Lesson-1

Word Analysis

Learning Objectives: In this lesson, the students will:

1. Understand words in terms of morphology and three major families of words
2. Identify the affixes and stem in terms of word analysis

The Notion of Words

In Linguistics, a word denotes the smallest constituent that may be uttered in isolation
with semantic or pragmatic content (with literal or practical meaning). This contrasts with
a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning but will not necessarily stand on its
own.
A word may consist of a single morpheme (for example: oh!, rock, red, quick, run,
expect), or several (rocks, redness, quickly, running, unexpected), whereas a morpheme
may not be able to stand on its own as a word (in the words just mentioned, these are -s, -
ness, -ly, -ing, un-, -ed). A complex word will typically include a root and one or
more affixes (rock-s, red-ness, quick-ly, run-ning, un-expect-ed), or more than one root in
acompound (black-board, rat-race). Words can be put together to build larger elements
of language, such as phrases (a red rock), clauses (I threw a rock), and sentences (He
threw a rock too but he missed).
The term word may refer to a spoken word or to a written word, or sometimes to the
abstract concept behind either. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called
phonemes, and written words of symbols called graphemes, such as the letters of the
English alphabet.

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 Three major families of words

Words can be classified into three families, according to their main function and
their grammatical behavior: lexical words, function words and inserts.

A. Lexical words
 Lexical words are the main carriers of information in a text or
speech act.
 They can be subdivided into the following word classes (or parts
of speech): nouns, lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
 Of all the word families, lexical words are the most numerous, and
their number is growing all the time. In other words, they are
members of open classes.
 They often have a complex internal structure and can be composed
of several parts: e.g. unfriendliness = un + friend + li + ness.
 Lexical words can be of phrases: e.g. the noun completion is the
head (or main word) of the noun phrase (the completion of the
task).
 They are generally the words that are stressed most in speech.
 They are generally the words that remain if a sentence is
compressed in a newspaper headline: e.g. Elderly care crisis
warning.

B. Function words
 Function words can be categorized in terms of word classes such as
prepositions, articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, coordinators
(conjunctions), auxiliary verbs and pronouns.
 The usually indicate meaning relationship help us interpret units
containing lexical words, by showing how the units are related to
each other.
 Function words belongs to closed classes, which a very limited and
fixed membership. For example, English has only four
coordinators: and, or, but and (rarely) nor.
 Individual function words tend to occur frequently, and in almost
any type of text.

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 C. Inserts
 Inserts are seen mainly in spoken language.
 Inserts do not form an integral part of syntactic structure, but tend to be
inserted freely in a text.
 They are often marked off by a break in intonation in speech or by a
punctuation mark in writing: Well, we accomplished it.
 Inserts generally carry emotional and discourse meanings, such as oh,
ah, wow, used to express a speaker’s emotional response to a situation
or yeah, no, okay used to signal a response to what has just been said.
 They are generally simple in form, though they often have an atypical
pronunciation (e.g. hm, uh-huh, yeah) in conversational English. For
example, Hm hm, very good, Yeah, I will. Cheers man.

Analysis of Words in terms of Root (Stem) and Affixes (Prefixes and

Suffixes)

Affixes and Types of affixes:

In Linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word
or word form.

Derivational affixes make new words by adding concrete meanings to old words:

-er, -ess -hood, -ive, -ness, re-, un-

All English prefixes and most suffixes are derivational.

Inflectional affixes make different grammatical forms of the same word. English has
only 8 productive inflections:

for verbs: -ed, -s, -ing work+ed, work+s, work+ing

for nouns: -s, -'s -'s boys, boy's, boys'
for adjectives: -er, -est smart+er, smart+est

There are several unproductive inflections too, like the plural -en in oxen, and the
participial -en in given.

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Common Prefixes

Common Prefixes

Prefix Definition Examples

anti- against anticlimax

de- opposite devalue

dis- not; opposite of discover

en-, em- cause to enact, empower

fore- before; front of foreshadow, forearm

in-, im- in income, impulse

in-, im-, il-, ir- not indirect, immoral, illiterate, irreverent

inter- between; among interrupt

mid- middle midfield

mis- wrongly misspell

non- not nonviolent

over- over; too much overeat

pre- before preview

re- again rewrite

semi- half; partly; not fully semifinal

sub- under subway

super- above; beyond superhuman

trans- across transmit

un- not; opposite of unusual

under- under; too little underestimate

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Common Suffixes

Common Suffixes

Suffix Definition Examples

-able, -ible is; can be affordable, sensible

-al, -ial having characteristics of universal, facial

the dog walked,

-ed past tense verbs; adjectives
the walked dog

-en made of golden

one who;
-er, -or teacher, professor
person connected with

-er more taller

-est the most tallest

-ful full of helpful

-ic having characteristics of poetic

verb forms;
-ing sleeping
present participles

-ion, -tion, -ation, submission, motion,

act; process
-tion relation, edition

-ity, -ty state of activity, society

-ive, -ative, active, comparative,

adjective form of noun
-itive sensitive

-less without hopeless

-ly how something is lovely

-ment state of being; act of contentment

-ness state of; condition of openness

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 riotous, courageous,
-ous, -eous, -ious having qualities of
gracious

-s, -es more than one trains, trenches

-y characterized by gloomy

Learners’ Activities:

1. What does a word mean?

2. Identify ten (10) lexical words.
3. Identify ten (10) function words.
4. Identify five (5) inserts.

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 Lesson-2
Phrases in Sentence Structures

Learning Objective: The students will be able to understand, analyze and identify
phrases in terms of sentence structures.

The instructor will go through the topics in this lesson. The students will be instructed to
take notes on the topics, discussed.

Phrases
In the field of Applied Linguistics, a phrase refers to group of words (or sometimes a
single word) that forms a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of
a sentence. A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than a clause.

Examples:

Examine the following sentence: Meet the requirement

The house at the end of the street is red.
The underlined words in bold form a phrase; together they act like a noun (making
them a noun phrase). This phrase can be further broken down; a prepositional phrase
functioning as an adjective can be identified:
at the end of the street
Further, a smaller prepositional phrase can be identified inside this greater
prepositional phrase:
of the street
And within the greater prepositional phrase, one can identify a noun phrase:
the end of the street
And within this noun phrase, there is a smaller noun phrase:

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A phrase is a group of related words (within a sentence) without both subject and verb.
For example, He is laughing at the joker.

A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a sentence. The

function of a phrase depends on its construction (words it contains). On the basis of their
functions and constructions, phrases are divided into various types i.e. noun phrase, verb
phrase, adverb phrase, adjective phrase, appositive phrase, infinite phrase, participle
phrase and gerund phrase.

Noun Phrase
A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a sentence.

A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase works as a noun in a
sentence.
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)

Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object)
She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object)
The boy with brown hair is laughing. (as noun/subject)
A man on the roof was shouting. (as noun/subject)

A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.

For example. The girl with blue eyes bought a beautiful chair.

Prepositional phrase
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of preposition(noun or
pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers.
e.g. on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun.
Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional
phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.
Examples.
A boy on the roof is singing a song. (As adjective)
The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective)
She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb)
He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb)

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 Adjective Phrase
An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in a sentence. It
consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.

An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a
pronoun in a sentence.

Examples.
He is wearing a nice red shirt. (modifies shirt)
The girl with brown hair is singing a song. (modifies girl)
He gave me a glass full of water. (modifies glass)
A boy from America won the race. (modifies boy)

Prepositional phrases and participle phrases also function as adjectives so we can also
call them adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the above sentence “The
girl with brown hair is singing a song”, the phrase “with brown hair” is a prepositional
phrase but it functions as an adjective.

Adverb Phrase
An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence. It consists
of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group with
works like an adverb in a sentence.

An adverb phrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another

adverb.

Examples
He always behaves in a good manner. (modifies verb behave)
They were shouting in a loud voice. (modifies verb shout)
She always drives with care. (modifies verb drive)
He sat in a corner of the room. (modifies verb sit)
He returned in a short while. (modifies verb return)
A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in above sentence
“He always behaves in a good manner”, the phrase “in a good manner” is a prepositional
phrase but it acts as adverb phrase here.

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 Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a
sentence.

Examples.
He is eating an apple.
She has finished her work.
You should study for the exam.
She has been sleeping for two hours.

According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb, its auxiliaries,
its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the whole predicate of a
sentence.
Example. You should study for the exam.

Learners’ Activities:

The students will participate in analyzing and identifying various phrases (noun phrase,
verb phrase, prepositional phrase, adjective phrase and adverb phrases) in sentences in the
class. The instructor will instruct them and check their writing tasks.

Exercise 1
Identify the noun and preposition phrases in the following sentences.
1. Forests with dry grass and brush burn easily.
2. The workers on the platform worked hard in the hot sun.
3. The picture in the antique frame was of my grandmother.
4. The gray squirrels scampered along the fence rail in the backyard.
5. The divers traversed through deep waters of the Caribbean.

Exercise 2

Identify the types of phrases that are italicized in the following sentences.
6. Kamal likes to read books
7. To conclude tonight's program, our chief of staff would like to say a few words.
8. Wanting to save money, Shakira spent the morning clipping and filing coupons.
9. Marybeth dreams are becoming a NASA astronaut.

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10. The photo frame, made of steel, is not too expensive.
11. She likes writing short stories.

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 Lesson-3

Clauses and Sentences

Learning Objective: The students will be able to gain knowledge on clauses in

sentence structures composition.

The instructor will touch on the topics in these lessons. The students will be instructed to
take notes on the topics, discussed.

Clauses
We need to discuss clause structures prior to the discussions on simple, compound and
complex sentences. In grammar, a clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can express
a complete proposition. A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate, where the
predicate is typically a verb phrase – a verb together with any objects and other
modifiers. However the subject is sometimes not expressed; this is often the case in null-
subject languages if the subject is retrievable from context, but it also occurs in certain
cases in other languages such as English (as in imperative sentences and non-finite
clauses).

Two Major Distinctions

A primary division for the discussion of clauses is the distinction between independent
clauses (i.e., main clauses, matrix clauses) and dependent clauses (i.e., subordinate
clauses, embedded clauses). An independent clause can stand alone. For example, it can
constitute a complete sentence by itself. A dependent clause (i.e., subordinate
clause/embedded clause), in contrast, is reliant on the appearance of an independent
clause; it depends on the main clause and is therefore a dependent clause, whereas the
main clause is an independent clause.

A second major distinction concerns the difference between finite and non-finite clauses.
A finite clause contains a structurally central finite verb, whereas the structurally central
word of a non-finite clause is often a non-finite verb. Traditional grammar focuses on

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finite clauses, the awareness of non-finite clauses having arisen much later in connection
with the modern study of syntax.

Clauses and Three Kinds of Sentences

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence structure contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

For Examples:

 I run.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, I, and
one predicate, run.

 The girl ran into her bedroom.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, girl, and one
predicate, ran into her bedroom. The predicate is a verb phrase that consists of more than
one word.

 In the backyard, the dog barked and howled at the cat.

This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, dog, and one
predicate, barked and howled at the cat. This predicate has two verbs, known as a
compound predicate: barked and howled. This compound verb should not be confused
with a compound sentence. In the backyard and at the cat are prepositional phrases.

Compound Sentences
A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require
a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without
a comma), a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, a colon instead of a semicolon
between two sentences when the second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence
and no coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the sentences, or a conjunctive
adverb preceded by a semicolon. A conjunction can be used to make a compound
sentence. Conjunctions are words such as and, nor, but, for, yet and so. The use of a
comma to separate two independent clauses without the addition of an appropriate
conjunction is called a comma splice and is generally considered an error (when used in
the English language).

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For Examples:

• We offer 90-minute service training classes, and we always have waiting lists for
them.
• Bashir played football, so Hanifa went shopping.
•
• Bashir played football, for Hanifa went shopping.

The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two
independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it.

The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two
independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note
how the conscious use of coordinators can change the meaning of the sentences. Sentences
2 and 3, for example, are identical except for the coordinators. In sentence 2, which action
occurred first? Obviously, "Kalam played football" first, and as a consequence, "Hassan
went shopping." In sentence 3, "Hassan went shopping" first. In sentence 3, "Kalam
played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to
do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other coordinators change
the relationship between the two clauses? What implications would the use of "yet" or
"but" have on the meaning of the sentence?

Complex and Complex-Compound Sentences

A complex sentence consists of one or more dependent clauses (also called subordinate
clauses). Since a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence, complex
sentences must also have at least one independent clause. A sentence with two or more
independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses is called compound-complex or
complex-compound.
In addition to a subject and a verb, dependent clauses contain a subordinating
conjunction or similar word. There are a large number of subordinating conjunctions in
English. Some of these give the clause an adverbial function, specifying time, place, or
manner. Such clauses are called adverbial clauses.

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 When I stepped out into the bright sunlight, from the darkness of the movie house, I
had only two things on my mind. (S. E. Hinton, The Outsiders)
This complex sentence contains an adverbial clause, When I stepped out into the bright
sunlight from the darkness of the movie house. The adverbial clause describes when the
action of the main clause, I had only two things on my mind, took place.

A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase in the
independent clause. In other words, the relative clause functions similar to an adjective.

 Let him who has been deceived complain. (Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote)
 You, who have never known your family, see them standing around you. (J.K.
Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone)

In the first example, the restrictive relative clause who has been deceived specifies or
defines the meaning of him in the independent clause, Let him complain. In the second
example, the non-restrictive relative clause who have never known your
family describes you in the independent clause, You see them standing around you.

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun. A noun clause may
function as the subject of a clause, or as a predicate nominative or an object.

 What she had realised was that love was that moment when your heart was about to
burst. (Stieg Larsson, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo)

In this sentence the independent clause contains two noun clauses. The noun clause What
she had realized serves as the subject of the verb was, and that love was that moment
serves as complement. The sentence also contains an adverbial clause, when your heart
was about to burst.

Learners’ Activities:

The students will participate in making and analyzing various sentences and identifying
clauses in the class. The instructor will instruct them and check their writing tasks.

Exercise 1
Directions: Find out the independent clause and the dependent clause in the
following sentences.

Example: The little boy, who bought the candy, is my brother.

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Independent Clause: The little boy is my brother
Dependent Clause: who bought the candy

1. Since I do not have the book, I could not do the report.

2. The well-known poet, who was immortalized, is Edgar Allen Poe.
3. Ginger, who is a girl in room 18, will run for representative.
4. Before the rain came, we were able to go swimming.
5. After we formed the carpool, Dave's driving day was Thursdays.
6. Our travel plans were changed since the plane was canceled.
7. Although I am generally a confident person, I hesitated to take my first swimming
lesson.
8. "The Raven" is a poem which was written by Edgar Allen Poe.
9. I admire students who ask for help.
10. Mr. Jones, who is a former engineer, is our math teacher.

Exercise 2
Directions: Complete these following fragment (incomplete) sentences to make
complex sentences.

1. Ancient Egyptians designed houses that ……………………..

2. The architect who is my brother………………………………
3. Before a proper foundation is designed,………………………
4. People who like tiny dogs have………………………………..
5. Whoever likes Shetland Sheepdogs …………………………..
6. Many people go to Chicago because………………………….
7. Whenever I see an airplane,…………………………………...
8. Whatever is true………………………………………………
9. The skyline that was spectacular as the sun set……………….
10. The people of Japan, who are polite………………………...

Exercise 3
Directions: Combine two sentences together to make one sentence. You can use
"who" or "that" to put the clauses together.

Example: The student is a very nice person. / She comes from Japan.
The student who comes from Japan is a very nice person.

1. We sent a package to our relatives. They live in Iowa.

______________________________________________________________________
________.
2. The woman works as a cashier. She sits next to me in class.

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 ________________________________________________________________________
______.
3. That is the book. I like it.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.
4. We bought some trees. Our neighbor told us they were on sale.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.
5. The car has a bad engine. I bought it last month.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.
6. I lived in an apartment building. It had a very slow elevator.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.
7. You should see a doctor. He can help you with your back problems.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.
8. The tornado was extremely powerful. It hit Minnesota.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.
9. We saw the woman at the grocery store. She lives next door to us.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.
10. My wife returned the pants. They were too big for me.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______.

Exercise 4
Directions: Write ten compound sentences and find out independent clauses.

_______________________________________________________________
1.
_______________________________________________________________
2.
_______________________________________________________________
3.
_______________________________________________________________
4.
_______________________________________________________________
5.
_______________________________________________________________

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6.
_______________________________________________________________
7.
_______________________________________________________________
8.
_______________________________________________________

9. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10.
_______________________________________________________________

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 Lesson-4

Different Types of Verbs

Learning Objective: The students will be able to know the transitive verb, the
intransitive verb, the copular verb (linking verb), the causative and modal auxiliary verbs
as well as their applications in forming sentences.

The instructor will focus on the topics in this lesson. He/she will instruct the students to
take notes on the topics, discussed.

Transitive Verbs

A transitive verb is a verb that requires one or more objects in a sentence. The term is
used to contrast with intransitive verbs, which do not have objects in a sentence.

Examples:

 We are going to make a bigger boat

 Do they have pie?
 He beats the carpet!
 He makes delicious pasta with jam sauce
 The old shed really needs repairs.
 We believed him.
 The manager assessed his competitor’s products.
 The students raised their hands in the class.
 The audience attentively watched the latest production of The Trojan Women.
 Every spring, Hussain moves all boxes and trunks from one side of the attic to the
other.

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Types
Transitive verbs can be further classified by the number of objects they take. Verbs that
require exactly one object are called monotransitive. Verbs that are able to take two
objects, a direct object and an indirect object, are called ditransitive.

Examples: Monotransitive Verbs:

 Yesterday, I bought a cat.

 The cat bit me!
 He broke the toothpick.
 The chef ate his own watermelon soup.

Ditransitive Verbs:

 The man bought his wife a ring.

 They selected him the chairman.
 She gave him the book.
 He donated money to the National Relief Fund


Intransitive Verbs

In contrast to transitive verbs, some verbs take no objects. Verbs that do not require an
object are called intransitive; for example, consider the verb to die.
Verbs that can be used in an intransitive or transitive way are called ambitransitive. In
English, an example is the verb to eat, since the sentences You eat (with an intransitive
form) and You eat apples (a transitive form that has apples as the object) are both
grammatically correct.

Examples:

 I sneezed.
 It's raining.
 My dog died.

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 When he finished the race, he barfed.
 Water evaporates when it's hot.
 You've grown since I last saw you!
 Analytical thinking refers to an individual’s problem-solving ability.
 The train from Jessore arrived four hours late.

Note that even with prepositional phrases and adverbs, a verb can still be intransitive:

 "The climber fell off the mountain."

 "Stand still."
 "He's been singing all day."
 The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral.
 They laughed quite loudly.
 The boys sprinted from the alley.
 These scientists know about physics.

Linking Verb or Copular Verb

A linking verb, also known as copular verb, implies a state of being or condition for the
subject. It is non-action verb. It links the subject to an equivalent word in the sentence. It
takes subject complement that completes the meaning of the subject by describing it.

For examples:

 Obama became the president of the US.

 Sarah is a genius.

 Honey tastes sweet.

 He seems nervous, today.

 He was the pioneer of the organization.

Linking verbs are usually a form of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been, appear,
become, feel, grow, look, make, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, and taste are linking
verbs when they are followed by a word group that names or describes the subject of a
sentence.

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Causative Verbs

Causative Verbs: In English grammar, a causative verb is a verb used to indicate that
some persons or things make (or help to make) something happen.

Causative Verbs in English: Let, Make, Have, Get, Help

The English verbs, let, make, have, get, and help are called causative verbs because they
cause something else to happen.
Here are some specific examples of how causative verbs work in English sentences.

How to use causative verbs in English

LET = permit something to happen

Grammatical structure:

 LET + PERSON/THING + VERB (base form)

Examples:

 I don’t let my kids watch violent movies.

 Mary’s father won’t let her adopt a puppy because he’s allergic to dogs.
 Our boss doesn’t let us eat lunch at our desks; we have to eat in the cafeteria.
 Oops! I wasn’t paying attention while cooking, and I let the food burn.
 Don’t let the advertising expenses surpass $1000.
Remember: The past tense of let is also let; there is no change!
Note: The verbs allow and permit are more formal ways to say “let.” However,
with allow and permit, we use to + verb:
 I don’t allow my kids to watch violent movies.
 Our boss doesn’t permit us to eat lunch at our desks.

MAKE = force or require someone to take an action

Grammatical structure:

 MAKE + PERSON + VERB (base form)

Examples:

 After Billy broke the neighbor’s window, his parents made him pay for it.

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 My ex-boyfriend loved sci-fi and made me watch every episode of his favorite show.
 The teacher made all the students rewrite their papers, because the first drafts were
not acceptable.
Note: When using the verbs force and require, we must use to + verb.
 The school requires the students to wear uniforms.
“Require” often implies that there is a rule.
 The hijacker forced the pilots to take the plane in a different direction.
“Force” often implies violence, threats, or extremely strong pressure

HAVE = give someone else the responsibility to do something

Grammatical structure:

 HAVE + PERSON + VERB (base form)

 HAVE + THING + PAST PARTICIPLE OF VERB
Examples of grammatical structure #1:

 I’ll have my assistant call you to reschedule the appointment.

 The businessman had his secretary make copies of the report.
Examples of grammatical structure #2:

 I’m going to have my hair cut tomorrow.

 We’re having our house painted this weekend.
 Bob had his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!
 My washing machine is broken; I need to have it repaired.
Note: In informal speech, we often use get in these cases:
 I’m going to get my hair cut tomorrow.
 We’re getting our house painted this weekend.
 Bob got his teeth whitened; his smile looks great!
 My washing machine is broken; I need to get it repaired.

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GET = convince/encourage someone to do something
Grammatical structure:

 GET + PERSON + TO + VERB

Examples:

 How can we get all the employees to arrive on time?

 My husband hates housework; I can never get him to wash the dishes!
 I was nervous about eating sushi, but my brother got me to try it at a Japanese
restaurant.
 The non-profit got a professional photographer to take photos at the event for free.

HELP = assist someone in doing something

Grammatical structure:

 HELP + PERSON + VERB (base form)

 HELP + PERSON + TO + VERB
After “help,” you can use “to” or not – both ways are correct. In general, the
form without “to” is more common:
 He helped me carry the boxes.
 He helped me to carry the boxes.
 Reading before bed helps me relax.
 Reading before bed helps me to relax.

