Charactesisfics of Tnstruments Sens S

Static Chasacte vis hics

I.
Characteris thes
Dynamic
2.
Static
Desisable
Undesivable
Precis ion Sensihvity Dift Deadzone Static Evror
AccuTac
Thseshold Hysteresis Resolution
AccuracyDetexmines the dloseness of an instrunet veadings
to t h e t u e value of m easurement
Repvesented as a percentage of the full stale deflechion fsd)
of the instrument.
Accuracy Result -Acbual Velue x lool.
Actual Vculue

Precision Precision is related to th sepeatability of the

instrument seading.
Tt is abiliy of the instrument to show he same otput
Tepeatedlytor the given input.
A Rnoon voltage of 200 is measuTed204, 203,203, 203,205
204t1V 2 0 o Xl 0 o

Precision = 0 So o

Repeata btlihy/Precision Reproductibil

The meaguvement proceduse Dittre sent measusememt psocedure.
scume

The some operodtor. Diffexent opesatov

he same measuing instrument Di fferent measusing instsument.
The same condition's. Diferent conditi&ns
epeadi tion over a shost intexval Diffexent time
time.
ToTe no. c.significant fiqures means higher precision.
Threshold Minimum input Tequired to activeite an meas ureng
instumet is knoon os thseshola.

Resoluhion Over aboue Hhreshold value, the minimum incremeut

in inpudt i6 required to produce a perceptable output, this minimum
incTenent in inpuut is Rnown as resolution.

A n analog ammeter has a uneas Scale of 50 divisions. Lts fc

is lOA a half Scale division an De sead. What is the resolution

of the increment

JOA 0 2 A
50
0 l Tesolution

100V
& Tt measures upto
A voltmeter has 100 Scale division
division , what is res olution
eadh dvision can be read to 2

Tesolution
OO 5V

DUM can meas uve 19-99 V. Deesmine he

A 3 digit
sesolution.
Dt can countt 1399.

1999 ount 19 99V

V = lOmV
1 Cougmt 19.99
1999

give ditterent Teadings for the

HystesesisLnstruments tan
ccoTding to whether that
Same value of measuTed valuë a
inCreasing os
has been reached by a.Continuodsly
value
decven.stvng cha
o/P

I/?
 Absolute Tatio of he incre.ment of he Oub
Sensitivity atput
to haf e of input
he (o mesusend
Signal (osesponse)
S Aq 2iinput
2 0tput

is const while thd

thut o
of a linear instrun Cunt
Senaihoihy One range
to another.
vasies from
non-lin edy One

AAA W wwwv

Osull c h o n with
Oscillati'on with fixed
Vayin awpliude
Qmplitade
Non-linearigis meagured

tenpesaturd
tsansduces is erecosded
covded over
over

The ouput of a
25°C.
ot
its full scale songë
c ) . o 5 . o 1o.o| 15.020-0 25-0
Calbration eanp eratune 19.|25.0
Output Readin4 (°C) 0-D 5-0 9-6 14-6
? 6
Static sensitivity
Maximum non-lineavity =
emp.
Let,9i c a i bTation
9 0utput seadina

S Sensitivity Ao
A qi
deviotion fom cali brration temmpesrature
Dbe
D be the
i.eollkput seading cali bration temp.
non-inearitu
10OD HD
AL be h e FSD FSD
 Aqi 9 S

Cc) (c) (C) C7.)

O-0 0-0

O-0 O.0

5 9-84 3 0-96-0-2 0-8

I5 5 5 1-02 0-8

20 5 19.9 5 102-0. I
2S S 2S 5 1 0 2 O O

Stohic Sensihvity 0 96
Mapi nmum non-livneasity

Range Span
Variation from minimum to maXi munm.

the
Specifi ed by
Maxi mum

winimum values

Ammetes Thesmocouple
6l:2 mV
Range 5-15A oC-Boo'C 0-60mV-
Spann 1OA 190'C Input spaw
mV o u p ut spa
60 6
instsument
in he indicated reading of an

Dsitt - Change m
meea
a ss
uu ra
rA an
ndd
timewhen he value of he
Hhe
Oves the
TemainS Constant.

