicate, the deck surfaces should be blast cleaned to Sa 2.5

Underwater Ship Side:

 The ship’s bottom has priming coats of corrosion-inhibiting paint applied that are followed by an antifouling
paint.
 Paints used for steels immersed in sea water are required to resist alkaline conditions.
 The reason for this is that an iron alloy immersed in a sodium chloride solution having the necessary supply of
dissolved oxygen gives rise to corrosion cells with caustic soda produced at the cathodes.
 Further, the paint should have a good electrical resistance so that the flow of corrosion currents between the
steel and sea water is limited.
 These requirements make the standard nonmarine structural steel primer red lead in linseed oil unsuitable for
ship use below the waterline.
 Suitable corrosion-inhibiting paints for ships’ bottoms are pitch or bitumen types, chlorinated rubber, coal
tar/epoxy resin, or vinyl resin paints. The antifouling paints may be applied after the corrosion-inhibiting coatings
and should not come into direct contact with the steel hull, since the toxic compounds present may cause
corrosion.

Boot Top Area:

 Generally, modern practice requires a complete paint system for the hull above the waterline. This may be based
on vinyl and alkyd resins or on polyurethane resin paints.

Ballast Tanks & Chain lockers:

 Coating systems for ballast tanks should be resistant to (polluted) seawater, corrosion inhibiting, free from pores,
and resistant to the side effects of cathodic protection.
 Most ballast tank coating systems provide barrier protection against corrosion.

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 Epoxy resin paints are used extensively within these tanks, and vinyl resins and zinc-rich coatings may also be
used.
 Solvent-free epoxies are also used in ballast tanks. They are applied in one or two layers.
 Mostly hard coatings are favoured for ballast tanks.

[Link] down the components of marine paint and their importance. Give example

 A paint is a combined formulation of four ingredients namely:

Solvent
Pigments
Binders (Resins)
Additives

Solvent:
 Solvent is a medium where the binder, pigment and additives are dispersed in molecular form.
 Solvent like thinner is used for viscosity modification of the paint mixture which helps for application with tools
such as rollers, brush, spray tins, etc.
 Examples of solvents are alcohols, ketones, xylene etc.

Pigments:
 A pigment is a coloured material that is completely or nearly insoluble in water. It is a solid substance dispersed
throughout the coating to impart a colour.
 Various pigments are used on basis of the purpose of the paint coating.
 Anti-corrosive pigments are used for paints intended to protect corrosion.
 Examples: Red lead, zinc chromate, metallic zinc etc. are some of the anti-corrosive pigments
 Anti-fouling pigments are used for paints intended as antifouling paints.
 Examples: chlorothalonil, dichlofluanid, Diuron etc.

Binders (Resins)
 Binders are polymers (resins) forming a continuous film responsible for firm adhesion on the substrate surface.
They are the major ingredient of coatings. The binder holds the pigment particles distributed throughout the
coating.
 Examples: Epoxy resins, Chlorinated rubber, polyurethane resins, vinyl resins etc.
 Epoxy resins have very good adhesion, apart from their excellent chemical resistance
 Chlorinated rubbers are particularly resistant to attack from acids and alkalis.
 Polyurethanes are not used underwater on steel ships, only on superstructures for their good gloss.
 Vinyl resins are among the most effective for the underwater protection of steel.

Additives:
 Additives are small amounts of substances modifying the paint properties and to improve the performance and
durability. These additives have different purposes.
 Corrosion inhibitors, Adhesion promoters, Driers

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[Link] how anti-fouling paint and anti-corrosive paint acts.

Anti-Fouling Paint:

 Antifouling paints consist of pigments that give body and colour together with materials toxic to marine vegetable
and animal growth.
 Antifouling paints work by delivering a controlled, steady release of biocide (such as copper) from the paint
surface into the microscopic layer of water next to the hull.
 It is this layer of biocide that stops the fouling from settling.
 Modern antifouling paints are specifically formulated to release just the right amount of biocide.
 To prolong the useful life of the paint the toxic compounds must dissolve slowly in sea water.
 Once the release rate falls below a level necessary to prevent settlement of marine organisms, the antifouling
composition is no longer effective.
 Copper is the best-known toxin used in traditional antifouling paints.
 Low surface energy coatings are also used as antifouling paint.
 They do not polish or contain booster biocides, instead they offer a very smooth, low-surface-energy surface to
which it is difficult for fouling to adhere.
 When the vessel is at rest some fouling may occur but once it is underway and reaches a critical speed the fouling
is released.