Auxiliary Verb & Modal Auxiliary Verb: Modal auxiliary verbs

Modals auxiliary verbs are a very complex area of English grammar, so in this quick guide
we will not be able to go into much detail, but we will at least get an overall idea of what
their function is in a sentence. In an earlier section of this guide we looked at how the verb
phrase can be broken down into its constituent parts and we noted that one of these parts
was called a modal auxiliary verb. Just to remind you of the previous examples, a section
of the chart has been reproduced below:

24
 Modal Primary
Subject Main verb Object
auxiliary verb auxiliary verb(s)

Sarah can – sing opera

You should have been watching the baby

Examples of modal auxiliary verbs

Before we look at some of the possible meanings of modal auxiliary verbs we need to
have some idea of what constitutes a modal in English and where they occur in a sentence.
A few more examples should enable us to answer the second of these points fairly quickly
and easily – the modals are in bold:

 He should be here by now.

 I could swim quite well when I was younger.
 You mustn’t blame yourself for this.
 You might have discussed it with me first.
 You can’t be serious!
 Could you open the window please?
 Must you make so much noise?
 She had to (must) take her brother along with her.
 We ought to (should) be going.

It should be clear from these examples that the modal verb occupies the first position in
verb phrase, coming before any other auxiliary verb (like have or be) and the main lexical
verb.
In questions the modal verb is simply inverted with the subject of the sentence as in
examples 6 and 7 and it also carries the negative particle not (3rd and 5th examples).
The subject of the sentence has no effect on the form of the modal since almost in all cases
they do not change at all.

So, a modal verb is quite simple as far as its form and position in various types of sentence
are concerned; but what exactly are the modal verbs in English? The chart below lists the
main modal auxiliaries that you are likely to meet and divides them into two
categories pure modals and semi-modals, although in most cases the distinction is merely
formal and their meanings are not affected by this division.

Pure modals Semi-modals

can ought to

25
could has/have (got) to
may be able to
might
shall
should
will
would
need ***
*** need is a special verb as an auxiliary verb, it is almost always negative. It is also a
lexical verb as in sentences like he needs to speak to you now, while it acts as a modal
verb in sentences such as you needn’t come to work tomorrow where it has the same
meaning as don’t have to.

Learners’ Activities:

The students will participate in making sentences using the transitive verb, the intransitive
verb, the copular verb (linking verb) in the class. The instructor will instruct them and
check their writing tasks.

Exercise 1

Decide whether the underlined verbs are transitive or intransitive.

1. She was crying all day long.

2. We showed her the photo album.
3. The doctor advised me to exercise regularly. a
4. It was raining at that time.
5. She laughed at the joke.
6. She gave a cookie to the child.

26
 7. They slept in the street.
8. I ate the cherries.
9. My father doesn't drink coffee.
10. He always keeps his money in a wallet

Exercise 2

Find out the underlined verbs whether they are linking or transitive/intransitive
(action) verbs.

1. The ghost appeared in the doorway.

2. The child appeared tired.
3. Hasan became the president of the student council.
4. The cloth on the table felt soft and fuzzy.
5. Farhan grows taller every day.
6. The tree grows every day.
7. Fariha felt sick after lunch.
8. The leftover food from the picnic smelled rotten.
9. Farha smelled the flowers.
10. Please stay in the house.
11. Mom tasted the soup.
12. The soup tasted salty.
13. Rahim looks at the pictures in the book.
14. Tonu looks beautiful in that dress.
15. The radio sounded the emergency alarm

Exercise 3

State whether the verbs in the following sentences are used transitively or
intransitively.

1. Heat expands metals.

2. Metals expand on heating.
3. The driver stopped the car.
4. The car stopped abruptly.
5. You must speak the truth.
6. You must speak loudly.
7. The boy is flying the kite.
8. The birds are flying in the sky.
9. The rider fell off the horse and broke his arm.
10. The woodcutter felled a huge tree.

27
11. The explosion sank the ship.
12. The ship sank suddenly.

Exercise 4
Re-write the following sentences. Each of the following sentences
contains a causative verb and other verb in bracket.

1. Don’t you help each other (study) for tests?

2. This book will help you (understand) the main text.
3. I am letting this medicine (cool).
4. The cleaner makes the room (clean).
5. I get the boy (wash) my cloth.
6. Let’s get some of our money (exchange) for dollars.
7. Sabrina had a tooth (fill).
8. I want to have this book (renew).
9. He let the letter (write) by me.
10. He had cut his hair.
11. The teacher let me (leave) the classroom.
12. We have to help Janet (find) her keys.
13. The speaker made the audience (listen) him.
14. We will have to get the Dean (sign) this form.
15. I got my younger brother (admit) into Dhaka Medical College.
16. I will make my students (understand) the lecture.
17. I help him (solve) the problem.
18. I helped my students (know) the facts.
19. My friend lets me his car (borrow) sometimes.
20. I can help you (move) into your new apartment if you want.

28
 Lesson-5

Gerunds, Gerund Phrases, Infinitives, Infinitive

Phrases, Participles and Participle Phrases

Learning Objective: The students will be able to know the gerunds, gerund
phrases, infinitives, infinitive phrases, participles and participle phrases and their
applications in making sentences.

The instructor will discuss the topics in this lesson. The students will be instructed to take
notes on the topics, discussed.

Gerunds
A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates
that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore
expresses action or a state of being. However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it
occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would be, for example:
subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject:

a. Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)
b. The study abroad program might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (The
gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as direct object:

a. They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.)

b. They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed)

29
Gerund as subject complement:

a. My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)

b. My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as object of preposition:

a. The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.)

b. The police arrested him for criminal activity. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund Phrases
A gerund phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or
noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or
complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

Finding (gerund)
a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.

I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.

my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)

offering (gerund)
you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)
this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.

Tom's favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his constituents.

jabbering away to (gerund)

his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

30
The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.

faking (gerund)
an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)
to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.

Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

Being (gerund)
the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

Punctuation:

A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to remember:

1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun.

2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s).

3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

Infinitives
An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form)
and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term verbal indicates that an
infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses
action or a state of being.

However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement,
adjective, or adverb in a sentence.

a. To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject)

31
 b. Everyone wanted to go. (direct object)
c. His ambition is to fly. (subject complement)
d. He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective)
e. We must study to learn. (adverb)

Be sure not to confuse an infinitive—a verbal consisting of to plus a verb—with a

prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and
any modifiers.

Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong

Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to

this address

Infinitive Phrases
An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s)
and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s),
indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such
as:

We intended to leave early.

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended.
to leave (infinitive)
early (adverb)

I have a paper to write before class.

The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper.

to write (infinitive)
before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)

Mr Bashar agreed to give me a ride.

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed.
to give (infinitive)
me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive)
a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)

They asked me to bring some food.

32
The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked.
me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to bring (infinitive)
some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)

Everyone wanted Badol to be the captain of the team.

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted.
Badol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)
to be (infinitive)
the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being expressed in infinitive)
of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)

Actors: In these last two examples the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly
characterized as the "subject" of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is
somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a
full clause with a subject and a finite verb. Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor
appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they
take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can't have
an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.

Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a

sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an
infinitive phrase.

To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar.

To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

Points to remember:

1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a

noun, adjective, or adverb.
2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s),
complement(s), and/or actor(s).
3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the
beginning of a sentence.

Split infinitives

Split infinitives occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an
infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but
this practice should be avoided in formal writing.

33
Examples:

 I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)

 On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)
 I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal
contexts)
 I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)

Participles
A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The
term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a
verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as
adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns.

There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present
participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n, or -ne as in the words
asked, eaten, saved, dealt, seen, and gone.

a. The crying baby had a wet diaper.

b. Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car.
c. The burning log fell off the fire.
d. Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.

Participle Phrases
A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s)
and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s),
or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:

Removing his coat, Jack rushed to the river.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack.

Removing (participle)
his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)

Hasan noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin.

walking (participle)
along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)

34
Children interested in music early develop strong intellectual skills.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children.

interested (in) (participle)
music (direct object of action expressed in participle)
early (adverb)

Having been a gymnast, Lynn knew the importance of exercise.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn.

Having been (participle)
a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle)

Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to

the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.

a. Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step.

b. Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.

In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action
expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to
function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the
modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is
thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make
sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the
participial phrase, as in the second sentence.

Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed

after the phrase.

 Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.

 Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.

If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off
with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

 Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

 The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas
should be used:

35
  The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.
 The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.

If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase
if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word
it modifies.

 The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.
(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)
 Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.
(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)

Points to remember:

A participle is a verbal which ends in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, -n, or -ne (past) that
functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun.

1. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or

complement(s).

2. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they
modify as possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated.

3. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:

 comes at the beginning of a sentence

 interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element
 comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies

Learners’ Activities:

The students will participate in making sentences using gerunds, gerund phrases,
infinitives, infinitive phrases, participles and participle phrases in the class. The instructor
will instruct them and check their writing tasks.

Exercise 1
Identify gerunds whether they are as subjects, objects, subject complements or
objects of preposition in the following sentences.

1. Traveling is my hobby.
36
 2. He likes my singing.
3. My pet’s favorite activity is sleeping.
4. He was caught by the police for speeding.
5. He was caught by the police for burglarizing.
6. They appreciate his understanding.
7. Driving is his hobby.
8. Truth is believing.
9. Waiting seemed foolish when decisive action was required.
10. His ambition is flying.

Exercise 2
Identify infinitives whether they are as subjects, objects, subject complements or
adjectives in the following sentences.

1. To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required.

2. Fahim wanted to go.
3. My son’s ambition is to fly.
4. To jog regularly keeps our body fit.
5. To read a novel is karim’s hobby.
6. He has the strength to resist.
7. He has the strength to fight.
8. My pet’s favorite activity is to sleep.
9. To drive is her hobby.
10. He must read to learn.

Exercise 3
Choose the correct option in each sentence.
1. I remember ____________ my best friend last Sunday. (visit, to visit, visiting,
visited)
2. The ___________ baby needs a diaper (cry, cried, crying, to cry)
3. The ___________ chair looks nice (rock, rocking, rocked, to rock)
4. The pistol was found from the ___________car. (wreck, wrecked, wrecking, to
wreck)
5. The cup ____________ with orange juice is yours. (fill, to fill, filling, filled)
6. The boy ____________ a red T-shirt is my neighbor. (wear, to wear, wearing,
worn)
7. The car____________in India looks gorgeous. (make, made, making, to make)

37
8. ____________versed in batting, Tendulker knew the fundamentals of batting.
(have been, having been, to have been, having)
9. The student___________ the highest grade point average will receive the prize
from Prof Dr Alimullah, the Founder and VC of IUBAT (earn, to earn, earning,
earned)
10. The building___________ by a devastating cyclone, will be rebuilt soon
(destroy, to destroy, destroyed, destroying)

Lesson-6

Subject-Verb Agreement
38
Learning Objective: The students will be able to know the important rules of right
forms of verbs in light of subject-verb agreement while making sentences.

The instructor will discuss the topics in this lesson. The students will be instructed to take
notes on the topics, discussed.

Important Rules of Right Forms of Verbs in light of Subject-Verb

Agreement

Rule 1: When two different subjects are added with AND, the verb will be plural. If two
different subjects are added with AND, but the next subject is used without THE, the verb
will be singular.

Example:

The VC and founder of this university is a well educated person.

The VC and the Registrar of this university are well educated person.

Rule 2: If two singular subjects express one idea then the verb may be singular.
Example:

Slow and steady wins the race.

The long and short of the problem is this.
The horse and carriage is waiting.

Rule -3: If we get the word “each" and “every" before singular subjects, the verb is
singular.

Example:
Every member was ready to speak.
Each day and each hour has its work to be done.
Every man, woman and child has to be looked after.

In these sentences, you can see how perfectly "Verb and Subject" agree with each other.

Rule-4: Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, either…or,

neither…nor take singular verb.

Examples:

39
His gather or he is expected here.
Either he or his brother might have done this.
Neither he nor they were present.
Neither they nor he was present.
Neither laziness nor dishonesty is going to help you.

Rule-5:

Rule-6: When the subjects connected by or, nor, either…or, neither or not/not
only/but also.

The verb agrees in person with the subject that comes just before it.

Examples:
He or I have to be there.
I or he has to be there. (Between this sentence and the above sentence, the above sentence
is preferable)

Either he or you are mistaken.

Neither you nor I am to be blamed.

Not only the principal but also the teachers are monitoring the examination.
Not the students but their teacher has attended the seminar.

Rule 7: If two different subjects are added with AND, but it works as a subject Phrase
then the verb will be singular.

Examples:
My name and address is given below.
Bread and Butter is necessary for all.

BUT
Incorrect: Time and tide waits for none.
Correct: Time and tide wait for none.
Because the above subject “Time and tide” does not mean as a phrase rather, time and tide
are two different things. So, here, the verb is plural.

As the following subjects are different so the verbs are plural.

Oil and water do not mix.
Flour and sugar are needed to make cake

Rule 8: If two subjects are added with-“with, altogether with, along, along with,
accompanied by, accompanied with, as well as”, the verb follows the first subject.

40
Examples:

The principal along with the teachers is monitoring the examination.

The teachers along with the principal are monitoring the examination.

Rule 9: When we get the negative adverbs (never, ever, rarely, barely, hardly, no sooner,
neither) as subjects the auxiliary or modal auxiliary will come before the subject.

Examples:

Never have I visited the Tajmahal.

No sooner had I reached the field than the game started.

Rule 10: The phrase “A number of” takes Plural subject and plural verb.

Example:
A number of students were absent in the last class because of strike.

Rule 11: The phrase “The number of” takes Plural subject and singular verb.

Example:
The number of students was absent in the last class because of strike.

Rule 12: After the phrase “many a” we use singular subject and singular verb.

Example:
Many a graduate has got their certificate in time.

Rule 13: After the phrase “a many” we use plural subject and plural verb.

Example:
A Many graduates have got their certificate in time.

Rule 14: The verbs which are related to our feelings are called sense verb. Sense verbs
can not be used in continuous tense and after sense verb there will be always adjective.

Examples:

I feel good.(adjective)
I see a bird in the blue sky.
The mangoes of Rajshahi tested good.

BUT:

41
Loving my mother, I get the real pleasure of heaven.
Seeing the bird, I went there to catch.

Rule 15: When ‘Gerund’ and ‘Infinitive are used as subject then the verb is always
Singular.

Examples:

Smoking cigarettes is not good for health.

To play different types games is my habit.

Rule 16:If the word ‘having’ comes at the beginning of a sentence, the main verb will be
in past participle form.

Examples:

Having completed the class, I will go for prayer.

Having done the job, they will visit us.

BUT

Rule 17: If the word ‘After’ comes at the beginning of a sentence, the main verb takes
‘ing’.

Examples:

After completing the class, I will go for prayer.

After doing the job, they will visit us.

Rule 18: If we get the specific past, like ‘ago, before, yesterday, the previous day, last
night, last month, 2015 etc’ then the tense will be Past Indefinite.

Examples:
I completed my graduation in 2015.
I got your SMS three days back.

Rule 19: When we get ‘lately, recently, never, ever, yet’ in a sentence then we need to
make it present perfect tense.

Examples:

I did not complete my homework yet.

I have recently visited the Tajmahal.

42
Rule 20: In sentence, if there are “be used to, become used to, get used to” the next verb
must be added with ‘ing’.

Examples:
I am not used to telling a lie.
They got used to playing tennis in their childhood.

BUT
Rule 21: If we get only ‘used to’ the main verb will be in base form.

Examples:
I used to swim in the river in my childhood.
We used to play games in our school.

Rule 22: After ‘Know’ verb, there will be ‘how+to’.

Examples:
He does not know how to swim.
I do not know how to drive a car.

Rule 23: After ‘preposition’ and ‘prepositional phrase’ the main verb takes ‘ing’.

Examples:
I went to market with a view to buying some new dresses for the poor.
I am looking forward to hearing you soon.

BUT
Rule 24: The exceptional case is for ‘in order to’.

Example:
I went to market in order to buy some new dresses for the poor.

Rule 25: If the first clause of a sentence is in ‘present indefinite tense’, in the next clause,
we can use’ shall/will/may/must/can’ and after that there must be the base form of the
verb.

Example:

43
If you visit our national museum, you will/may/must/can know many things about our
history.

Rule 26: If the first clause of a sentence is in ‘past indefinite tense’, in the next clause, we
can use’ would/could/might’ and after that, there must be the base form of the verb.

Example:
Correct: If you asked your teacher, he could/would/might solve your problem.

Rule 27: If the first clause of a sentence is in ‘past perfect tense’, in the next clause, we
can use’ would have/could have/might have’ and after that, there must be the past
participle form of the verb.

Example:
If I had been in your position, I would/could/might have helped him any way.

Rule 28: If we get ‘had’ at the beginning of a sentence, the next sentence must be past
perfect tense.

Example:
Correct: Had I had my dinner, I would/could/might have gone to sleep

Rule 29: In the case of universal truth, the both clauses will be present indefinite tense.

Examples:

Correct: If there is rain, the soil gets wet.

Correct: If man drinks poison, s/he dies.

Rule 30: We must use perfective if something happens because of something.

Example:
The grass is wet; it must have rained last night.

Rule 31: “When” can be used in two clauses where the first clause is past indefinite
and the next clause is past continuous tense; “While” can be used in two past
continuous tenses.

Examples:

Neela burnt her hand when she was cooking dinner.

While I was coming to university, it was raining.

44
Rule 32: The verb, “telecast” has the same form in ‘present ,past and past participle’
telecasted is grammatically wrong.

Examples:
Correct: This news has been telecast by different TV channels.

Rule 33: After the phrases ‘the first time, the second time, the third time’ we use present
perfect tense.

Example:
This is the first time, I have seen you this meeting.

Rule 34: If we get two interconnected sentences, both the sentences will be in present
continuous tense.

Example:
The dog is barking. It is making a terrible noise.

Rule 35: After the phrase/word ‘would you mind/mind’ there will be ‘ing’ form with
the verb.

Examples:
Would you mind opening the window, please?
Do not mind asking the question to your teacher if you don’t understand anything.

Rule 36: After ‘would that’ there will be a ‘could’ just before the main verb.

Examples:
Would that I could visit your university tomorrow?
Would that you could call the doctor, please?

Rule 37: If we get ‘wish, fancy, it is time, it is high time’ in two clauses, the next
clause will be past indefinite tense.

Examples:

I fancy I would/could/might be a doctor.

I fancy I were a doctor.

Rule 38: Between two clauses when we get ‘as if , as though’ then we can follow the
structure below. Present indefinite+ past indefinite or past indefinite+ past perfect.

Examples:

45
She speaks as if she knew many things.
She spoke as if she had known many things.

BUT
Rule 39: When more than two different persons are added with ‘And’, in criminal
activities, the sequence of the subject will be 1,2,3 and the verb will be always plural.

Examples:

I, you, and he have done the crime.

I and you are responsible for this work.

Rule 40: ‘Neither’ and ‘Either’ takes singular verb.

Example:

Neither of you was present in the last class.

Rule 41: After be verb (am, is, are, was, were), the pronoun will be subjective form
and the verb will be according the immediate subject.

Example:

It is I who am responsible for this work.

Rule 42: After modal auxiliary verb, the main verb will always be in the base form.

Example:
You had better leave the place.

Rule 43: The phrase ‘one of’ takes plural subjects and singular verb.

Example:
One of students is coming to my room.

Rule 44: If we want to make a question with WH words, we need to put auxiliary/modal
auxiliary verb before subject.

Examples:

46
Why did you call me yesterday?
Where do your parents live?

Students’ homework for practice:

Choose the correct form of the verb that agrees with the subject.

1. Tania and her brothers (is, are) at school.

2. Either my mother or my father (is, are) coming to the meeting.
3. The dog or the cats (is, are) outside.
4. Either my shoes or your coat (is, are) always on the floor.
5. Hasan and Tamara (doesn't, don't) want to see that movie.
6. Bashir (doesn't, don't) know the answer.
7. One of my sisters (is, are) going on a trip to France.
8. The man with all the birds (live, lives) on my street.
9. The movie, including all the previews, (take, takes) about two hours to watch.
10. The players, as well as the captain, (want, wants) to win.
11. Either answer (is, are) acceptable.
12. Every one of those books (is, are) fiction.
13. Nobody (know, knows) the trouble I've seen.
14. (Is, Are) the news on at five or six?
15. Mathematics (is, are) John's favorite subject, while Civics (is, are) Andrea's favorite
subject.
16. Eight dollars (is, are) the price of a movie these days.
17. (Is, Are) the tweezers in this drawer?
18. Your pants (is, are) at the cleaner's.
19. There (was, were) fifteen candies in that bag. Now there (is, are) only one left!
20. The committee (debates, debate) these questions carefully.
21. The committee (leads, lead) very different lives in private.
22. The Prime Minister, together with her cabinet members, (greets, greet) the press
cordially.
23. All of the CDs, even the scratched one, (is, are) in this case.
24. The VC and Founder of IUBAT are well educated person.
25. I am agree with you.
26. Did you went to the bank yesterday?
27. While (read) a book I saw a picture of an ox.
28. The Gulliver’s Travels (be) an interesting book.

47
 Lesson-7

Punctuation in Writing

Learning Objectives: The objectives are as follows:

1. To introduce the basic punctuation marks and their application in writing skills.

48
 2. To help the learners make their compositions disciplined and organizes in terms of
the use of the punctuation marks.

The instructor will discuss the topics in this lesson. The students will be instructed to take
notes on the topics, discussed.

Punctuation
Why do we need punctuation?

Punctuation marks are essential elements for writing skills. They show the reader where
sentences start and finish and if they are used properly they make one’s writing easy to
understand. This section gives practical guidance on how to use commas, semicolons, and
other types of punctuation correctly, so that your writing will always be clear and
effective.

Full stop (.)

Full stops are used:

 to mark the end of a sentence that is a complete statement:

My name is Habib and I have been 18-year-old in last July.

After leaving college, she went to work in an insurance company.

 to mark the end of a group of words that do not form a conventional sentence, so
as to emphasize a statement:

I keep reliving that moment. Over and over again.

 in some abbreviations, for example etc., Dec., or p.m.:

The initiation program will be held on Thursday 15 Sept. in the Lakeside Arena.
There’s a wide range of sandwiches, custards, cakes, etc. at very reasonable prices.

 in website and email addresses:

[Link]

If an abbreviation with a full stop comes at the end of a sentence you do not need to add
another full stop:

Bring your own pens, pencils, rulers, etc.