Couses cotributes t he dsift such as

suchas
Severoul vibrations,
field, mechan cal
Stray electromagnetc trichon, thezmal
in pressuTe,
change in temp., change
expahsion, ett.
mainttnanCe.
Dift can be prevented through pTOpes
dSiFt
There three ty p eg of
are

Zeso dvift lCali

brdion dsift)
S p a n dsift

3) Zone drift
TA the whole cali brationn >span dhit
shifts by he same amoLent
be c a u s e inittoaing Zevo
z e s o do
Tt
adjustmet is not made it
is call ed zeso dsift.
desiqned
chasdctesist
1 f the dsift is not cOnst. bu
incseases gsadually with he
deflechon of the pointes,it is
Caled span dsift.
T he dsift occuS in a pasticulas zone of on instrumeut
t is called zone dsift
 fied tondiion
Calibration CompavisOn under speci witha
is traee.able to a natio nal
higher standard uhih or

intesnational standard oT a n accepta ble alternatie

dlata for aw ammeter
Eg Cali bration Deviaion
Scale Reading (4)

0.5 +001
+0 02
+00l
15
2.0 -0.01

Nadtona
Measureme

Standard CNEST)
Psimary Standord
Seconday Stondasd
Worki Stavdasd
Pso cess Tnstsument

Test Uncevtainity RaiHo

AccusoC Ratio (TAR) O
Test Accuracy
(TUR)
Speci fi ed uncestaini te (accuaey) ot the
TOKfnstsumet under cal bretidn
Oncestei niy (accuracy) of the Standard

Error Di ferente betueen he actuod values the

the
meas ured valeS.

Human Roundowm Systematic

Misuse Obsesvothional Lnstrumental Envison mental

Gross
esos

nheset Loacing
shost comings Effeet
 hese are basically human erors Caused
Eror
qross Hhe instrumeat
by he Opesatoy or person usi
wron9 eadings wro n Lom
puutahonS, Improp es
Taking instrumets
applicahi on of

Cosual appsadh On the pat of Operatoy

Misus e Erros A cOnnecHing Jeads are

Such as
ett.
not connected hymly,
not having
Pasalax ervor is caused by
Obsesvational ErYoY
ndiculas to mcasusing cale.
scale.
s
i n e of siqkt exactly pespe
miyros Undev scale. Parxallax
Somewhot eliminated by wiHinstumenks
have Hhot po'nte
tommon
eror ae come
Scale. pO intey not being in h e
cLc-ross
moving ebthe obtained Could
ploLne so
he adine,

nstrumental eyror would be

Tnstrumental Error The
of h e instrument or due to
inherent in Hhe desiqn
ooding effecks
Erros'EnvITonmCntrl
Paramefess such
Environmental
tempesature Pressure, mog het+a
ds dust, humidi ty
,
,

fieid ar

Random Brror No speci tie season c a n be assiqned&

cauion Could be token to avoid hese eros
pre minor easth
ocCur due to noise,
Random erov may
activiHes et. To avoid these
vi bsation, hunder doud
,

of measuremet is to be incseased
esrors, trequency often.
is to be measured
I.e. he same parametess
surem ent can be estimated by
Eroors in such mea
Statistical analysis
 Extraction of
en eTg by a
measue.
Londing Effecs
Looding
from h e mcaSUTed medtum TS knouon as
Systei
yste
oading effett. Zo
Zo
CurTemt meagused b
ammeter u= Es
ET Ze+ Z
CurTent flowing
through cirtult,
- Eo Z
Zo
i
minimize he eyror i.e. to make i
lo lanpcke
Z ZL
measure
he, tuTTent through 10 Rn
mA ammetes to
has toil Tesistance ef l152. Soure
Soure
Tesis tor .Mete
ammetes reading & errorin
Vo ltageis 5 . Find the
the reading
Pns auctual 5 E05 m A
= 084943 mA
5
measured
o15
eTror =
O-5- 0 49 y3 100, 147
O5

using
voltage acToSS two Semes resistos %a
Measue the
bboo2/V voltmeter neter 1)
O n ine xpensive
000 / V volt m eter meer ).
more expensive I00,
Tes
The voltmetes is set to he 15 V scale.
RIE 15R2
ww-
R metes
Ra-243k
Vs15 V

15 x293= Sx293
Ans Vachal Vs Rz 391
RItRz sy+ 243)
= 9-1814 V
Meter 1 equival ent TeSIStance =
Voltmeftes semsitiuity
fuull scale leflechio
5 0 0 0 D/vx15V = 7 5 R2

eguivalent esis tance = 10okM/v x 15V

Meter 2
=15 M 2

VR
meagured
frOm meter = v (Ra11 Rmcte)
R Ral Rmeer
15 x (24311 7s)
154 +2u3| 75)

y06bV

, e or =
068- 9 1814 loo/. = -
55-697.
9-1%1

VR measured from metes 2 =_ 15 x2431 1S00)

I54+243 || 1500)
.6385 V
. esvos =6335-9181 loo7. 5.91292
9.1814
 Charactevishics of Tnstsument
Dynamc
(0Peviodt Input
L/P
dlaal
siqa

T/P
siqal

(8) Tansiet Input

S i qa
Siqnal
siqwal

(3) Random Tnput*VaryingTondo my with time.