Anti-Corrosive Paints:

 Anti-corrosive paints consist of pigments and or additives that aids in preventing the metals getting corroded.
 This method of protection excludes water and oxygen from the plate surface and as long as the paint remains
intact, this method of corrosion control is very effective and comparatively cheap.
 There are many paints that afford protection even though they present a porous surface or contain various
discontinuities.
 If the reactions at the anode and cathode of the corrosion cell that form positive and negative ions respectively
are inhibited, protection is afforded
 Examples - Red lead, zinc chromate, metallic zinc etc. are some of the anti-corrosive pigments.
 Work done in efficient surface preparation is wasted unless backed up by suitable paint correctly applied.
 The priming coat is perhaps the most important and must adhere to the plate.
 The subsequent coats must form a hard wearing, watertight cover.
 The coats of paint must be applied on clean, dry surfaces to be completely effective

[Link] the various methods of surface preparation prior to the application of paints.

Surface Preparation:

 Good surface preparation is essential to successful painting, the primary cause of many paint failures being the
inadequacy of the initial material preparation.
 It is particularly important before painting new steel that any mill scale should be removed. Mill scale is a thin
layer of iron oxides that forms on the steel surface during hot rolling of the plates and sections

The most common methods employed to prepare steel surfaces for painting are:

Blast cleaning, Pickling, Flame cleaning, Preparation by hand, High-pressure water blasting.

Blast cleaning:

 The most common methods employed to prepare steel surfaces for painting are: l Blast cleaning l Pickling l Flame
cleaning l Preparation by hand l High-pressure water blasting.
 There are two main types of blasting equipment available, an impeller wheel plant and a nozzle type.
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 In impeller wheel plant the abrasive is thrown at high velocity against the metal surface.
 In nozzle type a jet of abrasive impinges on the metal surface.
 Steel shot is the preferred blast medium for preparation of steel plates and profiles for new construction.
 The shot breaks down during the blasting and a mix of new and broken shot provides good surface preparation.
 The use of sand is prohibited in most countries because the fine dust produced may cause silicosis

Pickling:

 Pickling involves the immersion of the metal in an acid solution, usually hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, in order to
remove the mill scale and rust from the surface.
 Pickling is no longer found in most of the ship construction industry

Flame cleaning:

 Using an oxyacetylene flame, the mill scale and rust may be removed from a steel surface.
 The process does not entirely remove the mill scale and rust, but it can be quite useful for cleaning plates under
inclement weather conditions, the flame drying out the plate.

Hand Cleaning:

 Hand cleaning by various forms of wire brush is often not very satisfactory\
 It would only be used where the mill scale has been loosened by weathering, i.e. exposure to atmosphere over a
long period.
 For ships in service hand cleaning may be used for very small corroded areas.

High Pressure Water Blasting:

 It is superseding grit blasting for ship repair.

 It is capable of restoring a steel surface to Sa 2.5, provided any corrosion has not been allowed to develop.
 Water blasting is mainly a ship repair process.
 Disposal of the waste material, in this case mainly water, is a main reason for the adoption of water blasting.

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 Welding (Types, Faults, Tests) (Q.8 as per the pattern)

[Link] the following welding methods used in ship building Electric arc welding, Tungsten inert gas welding

Electric Arc Welding:

 The electric arc is formed when an electric current pass between two electrodes that are separated by a short
distance of air.
 One electrode is the welding rod, and the other is the metal to be welded
 The arc is started by touching the metal with the rod and then withdrawing it about short distance.
 When the rod touched the metal current flows, when it is withdrawn the current continues to flow in the form of
a spark.
 Thus, electrical energy is converted into heat and light, with temperatures of about 4000C being experienced.
 This heat melts the parent metal and the rod, to form the weld.
 Electrical power sources vary, DC generators or rectifiers with variable or constant voltage characteristics being
available, as well as AC transformers with variable voltage characteristics for single or multiple operation.
 The latter are most commonly used in shipbuilding

Tungsten Inert Gas Welding:

 In the TIG welding process the arc is drawn between a water-cooled non consumable tungsten electrode and the
plate.

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 A shielding gas usually argon or nitrogen is used to protect against atmospheric contamination.
 The filler metal may also be provided if required.
 The molten metal from the work piece is adequate. In larger joints where the work pieces melting will not
provide adequate filler metal, a filler rod is kept immersed in the pool so that it melts and adds material.
 This process is useful where some metals which are difficult to weld, or dissimilar metals are to be welded.
 Since there is no flux, there is no contaminating residue or cleaning problems.
 It is one of the mostly used automatic welding processes.