49
Comma (,)

A comma marks a slight break between different parts of a sentence. Commas make the
meaning of sentences clear by grouping and separating words, phrases, and clauses. Many
people are uncertain about the use of commas, though, and often sprinkle them throughout
their writing without knowing the basic rules.

Here are the main cases when you need to use a comma:

 in lists

 in direct speech

 to separate clauses

 to mark off certain parts of a sentence

 with 'however'

Using commas in lists

You need to put a comma between the different items in a list, as in the following
sentences:
Friday morning I started with a hearty breakfast of scrambled eggs, apple juice, fruit
salad, and cream coffee.

The school has a vegetable garden in which the children grow cabbages, onions, potatoes,
and cucumbers.

Using commas in direct speech

When a writer quotes a speaker’s words exactly as they were spoken, this is known
as direct speech. If the piece of direct speech comes after the information about who is
speaking, you need to use a comma to introduce the direct speech. The comma comes
before the first quotation mark. Note that the final quotation mark follows the full stop at
the end of the direct speech:

Sayan replied, ‘No problem.’

You also need to use a comma at the end of a piece of direct speech, if the speech comes
before the information about who is speaking. In this case, the comma goes inside the
quotation mark:
‘I don’t agree,’ I replied.
‘Here we are,' they said.

There are two exceptions to this rule. If a piece of direct speech takes the form of a
question or an exclamation, you should end it with a question mark or an exclamation
mark, rather than a comma:

50
‘Stop him!’ she shouted.
‘Did you see that?’ he asked.

Direct speech is often broken up by the information about who is speaking. In these cases,
you need a comma to end the first piece of speech (inside the quotation mark) and another
comma before the second piece (before the quotation mark):
‘Yes,’ she said, ‘and I always keep my promises.’
‘Thinking back,’ he added, ‘I didn’t expect to win.’

See more about Punctuation in direct speech.

Using commas to separate clauses

Commas are used to separate clauses in a complex sentence (i.e. a sentence which is made
up of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses).

The following examples show the use of commas in two complex sentences:

Having had lunch, we went back to class.

[subordinate clause] [main clause]

I first saw him in Khulna, where I lived five years ago.

[main clause] [subordinate clause]

If the commas were removed, these sentences wouldn’t be as clear but the meaning would
still be the same. There are different types of subordinate clause, though, and in some
types the use of commas can be very important.

A subordinate clause begins with ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘that’, ‘whom’, or ‘where’ is known as
a relative clause. Take a look at this example:

Passengers who have young children may board the aircraft first.
[relative clause]

This sentence contains what is known as a ‘restrictive relative clause’. Basically, a

restrictive relative clause contains information that is essential to the meaning of the
sentence as a whole. If you left it out, the sentence would not make much sense. If we
removed the relative clause from the example above, then the whole point of that sentence
would be lost and we’d be left with the rather puzzling statement:
Passengers may board the aircraft first.

You should not put commas round a restrictive relative clause.

51
The other type of subordinate clause begins with ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘whom’, etc. is known as
a ‘non-restrictive relative clause’. A non-restrictive relative clause contains information
that is not essential to the overall meaning of a sentence. Take a look at the following
example:

Rokeya, who has two young children, has a part-time job in the library.
[relative clause]

If you remove this clause, the meaning of the sentence is not affected and it still makes
perfect sense.

Rokeya has a part-time job in the library.

You need to put a comma both before and after a non-restrictive relative clause.

Using commas to mark off parts of a sentence

Commas are used to separate a part of a sentence that is an optional ‘aside’ and not part of
the main statement.
Gunpowder is not, of course, a chemical compound.
His latest film, Terminator 5, opens next month.

In these sentences, the role of the commas is similar to their function in non-restrictive
relative clauses: they mark off information that isn’t essential to the overall meaning.
Using commas in this way can really help to clarify the meaning of a sentence. Take a
look at this example:
Rehana’s daughter, Raisa, is a tennis player.

The writer’s use of commas tells us that Rehana has only one daughter. If you removed
Raisa’s name from the sentence, there would still be no doubt as to who was the tennis
player:
Rehana’s daughter is a tennis player.

If you rewrite the original sentence without commas its meaning changes:
Rehana’s daughter Raisa is a tennis player.

The lack of commas tells us that the name ‘Raisa’ is crucial to the understanding of the
sentence. It shows that Rehana has more than one daughter, and so the name of the one
who is a tennis player needs to be specified for the meaning to be clear.
If you are not sure whether you’ve used a pair of commas correctly, try replacing them
with brackets or removing the information enclosed by the commas altogether, and then
see if the sentence is still understandable, or if it still conveys the meaning you intended.

Using a comma with 'however'

You should use a comma after 'however' when however means 'by contrast' or 'on the
other hand':

52
However, a good deal of carefulness is left in the hands of the supervisors.
Don't use a comma after however when it means 'in whatever way':
However you look at it, existing investors are likely to lose out.

Semicolon (;)

The main task of the semicolon is to mark a break that is stronger than a comma but not as
final as a full stop. It’s used between two main clauses that balance each other and are too
closely linked to be made into separate sentences, as in these two examples:
The road runs through a beautiful hill; the railway line follows it.
An art director searched South Aisa; I went to Maldives.

You can also use a semicolon as a stronger division in a sentence that already contains
commas:

The study showed the following: 76% of surveyed firms monitor employee Web-surfing
activities, with 65% blocking access to unauthorized Internet locations; over one-third of
the firms monitor employee computer keystrokes; half reported storing and reviewing
employee emails; 57% monitor employee telephone behaviour, including the
inappropriate use of voicemail.

Colon (:)

There are three main uses of the colon:

 between two main clauses in cases where the second clause explains or follows
from the first:

That is the secret of my extraordinary life: always do the unexpected.

It was not easy: to begin with, I had to find the right house.
 to introduce a list:

The price includes the following: travel to London, flight to Venice, hotel accommodation,
and excursions.
The job calls for skills in the following areas: proofing, editing, and database
administration.
 before a quotation, and sometimes before direct speech:

The headline read: ‘Taxi Driver Saves Baby from Kidnappers’.

They shouted: ‘Our families are starving! We need land!’

Apostrophe (’)

Are you uncertain about when to use an apostrophe? Many people have difficulty with this
punctuation mark. The best way to get apostrophes right is to understand when and why
they are used. There are two main cases –

53
  Using apostrophes to show possession

 Using apostrophes to show omission

Apostrophes showing possession

You use an apostrophe to show that a thing or person belongs or relates to someone or
something: instead of saying the party of Rahat or the weather of yesterday, you can
write Rahat’s party and yesterday’s weather.

Here are the main guidelines for using apostrophes to show possession:

Singular nouns and most personal names

With a singular noun or most personal names: add an apostrophe plus s:
We met at Rahat’s party.
The dog’s tail wagged rapidly.
Yesterday’s weather was dreadful.

Personal names that end in –s

With personal names that end in -s: add an apostrophe plus s when you would naturally
pronounce an extra s if you said the word out loud:
Dickens's novels provide a wonderful insight into Victorian England.

Note that there are some exceptions to this rule, especially in names of places or
organizations, for example:
St Thomas’ Hospital

If you are not sure about how to spell a name, look it up in an official place such as the
organization’s website.

With personal names that end in -s but are not spoken with an extra s: just add an
apostrophe after the -s:
The court dismissed Mrs Chowdhury’s appeal.
Jewel Aich’s finest performance was in 1991.

Plural nouns that end in –s

With a plural noun that already ends in -s: add an apostrophe after the s:
The mansion was converted into a girls’ school.
The work is due to start in two weeks’ time.
My duties included cleaning out the horses’ stables.
Plural nouns that do not end in -s
With a plural noun that does not end in –s: add an apostrophe plus s:
The children’s father came round to see me.
He employs 14 people at his men’s clothing store.

The only cases in which you do not need an apostrophe to show belonging in possessive
words. These words are his, hers, ours, yours, theirs (meaning ‘belonging to him, her,
us, you, or them’) - and with the possessive determiners.

54
Apostrophes showing omission
An apostrophe can be used to show that letters or numbers have been omitted. Here are
some examples of apostrophes that indicate missing letters:
I’m - short for I am
he’ll - short for he will
she’d – short for she had or she would
pick ’n’ mix - short for pick and mix
it’s hot - short for it is hot
didn’t - short for did not

It also shows that numbers have been omitted, especially in dates, e.g. the Berlin Wall
came down in the autumn of ’89 (short for 1989).

It’s or its?
These two words can cause a lot of confusion: many people are uncertain about whether or
not to use an apostrophe. These are the rules to remember:
 its (without an apostrophe) means ‘belonging to it’:

The dog wagged its tail.

Each case is judged on its own merits.
 it’s (with an apostrophe) means ‘it is’ or ‘it has’:

It’s been a long day.

It’s cold outside.
It’s a comfortable car and it’s got some great gadgets.

Apostrophes and plural forms

The general rule is that you should not use an apostrophe to form the plurals of nouns,
abbreviations, or dates made up of numbers: just add -s (or -es, if the noun in question
forms its plural with -es). For example:

euro euros (e.g. The cost of the trip is 4200 taka.)

pizza pizzas (e.g. Traditional Italian pizzas are thin and crisp.)
apple apples (e.g. She buys big bags of organic apples and carrots.)
MP MPs (e.g. Local MPs are divided on this issue.)
1990 1990s (e.g. The situation was different in the 1990s.)

It is very important to remember this grammatical rule.

There are one or two cases in which it is acceptable to use an apostrophe to form a plural,
purely for the sake of clarity:
 you can use an apostrophe to show the plurals of single letters:

55
I've dotted the i's and crossed the t's.
Find all the p's in appear.
 you can use an apostrophe to show the plurals of single numbers:

Find all the number 7’s.

These are the only cases in which it is generally considered acceptable to use an
apostrophe to form plurals: remember that an apostrophe should never be used to form the
plural of ordinary nouns, names, abbreviations, or numerical dates.
You can read more rules and guidelines about apostrophes on the Oxford Dictionaries
blog. Here you will find further examples of correct and incorrect use of apostrophes.

Hyphen (-)

Hyphens are used to link words and parts of words. They are not as common today as they
used to be, but there are three main cases where you should use them:
 in compound words

 to join prefixes to other words

 to show word breaks

Hyphens in compound words

Hyphens are used in many compound words to show that the compound words have a
combined meaning (e.g. a pick-me-up, mother-in-law, good-hearted) or that there is a
relationship between the words that make up the compound: for example, rock-forming
minerals are minerals that form rocks. But you don’t need to use them in every type of
compound word.

Compound adjectives
Compound adjectives are made up of a noun + an adjective, a noun + a participle, or an
adjective + a participle. Many compound adjectives should be hyphenated. Here are some
examples:

noun + adjective noun + participle adjective + participle

accident-prone computer-aided good-looking
sugar-free power-driven quick-thinking
carbon-neutral user-generated bad-tempered
sport-mad custom-built fair-haired
camera-ready muddle-headed open-mouthed

56
With compound adjectives formed from the adverb “well” and a participle (e.g. well-
known), or from a phrase (e.g., up-to-date), you should use a hyphen when the compound
comes before the noun:
well-known brands of coffee
an up-to-date account

But not when the compound comes after the noun:

His music was also well known in Europe.
Their figures are up to date.

It is important to use hyphens in compound adjectives describing ages and lengths of time:
leaving them out can make the meaning ambiguous. For example, 250-year-old
trees clearly refers to trees that are 250 years old, while 250 year old trees could equally
refer to 250 trees that are all one year old.

Compound verbs
Use a hyphen when a compound formed from two nouns is made into a verb, for example:
noun verb
an ice skate to ice-skate
a spot check to spot-check
a court martial to court-martial
Phrasal verbs
You should NOT put a hyphen within phrasal verbs - verbs made up of a main verb and an
adverb or preposition. For example:
Phrasal verb Example
build up You should continue to build up your pension.
break in They broke in by forcing a lock on the door.
stop off We stopped off in Cumilla on the way home.

If a phrasal verb is made into a noun, though, you SHOULD use a hyphen:
Noun Example
build-up There was a build-up of traffic on the ring road.
break-in The house was unoccupied at the time of the break-in.
stop-off We knew there would be a stop-off in Dubai for refuelling.

Compound nouns
A compound noun is one consisting of two component nouns. In principle, such nouns can
be written in one of three different ways:
one word two words hyphenated
57
 aircrew air crew air-crew
playgroup play group play-group
chartroom chat room chat-room

In the past, these sorts of compounds were usually hyphenated, but the situation is
different today. The tendency is now to write them as either one word or two separate
words. However, the most important thing to note is that you should choose one style and
stick to it within a piece of writing. Don’t refer to a playgroup in one paragraph and
a play-group in another.

Hyphens joining prefixes to other words

Hyphens can be used to join a prefix to another word, especially if the prefix ends in a
vowel and the other word also begins with one (e.g. pre-eminent or co-own). This use is
less common than it used to be, though, and one-word forms are becoming more usual
(e.g. prearrange or cooperate).

Use a hyphen to separate a prefix from a name or date, e.g. post-Aristotelian or pre-1900.

Use a hyphen to avoid confusion with another word: for example, to distinguish re-
cover (= provide something with a new cover) from recover (= get well again).

Hyphens showing word breaks

Hyphens can also be used to divide words that are not usually hyphenated.
They show where a word is to be divided at the end of a line of writing. Always try to split
the word in a sensible place, so that the first part does not mislead the reader: for
example, hel-met not he-lmet; dis-abled not disa-bled.

Hyphens are also used to stand for a common second element in all but the last word of a
list, e.g.:
You may see a yield that is two-, three-, or fourfold.

You can read more about when to use hyphens on the Oxford Dictionaries blog. Here you
will find helpful tips on when to use hyphens and examples of when they should not be
used.

Dash (–)

A dash is used:
 in pairs, to mark off information or ideas that are not essential to an understanding
of the rest of the sentence:

58
Thousands of children – like the girl in this photograph – have been left homeless.
My brother – where has he gone? – would like to meet you.
 to show other kinds of break in a sentence where a comma, semicolon, or colon
would be traditionally used:

One thing’s for sure – he doesn’t want to face the truth.

Things have changed a lot in the last year – mainly for the better.

Dashes are especially common in informal writing, such as personal emails or blogs, but
it’s best to use them sparingly when you are writing formally.

Brackets ( ) [ ]

There are two main types of brackets.

Round brackets

Round brackets (also called parentheses) are mainly used to separate off information that
isn’t essential to the meaning of the rest of the sentence. If you removed the bracketed
material the sentence would still make perfectly good sense. For example:

Mount Everest (8,848 m) is the highest mountain in the world.

There are several books on the subject (see page 120).
He coined the term ‘hypnotism’ (from the Greek word hypnos meaning 'sleep') and
practised it frequently.

They can also be used to enclose a comment by the person writing:

He’d clearly had too much to drink (not that I blamed him).

Square brackets

Square brackets are mainly used to enclose words added by someone other than the
original writer or speaker, typically in order to clarify the situation:

He [the police officer] can’t prove they did it.

If round or square brackets are used at the end of a sentence, the full stop should be placed
outside the closing bracket:

They eventually decided to settle in the United States (Rehan's home).

Inverted commas

Inverted commas can be single - ‘x’ - or double - ‘’x‘’. They are also known as quotation
marks, speech marks, or quotes.

59
Main uses

Inverted commas are mainly used in the following cases:

 to mark the beginning and end of direct speech (i.e. a speaker’s words written
down exactly as they were spoken):

‘That,’ he said, ‘is nonsense.’

‘What time will he arrive?’ she asked.

See more information about how to use punctuation when you’re writing direct speech.
 to mark off a word or phrase that’s being discussed, or that is being directly quoted
from somewhere else:

He called this phenomenon ‘the memory of water’.

What does ‘integrated circuit’ mean?

Single or double?

There’s no rule about which to use but you should stick to one or the other throughout a
piece of writing. Single inverted commas are generally more common in British English
while American English tends to prefer double ones.

If you find that you need to enclose quoted material within direct speech or another
quotation, use the style you haven’t used already. So, if you’ve been using single inverted
commas, put any further quoted material within double ones and vice versa. For example:

She still sounds amazed when she says: ‘We were turned down because “we represented
too small a minority of the population”. They could still get away with saying things like
that then.’

Exclamation mark (!)

The main use of the exclamation mark is to end sentences that express:
 an exclamation:

Ow! That hurt!

Hello! How are you?
 direct speech that represents something shouted or spoken very loudly:

‘Look up there!’ she yelled.

 something that amuses the writer:

Included on the list of banned items was 'crochet hooks'!

 An exclamation mark can also be used in brackets after a statement to show that
the writer finds it funny or ironic:

60
She says she’s stopped feeling insecure (!) since she met him.

People tend to use a lot of exclamation marks in informal writing such as emails or text
messages, but you should avoid using them in formal writing.

Question mark (?)

A question mark is used to indicate the end of a question:

Have you seen the film yet?

Note that you don’t use a question mark at the end of a question in reported speech:
He asked if I had seen the film yet.

A question mark can also be used in brackets to show that the writer is unconvinced by a
statement:
I’m about to get started on the new project, which is apparently quite straightforward (?).

Bullet points
Bullet points are used to draw attention to important information within a document so
that a reader can identify the key issues and facts quickly. There are no fixed rules about
how to use them, but here are some guidelines.
1. The text introducing the list of bullet points should end with a colon.

2. If the text that follows the bullet point is not a proper sentence, it doesn’t need to
begin with a capital letter and it shouldn’t end with a full stop, for example:

Tonight's agenda includes:

 annual review of capital gains issues

 outstanding inheritance tax issues

. If the text following the bullet point IS a complete sentence, it should begin with a
capital letter. A full stop at the end is technically required but is not absolutely essential:

The agenda for tonight is as follows:

 We will conduct an annual review of capital gains issues.

 The senior tax manager will talk about outstanding inheritance tax issues.

. Lists of bullet points will have more impact if each one begins with the same word
class (or part of speech) and if they are all of a similar length. Action verbs are a good
choice for the first word, i.e. verbs that describe the performing of an action. If you do use
verbs, make sure that each one is in the same tense. Here’s an example of the effective use
of action verbs in a person’s CV/résumé:

Duties and responsibilities included:

61
  teaching national curriculum to Key Stage 1 pupils

 reaching attainment targets and improving learning performance

 developing extracurricular sports programme

1. Bullet points tend to have more impact if their text is relatively short. Make sure you
use the same typeface and margin width within each section.

Bullet points are visually attractive and make it easy for a reader to locate important
information. Nevertheless, try to use them sparingly: too many bullet-pointed sections in
the same document will mean that their impact is lost.

Learners’ Activities:

The students will participate in applying punctuation marks in writing. The instructor will
instruct them and check their writing tasks.

Exercise
Punctuate the following sentences:

a. Friday morning I had a vast breakfast of scrambled eggs apple

banana grape salad coffee.
b. The college has a vegetable garden in which the children grow
cabbages onions potatoes cucumbers.
c. Its been a long day.
d. Its so cold outside.
e. The work is due to start in two weeks time.
f. I don’t agree, I replied.
g. Rehanas daughter is a tennis player.
h. The institution was converted into a girls’ college.
i. Have you seen the film yet
j. Hello How are you
k. However a good deal of carefulness is left in the hands of the
supervisors.

62
 Lesson-8

Capitalization

Leaning Objectives:
This lesson will help the students to make themselves aware about different Capitalization rules in
their writing. After the completion of this lesson they will learn where to use capital letter and
where not.

The instructor will discuss the topics in this lesson. The students will be instructed to take
63
necessary notes on the topics, discussed.

Contents: Capitalization Rules

There are many rules to capitalization. Most people know the basics of capitalization such as
capitalizing the first letter of the first word at the beginning of a new sentence, but when
is capitalization appropriate in other situations? Outlined below is a comprehensive
guide providing rules and examples to proper capitalization.

Buildings, Streets, Parks, Statues, Monuments

- Capitalize the names of:

buildings towers churches schools
thoroughfares squares parks
statues monuments

Continents, Countries, Counties, Districts, Cities, Towns, Post Office, Union

- Capitalize the names of:

continents countries counties districts towns villages communities
political divisions (i.e. United Kingdom, French Republic)
Courts
- Federal and State and Provincial Courts - Capitalize when used with a definite name.
Examples:
the Supreme Court of Canada the State Court of Appeals
the United States Circuit Court
Do not capitalize district or city courts. (example: the magistrate’s court)

Compass Points
- Capitalize points of the compass when they designate geographical parts of a country,
region or city.
Examples:
the Inland Northwest Southeast states out West Eastern sources
- Capitalize northern, southern, western, eastern, east, west, north, south when used as
part of proper names to designate a world division. DO NOT capitalize when used to
indicate parts of states or provinces.
Examples:
Eastern Hemisphere Southwestern Europe Southeast Asia
southern California northern Quebec

Degrees - Academic
- Capitalize academic degrees and professional designations. When writing more than
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 one degree/designation, arrange them in accordance to their importance
Examples:
Laura Bates, PhD James Pallister, M.D. Peter Wong, M.D., BChir

Examples of degrees:
Associate’s degrees (U.S.): AA, ABS, AS
Foundation degrees (U.K.): Fda, FdEd, FdEng, FdMus, FdSc, FdTech
Bachelor’s degrees: BA, BBA, BChir, BComm, BE, BS, BSc, BCL, BFA, LLB, MB,
Master’s degrees: BCL, LLM, MA, MApol, MBA, MChem, MDiv, MESci, MEng,
MFA, MGeol, MLitt, MMath, MPA, MPAff, MPhil, MPhys, MPM, MPP, MRE, Mres,
MS, MSc, Msci, MTh, MTCM, MTS
Specialist degrees: EdS, BAcc
Doctorate degrees: DA, DBA, DCL, DD, DLitt, DMA, DMus, DNSci, DOM, DPhil,
DSc, EdD, EngD, JD, OMD, PharmD, PhD, PsyD, ThD,

Eras and Historical Periods - Scientific and Common names

- Capitalize scientific names of the world’s eras and common names for historical
epochs, periods and events.
Examples:
the Ice Age Colonial days the Great Depression

Flags

- Capitalize the names and synonyms for flags of nations.

