1

POTENTIAL EQUATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

Rogelio de las Casas
EN Engineering
7135 Janes Avenue
Woodridge, Illinois 60517
INTRODUCTION
The distance between the groundbed and protected structure should be considered during the
design of a cathodic protection system. This distance is determined using the ratio between
the potential change in the earth due to the groundbed (buried electrodes) and the groundbed
potential to remote earth. The potential equations presented here work for groundbeds with
any number of anodes, either vertical or horizontal, and work for groundbeds with varied anode
spacing. These equations provide, in a first approximation, a method to calculate the
groundbeds area of influence, aiding in the determination of optimum groundbed location.

BACKGROUND

The earth potential to ground equations presented by Erling D. Sunde in his book Earth
Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems
1
are for single anode installations either vertical
or horizontal. The coordinate axes for equation deductions are in the center of the electrode,
and the electrode is placed in a plane formed by the x and y axes.

The theory supporting Sundes equation of one electrode is as follows:
2


1) The potential due to a buried electrode in the ground surface is calculated taking into
account the current of the electrode and the current due to its image in the surface of the
ground, when the electrode is buried a finite distance from the ground level.

2) In the initial formula, the potential of just one charged point in position (u, 0) over another
remote point in (x, y), where z=0, is determined by Equation 1 below. Also noteworthy is
the number 2 in the formula. This is included since the electrical charge of the points
image is being considered as well.


(1)

Where:
V = potential of the point in space at distance r from the charge (volts)
Ie = current of the charged point (amperes)
= soil resistivity (ohm*m)
r = distance between the charged point and the point where the potential will be
determined. r is determined by the following equation:

V
2Ie p
4 t r
:=
r

2
r x u ( )
2
y
2
+ :=
(2)

Electrical image
It is defined as: an electrified point or system of points on one side of a surface which would
produce on the other side of that surface the same electrical action which the actual
electrification of that surface really does produce
3
. See Figure 1 below, where a charged point
1 below the surface P has image 1 above the surface P. In our case, P is the earth surface,
and s is the distance between the charge and the point in the earth surface where the potential
is calculated.



Figure 1
4


The calculation to determine the potential for a vertical electrode with the origin of coordinates
in one end of the electrode, and with length equal to L meters is:
V x y . ( )
p
4 t
0
L
u
d
du
I u ( ) ( )
1
x u ( )
2
y
2
+

(
1
1
J
d :=

(3)
The potential equation in this case is:
V x y . ( )
p
2t
I 0 ( )
L
ln
L r
2
L
2
( )
+ +
r

:=
(4)
Where r is:
r x
2
y
2
+ :=
(5)
The calculation to determine the potential for a horizontal electrode with the origin of
coordinates in the center of the electrode with length L meters and at d meters depth in the
soil is:
3
V x y . ( )
p
4t
L
2
L
2
u
d
du
I u ( ) ( )
1
x u ( )
2
y
2
+ d
2
+

(
1
1
1
J
d :=
(6)
The solution for the case of horizontal single electrode was obtained by Sunde and is:
V x y . ( )
p
2t
I 0 ( )
L
ln
x
L
2
+ x
L
2
+
|
\
|
.
2
y
2
+ d
2
+ +
x
L
2
x
L
2

|
\
|
.
2
y
2
+ d
2
+ +

:=
(7)

The charge of the electrode is considered to be concentrated at the electrode axis. This
statement is congruent with the Newtonian potential theory
5
, where the length of the electrode
is much larger than its diameter, and is also more accurate when the point where the potential
is determined is very far from the electrode axis
6
.

Remote earth
Remote earth is a location on the earth surface, far enough from the affected structure
(cathodic protection anodes in our case) that the soil potential gradients associated with
currents entering the earth from the affected structure are insignificant.

When an existing groundbed is receiving current from a rectifier, the potential profile can be
measured by placing a reference cell connected to the positive terminal of a multimeter over
the center of the groundbed, and using another reference cell connected to the negative
terminal of the multimeter located at remote earth. This configuration is shown in Figure 2. By
measuring using this configuration, the magnitude of the readings will be positive. Moving the
first electrode away from the groundbed, towards remote earth (where second electrode is
located) the potential profile of the groundbed will be obtained with respect to the distance of
the first cell from the groundbed.


4

Figure 2: Potential Profile Measured Using Two Reference Cells

To measure the remote earth distance needed for potential in the ground measurements, the
positive terminal of the multimeter is connected to the groundbed header cable and the
negative terminal is connected to a reference cell, as shown in Figure 3. The potential is
measured by moving the reference cell away from the groundbed. The location where, after
moving the reference cell, there is no longer a significant change in the potential reads is the
location of remote earth.


Figure 3: Remote Earth Distance Measured Using One Reference Cell

In order to calculate the potential of a point (x, y, z) in the space of infinite extension (where
infinite extension means that the distance between the electrode and the point where the
potential is measured is much larger than the electrodes dimensions), it is assumed that the
electrode current density is distributed evenly over the entire surface of the electrode. This is
5
called the average leakage current. Using this information, the potential caused by the entire
electrode surface can be calculated.

CALCULATION PROCEDURE FOR GROUND POTENTIALS WITH MULTIPLE ANODES

Potential changes in the ground are a direct result of the installation and activation of cathodic
protection anodes as part of a cathodic protection system. Impressed current system anodes
and sacrificial anodes provoke the same potential profile in the soil. The localization of remote
earth is important in the determination of the location for groundbed installations.