[Link] and compare the TIG and MIG welding processes.

TIG welding as mentioned in earlier question.

Metal Inert Gas welding (MIG):

 Metal inert gas welding is similar to the TIG process. Inert gas shields the weld area, but an electrode filler wire or
a consumable bare electrode wire is used instead of the non-consumable tungsten electrode.
 The wire fed continuously into the weld by a wire feed mechanism through a torch or gun.
 The weld area is surrounded by an inert gas blanket to protect it from atmospheric contamination.
 Where flux needs to be used, it may be inserted mixed as a fine powder in the inert gas.
 Otherwise the electrode can be coated with flux.
 IF wire filler is used, then it is magnetised so that the flux clings to it as it is entering the weld pool.
 These processes can be automatic or semi-automatically controlled.
 When completely automatic, the wire feed, power setting, gas flow, and travel of the welding head over the work
are pre-set and proceed without manual direction.

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[Link] with sketches the various types of weld joints.

Butt weld:

 Used for joining two plates or angles edge to edge.

 For thin plates, the plates replaced in contact and welded with a single run.
 For thinker plates, it is necessary to leave a gap between the plates in order that penetration should extend
throughout the thickness of the plates, otherwise the joint will be weak due to lack of penetration.
 In cases where several runs of welding are required to complete the butt joint, the edges are formed to give a V
or U-shaped gap in order to ensure thorough penetration and reduce distortion.

Fillet Weld:

 A fillet weld is used to join two surfaces at right angles to each other.
 For thin sections, the fillet weld can be completed at a single run, however, for heavier sections, it is usual to V
out the vertical member on one or both sides in order to secure adequate penetration and sound weld.
 Several runs will then be required to complete the weld.
 Fillet welds may be continuous or intermittent depending on the structural effectiveness of the member to be
welded.
 Continuous welds are used when the joint must be watertight and for other strength members.

Lap Weld:

 This type of weld is used to join two plates with an overlap, and can be used as alternative to a butt weld, though
it is less satisfactory.
 The plates should be straight and the length of the overlap should be four times the plate thickness.
 In shipbuilding, lap welds are commonly used to join frames to brackets.
 Lap joints should not generally be used especially where only one side in accessible for welding.

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[Link] three types of automatic welding process used in shipyards.

Automatic Welding Processes:

 The following processes described can be adopted for use by welding robots or other automatic welding
processes.
 Higher quality at higher speed and no necessity of post weld cleaning makes this process increasingly used in
shipbuilding.
 Electro-slag welding, TIG welding and MIG welding are the most used types of automatic welding processes.

Electro-slag welding:

 A welding process wherein coalescence is produced by molten slag which melts the filler metal (electrode) and
the surfaces of the work to be welded.
 An arc is started between the filler/electrode and the work. This arc heats the flux and melts it to form slag.
 This arc is then extinguished and the conductive slag is maintained in molten condition by its resistance to the
flow of the electric current between the electrode and work.
 Molten slag remains between the electrode and the work.
 The molten pool remains shielded by the molten slag that moves along the full cross section of the joint as the
welding progresses.
 The temperature of the molten slag pool is about 1650°C.
 This process is used for welding heavy casting structure components such as stern frames.
 Since there is no arc, less spatter and arc flashing occur.

TIG and MIG welding are as given in previous questions.

[Link] the preparation of plate edge for welding?

Plate edge preparation:

 Before two edges of metal are to be welded, consideration must be made, for the containment of the filler metal
which will be deposited.
 Since the goal is to effectively join two plates within the thickness of the plates involved, that is keeping the joint
from protruding out of the plate surface, some plate edge preparation must be made.
 The plate edges to be joined, can be pre-shaped according to the following factors:
The position of welding
Access for the arc and electrode
Volume of deposited weld metal
Shrinkage and distortion
Thickness of plates to be joined.
 The edge may be V-ed or Double V-ed, U-ed or double U-ed when a butt weld has to be made.
 After the appropriate shapes are made, the edges and area adjoining them is cleared of all the scale, rust, dust,
paint, grease or other foreign matter, either chemically or mechanically, using wire brush, abrasive grinding
wheel etc.
 This is essential to ensure homogenous and strong welds.
 Plate edge preparations can be made by gas or plasma and also using mechanical methods.
 Though there is little difference in metallurgical damage between the two methods, mechanical methods provide
a better finish.