Examples:
the Union Jack the Star-Spangled Banner
Old Glory the Maple Leaf

Geographical Terms
- The following geographical terms are usually capitalized immediately following the
names:

Basin Bend Branch Butte Canal Canyon

Canyon Channel Cove Crater Creek Current
Current Divide Flat(s) Gap Glacier Glades
Gulch Harbor Hill Hollow Inlet Island
Lake Mesa Mountain Narrows Ocean Park
Passage Peninsula Plateau Point Pond Range (mountain)
Reef Ridge River Run Shoal Sound

Geographical Words
- The following words are usually capitalized when they stand before or after a name or
when used as part of a name:

65
 Bay Bayou Camp (military) Cape
Desert Falls Fort Head
Isle Lake Mount Oasis
Pass Port River Sea
Strait Valley

Government
- Capitalize the word “Government” when referring to the country’s Government or
that of any foreign nation.
Example:
Her Majesty’s Government Government responsibility
Imperial Government on official Government business

Government Departments

- Capitalize when referring to departments, boards, bureaus, offices, agencies,

commissions, committees and services of the government when the name is given.
Examples:
the Securities and Exchange Commission
the Federal Bureau of Investigation
the Environmental Protection Agency
the Federal Reserve Board
Do not capitalize when used without a name or if used as an adjective.

Government Terms

- Administration - Capitalize the word “administration” when referring to the political

party in power or when used with a name to designate a Government board.
Example:
the Reagan Administration

- Cabinet - Capitalize the word “Cabinet” when referring to the Cabinet of the
President or Prime Minister of a country.
Examples:
officer of the Cabinet the President’s Cabinet

- Federal - Capitalize the word “Federal” when referring to the country’s Government.
Example:
She works for the Federal Government.

Holy Bible

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 - Names for the Bible – Capitalize all names for the Bible, for parts and
versions of the Bible and all names of other sacred books.
Examples:
Bible Scriptures Word of God Holy Bible Old Testament New
Testament
Gospels Ten Commandments Lord’s Prayer Gospels Gospel of
Luke
King James Version New International Version

- Creeds and Confessions – Capitalize all names of creeds and confessions of

faith and general Biblical terms.
Examples:
Lord’s Supper the Apostles’ Creed
the Westminster Catechism Nicene Creed

- Deity - Capitalize all names for Deity

Examples:
Father Almighty God Lord Holy Spirit Son of Man
Messiah Lord of Hosts Redeemer Savior Holy Trinity

- Devil - Capitalize all names for the Devil

Examples:
Devil Satan Adversary Father of Lies Evil One Lucifer
Prince of Darkness Beelzebub (meaning Satan)
* Do not capitalize when used in a general sense or as an
expletive. (Example: The devil is a formidable adversary.)

Military
- Army, Navy and Air Force – Capitalize when referring to these organizations
by name or with other widely accepted references to them.
Examples:
the Army U.S. Army French Army Organized Reserves 1st
Regiment
the Navy U.S. Navy British Navy Marine Corps the Marines
the Air Force U.S. Air Force Royal Air Force Edwards Air Force
Base

Names/Persons
- Proper Nouns – Capitalize all proper nouns that are names of individuals.
Examples:
Sally Jane Anderson John. A. Smith

- Personal Pronoun “ I ” – Capitalize the word " I " when referring to oneself
in the first person. This word is always capitalized, even when used in mid
sentence.
Examples:

67
 I will try to make the time for a vacation this year.
This year, I will try to make the time for a vacation.

- Epithets - Capitalize epithets added to proper names or applied to people or

places.
Examples:
the Dallas Cowboys the Golden Gate the Green Belt
William the Conqueror the Empire State Building
- Family - Father and Mother – Capitalize when used as a means of personally
addressing the individual, but not when used as a possessive pronoun.
Examples:
Before I forget to tell you, Father, they are expecting you at 7:00 PM at the
hall.
My mother has agreed to stay with our children.

- Family - Uncle, Aunt, Cousin – Capitalize these and other family terms when
used with a proper noun, but not when used as a possessive pronoun.
Examples:
I saw Aunt Sarah dancing all night.
When I arrived, Cousin Bill was directing traffic.
My uncle sold the farm because of his bad health.

- Prefixes – Capitalize prefixes in the names of foreign people unless preceded

by a given name or title.
Examples:
Van Leeuwen Thomas van Leeuwen
De Paul Cardinal de Paul

With British and American names, such prefixes are usually capitalized even if
preceded by a given name or title. Individual preference prevails in these cases.

Nation or Republic
- Capitalize when used as a synonym for a country.
Examples:
The Nation stands by its men and women in combat.
The future of the Republic is riding on his shoulders.

Organized Bodies
- Capitalize when referring to these organized groups as a whole.
Examples:
Shriners Democrats Elks

Organizations
- Capitalize names of clubs, societies, associations, companies, foundations,
institutes, etc.
Examples:
Knights of Columbus American Lung Association Microsoft

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 Corporation

Poetry
- Traditionally, the first word of every line of poetry is capitalized.
- In some modern English poetry formats, only the first word of the first line is
capitalized, and sometimes even this word is all lower-case.

Point Form
- There are no hard rules to capitalization when using a "point form" to list your
points. Choose whichever looks best esthetically within your document.
- As a general guideline to using "point form," use a numbered list when order is
important and use a bulleted list when the order of the points is not important.

Quotations
- Capitalize the first word of every complete quotation within quotation marks.
Example:
The waitress asked, “Do you want your coffee with cream and sugar?”
- DO NOT capitalize that part of a quotation resumed within the same sentence.
Example:
“Do you want your coffee,” the waitress asked, “with cream and sugar?”

Sentences
- Capitalize the first word of every sentence, whether it is a complete sentence or
not.

State or Province/Provincial
- Capitalize when used with a name or when used in place of the name. Lower-
case applies when used as a general term.
Examples:
The Province of Ontario New York State State’s legislation
provincial park state prison

Titles - Personal
- Academic and Religious titles – Capitalize when preceding a name or when
used as a means of personally addressing the individual.
Examples:
Professor David Schwartz Bishop Larry Wiseman
Doctor Paul McNeil Dr. Paul McNeil
Reverend Henry Krause Rev. Henry Krause
Please be completely honest with me, Doctor, about your prognosis.

* The titles Doctor and Reverend are usually abbreviated, but are often spelled
out with formal use.

- Government titles – Capitalize when referring to definite persons or to their

positions.
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 Examples:
the Queen of England the President of the United States
Secretary of Defense Congressman from Massachusetts

- Rank, Respect, and Honor titles – Capitalize all titles of rank, respect and
honor when preceding a name.
Examples:
President Theodore Roosevelt Senator Robert Morris
Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist Speaker John Denison

- Titles instead of Names – Capitalize titles when used as a means of personally

addressing the individual.
Examples:
We’ve talked with the troops, General, and they seem to be in good spirits.
Mr. Secretary, please give me your opinion on this issue.
I came across the crime scene, Officer, and immediately called the police.
Is there enough support, Senator, to get this bill passed?

Titles - Other
- Book titles – Capitalize all principal words (nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs,
adverbs) and first word in book titles.
Example:
Gone With the Wind by Margaret Mitchell.

- Document and Report titles – Capitalize all principal words (nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in these titles.
Examples:
U.S. Constitution American Lung Association Annual Report

- Captions/Pictures – Capitalize all principal words (nouns, pronouns,

adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in the captions under pictures.
Example:
Da Vinci’s “Last Supper”
- Musical Composition titles – Capitalize all principal words (nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, verbs, adverbs) when referring to musical compositions.
Example:
Beethoven’s Moonlight Sonata, Opus 28, No.15

- Radio Program titles – Capitalize all principal words (nouns, pronouns,

adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in radio program titles.
Example:
All Things Considered with hosts Robert Siegel, Michele Norris and Melissa
Block

- Television Show/Movie titles – Capitalize all principal words (nouns,

pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs) and first word in these titles.

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 Example:
The Wizard of Oz, with Judy Garland

Learners’ Activities:

Re-write the following sentences with proper capital forms.

1) every friday dr. williams comes to see students at our school.
2) his father is an fbi agent.
3) the fifth month of the year is may.
4) joseph and morgan were both born on may
5) we flew to france on delta air lines .
6) my sister has been accepted to attend harvard law school.
7) my favorite book is tom sawyer written by mark twain.
8) canada borders the united states of america.
9) mark twain was born in the town of florida, missouri.
10) bangladesh university of engineering and technology is one of the leading and
prominent universities in Bangladesh.
11) phd and mphil are two different professional degrees.
12 )the merchant of venice is one of the famous tragedies written by william shakespeare.
13) the greeks believed in many gods but the christians believe in god the father.
14) shab-e-meraj is a holy day for the muslim.
15) we have six seasons in bangladesh like summer,winter,spring autumn, the rainy season
and the late autumn season.
16)I didn’t get the course outline of fall semester 2014.
17)we started our journey from south to north and finally we reached the west zone in
time.
18) he came to the exam hall happily:he had very good preparation on math.
19) we are asked to bring the following things in the exam hall:water bottle,stapler,pen
and calculator.
20) it was i who came to see you last night with my uncle,george.
21 )there are many rivers in Bangladesh and the padma river is famous for hilsha fish.
22) the usa have many cities and Washington city is one of them.
23) humanism and new discoveries in fine arts, music, literature, philosophy, science and
technology, architecture, religion and spirituality are the main characteristics of middle
ages.
24) there are many devils around us but satan, the devil is the worst among them.
25) George w bush, the president of the united states declared war against Iraq when he
was in power.
26 )there are many government jobs in bangladesh and bcs job is the most prestigious one.
27) my father works in bangladesh army and my mother works in berdem.
28) when I came to the party,uncle tom was singing.
29) “do you want your coffee”the waitress asked, “with ice cream and sugar”

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30 )the woods are lovely, dark and deep, but i have promises to keep, and miles to go
before i sleep, and miles to go before i sleep.

Homework: Read all the rules of Capitalization and make at least 20 questions where
there will be the necessity of capital letter like the exercise given above.

Lesson 9

Fragments, Run-ons and Misplaced Modifiers

Learning Objectives:
The students will be able:
1. To identify the common mistakes related to fragments, run-on sentences and
placement of modifiers.
2. To develop a skill to resolve such mistakes in a given piece of writing.
3. To acquire the aptitude to develop writing skill free from such inaccuracy.

Fragments
Sentence Fragments

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A sentence fragment is a group of words that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.
A fragment is often missing a subject, a complete verb, or both.

Fragment: Are hatched in sand.

This group of words does not tell who or what are hatched in sand. It lacks a subject.

Fragment: Especially his rebounding ability.

This group of words has a subject, his rebounding ability, but lacks a verb.

Fragment: To notice a friendly smile.

This group of words lacks both a subject and a verb. To notice is not a complete verb. It is
an infinitive.
A group of words can have both a subject and a verb but still be a fragment because it
does not express a complete thought.

Fragment: Because the number of voters has declined.

This group of words does not tell what happened as a result of the voter decline. Its
meaning is incomplete.

Notice that the preceding fragment begins with the subordinating conjunction because. A
clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction cannot stand alone as a complete
sentence. Word groups that begin with a relative pronoun (that, which, who) are also not
complete sentences.

Fragment: Which scientists studied for many years.

The group of words does not tell what the scientists studied.

Finally, when a word group begins with a transitional word or phrase (for example, also),
make sure that it includes both a subject and a verb.

Fragment: For example, the Gulf Coast of Florida.

Learners’ Activities:

Exercise – Identifying Sentence Fragments

Read the following paragraph. Then indicate on your paper whether each of the numbered
items is a complete sentence or a sentence fragment.

Richard Rodriguez, Award-Winning Writer

1
When he entered elementary school as a child in California knew only about fifty words
of English. 2Because he was afraid he would be mocked, Richard Rodriguez was reluctant
to speak in class. 3The nuns who taught him asked his parents, who had been born in
Mexico, to speak to the child in English rather than in Spanish. 4Rodriguez developed a
deep love of reading. 5Which became the basis of his later academic success.

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Run-Ons

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined without a
punctuation mark or a coordinating conjunction. Run-on sentences are also known as
fused sentences.

Example: A television addict is dependent on television I have suffered this addiction for
years.

The following are the three basic kinds of run-on sentences:

The most common run-on sentence is a comma splice. It occurs when two main clauses
are punctuated by a comma rather than a semicolon or a period. To correct a comma
splice, add a coordinating conjunction or replace the comma with an end mark of
punctuation, such as a period or a question mark, and begin the new sentence with a
capital letter.

RUN-ON: Edgar Allan Poe’s stories are thrilling, Agatha Christie’s mysteries are
more realistic.
CORRECT: Edgar Allan Poe’s stories are thrilling, but Agatha Christie’s mysteries are
more realistic.
CORRECT: Edgar Allan Poe’s stories are thrilling. Agatha Christie’s mysteries are
more realistic.

A second kind of run-on sentence is created when no punctuation separates two main
clauses. Correct this kind of run-on by inserting a semicolon or an end mark of
punctuation between the main clauses. You can also correct the error by separating the
clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

RUN-ON: C. Auguste Dupin is the name of Poe’s famous detective he is similar in

some ways to Christie’s sleuth Hercule Poirot.
CORRECT: C. Auguste Dupin is the name of Poe’s famous detective; he is similar in
some ways to Christie’s sleuth Hercule Poirot.
CORRECT: C. Auguste Dupin is the name of Poe’s famous detective. He is similar in
some ways to Christie’s sleuth Hercule Poirot.
CORRECT: C. Auguste Dupin is the name of Poe’s famous detective, and he is similar
in some ways to Christie’s sleuth Hercule Poirot.

A third kind of run-on sentence is formed when there is no comma before a coordinating
conjunction joining two main clauses. Correct the error by inserting the comma before the
coordinating conjunction.

RUN-ON: Poe’s Dupin is the first great amateur detective but Christie’s Poirot is
probably more widely known.

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CORRECT: Poe’s Dupin is the first great amateur detective, but Christie’s Poirot is
probably more widely known.

Learners’ Activities:

Exercise – Correcting Run-on Sentences

Rewrite each of the following sentences, correcting the run-ons. Watch for the three kinds
of run-on errors just shown. You may choose from among the several ways of correcting
run-ons that you have learned.

Eleanor Roosevelt, First Lady of the World

1. Eleanor Roosevelt was the wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt yet she became
famous for her own achievements.
2. Mrs. Roosevelt was interested in social reform, no other First Lady had ever been so
active in public life.
3. At birth she was named Anne Eleanor but no one called her by her first name.
4. Her husband was disabled by polio in 1921, she became involved in political work on
his behalf.
5. During World War II, she traveled in Latin America, Europe, and elsewhere and she
worked with young people.
6. She was devoted to the underprivileged and fighting for equal rights was one of her
central concerns.
7. Mrs. Roosevelt visited places that were inaccessible to her husband for example, she
personally inspected working conditions in coal mines.
8. She was appointed the United States delegate to the United Nations by President Harry
Truman he called her the First Lady of the World.
9. She wrote over a dozen books among them was an autobiography.
10. Her books include This Is My Story (1937) and On My Own (1958), she also wrote
Tomorrow Is Now, which was published after her death.

Misplaced Modifiers
Modifiers that modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one word in a
sentence are called misplaced modifiers. When a modifier is in the wrong place, the reader
may not know just what it is meant to describe. Misplaced modifiers can lead to
misunderstanding – some of which are unintentionally humorous.

Problem 01 – A misplaced modifier

 Unmowed for several weeks, the neighbors complained about our lawn.
 A woman passed by, leading a springer spaniel in a long black dress.

Modifiers that modify the wrong word or seem to modify more than one word in a
sentence are called misplaced modifiers.

SOLUTION Move the misplaced phrase as close as possible to the word or words it
modifies.

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  The neighbors complained about our lawn, unmowed for several weeks.
 A woman in a long black dress passed by, leading a springer spaniel.

Problem 02 – The inaccurate placement of only

 Isabel only sings the refrain in that song.

The meaning of your sentence may be unclear if the word only is misplaced.

SOLUTION Place only immediately before the word or group of words it modifies. Note
that each time only is moved in the sentence, the meaning of the sentence changes.
 Only Isabel sings the refrain in that song.
 Isabel sings only the refrain in that song.
 Isabel sings the refrain only in that song.

Problem 03 – A dangling modifier

 Standing on the observation deck, the view could be seen for miles.
 After trying the combination several times, the lock finally opened.
 Disappointed that vacation would soon end, September came all too quickly.

Dangling modifiers do not seem logically to modify any word in the sentence.

SOLUTION Rewrite the sentence, adding a noun to which the dangling phrase clearly
refers. Often you will have to add other words, too.
 Standing on the observation deck, Lionel could see the view for miles.
 After trying the combination several times, Jennifer finally opened the lock.
 Disappointed that vacation would soon end, we felt that September came all too
quickly.

Learners’ Activities:

Rewrite the following sentences with corrections of misplaced and dangling

modifiers:
1. I brushed my teeth after eating with Crest Toothpaste.
2. Grocery shopping at Meenabazar, the lettuce was fresh.
3. Driving like a champion racer, the goat was hit and killed.
4. With his tail held high, my father led his dog around the arena.
5. The girl was consoled by the nurse who had just taken an overdose of sleeping
pills.
6. I saw an accident walking down the street.
7. Playing pool in the living room, the radio was turned on by Russell.
8. Although exhausted and weary, the coach kept yelling, “Another lap!”

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 9. She carefully studied the pictures of Jainul Abedin hanging in the art gallery with
her friend.
10. He held the umbrella over my head that he bought from a supermarket.

Lesson 10

Describing Graphs and Charts

Learning Objectives:
The students will be able to:
1. To acquire the basic concepts of graphs charts and their different types from the
fundamental mathematical perspectives.

2. To develop the linguistic skill to analyze and describe the graphs and charts in an
investigative style of composition.

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Graphs

A graph is a picture representative for one or more sets of information and how these
visually relate to one another. There are many types of graphs of varied complexity. For
almost any numerical data set, there is a graph type that is appropriate for representing it.
Graphs help us present data in a meaningful way. Below is an example of what a graph
may look like:

Charts

A chart is a graphic representation of data. Charts allow users to see what the results of
various data are to better understand and predict current and future data. In the picture
below, is an example picture of a column chart of unique visitors a website has received
between the years of 2000 and 2006. As can be seen in this example, we can immediately
see a gentle increase of users without reading any data.

A Graph or A Chart?

It has always been a matter of dilemma whether a graph and a chart are substitute for one
another or are they distinct? The following discussion may help understand better.
In mathematics, a graph is an abstract representation of a set of objects where some pairs
of the objects are connected by links. The interconnected objects are represented by

78
mathematical abstractions called vertices, and the links that connect some pairs of vertices
are called edges. Typically, a graph is depicted in diagrammatic form as a set of dots for
the vertices, joined by lines or curves for the edges.

A chart is a visual representation of data, in which the data are represented by symbols
such as bars in a bar chart or lines in a line chart. A chart can represent tabular numeric
data, functions or some kinds of qualitative structures.

The term "chart" as a visual representation of data has multiple meanings:

A data chart is a type of diagram or graph, which organizes and represents a set of
numerical or qualitative data.
Maps that are adorned with extra information for some specific purpose are often known
as charts, such as a nautical chart or aeronautical chart.

Charts are often used to ease understanding of large quantities of data and the
relationships between parts of the data. Charts can usually be read more quickly than the
raw data that they are produced from. They are used in a wide variety of fields, and can be
created by hand (often on graph paper) or by computer using a charting application.
Certain types of charts are more useful for presenting a given data set than others. For
example, data that presents percentages in different groups (such as "satisfied, not
satisfied, unsure") are often displayed in a pie chart, but may be more easily understood
when presented in a horizontal bar chart.

On the other hand, data that represents numbers that change over a period of time (such as
"annual revenue from 1990 to 2000") might be best shown as a line chart.

Different types of graphs and charts:

Considering both graphs and charts together, following is a short description of their
different types which are mostly used in mathematical descriptions of language.

Bar Graphs

A bar graph is drawn on an x-y graph and it has labeled horizontal or vertical bars that
show different values. The size, length and color of the bars represent different values. A
bar graph is very useful for non continuous data and it helps in comparing or contrasting
the size of the different categories of the data provided.

Below is an example of the bar diagram of the pass percentage of a school during the year
2000, 2001 and 2002.

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Flow Charts

A flow chart displays schematic processes based on the outcome, validity, or answer to a
previous variable. Each of the flow chart’s shapes represents specific actions and the
legend codes are included to inform you. Flow charts consist of inputs and outputs, a start
point and an end point that basic symbols represent.

Pie Charts/Circular Graphs

A pie chart can be taken as a circular graph which is divided into different disjoint pieces,
each displaying the size of some related information. The highlight of this graph is that it
represents a whole and each part represents a percentage of the whole. Hence, pie charts
are best used with respect to categorical data which helps one understand what percentage
each of these categories constitutes. It also has a good visual treat and the percentage value
of each section is instantly known.

80
Line Graphs

A line graph is a diagram that shows a line joining several points, or a line that shows the
relationship between the points. A line graph can be taken as xy plane, where there will be
an independent variable and a dependent variable and it specifies how the two variables
are related to each other and vary with respect to one another. Mostly, the independent
variable is taken on the x-axis while the dependent variable on the y-axis.

Histograms

A histogram is the most accurate graph that represents a frequency distribution. In the
histogram the scores are spread uniformly over the entire class interval. The class intervals
are plotted on the x-axis and the frequencies on the y-axis. Each interval is represented by
a separate rectangle.

The area of each rectangle is proportional to the number of measures within the class-
interval. The entire histogram is proportional to the statistical data set.

81
How to analyze and describe a graph/chart:

Often in academic writing, learners use information and facts presented in charts and
graphs to support the topic sentence of their paragraph. Often, the data presented in a
graph or table show change over time. There are – specific verbs, adjectives and adverbs
that can help you describe these changes. For example:
Verbs for describing how data have changed:
• to increase • to remain (unchanged) • to decrease
• to go up • to be steady • to go down
• to rise • to plateau • to decline
• to climb • to drop
Adjectives and adverbs to describe how fast the change occurred:
• sharp • steady • sharply
• dramatic • gradual • dramatically
• significant • slight • significantly

List of phrases to describe charts/graphs

The pie chart is about ...