S i qnaln

Genevalized Mathematical model of Dnstrumet

Sustewm
Avy Io n st r l m e v t Syster can be consicdered as a tyis

of of a measured sinal t) to an output siqnal o

an o o On- 0 + . + a do +aMo=
dt" dth dt
m-l
bmd t+bm d T. . .
t b,dx boXit
dt 4 lt
 NoOwtpu quOntity

t = input quantit
t - timne

as bs are constants.

... + a,D +a.)x. bD

bD ttb,D+b
y (OnD +an- D +
-
tunchion
.'.Operahi onal transfer
+b,D + be
o(D)=b D+ bm-i D Ao
+ a,D +

anD+ an- D
m . +b,S +b.
Mo (S bmS bm
+ a S +4
t (s) anS +an S^

bm S+ bm-i S t tb,Stbo
input n S +an-i S"+.. . t ai S t Ao output
wt
= At sin
Awpli tuden -
t

A o Sin (wtt o)
Mo

Time

Taransiet S t e a d y stote
establrshment
Sinusoiddl travsfer funeton o (f
bu)"bmo) ..+b.o) be
anjio)"+dn- jw)"+ + a,(Gu+ 0

Phase angle by which, H

o/p Ms Jeads fhe P
Aplltude utio
of o/P to the / P

Zevo Order nstrument

assumed to
&be ave
If all a's&b's other Hhan
Os

be zevo
ao o bo i
o bo X K t

K bo State sensitivi ty of the instrumbat

ao
Awplttude, Phose
sahio shift

T o+
Co E

K= E

e
yptal
reguency hesponse Cusve
C
No
Po o
Poor htgh
Flot fsequtncy ow frequcney
Tesponse Yesponse Tespons

Variahion ot output siqnal Mo against frcgueny wois

ftguenty Tesponse.
First Order Tnstumet
+ a,de aoXo b d XE b d
an dX an d
dt
lt
dtn
dtm
lt
+b,dut+
dt
bo i
bo assumed
All he as b's other han ai,Qo by, are

be zev
a do +AoMo b bo Xi
dt
K x
Ode
dt
Xo boi T do+Mo
dt
time Constan
where T aL
Kbo staio seusihiuit

Tkin
Tokinglaplace brounstomm
Ts Mo (s) + Xo (s)= K xt (s)
2 order Instrum ent|
K T F* of
xt (S) Ts+1
eecties8
Thermal Element
Themal measusn Medium temp. O (Ð
el ement tenp 0
the thermal
Rate of heat flow into
el ement - ha (ei
-

0)
whese a is ex posed area ot ther m a l
elemet h is he hest
meas uring
transfos coe ffcient.
Tate ot enthalpy =
me de 6
clt
m=mass of +he ther mal element
C Specific heat of the thermal eleme-t

q= ha e j -0) = mc do
dt
e- mc ale T de coheve T me
ha dt dt ha
t i m e consto

r-0= T De

e (1+ TD) = Ot
e+ Ts) =
O:
+Ts
 nd
S e c o n d
Orede Lnstrumentt
er instrument s one Hhat follows he eg
I O rd
A
a d Xo +aMo Qo Mo bo t
dt dt

Toking Japlace trans form

K K
Mo (s)=
+2SS +1 D+2SD_ +1
n On

Olo natural frequ eny vad /s)

where Wn
n
=
ndompeA

damping atiHo
3 a
static Sensitivity
K be=

Example
U-tube Manom eter
Pressue force= ph
Taviy forte= SqhA
Fsichon forte (AP) A =

loss fn the length

Ap p7e95 ure
Poise eey Ap 128uL TDY

Tnerhoa torte =ALS d h

mouss density et liguid
u= fluid uisosity D/4
volumetric oYlo o
Fsichon force = 128LG . A = rH E)
TD

ALSdh =
pA Sg Ah bTul
dt

LS dh 32D h + 3gh =
p Pynammie pres
dt dt
ot application press of ure P he
Pter a long time ~er0 we get
ime de rivahves becomes
O1o us
Stotic pressure w i h
relationship h