(Diagram in the next page)

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[Link] notes on Thermit Welding, MIG Welding, Importance of flux in welding.

Thermit Welding:

 This method is used to weld or repair steels such as large castings or forgings which are un-weldable by other
methods.
 It is a chemical process with no power requirements, portable and easily used on site for large sections such as
stern frames.
 A mixture of aluminium powder and metal oxide (iron, copper etc.) is fired in a thermit crucible by igniting a
barium oxide mixture.
 Aluminium reduces the metal oxide to pure, superheated metal forming aluminium oxide as slag, in a chemical
reaction accompanied by a large evolution of heat.
 The crucible is tapped and the molten metal allowed to flow within a sand mould built along the joint.
 The metal heats and fuses the joint forming the weld. After cooling, the mould is broken.

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MIG welding as mentioned in previous questions

Importance of flux in welding:

 Flux is a substance used to remove the oxides during the welding process.
 The flux melts, then solidifies during the welding process, forming a solid slag that protects the weld from
atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen.
 The flux decomposes oxides without corrosion damage to the metals throughout the welding process.
 It is economical to use and removable from the joint after welding.
 Submerged arc welding is usually done using flux as a fusible backing.
 The flux used in this process allows a high concentration of heat, making the process very efficient and suitable
for heavy deposits at fast speeds.
 After welding, the molten metal is protected by a layer of fused flux, which together with the unfused flux may be
recovered before cooling.
 Granular flux used in stud welding. It is contained within the end of each stud to create a protective atmosphere
during arcing.

[Link] the purpose of flux in welding and differentiate between single pass, multi-pass and back run

Purpose of flux as mentioned in previous question.

Single Pass:

 Single pass welding is the application of one weld bead or pass across a joint or crack
 Single pass is used for welding thinner metal plates.
 But with higher current automatic welding processes, single pass may be used even for thicker plates.

Multi-Pass:

 Multi-pass welding the application of multiple beads across the same joint or crack
 Multi-pass is required for thicker plates.
 A butt weld with manual arc welding, where the plate thickness exceeds, say, 5–6 mm it will become necessary to
make more than one welding pass to deposit sufficient weld metal to close the joint.

Back Run:

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 Weld applied to the root of the joint to support and shield molten weld metal.
 Back run is required to ensure complete weld penetration unless one sided welding technique or permanent
backing bar is used.

Single Pass

[Link] following Under cut, tack welding, butt weld.

Undercut:

 It is one of the types of weld faults.

 It is the cutting away of one of the plate surfaces at the edge of the weld.
 It decreases the thickness of the weld at that point.
 Any reduction of plate thickness results in loss of plate strength and could lead to joint failure since the designed
load of the joint is based on the original plate thickness.
 This is especially weakened when the undercutting occurs at the toe of the weld.
 Undercutting is usually caused by improper manipulation of the arc, fast travel and or excessive welding current.

Tack Weld:

 Tack welds are used throughout the construction to hold plates and sections in place after alignment and prior to
completion of the full butt or fillet weld.
 These are short light runs of weld metal, which may be welded over, or cut out in more critical joints during the
final welding of the joint.

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[Link] the destructive and non-destructive methods of testing welds.

Destructive Testing:

 In destructive testing, a sample of the metal containing part of the weld is used which gets destructed during the
test.
 This method includes:
Tensile Test
Bend Test
Hardness Test
Impact Test
Nick-Break Test
Fillet Test
Chemical and Metallographic tests

 The first four tests are carried out by the same equipment and in a similar way as the tests for the strength of the
material itself.
 In the nick break test the weld is fractured along its length and examined for internal defects.
 The specimen is fractured along the centreline of the weld by bending or a blow with a chisel.
 The appearance of the fractured surface and the type and location of any weld flaws are recorded

 The fillet test, is similar in that the joint is fractured along the fillet weld and the fractured surfaces examined for
slag inclusions, gas entrapments, incomplete root fusion etc.
 The leg length, throat thickness and weld profile are also evaluated.