The bar chart deals with ...

The line graph (clearly) shows ...

The slices of the pie chart compare the ...

The chart is divided into ... parts.

It highlights ...

... has the largest (number of) ...

... has the second largest (number of) ...

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... is as big as ...

... is twice as big as ...

... is bigger than ...

more than ... per cent ...

only one third ...

less than half ...

The number ...

increases/goes up/grows by ...

The number ...

decreases/goes down/sinks by ...

The number ...

does not change/remains stable

I was really surprised/shocked by the ...

So we can say ...

Example of the analysis of a graph

Population growth in Canada

This graph shows the growth of the population in Canada from 1978 to 2009. It is taken
from the website about Statistics in Canada.
There are three graphs in the chart. The green graph shows the total growth of the
population, the black one deals with the migrated people in Canada and the blue graph

83
shows the natural increase of the population. In 1988/89 there was an enormous growth. In
the following years the total growth went down to about 250,000 in 1998/99. From that
time on the Canadian population has been gradually growing again although the natural
increase slows down. So we can say that the growth of the population in Canada is based
on migration.

Learners Activities:
Class exercises/Homework
Write sentences to describe each of the graphs/charts below.

84
85
86
 Lesson 11

Paraphrasing

Learning Objectives: The purposes of the lesson are:

1. to extend the students’ abilities to write effectively in a variety of situations for a
variety of purposes;
2. to extend the students’ abilities by practicing the behaviors of effective and
active writers;
3. to extend their abilities to reflect on and support personal and critical response
with reference to different contexts of writing.

The instructor will go through the topics in this lesson. The students will be instructed to
take necessary notes on the topics, discussed.

What does a paraphrase mean?

A paraphrase is a restatement of the meaning of a text or passage using other words. The
act of paraphrasing is also called "paraphrasis". A paraphrase typically explains or
clarifies the text that is being paraphrased. For example, "The signal was red" might be
paraphrased as "The train was not allowed to pass because the signal was red". A
paraphrase is usually introduced with verbum dicendi​—​a declaratory expression to signal
the transition to the paraphrase. For example, in "The signal was red, that is, the train was
not allowed to proceed," the that is signals the paraphrase that follows.

A paraphrase does not need to accompany a direct quotation, the paraphrase typically
serves to put the source's statement into perspective or to clarify the context in which it
appeared. A paraphrase is typically more detailed than a summary.

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Paraphrasing Procedures:

 Tactics to rewrite something in different way.

 To paraphrase is to say the same thing in another way, using your own words.
 We can successfully paraphrase by using a combination of techniques.

1. Change from a Clause to a Phrase (or vice versa)

2. Change from Quoted Speech to Indirect Speech (or vice versa)
3. Change from Active Voice to Passive Voice (or vice versa)
4. Change to Synonyms
5. Change Word Forms

Change from a Clause to a Phrase:

 After he studied, Hasan took a nap.
 After studying, Hasan took a nap.

 The house across the street is new.

 The house that is across the street is new.

Change from Quoted Speech to Indirect Speech:

 Mr. Shafiq said, “I am ready for lunch.”
 Mr. Shafiq said he was ready for lunch.

Change from Active Voice to Passive Voice:

 A hotel employee will carry your bags.
 Your bags will be carried by a hotel employee.

Replace words with synonyms:

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 A hotel employee will carry your bags.
 Your bags will be carried by a hotel employee.
Or
Your luggage will be picked up by a bell boy.

Change Word Forms:

 Use an adverb instead of an adjective
 Use a verb to replace a noun.
 GROG is an accurate typist.
 GROG types accurately.

Change to Synonyms:
 Replace the original words with words that mean the same.

 The stallion was content with the mare.

 The stallion was happy with the mare.

When you can’t find a Synonym:

 Replace the original word with a definition.
 The stallion was content with the mare.
 The male horse was happy with the female horse.

Combine techniques:

01. Change to a phrase & add synonyms or definitions

 After he ate lunch, Mike took a nap.
 After eating lunch, Mike slept a little.

Change to a phrase & add synonyms or definitions:

 The house that is across the street is old.
 The house across the street is old.
 The house on the other side of the street is old.
 The dwelling on the other side of the road is ancient.

Interpret meaning…identify the underlying meaning of a statement.

 The wolf said, “I am ready for lunch.”
The sheep looked very worried
The wolf complained about being hungry which made the sheep extremely anxious.

Change transitions:
 Although it was raining, Firoz walked to work.
 It was raining, but Firoz walked to work.
 It was raining; however, Firoz walked to work.

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Change word forms
 Although it was raining, Firoz walked to work.
 It was raining, but Firoz walked to work.
 It was raining; however, Firoz walked to work.
 Despite the rain, Firoz went to work on foot.

Example of paraphrasing:

Original Passage:

Once there was a great war between the beasts and the birds. Bat was on the birds' side. In
the first battle, the birds were badly beaten. As soon as Bat saw that the battle was going
against them, he crept away, hid under a log, and stayed there until the fight was over.

When the animals were going home, Bat slipped in among them.

After they had gone some distance, they saw him and asked one another: "How is this?
Bat is one of those that fought against us!"

Bat heard them and he said: "Oh, no! I am one of you; I don't belong to the bird people.
Did you ever see one of those people who had teeth and hair? You can say that I belong to
the bird people, but I don't; I am one of your own people."

They didn't say anything more; they let Bat stay with them.

Soon after, there was another battle; in that battle birds won. As Bat's side was getting
beaten, he slipped away and hid under a log. When the battle was over and birds were
going home, Bat went in among them.

When they noticed him, they said: "You are our enemy; we saw you fighting against us."

"Oh, no," said Bat, "I am one of you; I don't belong to those beasts. Did you ever see one
of those people who had wings?"

They didn't say anything more; they let him stay with them.

So Bat went back and forth as long as the war lasted. At the end of the war, birds and
beasts held a council to see what to do with him. At last they said to Bat, "From now on,
you will fly around alone at night, and you will never have any friends, either among those
that fly, or those that walk."

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Paraphrasing Passage
There was a battle between the beasts and the birds. When the first battle was going on,
Bat, who was o the birds’ side, hid himself as he saw the birds losing the battle. After the
battle, Bat got mixed into the beasts’ side. The beasts told each other that Bat was among
their opponents. Bat heard what the beasts were saying and he replied that, he was one of
the beasts as he had teeth and hair unlike the birds. Soon, there was another battle which
was won by the birds. When the animals were getting beaten, Bat hid himself again and
after the battle he joined the birds’ group. Noticing that, the birds told Bat that, you were
our enemy and you fought against us in the battle. Bat replied that, he was not among the
beasts; rather he was one of the birds as he got wings like the birds, unlike the animals.
Both the birds and the beasts identified Bat’s cheating, and after the war, they sat for a
meeting together to make a decision about Bat. They decided that, Bat would have no
friend from now on and he would fly all alone forever. Neither those who could fly nor
those who could walk, would be Bat’s friend.

Original Passage:

All the teachers at Lilburn Elementary will be attending a lecture on Thursday at the
University of Georgia. The famous author, J. K. Rowling will be speaking to the
elementary teachers and staff. The lecture will conclude with an autograph session and a
reception in the auditorium. This conference will be sponsored by The Steven Spielberg
Council for Under Appreciated School Librarians, and each librarian attending will
receive the entire set of novels by J. K. Rowling, including a preview of her new book,
Mystery in the Under Staffed Media Center.

Paraphrasing Passage

The famous author, J. K. Rowling, will speak to the Lilburn Elementary teachers and staff
at the University of Georgia on autograph session on Thursday. They will also attend a
reception immediately afterward. At last, participating librarians will be honored with the
entire set of novels by J. K. Rowling.

Original passage:

Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse
quotations in the final [research] paper. Probably only about 10% of your final manuscript
should appear as directly quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount

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of exact transcribing of source materials while taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing
Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.

Paraphrasing passage:

In research papers students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down
to a desirable level. Since the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential
to minimize the material recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).

Original passage:

In American society, Introverts are outnumbered about three to one. As a result, they
must develop extra coping skills early in life because there will be an inordinate
amount of pressure on them to “shape up,” to act like the rest of the world. The
Introvert is pressured daily, almost from the moment of awakening, to respond and
conform to the outer world. Classroom teachers unwittingly pressure Introverted
students by announcing that “One-third of your grade will be based on classroom
participation.” From Otto Kroeger and Janet M. Thuesen, Type Talk: The 16
Personality Types that Determine How We Live, Love and Work. New York: Dell
Publishing, 1989.

Paraphrasing passage:

There are many more extroverts than introverts in America. This puts a lot of
pressure on introverts to fit in and be like everybody else. Even in school, teachers
add to this pressure by making class participation part of the student's grade.
Consequently, introverts have to acquire additional skills to deal with these
pressures.

Your Turn

Paraphrase the following:

• A teacher somewhere in your neighborhood tonight is grading and preparing
lessons to teach your children while you are watching television.

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• I the minute, it takes you to read this, teachers all over the world, are using their
“free time” and often investing their own money for your child’s literacy,
prosperity and future.
• There is no single piece of legislation that will solve all of our problems, but we
must begin somewhere.
• Perhaps we will not deter all criminals or prevent all future acts of gun violence,
but that doesn't make new laws unnecessary.
• If even one innocent life is spared by furthering background checks, is it not a
worthy endeavor?
• I know nobody will see my status.
• When I am bored, I go into the garden and cover myself in earth and pretend i m a
sweet "carrot".
• Today, people are worried about internet security.
• Advocates of internet tracking believe that it helps marketers to understand what
people want.
• People who oppose internet tracking believe that it is an invasion of privacy.
• This information age will cause more and more people to become concerned with
the level of personal detail that can be found from the internet.

Learners’ Activities:
 The students will be asked to practice the following questions respectively at home
to show task in the next class.
 The instructor may ask the students to paraphrase any editorial column written in
English Newspaper or any literary task.

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 Lesson 12

Paragraph Writing: Topic Sentence

Learning Objective: The students will be able to understand the idea of

paragraphs, their structures and topic sentences.

The instructor will go through the topics in this lesson. The students will be instructed to
take notes on the topics, discussed.

Paragraph and Structures

A paragraph is a self-contained unit of a discourse in writing dealing with a particular point or
idea. Though not required by the syntax of any language, paragraphs are usually an expected part
of formal writing, used to organize longer prose. A paragraph consists of several sentences that are
grouped together and discuss one main idea.

The three basic structures:

1. A topic sentence
2. Supporting sentences
3. A concluding sentence

A Topic Sentence

A topic sentence describes the main idea of a paragraph. The topic sentence is the first sentence
in a paragraph. However, the second sentence or third sentence can the topic sentence in a
paragraph.

Supporting sentences

Supporting sentences support the main idea stated in a paragraph.

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 A concluding sentence

A concluding sentence is the re-statement of the topic sentence of a paragraph.

Every paragraph in a paper should be:

 Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea
(often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph).

 Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the main idea, or thesis, of the
paragraph.

 Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite
plan for development.

 Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and
supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s main
idea.

Sample Paragraph-1

Topic sentence
My Country

• Bangladesh, my country, is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted
for the world’s’ longest sea beach in Cox’s Bazar In addition, Sundarban, the largest
mangrove forest in the world, boasts of its natural beauty. There are also a number of rivers in
my country. Finally, the three hill tract areas, such as Rangamati, Bandarban and
Khagrachari, are the examples of natural features. These natural features are truly amazing
and make my country famous.

Supporting sentences

A concluding sentence

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Sample Paragraph-2

Canada

There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the
world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have
access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high
standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are
encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean
and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for
people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

Sample Paragraph-2

Last Eid Shopping

Topic sentence

I, as usual, enjoyed the last Eid shopping as I visited different markets and bought
dresses for myself and the other members of my family. Firstly, I together with my
mother went to New Market and bought two attractive dresses for my younger sister.
Afterwards, we went to Gowsia Market, visited three shops, and bought a very nice dress
for my mother. After that, we went Elephant Road, visited several shop, and bought two
panjabis- one for me and one for my father. Besides these, we bought a fine dress for our
maid servant. Finally, we went Eastern Plaza and purchased some cosmetics for my
mother, sister and the maid servant. The last Eid shopping was really a happy experience
to me.

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Learners’ Activities:

The students will participate in writing paragraphs identifying the structures of

paragraphs.

In this paragraph, the topic sentence is missing. You are requested to write a perfect
topic sentence as per the supporting sentences and the concluding sentence.

Rural Life and Urban Life

Rural people do not have adequate educational and medical facilities. They do not enjoy
the modern facilities provided by electricity and gas. The village people also have very
limited scopes of entertainments. Besides these, they face problems with their
communication network. On the other hand, the urban people enjoy a lot of educational
and medical facilities. They have electricity and gas, and then lead a very comfortable
life. The people in towns and cities also have many ways of entertainments such as parks,
cinemas, cable televisions, and so forth. Moreover, they enjoy a smooth and easy
communication system. Thus rural life is deprived of modern facilities whereas urban life
is as modern as enjoyable.

Homework/Classwork:

The students will be instructed to write four topic sentences on these four topics.

1. IUBAT: My University
2. Rural Education and Urban Education

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 Lesson 13

Paragraph Writing: Supporting Sentences and

Concluding Sentence

Learning Objective: The students will be able to understand the supporting

sentences and the concluding sentence of paragraphs.

The instructor will go through the related topics in this lesson. The students will be
instructed to take notes on the lesson, discussed in the class.

Supporting Sentences
As discussed in the earlier lesson, supporting sentences support the main idea stated in a
paragraph.

Sample Paragraph-1

The topic sentence

My Country

• Bangladesh, my country, is famous for several amazing natural features. First, it is noted
for the world’s’ longest sea beach in Cox’s Bazar In addition, Sundarban, the largest
mangrove forest in the world, boasts of its natural beauty. There are also a number of rivers in
my country. Finally, the three hill tract areas, such as Rangamati, Bandarban and
Khagrachari, are the examples of natural features. Therefore, these natural features are truly
amazing and make my country famous.

Supporting sentences

The concluding sentence

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As discussed in the earlier lesson, in this sample paragraph, the supporting sentences/details are as
follows:

1. First, it is noted for the world’s’ longest sea beach in Cox’s Bazar. (first
supporting sentence)
2. In addition, Sundarban, the largest mangrove forest in the world, boasts of its
natural beauty. (second supporting sentence)

3. There are also a number of rivers in my country. (third supporting sentence)

4. Finally, the three hill tract areas, such as Rangamati, Bandarban and
Khagrachari, are the examples of natural features. (fourth supporting
sentence)

These four supporting sentences support the topic sentence (main idea) of the paragraph
that is “Bangladesh, my country, is famous for several amazing natural features

A Concluding Sentence
• As discussed in the earlier lesson, a concluding sentence is the re-statement of
the topic sentence in a paragraph. The concluding sentence of this paragraph is
Therefore, these natural features are truly amazing and make my country famous.

Our Environment

Our total environment influences our life and our way of living. The main elements of
human environment are men, animals, plants, soil, air and water. There are
relationships between these elements. When these relationships are disturbed life
becomes difficult or impossible. If a man does not irrigate the paddy field the crops will
die. If the crops die, the man will have no food to eat, and he will become weak. If this
happens, he will not be strong enough to irrigate the crops. This is like a circle. There
are many such circles in our environment. We must keep the environment balanced.
But it is also very important to keep the environment clean and free from pollution. By

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keeping the environment clean a person can ensure a healthier and happier life. A
person can turn a good, clean environment into bad, polluted one. He /she can do this,
without even knowing that he/she is doing it. By many unwise acts he/she pollutes
his/her environment. Thus our life is directly related to the environment.

In the above paragraph, the italic sentences are supporting sentences that support the
main idea-----Our total environment influences our life and our way of living. The
concluding sentence of this paragraph is “Thus our life is directly related to the
environment.

Learners’ Activities:

As the students have been instructed to write the topic sentences of these given topics, the
students are instructed to write related and effective supporting sentences and concluding
sentences to complete paragraphs.

1. IUBAT: My University
2. Rural Education and Urban Education

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 Lesson 14

Paragraph Writing: Overall Development

Learning Objective: The students will be able to understand the overall

development of paragraphs and types of paragraphs.

The instructor will go through the related topics in this lesson. The students will be
instructed to take notes on the lesson, discussed in the class.

Paragraph Type: Description

Our Environment

Our total environment influences our life and our way of living. The main elements of
human environment are men, animals, plants, soil, air and water. There are relationships
between these elements. When these relationships are disturbed life becomes difficult or
impossible. If a man does not irrigate the paddy field the crops will die. If the crops die,
the man will have no food to eat, and he will become weak. If this happens, he will not be
strong enough to irrigate the crops. This is like a circle. There are many such circles in our
environment. We must keep the environment balanced. But it is also very important to
keep the environment clean and free from pollution. By keeping the environment clean a
person can ensure a healthier and happier life. A person can turn a good, clean
environment into bad, polluted one. He /she can do this, without even knowing that he/she
is doing it. By many unwise acts he/she pollutes his/her environment. Thus our life is
directly related to the environment.

Paragraph Type: Classification

Transports in Bangladesh
To carry people and goods, two types of transport – traditional and modern are
used in Bangladesh. The traditional transports include rickshaws, bicycle, boats, steamers,
carriages, etc. Rickshaws are the main vehicles in upazilla towns and also found in district
and divisional towns in a great member. Bicycles are usually used in the villages having
very poor communication facilities. Carriages pulled by horses or cows are frequently

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seen in rural areas. Steamers and boats are the common transport plying in rivers and
canals. On the other hand, the modern transports comprise trains, buses, taxis, planes,
trucks, and so on. Trains move in almost all the regions in Bangladesh and are very
popular means of communication. Buses are very common passenger transports in towns
and cities. Taxis are now increasingly used in towns. Trucks are the commonest means of
carrying goods from one place to another in Bangladesh. Planes ply both the internal and
external routes of Bangladesh. Thus the traditional and the modern transport are
complementary to each other in the communication system of Bangladesh.

Paragraph Type: Example

Social Factors in Modern Literature

Modern literature in most countries deals with real social factors. For example,
many contemporary novels of Africa, India and Bangladesh depict the lives of ordinary
people struggling against adversity. Further, poetry from South and North America speaks
out against social and economic oppression. Furthermore, modern European drama enacts
the fate of the working man in his drab confrontation with life. Besides, short stories of
Bangladesh and West Bengal show the prejudices and deep-rooted ideas that often act as
curse in the society. Hence, modern literature is a conspicuous reflection of a great number
of social issues.

Paragraph Type: Space Order

My Reading Room
My reading room is well ventilated and well lit, and faces the west. It has a door opening
to the west and two windows- one along the south and other along the north wall. This
room is situated on the first floor of our building: I have placed the reading table just
behind the south window. So I easily enjoy the sweet south breeze. I have also kept my
book shelf beside the other window along the north wall. The shelf contains all my
necessary books. Besides, a single cot has been placed along the east wall. I use my
reading room as my bed room, too. Further I have decorated all the four walls of the room
with several paintings. I really enjoy reading in my small reading room.

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 Paragraph Type: Example

Social Factors in Modern Literature

Modern literature in most countries deals with real social factors. For example,
many contemporary novels of Africa, India and Bangladesh depict the lives of ordinary
people struggling against adversity. Further, poetry from South and North America speaks
out against social and economic oppression. Furthermore, modern European drama enacts
the fate of the working man in his drab confrontation with life. Besides, short stories of
Bangladesh and West Bengal show the prejudices and deep-rooted ideas that often act as
curse in the society. Hence, modern literature is a conspicuous reflection of a great number
of social issues.

Paragraph Type: Cause and Effect

Road Accidents
Road accidents, very common sights today, result from several causes. Firstly, the
recklessness of drivers often causes the loss of lives and properties. Secondly, inadequate
traffic rules and inefficient traffic policemen are sometimes responsible for road accidents.
Thirdly, overloaded transports are also causes of accidents. Fourthly, narrow roads create
hindrances to the smooth movement of vehicles, and accidents occur. Fifthly, mechanical
failures, such as faulty brakes and bald tyres are at times the causes of fatal accidents.
Sixthly, violation of the traffic rules also accounts for a lot of road accidents. Hence,
drivers, traffic policemen and others concerned with the road communication are
responsible for almost all road accidents.

Paragraph Type: Contrast

Rural Life and Urban Life

Rural life and urban life have many common sides, but differences between them
are greater. Rural people do not have adequate educational and medical facilities. They do
not enjoy the modern facilities provided by electricity and gas. The village people also
have very limited scopes of entertainments. Besides these, they face problems with their
communication network. On the other hand, the urban people enjoy a lot of educational
and medical facilities. They have electricity and gas, and then lead a very comfortable
life. The people in towns and cities also have many ways of entertainments such as parks,
cinemas, cable televisions, and so forth. Moreover, they enjoy a smooth and easy
communication system. Thus rural life is deprived of modern facilities whereas urban life
is as modern as enjoyable.

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 Paragraph Type: Comparison

A Baby and Old Person

Though a baby and old person are very different in point of age and experience,
they are much similar in respect of physical ability, mental strength and economic
condition. A baby is physically immature and depends on the adults around him/her for
physical movement. Similarly, an old person may be very week and depend on others for
his/ her movement. Again a baby possesses a little mental strength and can hardly exercise
it. Likewise, an old person lacks mental strength and hardly copes with mental pressure.
Finally, a baby has to depend on his/her parents for all financial support. An old person,
too, often depends on his/her sons and daughters for economic assistance. Thus, a baby
and an old person have much in common, though the former has just come to this world
and the latter is about to pass away.

Learner’s Activities:
-The students are instructed to write paragraphs, consisting of logical topic sentences,
supporting sentences and concluding sentences as the overall development of paragraphs.

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 Lesson 15

Revising and Editing (Part-1)

Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson students will be able to:

1. structure your paragraph appropriately

2. revise your paragraph effectively

There are many similarities between two productive skills- Speaking and Writing. Writing
has a unique characteristic that Speaking lacks. When you speak, you cannot repair or
revise your speech as speaking is done in an interactive environment except some
recorded video lessons that are recoded with many takes. Once you say something means
someone has heard you and then you don’t have any chance to change it. But, on the
contrary, when you write something, you can do it your own and revise it – like changing
words, sentence structure etc. before you place it to someone to read. If you want to be a
good writer, you must to know how to revise your writing: sentence, paragraph, essay,
report etc.

One interesting example can be of the Poets or Novelists. You may have already read the
autobiography of many poets or Novelists. They write something and revise it repeatedly
until they are satisfied with their produced writing. Similarly, if we want to be skilled
writer, we must know how to prepare draft and rethink, reword, revise and rewrite it.
James Michner once said, “I’m probably the world’s worst writer. But I’m the best
rewriter.”

Revising Your Draft

Revision is the step or stage of the writing process where the writer reviews and then
amends their paragraph or essay. Revision is not a one-stop stage in the writing process
and often involves circling back and forth between drafting. Good writers will go through
multiple drafts and revisions before moving on to the editing and proofreading stage.

Revising may include topic sentence, supporting details, logical organization, unity etc.
Revising differs from editing and proofreading because it requires the writer to look at
large-scale or global matters in their paragraphs or essays. Editing deals with smaller scale
matters like sentence structure, grammar, spelling, punctuation etc. and proofreading
deals with handwriting or typing errors.

To ensure that you are able to read your essay critically, you will have to create some
distance between your draft and yourself. Keep some of the following strategies in mind:
a) Take a break after finishing the draft. A few hours may be enough; a whole
night or day is preferable

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 b) Ask someone to read and react to your draft.
c) Outline your draft. Highlight the main points supporting the thesis, and
convert these sentences to outline form. Then examine the outline you have
made for logical order, gaps, and digressions.
d) Adopt and imagined reader’s perspective: When we write, we should think
about the reader’s personality, concerns, values, interests, how she or she will
respond to your writing.

e) Pretend to be the reader for whom you are writing: None of us is perfect.
They ways we think are different from others. When we write, most often we
cannot decide how much appropriate we are. We can try to read the writing
from reader’s perspective to see if the reader would be confused by any parts
or will they understand what we want to mean.

f) Reading Aloud: Our auditory sense can identify many inconsistencies. Thus if
we read aloud what we write, we will be able to check the inconsistency. If
something sounds strange, we can revise it.

g) Listen to your draft. Read the draft out loud to yourself or a friend or
classmate, record and listen to it, or have someone read the draft to you.

h) Ease the pressure. Don’t try to re-see everything in your draft at once.

Five important qualities of good writing

1. Focus: Each paragraph must have a clear main point or topic sentence.

2. Development: The topic sentence must be supported by relevant supporting

details.

3. Unity: Each paragraph must stick to its main point.

4. Coherence: Logical organization of a paragraph ensures the smooth flow of the

supporting details.

5. Correctness: Each paragraph must be error free in terms of structure of sentences

and grammar.

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Use this checklist for revision to assist you in getting started:

Purpose and audience

Does the draft address a question, a problem, or an issue that readers care about?
Is the draft appropriate for its audience? Does it account for the audience’s
knowledge of and possible attitudes toward the subject?
Focus
Is the topic sentence clear? Is it prominently placed?
Are any ideas obviously off the point?
Organization and paragraphing
Are there enough organizational cues for readers (such as topic sentences)?
Are ideas presented in a logical order?
Are any paragraphs too long or too short for easy reading?
Content
Is the supporting material relevant and persuasive?
Which ideas need further development?
Are the parts proportioned sensibly? Do major ideas receive enough attention?
Where might material be deleted?
Point of view
Is the dominant point of view – first person (I or we), second person (you), or third
person(he, she, it, one, or they) – appropriate for your purpose and audience?

Once you feel you have a solid draft after multiple revisions, you then move on to the
editing and proofreading stage. Smaller-scale matters like sentence structure, word
choice, grammar, punctuation, spelling and mechanics are examined at the editing and
proofreading stages. Some strategies to keep in mind at this stage are:

a) Take a break. Even fifteen minutes can clear your head.

b) Read the draft slowly, and read what you actually see. Otherwise you are likely
to read what you intended to write but did not.
c) Read as if you are encountering the draft for the first time. Put yourself in the
reader’s place.
d) Have a classmate, friend, or relative read your work. Make sure you understand
and consider the reader’s suggestions, even if you decide not to take them.
e) Add new ideas, details and descriptive sentences.
f) Cross out ideas, sentences and words that do not sound logical or interesting or
that are not clearly related to your main point.
g) Cross out sentence or words that are repetitious.
h) Use circles and arrows to indicate how sentences or words should be reorganized.

i) Read the draft aloud and listen for awkward rhythms, repetitive sentence
patterns, and missing or clumsy transitions.

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 j) Learn from your own experiences. Keep a record of the problems that others
have pointed out in your previous writing. When editing, check for the same types
of errors.
Note: Revising smaller scale matters will be focused on other lessons. Like revising
punctuation, fragment, run on etc. In the rest of this chapter we will focus on
revising topic sentence, supporting details, organization.

An example of revision:

In 1969, E. B. White wrote a one-paragraph comment on the first moon walk. Eventually,
White took the comment through six drafts. On the next page of this hand-out, you can see
his third and sixth drafts. White's main points are underlined. In Draft 6, White gets right
to the point. He states the problem he's addressing—"the moon is a poor place for
flags"—in his third sentence. in Draft 3, he does not suggest this until the sentence that
begins "Yet," and never directly; it is the sum of the large amount of underlined
material. Revision enabled White to be clearer by articulating concisely and directly an
idea that was earlier implied; correspondingly, revision let him move an idea that was
clear by the middle or end of an early draft to the beginning. He also cut his
introductory device, the beach trip. The amount of space he devotes to it in draft 3
suggests that White was attached to this example. But it prevents him from getting to the
point. So he substitutes the bouncy dance, which preserves the playfulness of the trip to
the beach but is more economical.

Draft 3:

Planning a trip to the moon differs in no essential respect from planning a trip to the
beach. You have to decide what to take along, what to leave behind. Should the thermos
jug go? The child's rubber horse? The dill pickles? These are the sometimes fateful
decisions on which the success or failure of the whole outing turns. Something goes along
that spoils everything because it is always in the way; something gets left behind that is
desperately needed for comfort or for safety. The men who drew up the moon list for the
astronauts planned long and hard and well. (Should the vacuum cleaner go, to suck up
moon dust?) Among the items they sent along, of course, was the little jointed flagpoles
and the flag that could be stiffened to the breeze that did not blow. (It is traditional among
explorers to plant the flag.) Yet the two men who stepped out on the surface of the moon
were in a class by themselves and should have been equipped accordingly: they were of
the new breed of men, those who had seen the earth whole. When, following instructions,
they colored the moon red, white, and blue, they were fumbling with the past—or so it
seemed to us, who watched, trembling with awe and admiration and pride. This moon
plant was the last scene in the long book of nationalism, one that could have well been
omitted. The moon still holds the key to madness, which is universal, still controls the

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tides that lap on shores everywhere, still guards lovers that kiss in every land under no
banner but the sky. What a pity we couldn't have forsworn our little Iwo Jima scene and
planted instead a banner acceptable to all—a simple white handkerchief, perhaps, symbol
of the common cold, which, like the moon, affects us all!

Draft 6:

The moon, it turns out, is a great place for men. One-sixth gravity must be a lot of fun, and
when Armstrong and Aldrin went into their bouncy little dance, like two happy children, it
was a moment not only of triumph but of gaiety. The moon, on the other hand, is a poor
place for flags. Ours looked stiff and awkward, trying to float on the breeze that does not
blow. (There must be a lesson here somewhere.) It is traditional, of course, for explorers to
plant the flag, but it struck us, as we watched with awe and admiration and pride, that our
two fellows were universal men, not national men, and should have been equipped
accordingly. Like every great river and every great sea, the moon belongs to none and
belongs to all. It still holds the key to madness, still controls the tides that lap on shores
everywhere, still guards the lovers that kiss in every land under no banner but the sky.
What a pity that in our moment of triumph we did not forswear the familiar Iwo Jima
scene and plant instead a device acceptable to all: a limp white handkerchief, perhaps,
symbol of the common cold, which, like the moon, affect us all, unites us all!

Learners’ Activities:
Homework:

Learners are instructed to write a paragraph on any topic as a first draft and revise it.
They are responsible for submission of their first draft and revised draft to the
instructor. The instructor will check both of drafts in the class, randomly.

Lesson 16
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 Revising and Editing (Part-2)

Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson students will be able:

1. to revise topic sentence, supporting sentences (details) and

concluding sentences with logical organization
2. to edit a paragraph

Revising Main Focus: The Topic Sentence

Topic sentence helps you and your reader focus on the main idea or concept on what
you are writing the paragraph. Make sure that the topic sentence of each paragraph is
appropriate of your purpose and for your intended audience. You can ask yourself the
following questions.\
[Link] my topic sentence a complete sentence?
[Link] it have the key words that limit the topic?
[Link] my topic sentence too narrow or too broad?
[Link] my readers understand my purpose for writing the paragraph?
If you don’t get any satisfactory answer, then rewrite your topic sentence.

See the following draft paragraph and revised paragraph and try to understand
the differences.

Draft Paragraph
Every person in this world has the right to get food, clothing, shelter, education and
treatment. Those are regarded as basic human rights. Basic human rights mean the rights
that should be got by everyone from the country and countrymen fairly. In our country,
some rights are being protected and some rights are being neglected. The poor children
are deprived because they do not get food and cloth. They have to earn money themselves
for living. They do it by engaging themselves in many risky jobs. Our women folk is
deprived of education. They cannot make any decision or give any opinion about the
important issues in the family. Sometimes they are tortured both physically and
psychologically. The old people are not getting proper care and treatment. People can
come to know what the constitution says about their rights if they are careful of their
rights. If people know about their rights, they can enjoy, use and protect them properly
and thus they can contribute to the development of the country.

Revised Paragraph

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 Basic human rights mean the rights that should be got by everyone from the country and
countrymen fairly. Every person in this world has the right to get food, clothing, shelter,
education and treatment. Those are regarded as basic human rights. In our country, some
rights are being protected and some rights are being neglected. Our poor children are
deprived of food and education. They have to earn money themselves for living. They do it
by engaging themselves in many risky jobs. Our women folk are deprived of education.
They have no right to make any decision or give any opinion about the important issues in
the family. Sometimes they are tortured both physically and mentally. Our old people are
deprived of proper care and treatment. People can come to know what the constitution
says about their rights if they are conscious of their rights. If people know about their
rights, they can enjoy, use and protect them properly and thus they can contribute to the
development of the country.

Exercise on revising topic sentence

Work with your partner. Read the following paragraph and answer the questions
below it.
A national flag is the pictogram of a country’s sovereignty and its own identity of being an
independent nation. The national flag of Bangladesh is our pride. Our heart swells up with
joy when we see the flag upholds our country’s entity on the world map. Our glorious
national flag was purchased at too great a price at the cost of a sea of blood. Painter
Quamrul Hasan is the designer of our national flag. It is rectangular in shape. Its length
and width ration are 10:6. The red circular disc in the map of Bangladesh symbolises
blood of thousands of Bengal killed by the Pakistanis since 1947. It also represents the
rising sun and the sacrifice of our people to achieve independence. The green backdrop
stands for vitality, youthfulness and greenery. The background colour also emblematises
the greenery of Bangladesh with its vitality and youthfulness. The national flag is hoisted
atop the government, semi-government and self-autonomous buildings everyday. But it is
kept at half-mast on any national or international mourning days. The flag is the source of
spirit, hope and inspiration. The flag must be kept at its sublime position at any cost.
[Link] is the purpose of the writer of this paragraph?
[Link] the topic sentence meet that purpose?
[Link] the topic sentence, if you think that it is not appropriate for the paragraph.

Revising supporting sentences/details

Supporting details develop the paragraph and explain, illustrate, and prove the main idea.
When you are writing, supporting details make sure that:
[Link] sentence relates to the topic sentence
[Link] are in correct order
[Link] are no irrelevant ideas
[Link] sentence connects smoothly to the next (use transition words)

Now read the paragraph 1 (listing paragraph) and 2 ( comparison) and try to understand
how the supporting details are related to topic sentences and how they are organized.

Paragraph 1

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I, as usual, enjoyed the last Eid shopping as I visited different markets and bought dresses
for myself and the other members of my family. Firstly, I together with my mother went to
New Market and bought two attractive dresses for my younger sister. Then we went to
Gowsia Market, visited three shops, and bought a very nice dress for my mother. After
that, we went to Elephant Road, visited several shops, and bought two Punjabis — one for
me and one for my father. Besides, we bought a fine dress for our maid servant. Finally,
we went to Eastern Plaza, and purchased some cosmetics for my mother, sister and the
maid servant. The last Eid shopping was really a happy experience to me.

Paragraph 2

Though a baby and an old person are very different in point of age and experience, they
are much similar in respect of physical ability, mental strength and economic condition. A
baby is physically immature and depends on the adults around him/her for physical
movement. Similarly, an old person may be very weak and depend on others for his/her
movement. Again, a baby possesses a little mental strength and can hardly exercise it.
Likewise, an old person lacks mental strength and can hardly cope with mental pressure.
Finally, a baby has to depend on his/her parents for all financial support. An old person,
too, often depends on his/her sons and daughters for economic assistance. Thus, a baby
and an old person have much in common, though the former has just come to this world
and the latter is about to pass away.

Exercise:1
Read the following listing paragraph and revise the supporting details and fit the
topic sentence with the details.
I think reading newspaper is interesting and helpful a lot. I can enlarge my English
Vocabulary. I still remember when I first read New York Times; I had to consult the
dictionary for every single line. In two years, I picked up a lot of new words in reading.
English newspapers inform me of the world situation. China Daily, for instance, not only
tells me what happens in our country, but also the important events in the world. In as
short as an hour’s time, I feel as if I had traveled around the world. Reading English
newspapers broadens my knowledge. A good English newspaper usually has several
special columns such as sports, finance, people and customs, culture and so on. I am
interested in reading almost all of them because they often provide detailed information or
enlightening discussions. When my friends ask me with admiration, how I learn to know
so much, I would say to them, “English newspaper will tell you everything.”

Exercise 2
How effective are the topic sentence and supporting details in the paragraph below?
Answer the questions that follow the paragraph.

The first civil rights riot to receive national attention occurred in Harlem, New York City,
in the summer of 1964. The riot erupted two days after an off-duty policeman shot a 15-
year-old black youth. It was like Rodney King and the riot in Los Angeles. Riots can
really be bad. In the 1964 riot, crowds of people roamed the streets, breaking windows,

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looting stores and menacing the policemen. The police fired their guns in to the night sky.
One protester died and 144 were injured. People always get hurt in these situations. They
got hurt in the Rodney King riot. They got hurt in other riots. There has to be a better way
to achieve racial justice.

[Link] do you think the writer’s purpose was?

[Link] the paragraph have a topic sentence? If so, what is it? If no, what would you
suggest as a topic sentence for his paragraph?
[Link] the paragraph accomplish the writer’s purpose? If not, where does it need
additional or different details?
4. Are the details specific enough? If not, circle the places where more specific details are
needed and add them.

Revising Concluding Sentences

What do concluding sentences do?

The last sentence in the paragraph completes the idea that was introduced in the topic
sentence by restating it in different words. A good concluding sentence may
summarize the arguments presented, restate the opinion of the writer, or make a
suggestion based on what the writer has said before

In essay, concluding sentences link one paragraph to the next and

provide another device for helping you ensure your text is cohesive.
While not all paragraphs include a concluding sentence, you should
always consider whether one is appropriate.

Concluding sentences have three crucial roles in paragraph

writing.

They draw together the information you have presented to

elaborate your controlling idea by:

 summarizing the points you have made.

 repeating words or phrases (or synonyms for them) from the topic
sentence.
 using linking words that indicate that conclusions are being drawn, for
example, therefore, thus, resulting.

They often link the current paragraph to the following

paragraph. They may anticipate the topic sentence of the next
paragraph by:

 introducing a word/phrase or new concept which will then be picked

up in the topic sentence of the next paragraph.

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  using words or phrases that point ahead, for example, the following,
another, other.

They often qualify the information or perspectives developed

in the elaboration. They may qualify this information by:

 using concessive conjunctions to foreground the importance of some

perspectives and background others.
 making comparisons and contrasts between perspectives.
 using other language that clearly indicates the perspective they favour.

IS EDITING THE SAME THING AS PROOFREADING?

Although many people use the terms interchangeably, editing and proofreading are two
different stages of the revision process. Both demand close and careful reading, but they
focus on different aspects of the writing and employ different techniques.

SOME TIPS THAT APPLY TO BOTH EDITING AND PROOFREADING

 Get some distance from the text! It’s hard to edit or proofread a paper that you’ve just
finished writing—it’s still to familiar, and you tend to skip over a lot of errors. Put the
paper aside for a few hours, days, or weeks. Go for a run. Take a trip to the beach.
Clear your head of what you’ve written so you can take a fresh look at the paper and
see what is really on the page. Better yet, give the paper to a friend—you can’t get
much more distance than that. Someone who is reading the paper for the first time,
comes to it with completely fresh eyes.
 Decide what medium lets you proofread most carefully. Some people like to work
right at the computer, while others like to sit back with a printed copy that they can
mark up as they read.
 Try changing the look of your document. Altering the size, spacing, color, or style of
the text may trick your brain into thinking it’s seeing an unfamiliar document, and that
can help you get a different perspective on what you’ve written.
 Find a quiet place to work. Don’t try to do your proofreading in front of the TV or
while you’re chugging away on the treadmill. Find a place where you can concentrate
and avoid distractions.
 If possible, do your editing and proofreading in several short blocks of time. Your
concentration may start to wane if you try to proofread the entire text at one time.
 If you’re short on time, you may wish to prioritize. Make sure that you complete the
most important editing and proofreading tasks.
Editing

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Editing is what you begin doing as soon as you finish your first draft. You reread your
draft to see, for example, whether the paper is well-organized, the transitions between
paragraphs are smooth, and your evidence really backs up your argument. You can edit
on several levels:

Content
Have you done everything the assignment requires? Are the claims you make accurate? If
it is required to do so, does your paper make an argument? Is the argument complete? Are
all of your claims consistent? Have you supported each point with adequate evidence? Is
all of the information in your paper relevant to the assignment and/or your overall writing
goal?

Overall structure
Does your paper have an appropriate introduction and conclusion? Is your thesis clearly
stated in your introduction? Is it clear how each paragraph in the body of your paper is
related to your thesis? Are the paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence? Have you made
clear transitions between paragraphs? One way to check the structure of your paper is to
make a reverse outline of the paper after you have written the first draft. (See our handouts
on introductions, conclusions, thesis statements, and transitions.)

Structure within paragraphs

Does each paragraph have a clear topic sentence? Does each paragraph stick to one main
idea? Are there any extraneous or missing sentences in any of your paragraphs?

Clarity
Have you defined any important terms that might be unclear to your reader? Is the
meaning of each sentence clear? (One way to answer this question is to read your paper
one sentence at a time, starting at the end and working backwards so that you will not
unconsciously fill in content from previous sentences.) Is it clear what each pronoun (he,
she, it, they, which, who, this, etc.) refers to? Have you chosen the proper words to
express your ideas? Avoid using words you find in the thesaurus that aren’t part of your
normal vocabulary; you may misuse them.

Style
Have you used an appropriate tone (formal, informal, persuasive, etc.)? Is your use of
gendered language (masculine and feminine pronouns like “he” or “she,” words like
“fireman” that contain “man,” and words that some people incorrectly assume apply to
only one gender—for example, some people assume “nurse” must refer to a woman)
appropriate? Have you varied the length and structure of your sentences? Do you tends to
use the passive voice too often? Does your writing contain a lot of unnecessary phrases
like “there is,” “there are,” “due to the fact that,” etc.? Do you repeat a strong word (for
example, a vivid main verb) unnecessarily?

Citations

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Have you appropriately cited quotes, paraphrases, and ideas you got from sources? Are
your citations in the correct format?
As you edit at all of these levels, you will usually make significant revisions to the content
and wording of your paper. Keep an eye out for patterns of error; knowing what kinds of
problems you tend to have will be helpful, especially if you are editing a large document
like a thesis or dissertation. Once you have identified a pattern, you can develop
techniques for spotting and correcting future instances of that pattern. For example, if you
notice that you often discuss several distinct topics in each paragraph, you can go through
your paper and underline the key words in each paragraph, then break the paragraphs up
so that each one focuses on just one main idea.

Proofreading
Proofreading is the final stage of the editing process, focusing on surface errors such as
misspellings and mistakes in grammar and punctuation. You should proofread only after
you have finished all of your other editing revisions.

Why proofread? It’s the content that really matters, right?

Content is important. But like it or not, the way a paper looks affects the way others judge
it. When you’ve worked hard to develop and present your ideas, you don’t want careless
errors distracting your reader from what you have to say. It’s worth paying attention to the
details that help you to make a good impression.
Most people devote only a few minutes to proofreading, hoping to catch any glaring errors
that jump out from the page. But a quick and cursory reading, especially after you’ve been
working long and hard on a paper, usually misses a lot. It’s better to work with a definite
plan that helps you to search systematically for specific kinds of errors.
Sure, this takes a little extra time, but it pays off in the end. If you know that you have an
effective way to catch errors when the paper is almost finished, you can worry less about
editing while you are writing your first drafts. This makes the entire writing proccess more
efficient.
Try to keep the editing and proofreading processes separate. When you are editing an
early draft, you don’t want to be bothered with thinking about punctuation, grammar, and
spelling. If your worrying about the spelling of a word or the placement of a comma,
you’re not focusing on the more important task of developing and connecting ideas.

The proofreading process

You probably already use some of the strategies discussed below. Experiment with
different tactics until you find a system that works well for you. The important thing is to
make the process systematic and focused so that you catch as many errors as possible in
the least amount of time.