Non-destructive Testing:

 The various available non-destructive testing methods may be summarized as follows:

Visual examination
Dye penetrant
Magnetic particle
Radiographic
Ultrasonic
 Liquid penetrants are of two types. Dyes which provide colour contrast and fluorescent liquids which glow when
viewed under ultra violet light.
 The surface is first cleaned thoroughly and the penetrant then applied in a light coat by swabbing or spraying.
 After allowing for some time, all traces of penetrant are removed and developer is applied in a very thin layer.
 The developer acts like blotting paper drawing out the liquid penetrant from the surface flaws thus providing a
good indication of surface irregularities which may be readily visible.

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 Magnetic particle testing is carried out by magnetizing the casting and spreading a fluid of magnetic particles
(e.g. iron fillings suspended in paraffin) on the surface.
 Any discontinuity such as a surface crack will show up as the particles will concentrate at this point where there is
an alteration in the magnetic field.
 The principle of radiographic inspection is simply to subject a material to radiation from one side, and record the
radiation emitted from the opposite side.
 Any obstacle in the path of the radiation will affect the radiation density emitted and may be recorded.

[Link] effective weld penetration is achieved while welding thick steel plates?
 In the MIG welding process, a low-level current is used with high-level pulses of current that detach the metal
from the electrode and accelerate it across the arc to give good penetration.
 Using higher current values with thicker steel plate a fine spray transfer of the metal from the electrode across
the arc is achieved, with a deep penetration.
 Wire diameters in excess of 1.6 mm are used, and currents above about 350 amps are required to obtain this
form of transfer
 Whereas while using Plasma welding process, use of medium current from 15 to 200 amps for the arc is sufficient
to achieving deeper penetrations.
 In the laser welding process, if the applied power is higher (for a given speed), boiling begins in the weld pool and
a deep penetration weld can be formed.
 Also, apart from the setting, back run is a method used to achieve deep penetration.
 Weld applied to the root of the joint to support and shield molten weld metal.
 More often, back run along with multi-pass weld is done to achieve deeper penetration.
 Back run is required to ensure complete weld penetration unless one sided welding technique or permanent
backing bar is used.

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[Link] the Submerged Arc Welding and Manual Metal Arc Welding processes.

S. No Submerged Arc Welding Manual Metal Arc Welding

1 It can be an Automatic or semi-automatic welding It is a manual welding process.
process
2 The arc is submerged under a layer of granulated An electric arc is created between a hand held,
flux. The electrode is copper coated filler wire, fed flux-coated, consumable filler wire and the work
into the arc. piece.
3 The granular flux is separately poured along the The electrode itself is flux coated.
weld joint from the flux hopper.
4 The granulated flux breaks down and provides highly The flux coating on the electrode decomposes
protective thermally insulating molten container for (burns) and generates a gaseous shield, which
the arc which aids in heavy deposits at fast speeds protects the weld pool and surrounding hot metal
from the atmosphere.
5 Electrodes are continuously fed. Electrodes must be changed manually.
6 Any unused flux may be recovered and re-used. No unused flux
7 Less or no change of weld sprinkles as the arc is High chances of weld sprinkles.
submerged within flux.
8 Suitable for downhand welds only with backing. Suitable for various positions such as downhand,
overhead, horizontal and vertical positions.
9 High maintenance of equipment required. Low maintenance of equipment.
10 Has high deposit rates. Has low deposit rates.

[Link] are the advantages and disadvantages of manual and automatic welding processes used in ship
construction?

Advantages of automatic welding processes:

 Automatic welding process offers higher quality and better finish.

 Semi-automatic and fully automatic systems increase output by eliminating the human factor from the welding
process.
 Automating the torch or part motions, and part placement, reduces the possibility of human error.
 Less chances of injuring persons.
 These processes significantly reduce labour costs.

Disadvantages of Automatic Welding processes:

 High initial cost for setting up.

 Lack of flexibility. Reconfiguring an automatic process is tedious and not cost effective.
 The equipment requires high maintenance.
 Most processes are used only for new builds.

Advantages of Manual Welding Processes

 Greater flexibility. Various types of welding practises can be employed depending on the need.
 Widely used in ship repairing processes.
 Less initial setup cost.
 Equipment requires low maintenance.

Disadvantages of Manual Welding:

 Relatively less weld quality.

 Less productivity.
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 Possibility of human injury is high.
 Time consuming process.
 Creating a skilled labour takes lot of time.

[Link] defects in welds using sketches.

Some of the welding defects are:

Porosity
Slag inclusion
Lack of fusion, excessive fusion and spatter
Lack of penetration
Undercut
Cracks
Restraint cracks
Crater cracks
Hot cracks

Porosity:

 Gases are more easily dissolved in molten metal and may be retained and trapped in fast solidifying metal.
 These holes or pores can take many shapes such as bubbles, pipes and be of different sizes.
 The gases that cause most porosity are hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.