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 Don’t rely entirely on spelling checkers. These can be useful tools but they are far
from foolproof. Spell checkers have a limited dictionary, so some words that show up
as misspelled may really just not be in their memory. In addition, spell checkers will
not catch misspellings that form another valid word. For example, if you type “your”
instead of “you’re,” “to” instead of “too,” or “there” instead of “their,” the spell
checker won’t catch the error.
 Grammar checkers can be even more problematic. These programs work with a
limited number of rules, so they can’t identify every error and often make mistakes.
They also fail to give thorough explanations to help you understand why a sentence
should be revised. You may want to use a grammar checker to help you identify
potential run-on sentences or too-frequent use of the passive voice, but you need to be
able to evaluate the feedback it provides.
 Proofread for only one kind of error at a time. If you try to identify and revise too
many things at once, you risk losing focus, and your proofreading will be less effective.
It’s easier to catch grammar errors if you aren’t checking punctuation and spelling at
the same time. In addition, some of the techniques that work well for spotting one kind
of mistake won’t catch others.
 Read slow, and read every word. Try reading out loud, which forces you to say each
word and also lets you hear how the words sound together. When you read silently or
too quickly, you may skip over errors or make unconscious corrections.
 Separate the text into individual sentences. This is another technique to help you to
read every sentence carefully. Simply press the return key after every period so that
every line begins a new sentence. Then read each sentence separately, looking for
grammar, punctuation, or spelling errors. If you’re working with a printed copy, try
using an opaque object like a ruler or a piece of paper to isolate the line you’re working
on.
 Circle every punctuation mark. This forces you to look at each one. As you circle,
ask yourself if the punctuation is correct.
 Read the paper backwards. This technique is helpful for checking spelling. Start with
the last word on the last page and work your way back to the beginning, reading each
word separately. Because content, punctuation, and grammar won’t make any sense,
your focus will be entirely on the spelling of each word. You can also read backwards
sentence by sentence to check grammar; this will help you avoid becoming distracted
by content issues.
 Proofreading is a learning process. You’re not just looking for errors that you
recognize; you’re also learning to recognize and correct new errors. This is where
handbooks and dictionaries come in. Keep the ones you find helpful close at hand as
you proofread.
 Ignorance may be bliss, but it won’t make you a better proofreader. You’ll often
find things that don’t seem quite right to you, but you may not be quite sure what’s
wrong either. A word looks like it might be misspelled, but the spell checker didn’t
catch it. You think you need a comma between two words, but you’re not sure why.
Should you use “that” instead of “which”? If you’re not sure about something, look it
up.

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 The proofreading process becomes more efficient as you develop and practice a
systematic strategy. You’ll learn to identify the specific areas of your own writing that
need careful attention, and knowing that you have a sound method for finding errors
will help you to focus more on developing your ideas while you are drafting the paper.

Learners Activities:

Exercise
In the following paragraph, there is no concluding sentence/s. Read the paragraph
carefully and write concluding sentence/sentences. Change the topic sentence to suit the
supporting details and concluding sentences, if necessary. Make sure that your concluding
sentences serve the three crucial roles.

The Internet

The information system of the world has become globalized with the magical touch of
internet. Like a spider-web the Internet has spread its interconnected link with tens,
hundreds or even thousands of computers. And it has enabled them to share information
and communication with one another widely, effectively and inexpensively. The Internet
has made it possible for people all over the world to bring the information and
communication system within their palm. The Internet has brought new opportunities to
government, education and business. Governments use the Internet for internal
communication, distribution of information and automated tax processing. Bangladesh as
a developing country does not have access to the Internet in all spheres. Still internet here
has some access to the business world and the banking system. Educational institutions
also use the Internet to some extent. Internet here also allows a great variety in digital
entertainment. People can enjoy music, movie, gaming, chatting with friends, sharing
views and ideas about world affairs just by pressing few keys.

Homework
The following are 5 paragraphs on Global warming. These are given here just to make you
understand how you can write differently on the same. Identify topic sentence, supporting
details and concluding sentences from each paragraph. Are they appropriate? Are they
logically organized? If not, revise them and introduce the necessary changes.
Paragraph 1

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The term ‘Global Warming’ refers to the rise in the temperature of planet earth which will
bring an end to the mountains old human civilization. The Green house gages including
CFC-11 and CFC- 12 make the earth hotter and hotter by absorbing maximum quantity of
thermal radiation of the sun. These gasses permit the rays of the sun to penetrate but don’t
let the thermal radiations escape from the earth’s atmosphere once they enter it. This
causing what is termed as the Greenhouse effect which is responsible for the increase in
the temperature all over the world. The rise in temperature disturbs the rain cycle, the
ecological balance, the cycle of seasons etc. It adversely affects vegetation and agriculture.
Thus, we have to face frequent floods and droughts through the world. With the increase
in temperature and the melting of glaciers, even snowfall has reduced its occurrence and
intensity. The winter temperatures are showing a gradual increase. With the warming of
the planet there is also rise in humidity because the rise in temperature has increase the
rate of evaporation. The local governments should work against the emission of the
Greenhouse gages by improving the vehicles, creating awareness among the people,
selling environment-friendly appliances; encourage recycling of paper, metal and glass
etc. Such efforts are needed by the people at the grass-root level. Only then we can combat
this problem in an effective way.
Paragraph 2
Global warming can be best defined as the increase in the overall warming of our planet,
which if not checked will burn all of us alive in the near future. According to a recent
study Green house gages are the major cause for the increase of the average temperature
of earth. There is a danger of coastal regions drowning due to increase in sea level with
the shrinking of glaciers. Thus there is a grave danger of an entire civilization becoming
extinct in a watery grave. Animals and plants are also finding it difficult to cope up with
these temperature changes. Species after species of both flora and fauna might disappear
from the face of earth. Not only this, even human life is getting affected by Global
Warming. Epidemics are spreading frequently. There is heat stress responsible for killing
people. Disease like dengue fever, yellow fever and encephalitis are indirect results of
Global Warming. As the saying goes “It’s never too late”, the government should now try
to educate the people about various kinds of pollution and create public awareness. People
should be involved in helping to reduce and control pollution. Moreover, punishment
should be strictly given in case of violation of any environmental law so that such people
learn a lesion. Until we all get serious and resolve to make our planet a better place to live
in, humanity stands amidst grave danger of perishing and being destroyed due to the
severe and increase problem of pollution. The need of the day calls each and every citizen
of planet earth to plant trees everywhere.
Paragraph 3
According to the Human Development Report (H.D.R) 2007, developed countries should
cut their carbon emission at least by 80 %, by the year 2050, with 20 -30 % cuts by 2030,
if the earth has to be saved from the adverse effects of Global Warming. The report also
calls for 20 % in carbon emission by fast growing economies like Indian and China. The
UN report says that there is a small window of opportunity in this century for limiting the
global temperature increase to 2 degrees centigrade. If this is not done, humanity will face
a series of climactic changes that will wreak havoc on the planet. These will include

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flooding of coastal areas, crop failures, epidemics, severe water scarcity and increase in
natural disasters. According to the report, climate change will affect the world’s poor
most. Global warming will initiate droughts and flooding which will destroy the sources
of live hood for poor people in Africa, Asia and South America. The poorer sections will
also be the most prone to health disaster like spread of malaria and diarrhea. The H.D.R
also makes it clear that the rich countries have to take the main responsibility for
controlling emissions.
Paragraph 4
All living organisms will be burn alive. Yes! Global warming if not check will bring an
end to life on planet earth. Thus governments all over the world are concerned about the
adverse effects of the rise of the average temperature of planet earth. IN 1992, the earth
Summit was held at Riode Janeiro, Brazil where 150 countries agreed to confront the
problem of Greenhouse gages. In 1997, in Japan, 160 nations signed an agreement called
as Kyoto Protocol. The Protocol calls upon the developed nations to reduce the emissions
of Greenhouse gages up to 50 % by 2012. The treaty still awaits to be implemented by the
developed countries, especially the US. Our survival on the planet depends upon the
maintenance of the environment that protects us. Thus, it becomes our utmost need and
necessity to regain the lost balance in the nature and create harmony between its various
constituent elements.
Paragraph 5
Global warming is the increase in average global temperature due to increase in amount of
green house effects in the earth’s atmosphere. The average global temperature is 15 degree
centigrade which is maintained due to presence of certain gases like Carbon dioxide,
methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide and chlorofluro carbon present with troposphere. The
gages are collectively called heat trapping or green house gages. Lanth’s temperature is
maintained by traditional infer-red (heat) radiation by these Green House effects which
prevent heart from escaping to outer space, so one functionality comparable to glass
panels of a green house which keep carbon dioxide concentration higher and so higher
temperature inside the green house. So the effect is called Green House effect

Lesson 17

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 Essay Writing (Part-1)

Learning Objective: The students will be able to understand the idea of an essay
and its structures. Specifically, the lesson will focus on the introductory paragraph with
the identification of the thesis sentence (statement) and key words, the supporting
paragraphs and the concluding paragraph of an essay.

The instructor will go through the rerated topics in this lesson. The students will be
instructed to take notes on the topics, discussed in the class.

What is an Essay?
Differences between an Essay and a Paragraph

An essay is simply a paper of several paragraphs, rather than one paragraph, That supports
a single point. In an essay, subjects can and should be treated more fully than they would
be in a single-paragraph paper.

The main idea or point developed in an essay is called the thesis statement or thesis
sentence (rather than, as in a paragraph, the topic sentence). The thesis statement appears
in the introductory paragraph, and it is then developed in the supporting paragraphs that
follow. A short concluding paragraph closes the essay.

The form of an Essay:

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The diagram on the next page shows the form of an essay.

Introductory Paragraph
The Introduction attracts the reader’s interest.
The thesis statement (or thesis sentence) states the main
Introduction
idea advanced in the paper.
Thesis sentence (statement)
The plan of development is a list of points that support the
Plan of development:
thesis. The points are presented in the order in which they
Points 1, 2, 3
will be developed in the paper.

First Supporting Paragraph

The topic sentence advances the first supporting point for
Topic sentence (point1) the thesis, and the specific evidence in the rest of the
Specific evidence paragraph develops that first point.

Second Supporting Paragraph

Topic sentence (point 2) The topic sentence advances the second supporting point
Specific evidence for the thesis, and the specific evidence in the rest of the
paragraph develops that second point.

Third Supporting Paragraph

Topic sentence (point 3) The topic sentence advances the third supporting points
Specific evidence for the thesis, and the specific evidence in the rest of the
paragraph develops that third point.

Concluding Paragraph
Summary, conclusion, A summary is a brief restatement of the thesis and its main
or both points. A conclusion is a final thought or two stemming
from the subject of the paper.

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A Model Essay:

Here is the model essay.

Hasan’s job in a Beverage Plant

Introductory In the course of working his way through school, Hasan has taken many jobs he would
paragraph rather forget. He has spent nine hours a day working in a furniture factory in Dhaka
city. He has risked the loss of eyes and fingers working a punch press in a textile
factory. He has served as a ward aide in an orthopedic hospital in the city, helping care
Thesis sentence for injured men. But none of these jobs was as dreadful as his job in a beverage plant.
The work was physically hard; the pay was poor; and, most of all, the working
conditions were miserable.

First First, the job made enormous demands on his strength and energy. For ten hours a
supporting night, he took cartons that rolled down a metal track and stacked them onto wooden
paragraph skids in a tractor trailer. Each carton contained twelve heavy bottles of Pran-up
beverage, a sister company of Pran Limited in Dhaka. A carton shot down the track
about every fifteen seconds. He once figured out that he was lifting an average of
twelve tons of beverage every night. When a truck was almost filled, he or his partner
had to drag fourteen bulky wooden skids into the empty trailer nearby and then set up
added sections of the heavy metal track so that they could start routing cartons to the
back of the empty van. While one of them did that, the other performed the stacking
work of two men.

Second He would not have minded the difficulty of the work so much if the pay had not been
supporting so poor. He was paid the minimum wage at that time, 600 taka an hour, plus just a
paragraph quarter extra for working the night shift. Because of the low salary, he felt compelled
to get as much overtime pay as possible. Everything over eight hours a night was time-
and-a-half, so he typically worked twelve hours a night. On Friday he would
sometimes work straight through until Saturday at noon--- eighteen hours. he averaged
over sixty hours a week but did not take home much salary.

But even more than the low pay, what upset him about his beverage plant job was the
Third working conditions. His humorless supervisor cared only about his production record
supporting for each night and tried to keep the assembly line moving at breakneck pace. During
paragraph work he was limited to two ten-minute breaks and an unpaid half hour for lunch. Most
of his time was spent outside on the truck loading dock in near-zero-degree
temperatures. The steel floors of the trucks were like ice; the quickly penetrating cold
made his feet feel like stone. He had no shared interests with the man I loaded cartons
with, and so he had to work without companionship on the job. And after the
production line shout down and most people left, he had to spend two hours alone
scrubbing clean the beverage vats, which were coated with a sticky residue.

Concluding He stayed on the job for five months, all the while hating the difficulty of the work, the
paragraph poor money, and the conditions under which he worked. By the time he quit, he was
determined not to do such degrading work again.

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Learners’ Activities:
In the class (es), the students will identify the followings of the above essay:
1. Identify the thesis sentence in the introductory paragraph.
1. Identify the first supporting paragraph and its topic sentence.
2. Identify the second supporting paragraph and its topic sentence.
3. Identify the third supporting paragraph and its topic sentence.

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 Lesson 18

Essay Writing (Part-2)

Learning Objective: The students will be able to understand some key aspects
related to an essay and its structures.

Important Aspects about the Essay

Introductory Paragraph

An introductory paragraph has certain purposes or functions and can be constructed using
various methods.

Purposes of the Introductory Paragraph

An introductory paragraph should d the following there aspects:

1. It attracts the reader’s interest.

2. It presents a thesis sentence-a clear, correct statement of the central idea that you will
develop in your paper. The thesis statement, like a topic sentence, should have a keyword
or keywords reflecting your attitudes about the subject. For example, in the essay on topic
a Beverage Plant job, the key word dreadful.

3. It indicates a plan of development---a preview of the major points that will support your
thesis statement, listed in the order in which they will be presented. In same cases the
thesis statement and plan of development may appear in the same sentence. In some cases,
the plan of development is also omitted.

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Activity in the Class

a. Write an introductory paragraph.

b. Identify the thesis sentence (thesis statement).
c. Design the plan of development: a list of points that support the thesis.

Common Methods of Introduction

Here are some common methods of introduction. Use any one method, or a
combination of methods, to introduce your subject in an interesting way.

1 Broad statement. Start with a broad, general statement of your topic and
narrow it down to your thesis statement. Broad, general statements
ease the reader into your thesis statement by providing a background
for it. In "Hassan’s Job in a Beverage Plant," The writer writes
generally on the topic of Hassan’s worst jobs and then narrows down
to a specific worst job.

2 Contrast. Start with an idea or situation that is the opposite of the one you will
develop. This approach works because your readers will be surprised, and
then intrigued, by the contrast between the opening idea and the thesis
that follows it. Here is an example of a "contrast" introduction:

When Ms Firdausi was a girl, she never argued with her parents about
differences between their attitudes and herself. Her father would deliver his
judgment on an issue, and that was usually the end of the matter. Discussion seldom
changed his mind, and disagreement was not tolerated. But the situation is
different with today's parents and children. Firdausi’s husband and she have to
contend with radical differences between what their children think about a
given situation and what they think about it. They have had disagreements with
all three of their daughters, Mahia, Shathi and Tulip.

3 "Relevance." Explain the importance of your topic. If you can convince

your readers that the subject applies to them in some way, or is
something they should know more about, they will want to continue
reading. The introductory paragraph of "Sports-Crazy America" (page
319) provides an example of a "relevance" introduction.

4 Anecdote. Use an incident or brief story. Stories are naturally interesting.

They appeal to a reader's curiosity. In your introduction, an anecdote will

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grab the reader's attention right away. The story should be brief and should
be related to your central idea. The incident in the story can be something
that happened to you, something that you may have heard about, or
something that you have read about in a newspaper or magazine. Here is an
example of a paragraph that begins with a story:

The husky man pushes open the door of the bedroom and grins as he pulls out a
revolver. An elderly man wearing thin pajamas looks at him and whimpers. In a
feeble effort at escape, the old man slides out of his bed and moves to the door of
the room. The husky man, still grinning, blocks his way. With the face of a
small, frightened animal, the old man looks up and whispers, "Oh, God, please
don't hurt me." The grinning man then fires four times. The television movie cuts
now to a soap commercial, but the little boy who has been watching the set has
begun to cry. Such scenes of direct violence on television must surely be harmful
to children for a number of psychological reasons.

5 Questions. Ask your readers one or more questions. These questions

catch the readers' interest and make them want to read on. Here is an example
of a paragraph that begins with questions:

What would happen if we were totally honest with ourselves? Would

we be able to stand the pain of giving up self-deception? Would the
complete truth be too much for us to bear? Such questions will
probably never be answered, for in everyday life we protect
ourselves from the onslaught of too much reality. All of us cultivate
defense mechanisms that prevent us from seeing, hearing, or feeling
too much. Included among such defense mechanisms are
rationalization, reaction formation, and substitution.

Note, however, that the thesis itself must not be a question.

6 Quotation. A quotation can be something you have read in a book or an

article. It can also be something that you have heard: a popular saying or
proverb ("Never give advice to a friend"); a current or recent advertising
slogan ("Just do it"); a favorite expression used by your friends or family
("My father always says . . ."). Using a quotation in your introductory
paragraph lets you add someone else's voice to your own. Here is an
example of a paragraph that begins with a quotation:

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Supporting Paragraphs
Most essays have three supporting points, developed in three separate paragraphs. (Some
essays will have two supporting points; others, four or more.) Each of the supporting
paragraphs should begin with a topic sentence that states the point to be detailed in that
paragraph. Just as the thesis provides a focus for the entire essay, the topic sentence
provides a focus for each supporting paragraph.

In paragraphs, transitions and other connective devices are used to help link sentences.
Similarly, in an essay transitional sentences are used to help tie the supporting
paragraphs together. Such transitional sentences usually occur near the end of one
paragraph or the beginning of the next.
In "Hasan’s Job in a Beverage Plant," the first transitional sentence is:

He would not have minded the difficulty of the work so much if the pay had not been
so poor.

In this sentence, the keyword difficulty reminds us of the point of the first supporting
paragraph, while pay tells us the point to be developed in the second supporting paragraph.

A Concluding Paragraph
A concluding paragraph of an essay consists of a summary of the essay and its main
points. A conclusion is a final thought or two stemming from the subject of an essay.

Learners’ Activities:

Homework:

In the class, the students are instructed to write an introductory paragraph and three
supporting paragraphs and one concluding paragraph on the topic, My University. They
need to underline the thesis sentence in the introductory paragraph.

In the next class, the faculty will check the students’ essay.

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 Lesson 19

Essay Writing (Part-3)

Learning Objective: The students will be engaged to take part in planning an essay
and its structures.

Planning the Essay

Outlining the Essay

When you write an essay, planning is crucial, for success. You should plan your essay by
outlining in two ways:

1. Prepare a scratch outline. This should consist of a short statement of the thesis followed
by the main supporting points for the thesis. Here is the outline for the essay on the
beverage plant:

But none of these jobs was as dreadful as his job in a beverage plant
a. Hard work
b. Poor pay
c. Bad working conditions

Do not underestimate the value of this initial outline—or the work involved in achieving
it. Be prepared to do a good deal of plain hard thinking at this first and most important
stage of your paper,

2. Prepare a more detailed outline. The outline form that follows will serve as a guide.
Your instructor may ask you to submit a copy of this form either before you actually write
an essay or along with your finished essay.

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Form for Planning an Essay

To write an effective essay, use a form like the one that follows.

Opening remarks
Thesis statement_______________________________________________________
Introduction
_____________________________________________________________

Plan of Development

Topic sentence 1
_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
Specific supporting evidence

Topic sentence 2
Body _______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
Specific supporting evidence

Topic sentence 3
_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
Specific supporting evidence

Conclusion

Summary, closing remarks, or both

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Learners’ Activities:
In the class, the students are instructed to write an effective essay on any topic, using the
Form for Planning an Essay. The instructor will check and go through students’ essays in
the class.

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 Lesson 20

Essay Writing (Part-4)

Learning Objective: The students will be able to understand some types of essays, by
reading some sample essays.

Descriptive Essay
Proper Use of Time

Time is what is measured in seconds minutes hours, days etc. It is not seen but perceived.
This abstract phenomenon does not know how to rest for a while. A ‘while’ itself is a
period of time. If it is lost, it is lost for good. A person’s life covers only a brief period of
time. During the short span time, he/she has to experience ups and downs. Therefore, to
use time properly means to use life properly.

Time contrasts sharply with life. Nobody knows when time started and when it will end. It
is infinite while life is of course finite. Many great men and women were born and died
after a limited period of time. Many civilizations flourished in different parts of this world
at different times, but existed for a limited span of time. It is then obvious that time is busy
with its endless journey and never looks back. On the other hand, a person is busy with
his/her past experiences, present conditions and future life to end soon. That is life is just
like a dot in the infinite line of time.

A person can achieve success in his/her life by using time properly. The proper use of time
means doing work in time. If a person does his/her work in time, no work is left undone.
Consequently, he/she becomes successful. To complete work min time, a person can
follow a daily routine which is seen to be much useful in different organizations. Besides,
the proper use of time also means the use user maximum time of a day, a week and thus a
person’s life. The person who can utilize the maximum time of his/her life can have
his/her maximum deeds completed. Hence, the proper use of time brings success in a
person’s life.

Contrariwise, the improper use of time causes failure. The improper use of time means not
to do work in time. If a person idles away time and does not do his/her work in time, the
work remains undone. As a result, once he /she encounters a lot of work undone before

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him / her. This makes him/her frustrated and has the bitter taste of failure. Moreover, a
person may spend much time for trifles. This waste of time makes him/ her have his/her
important jobs uncompleted in the stipulated time. Therefore, the improper use of time
brings failure for him/her.

A punctual person is quite different from one who is not punctual. A punctual person
completes his /her work in time, and reaps the harvest of success in plenty. On the other
hand, a person not used to punctuality is often unsuccessful. While the former contributes
to the discipline and happiness of family society, the latter hampers. Indiscipline and
unhappiness largely result from the improper use of time by people. In other words, a
person careful of the use of time creates a system, whereas a person indifferent to the use
of time damages the system.

To conclude, human life is very short while time is unlimited. If a person properly uses it,
he/she can reach his/her destination. If a person fails to use time in the right way, he/she
cannot succeed in his/her mission and creates indiscipline in his/her life, family and
society. Therefore, the proper use of time is the key to success in life, and we should use it
properly in all our steps.

Descriptive Essay
Seasons of Bangladesh

Our Bangladesh has six seasons- summer, the rains, early autumn, late autumn, winter and
spring. But all the seasons are not of the same duration, and they do not come one after
another. The spring in Bangladesh is very short and the summer is often rainy. However,
each of them has its distinctive features.