Slag inclusion:

 These are non-metallic oxides formed by the slag reaction that get trapped in the weld.
 They appear randomly as isolated particles or as small or large, short or long, continuous or intermittent bands
along the axis of the weld.
 It obviously occurs in a multi-run weld where cleaning is not done properly between the runs.

Lack of fusion, excessive fusion and spatter:

 It is caused by poor or incomplete union between the weld and parent metal or between the weld runds.
 It is most likely a result of dirt, oil, grease, rust or scale on the plate surfaces or insufficient current.
 Excessive fusion is also a problem as it causes the parent metal to dissolve in the weld metal resulting in changed
mechanical and metallurgical properties of the steel.
 Spatter is excess droplets of weld metal deposited around the weld due to either a too high current, too high
voltage or a long length of arc.

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Lack of penetration:

 Full penetration may not take place if the gap at the root of the weld is too small or if thick plates are welded on
once side only without using a backing bar or a back run or deep penetrating electrodes.
 Proper electrodes, welding current and welding techniques must be used to avoid lack of penetration.

Undercut:

 Undercutting is the melting or burning away of the base metal at the toe of the weld.
 It reduces the thickness of the plate or pipe diameter.
 It is generally caused by faulty welding technique.

Cracks:

 Cracks are discontinuities in the weld structure or in its vicinity.

 Cracks are generally linear having a high length to width ratio.
 They weaken the weld.

Restraint cracks:

 These cracks occur when the structure is rigid or large as compared to the weld and due to expansion or
contraction, the weld is unable to move the structure and consequently cracks.
 Restraint cracks can be avoided by proper preheating and use of a ductile weld deposit.

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Crater cracks:

 Caused by volume contraction of molten metal during solidification.

 Usually star shaped.
 High wall thickness, high strength base metal or filler metal are some of the reason for crater cracks.

Hot cracks:

 Impurity films at the grain boundaries caused by elements such as sulphur, phosphorus, boron, copper and
arsenic are the main culprits of hot cracks.
 Hot cracking can be minimized by maintaining a low carbon content in the weld deposit, a low sulphur and
phosphorous content, reducing the heat input and stress.

[Link] is distortion avoided during welding of a structure?

As the main cause of distortion is the weld itself, it may be avoided by:

 Reducing the number of joints

 Improving joint design to reduce the amount of weld metal needed
 Reducing the root gap and avoiding mismatch of joints.
 Avoiding excessive weld metal deposits.
 Reducing the number of runs.
 Using large diameter electrodes, if possible
 Using heavy electrodes
 Using automatic or semi-automatic welding processes.

[Link] describe good welding practices to minimize these defects

 The current and voltage must be adjusted properly to ensure fusion. The weld metal must fuse with the parent
metal throughout the depth of the weld. Failure to achieve this will result in a weak weld. Lack of fusion and poor
penetration will result.
 If excessive current is used to parent metal will get undercut. Thus, it must be avoided.
 Before successive runs are made, slag rom the previous run must be removed. If the next run is made over the
slag, the weld would be poor. This is known as slag inclusion.
 Welding should not be carried out too quickly or bubbles of gas remain within the weld. Entrapment of gas also
results in a weak and porous weld.
 Allowance must be made for expansion and contraction of the plates being welded. Failure to do this could lead
to stresses being ‘locked in’ and could be a cause of failure at a later time.
 All welding rods should be flux coated.

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[Link] the role of classification societies in conducting tests for welding
 Classification societies specify a number of destructive tests that are intended to be used for initial electrode and
weld material approval.
 These tests are carried out to ascertain whether the electrode or wire-flux combination submitted is suitable for
shipbuilding purposes in the category specified by the manufacturer.
 Tests are made for conventional electrodes, deep penetration electrodes, wire-gas and wire-flux combinations,
consumables for electro-slag and electro-gas welding, and consumables for one-sided welding with temporary
backing.
 Tensile, bend, and impact tests are carried out on the deposited weld metal and welded plate specimens.
 Other tests are made for the composition of the weld metal deposited and possible cracking.
 All works where electrodes, wire-flux and wire-gas combinations, consumables for electro-slag and electro-gas
welding, and consumables for one-sided welding with temporary backing are produced, and have been initially
approved, are subject to annual inspection

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