The summer time in Bangladesh is pretty hot. The land becomes dry and there are
frequent storms and cyclones. People suffer a lot during this season and wait for rain.
The rainy season is very long. It comes with heavy rainfall and there are often the floods.
Though rain refreshes nature and comforts people, floods cause serious damage in some
areas.

Autumn is a pleasant time. Rain stops and the weather is mild. The blue sky and the green
trees of this season look very beautiful. This season offers us various fruits.

Bangladeshi winter is dry and not so cold. Trees are bare and the fields remain empty after
the harvesting. During this season poor people suffer for want of warm clothes.

The spring is the most enjoyable season of Bangladesh. Weather is warm. Trees put on
new leaves. Flowers bloom and birds sing to make the atmosphere gay. We really enjoy
this season.

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Generally, the summer is the time for fruits such as mangoes, litchis, blackberries and
jackfruits. The winter is for vegetables like the cauliflowers, cabbages, radishes, tomatoes
and beans. Various kinds of flowers like the rose, marigold, jasmine, tuberose and
gardenia bloom at different times of the year.
Thus, the different seasons of Bangladesh have different attractions for us. They are really
distinct from each other.

Narrative Essay
A Blissful Holiday
Children would like to get out of their monotonous schooldays. Holidays can refresh their
body and mind. Holidays at regular intervals, especially for children, and for those
engaged in hard mental work, are necessary to refresh the body and mind. A short
holiday will send one back to work with renewed energy.

After my examinations, my cousins and I decided to go to Cox’s Bazaar. We stayed there

for three days wandering all over the places. Our hotel was near the beach. We arrived
there at night, so it was too late for us to see the beach right away.

Next morning, we got up at seven, and decided to visit St. Martin Island for the whole day.
A bus was parked in front of our hotel gate, and we got into it. The bus took us to Teknaf,
then we had our breakfast right there and then boarded into a huge trawler. It was a long
journey, as we had to pass through the river Naf and cross a part of Bay of Bengal. Saint
Martin is a coral island; it is surrounded by blue water and corals. We all bathed in the sea.
The water was salty and not too deep, there were some small waves. We had our lunch
with Promphet and coral fish. We stayed there for three hours, and when we were coming
back I felt really sad.

We went to Cox’s Bazar sea-beach. When I looked far away over the water, it seemed as
if the sea had joined the sky. The sky was clear and the sun was shining brightly. The
brownish sand gave the whole scenery a bright colour. We played handball and jumped
into the water and built sand castle.

The sky was getting darker and the sun was setting. It seemed as if the sea is swallowing
the sun. The sight was so nice it seemed like heaven. I would suggest the people who
haven’t been there must visit and experience the wonderful feeling of sitting by the sea
shore and watching the sunset. I think this was the best holiday in my whole life.

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 Benefits of Reading English Newspaper

Reading English newspaper by people in Bangladesh is still in a low level. English

newspaper not only provides information about what happens in our world but also helps
us to improve our English language. It provides us a number of benefits: improving our
general knowledge, enriching vocabulary and enhancing our reading skills.

Firstly, by reading English newspaper, we can improve our knowledge in English

language. It is an easy way if we want to learn by ourselves. By reading English
newspaper, we can know the interesting things and important international news. If we
read more, we can write better essays because our knowledge is adequate to provide
interesting ideas to talk about. So, reading English newspaper will not only upgrade our
language ability but also increase our knowledge.

Secondly, we can easily enrich our vocabulary by reading English newspaper. English
newspaper contains many useful and common words. There are a number of words we
don’t know what they mean, but we should guess their meaning skillfully and logically
according to the context. If we still don’t understand their meaning, we can use the
dictionary and recite the key words. By doing this, we can improve our English
vocabulary.

Lastly, we can enhance the reading skill we have. If we continue reading English
newspaper, we will be used to English language. Besides that, it also helps us in writing
skill. When we read English newspapers, we can try to guess meaning between sentences,
and try not to look up them in dictionary again and again. By doing this, we can increase
our reading speed. We will also encounter the words several times to become familiar with
them and know how to use them in context. This is a good way to enhance reading skill in
English language.

In conclusion, reading English newspaper is one of the good things to spend on a free
time. Besides, it can open our mind and improve our general knowledge. Furthermore, it
can enrich the vocabulary and enhance our reading skill. It also helps us practice rhetorical
patterns of writing. That’s why by reading English newspaper, people can easily improve
their knowledge in English language.

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 Definition Essay
Plagiarism in the Academic Community

Researchers, scholars, and educators in the advanced scholastic group have solid emotions
about recognizing the utilization of someone else's thoughts. In the English-speaking
world, the term plagiarism is used to label the practice of not giving credit for the source
of one’s ideas. Simply stated, plagiarism is “the wrongful appropriation or purloining, and
publication as one’s own, of the ideas, or the expression of ideas (literary, artistic, musical,
mechanical, etc) of another’. It is equivalent to stealing the livelihood or savings of a
worker, for it robs the original writer or scholar of the ideas words by which he makes a
living. There are at least three classification of plagiarism as it is revealed in students’ in-
exactness in identifying sources properly. These categories, which will be discussed in
some detail in succeeding paragraphs, are plagiarism by accident, by ignorance and by
intention.

Plagiarism by accident, or oversight, sometimes is the results of the writer’s inability to

decide or remember where the idea came from. He may have read it long ago, heard it in a
lecture since forgotten, or acquired it second- hand or third-hand from discussion with
colleagues. He may also have difficulty in deciding whether the idea is such common
knowledge that no reference to the original source is needed. Although this type of
plagiarism is the least serious, it must be guarded against. If the idea or the words used to
label or express it is unique, the writer must make an effort to identify the source.

Plagiarism through ignorance is simply a way of saying that inexperienced writers often
do not know how or when to acknowledge their sources. The techniques for
documentation – note-taking, quoting, footnoting, listing bibliography—are easily learned
and can prevent the writer from making unknowing mistakes or omissions in the
references. Although “there is no copyright in news, or in ideas, only in the expression”,
the writer cannot plead ignorance when his sources for ideas are challenged.

The most serious kind of academic thievery is plagiarism by intention. The writer, limited
by his laziness and dullness, copies the thoughts and language of others and claims them
for his own. He not only steals, he tries to deceive the reader into believing the ideas are
original. Such words as immortal, dishonest, offensive and despicable are used to describe
the practice of plagiarism by intention.

The opposite of plagiarism is acknowledgement. All mature and trustworthy writers make
use of the ideas of others but they are careful to acknowledge their indebtedness to their
sources. Students, as developing scholars, writers, teachers and professional leaders,
should recognize and assume their responsibility to document all sources from which
language and thoughts are borrowed. Other members of the profession will not only
respect the scholarship, they will admire the humility and honesty.

Argumentative Essay

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 Computers & Children

In today's modern world, computers are an essential part of everyday life. Around the
globe, children often use computers from a very young age. Although it is important for
children to participate in various well-balanced activities, in my opinion, children who use
the computer daily are actually developing a critical skill for future success. The bases for
my views are personal, academic, and professional.

From a personal point of view, computers are an invaluable resource to help young people
explore the world around them. For example, children who use Internet to satisfy their
curiosity about diverse topics are already becoming independent learners. No child with a
computer is ever bored! By starting early in their lives, children feel totally at ease around
computers; they are also able to take advantage of the wide range of services computers
provide.

From an academic viewpoint, children have no choice but to master this technological
invention. For instance, when I was in university, students brought their laptops to class to
take notes, do research and exchange information. They wrote assignments, created
presentations and developed databases. Children who build early confidence and
experience in these abilities are at a distinct advantage over those who have not.

From a professional perspective, the computer has found a permanent place in the
workplace. Today, employers still pay to provide computer training to their employees.
Tomorrow, corporations will expect prospective job applicants to already possess these
critical job skills. Consequently, parents who encourage their child to use the computer for
a reasonable period of time daily are in fact investing in the child's future career.

In conclusion, there is no doubt that the computer as a technological tool is here to stay.
The sooner children become computer-literate, the better for many aspects of their future
lives.

Evaluation Essay
Salaries of Sports Athletes

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The world of sports is a multimillion dollar industry. Around the globe, people flock to
sporting events or watch their favourite teams faithfully each week on television. As a
result, professional sports athletes receive huge salaries – well above, for example, those
of doctors, lawyers, teachers or social workers. There is some debate about whether
such outrageously high salaries are justified.

On the one hand, sport is viewed as a professional career, in which the top players should
rightly earn high salaries. Athletes train rigorously from an early age to become peak
performers in their field. They face tremendous pressure in each and every game, match or
competition. Their personal lives are compromised and they lose all privacy. At the same
time, their strong achievements bring honour and attention, not only to themselves, but
also to their teams, schools, cities or countries.

On the other hand, various professions contribute to making our world run smoothly.
Doctors put in at least ten years of grueling study and internship; their work saves lives.
Teachers educate and inspire young people to be responsible citizens: their efforts produce
the citizens of tomorrow. Social workers rescue individuals facing physical, mental and
psychological challenges: their intervention creates safer societies. Yet, professionals in
the fields above usually struggle to get by, despite their meaningful and critical
contribution to the world.

In my view, paying enormous salaries to sportspeople is unnecessary. We need to

reconsider our social priorities and eliminate the great disparity in income received by
diverse professionals. By doing so, we can build societies in which each one feels valued,
appreciated and appropriately compensated for their own vocation or specialization.

Evaluation Essay

Gap Year

Taking a “gap year” off between high school and university has become a popular option
among many young people. This time off provides a break after many years of formal
study. Some students use this time to travel around the world, others volunteer and still
others begin working. The idea behind each of these activities is to do something
hands-on and refreshing, which enables young people to learn more about
themselves and their place in the world around them.

The benefits of taking a year off are plentiful. On a personal level, students who travel
away from home develop their independence and self-confidence. On a cultural level, they

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learn about viewpoints, traditions and perspectives different from their own.
Professionally, students get a taste of diverse workplaces, which might inspire a possible
career interest. Intellectually, they examine their own beliefs and ideas in relation to those
of others in a new environment. All these advantages combine to make a strong case for
taking the one-year break.

Nevertheless, there are also dangers involved in taking such a long break. Academically,
the main drawback is that students can get sidetracked from their studies. A year is a long
time and students could lose the good study habits and sense of discipline they had when
they were in a formal academic structure. If they begin working, they could also be
deluded into thinking that they’re making a lot of money. They could lose the benefit of
college or university education and the chance to earn a higher income all their lives.

In conclusion, whether to take a year-long break or not is an individual decision. Each

young person should consider his or her motivations carefully and decide on what’s most
desirable. Time is a precious resource and people of all ages, including young people,
should treat it with respect.

Argumentative Essay

Universities & Gender Issues

Gender issues have been increasing in importance through the centuries. In almost every
sphere of human activity, there has been a movement towards greater equality between
men and women. Although I agree that universities should open their doors to all students
alike, in my view, they need not set a fixed limit on the number of men and women they
accept in each subject. The bases for my views are psychological and personal.

Psychologically-speaking, men and women are simply different, though they have the
same potential for greatness. For example, women tend to be more intuitive, sensitive to
others and caring. This means they may feel drawn, on the basis of their personalities, to
certain kinds of professions such as teaching, nursing, or psychology; even if all fields are
open to them. In such a context, it is best for universities to choose the best applicants,
regardless of gender.

Personally, students need to discover their true calling. This is an individual matter and is
not influenced by the universities reserving seats for men or women. For example, if the
majority of women shy away from math or engineering, perhaps it has to do with their
upbringing, which has influenced their interests. The universities will not be able to
reverse this trend, though they should always look out for the most qualified candidates.

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In conclusion, equality cannot be forced upon people – not in the area of education,
employment or family life. Equality is about having choices and those who prove
themselves capable will qualify for university, regardless of gender. It is only right that
universities reflect and respect these free and natural choices being exercised by their
students.

Evaluation Essay

High School Success

High school is a critical time in the life of young people. On the one hand, teenagers are
eager to enjoy their freedom and independence. On the other hand, they must be
disciplined enough to keep their priorities straight. In my opinion, three social
institutions impact high school students the most at this vulnerable time the family,
peer group and school.

First, the family plays the central role by providing the backdrop in a young person’s life.
A positive family environment provides love, support and encouragement for the student
to do his/her best. Simultaneously, the family aims to instill discipline and ambition in the
child. The influence and expectations of family members remain paramount at this time
and throughout a young person's life.

Second, as a child turns into a teenager, the peer group begins to play an increasingly
important role in his/her life. The friendships one develops at this highly sensitive stage
can affect ones attitude to studies, authority, society and the world. In the right company,
young people can get involved in positive activities that support their academic
performance. With the wrong crowd, teenagers could develop a host of unhealthy and
dangerous habits which impact not only their grades but all aspects of their lives.

Lastly, the school itself is a deciding factor in the student's academic success. A variety of
elements determine how the students feel about school: the teachers, the staff, the
facilities, the subjects, the text books, the method of instruction and more. All of these
have a significant impact on the young person’s motivation to excel.

In conclusion, high school success is the product of various influences. We are all
fortunate that, aside from a few unfortunate exceptions, the majority of students
worldwide aspire to do well and grow up to become active and healthy participants in the
world around them.

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 Argumentative Essay

Foreign Languages in Kindergarten

According to a famous saying, the limits of my language are the limits of my world.
Indeed, the ability to speak several languages is considered one of the hallmarks of a
cultured person. From this perspective, foreign language instruction should begin as early
as possible in order to achieve near-native fluency. The reasons behind this approach are
intellectual, social and professional.

Intellectually, learning a foreign language at a young age enables children to develop their
brain. At this age, children’s minds are like sponges and their capacities are limitless. They
have less inhibition or biases against learning different subjects. They can learn one, two
or three languages without confusion; it would only serve to expand their minds.
Therefore, it is ideal to start teaching a foreign language in kindergarten.

Socially, learning a foreign language enables the young child to enter a wider cultural
world. By learning to speak, think and understand a different language, the child develops
greater cross-cultural awareness. This critical ability enables the child to make friends
with, identify with and empathize with others who speak the additional language.

Professionally, by learning a foreign language in kindergarten, the child expands his/her

future career horizons. In today’s increasingly globalized world, bilingual and multilingual
individuals are in high demand. The child who achieves this fluency naturally and easily at
a young age already has an edge over others in the job market.

In summary, numerous benefits flow from teaching a foreign language from kindergarten.
The child will most likely grow up to thank those who made such a learning experience
possible.

Learners’ Activities:
In the class, the students are instructed to write an essay on any topic according to the
structures of an essay and identify the type of the essay.

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Lesson 21

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 Writing CVs or Resumes and Covering Letters

Objectives: The objectives of this lesson are to:

 familiarize the students with CVs/Resumes and Covering Letters;
 instruct them how to write CVs/Resumes and Covering Letters in formal English.

Writing a CV or Resume

A well-written, well-produced, appropriate CV (British English) or resume (American

English) is viable for getting you to the interview stage for a job. Use the examples and
advice here to help you. On page 4 you will also find an example of a good covering
(cover) letter.

Guidelines
 Adapt your CV/resume so that it is appropriate for the job you are applying for.
 Keep your CV short – no more than 2 pages if possible.
 Present yourself positively and accurately.
 Make your CV attractive and easy to read: use capitals, bold type, spacing and
underlining.
 Choose a typeface such as Times New Roman, Arial or Verdana. Use at least 10 pt.

The Objectives of CVs or Resumes and Covering Letters are to:

 tell a potential employer all about the individual’s skills and experience.
 make a good impression about himself/herself to the employers.
 get a chance for an interview for a specific job for which you have applied.
 look at a CV is to see it as a ‘marketing tool’ or a ‘sales brochure’ where you sell
your skills, qualities, expertise and potential to a prospective employer.

convince a prospective employer of your employability and to arrange an interview or a

meeting with you; it is primarily a gateway to an interview

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British style CV (curriculum vitae) – new graduate

Name Pamela Janet Mason Personal information:

Address 29 Greenlands Avenue, London, SW3 6RF You can omit the labels.
There is no need to mention
Telephone 01924 786512 Mobile 0779 9238182 your age, gender,
e-mail pam_mason@[Link] nationality, race, religion or
marital status. Don’t send a
photo unless you are asked
to.
Objective: To find a role in a film or TV production company
that will enable me to acquire and develop the skills required for
a career in film or television.
Profile and objectives:
Profile: An outgoing and articulate graduate with work Some people do not include
these, but they do give an
experience in both television and teaching. employer an idea of who
you are.
Education and qualifications
2009 - MA in Media Studies. Bristol University. Expected Education: Put the most
2010 recent one first. Add prizes
and awards. Omit primary
2005-2009 BA in Media Studies with French (2:1) Bristol school. Try to give British
University equivalents of your
1997-2004 Beacon School, London qualifications.
3 A levels: Drama (A); French (A); German (B)
5 AS levels 9 GCSEs

Work experience
October 2007 - June 2008: Language assistant in secondary Work experience:
school in France. Taught English to large classes and small Put this in reverse order.
groups. Ran a film club and a holiday dance and drama club. Experienced Candidates:
Put this before Education
Assisted with school drama production. and write more about your
most recent post.
September 2004 – August 2005: Production assistant at
Oordman and Associates Filmmakers. London N16. Performed
office and on-set duties.

June – September 2004: Tutor for Jacaranda Drama Workshops.

Led groups of teenagers of different backgrounds in dance and
drama activities.

July – August 2003: Host at Adventure Camping holiday

campsite in France. Led the children’s club for 4-10 years olds
and performed various practical duties on the campsite.

Skills Skills: Your practical

Language: French – near native-speaker fluency (CEF C1); abilities. Includes exams

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German (B2) passed. Write more here if
Good keyboard skills. Familiarity with Word, Excel and film you are experienced.
editing packages.

Clean driving license.

Interests
Interests: Keep this short.
Drama, both acting and directing; signing (was member of Include a sport, a creative
university choral society). Regular volunteer at a local Centre for and a community activity, if
homeless. you can. Avoid vague
subjects such as reading
and travel.

References: Give the

References – attached names, titles, and addresses
when you send a CV, either
Dr. Mahmudul Hasan Dr. Momtazur Rahman here or on a separate page.
Professor Associate Professor
Department of English Department of Languages
University of Dhaka IUBAT-International University of
Business
Cell: 01916589341 Agriculture and Technology
E-Mail: wpmh12@hotm. [Link] Cell: 01727215512
E-
Mail:momtazur@[Link]

Adapted from Oxford Advanced Dictionary

Tip
 The standard US paper size is
not A4 (210*297mm) but
216*279mm.
American style resume
These are similar to British style CVs. But notice:
 For new graduates your resume should be only one page.
 Describe your work experience in terms of self-motivation,

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 teamwork, organization, problem-solving, and enthusiasm.

Jane Q. Student
Provide your college or jqstudent@[Link]
temporary address if
you have one. Present Address: Permanent Address:
508 Blackbird’s Roost 50, rue de Vaugirard
Flagstaff, AZ, USA 86011 Saint-sulpice, France 75006
Tel +1 929 555 1212 Tel +33 1234 567 890

Objective: To OBJECTIVE: To obtain an entry-level management position within an international

Summarize your goals hospitality organization.
and customize your
resume for specific EDUCATION: Masters in Business Admiration (M.B.A), 2006-2008
positions. State a Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
realistic short-term goal
and/or a job for which B.A. in International Hospitality, 2002-2006
you are currently Universite de Savoie , Chambery, France
qualified.
EXPERIENCE: Travel Agent, Sep. 2006 – Present
Kokopelli Extreme Tours, Sedona, Arizona, USA
Organized adventure package tours for large student groups, trained and supervised
new staff members, and maintained partner relationships.

Camp Counselor, Jun 2002- Aug 2006

Use bold to highlight Voyageurs Summer Camp, Voglans, France
key information. Group leader for children aged 10-15,
Developed curriculum for campers and led overnight hiking trips.

HONORS: Agent of the Month, Kokopelli Extreme Tours, March 2008

Voted ‘Most Popular Counselor,’ Voyageurs, 2005 & 2006

Use US spelling and SKILLS Fluent in French and English; conversational Spanish
punctuation. &INTERESTS Enjoy web design in HTML, and Flash

Source: Oxford Advanced Dictionary

Writing a covering letter

A covering letter (NAmE cover letter) accompanies a CV/resume or an application form.

In Britain and North America they are usually typed on a single page. A good letter uses

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formal language and presents some key arguments for why your application should be
taken seriously.
Flat 3 Cover letter layout will be
19 Strangelands Road same as formal letters
London (Application)
NE23 6ZB
The date could also be
Mrs. F Hunter Tel: 0207 337 34589
January 20, 2010, 20/1/10
Human Resource Manager 20 January 2010 (BrE), or (NAmE) 1/20/10
Timson Office supplies
Unit 5 Males Industrial Estate
Cambridge CB7 9HD

Dear Mrs. Hunter

Senior Accounts Clerk

I am writing to apply for the post of senior accounts clerk advertised
In a cover letter use the
in the Cambridge Evening News on 17 January.
words post, position or
vacancy, not job
As you will see from my enclosed CV I am currently an accounts
clerk in a medium-sized printing firm. In addition to my normal
bookkeeping duties, I am responsible for invoicing and chasing up
late payments. I also deal with credit checks on potential customers.

I am committed to pursuing a career in management accounting and Avoid contracted forms

am currently studying for further professional qualifications by such as I’m
distance learning. I am particularly interested in your post as it would
enable me to gain experience of working in a larger company with
the opportunities for professional training and development that this
brings. In addition to my skills and experience as an accounts clerk, I
would bring to the post a proven ability to deal successfully and
tactfully with customers and clients.

I am available for interview for the next three weeks. Use Yours faithfully here
if you have begun Dear Sir
I look forward to hearing from you. or Madam.
Sign your name and print
it in full underneath.
Yours sincerely

…….................... Enc. Or encl. shows you

Dilip Patel have enclosed something.
Enc. CV

Source: Oxford Advanced Dictionary

Learners’ Activities:

147
1. Class room activities:

The students will go through writing participate in writing a CV/Resume and a Covering
Letter in terms of both of British or American Styles in the class (s).

2. Homework:

The students will be instructed to write a CV/Resume and a Covering Letter complying
with British or American Styles.

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