Occasionally, the cathodic protection of a buried structure is best designed using anodes
installed close to the structure. With the ability to calculate the maximum distance in the soil
that is under the influence of the anodes, the determination of adequate protection for the
structure is obtainable. In these instances, the current is more concentrated over the protected
structure, with the magnitude of current arriving at the structure surface where the structure is
inside the ground beds area of influence. See Figure 4 for an example of this situation, in the
case of a cathodically protected pipeline.


Figure 4: Groundbed close to protected structure.

The following figure, Figure 5, is an example of Close Interval Survey data when the
groundbed is located close to the structure. Note that the potential readings indicate a
concentration of current on the pipe. This type of installation requires additional groundbed
locations in order to adequately protect the pipe. A more desirable situation, in the case of long
pipelines, would have a less concentrated or greater area (i.e. spread) of current distribution
(greater area of groundbed influence), resulting in a larger area of protection on the structure
from one protection source (i.e. groundbed) with the same amount of current.

6

Figure 5: Example of Close Interval Survey data with the groundbed location close to the
protected structure.

In most cases, cathodic protection systems are designed to reach as much structure surface
as possible with the groundbed, while at the same time taking into consideration foreign
structures and the possibility of interference on those structures. With a design of this type, the
current flowing through each individual electrolytic path has a similar magnitude, as seen in
Figure 6.


Figure 6: Groundbed in remote location.

7
The potential design equations for the case of groundbeds (multiple anodes) update Sundes
theory in order to consider any number of anodes. These equations take into account anodes
which are at a minimum distance from the center of the structure while moving the origin of
coordinates from the center of one anode to the center of the structure to be protected. This
minimum distance, the remote distance from the protected structure, can be calculated
afterward. This minimum distance for the location of the groundbed allows for the magnitude of
current to be even across the surface of the protected structure.

These equations also regard that the amount of current per anode is the same, because the
anodes are electrically in parallel and the attenuation and interference effects between anodes
is not regarded.

It means that the attenuation factor between the anodes in the groundbed and the interference
between anodes are not taken into account, as a first approximation. The attenuation of the
current is alleviated regarding that we will use a loop configuration for the groundbed header
cable, where the current is accessing the anodes at the first and last anode as well. To
determine the interference between anodes more advance equations should be solved for the
current per anodes. So here we are using the same approximation used by Sunde and Dwight
in their respective works, where the amount of current per anodes is the same.

Following the ideas presented in the NACE CP level IV course book
7
, the potential to remote
earth created by the anode in the ground is compared with the current multiplied by the
groundbed resistance to remote earth. The distance regarded as remote for a practical point
of view is the distance where the potential to remote earth developed by the groundbed in the
ground is equal to or less than 5% of the groundbed potential to remote earth. Based on the
output from the equations, graphs of the potential developed in the ground due to the pipe and
groundbeds can be obtained with regard to remote earth. These graphs also aid in presenting
how the groundbed influences the earth around it.

CONSIDERATIONS TO USE THESE EQUATIONS

- In the case of anodes remote from protected structures, the first anode will be meters
from the pipeline center line; where is the distance defined as remote earth distance.
- The soil resistivity around the electrodes is considered uniform.
- The action of several electrodes is cumulative.
- The x axis is the pipeline or structure axis.
- The y axis runs perpendicular to the pipeline with a value of 0 meters at the pipeline
centerline and is parallel to the groundbed.
- The z axis runs perpendicular to the earth surface, with a value of 0 meter at the surface
of the earth, over the pipeline centerline. In the case of vertical anodes, their axes are
parallel to the z axis.
The data to be introduced in the equations are the following:

- Distance between consecutive anodes - S in meters.
8
- Total number of anodes - N.
- Anodes length including coke backfill - L in meters.
- Depth of the top of the anode (in the case of vertical anodes)/ center of the anode (in the
case of horizontal anodes) - t in meters.
- Current applied at the groundbed - Idis in Amperes.
- Average soil resistivity at the groundbed location - in ohm*m
- Distance between the first anode and the origin of coordinates in meters.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF EQUATIONS

The following three typical situations give practical examples of how these equations can be
applied.
Situation 1
Horizontal anodes in a line, perpendicular to the structure, but in individual locations. Figure 7
shows anodes in this type of configuration. These anodes are not in the same coke horizontal
column. This applies for congested areas where several horizontal anodes are needed, but the
available space is separated by driveways or other structures preventing the installation of the
anodes in one horizontal column.

Figure 7: Individual horizontal anodes in a line perpendicular to a pipeline.

The general equation to determine the potential in any point of the earth, including points deep
in the earth is:

Uremotx y . z . ( )
Idis
4t
p
L
ln
y c x
2
y c ( )
2
+ t z + ( )
2
+ +
y L c x
2
y L c ( )
2
+ z t + ( )
2
+ +

ln
y c x
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +
y L c x
2
y L c ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +

:=
(9)
The equation considering all the anodes in a groundbed configuration is:
9
o
Idis p
2 t N L
:=
Uremot x y . z . ( )
0
N 1
p
Idis
4t N
p
L
ln
y p S c x
2
y c p S ( )
2
+ t z + ( )
2
+ +
y L p S c x
2
y L c p S ( )
2
+ z t + ( )
2
+ +

ln
y p S c x
2
y c p S ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +
y L p S c x
2
y L c p S ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +

=
:=
(10)
This equation can be used to determine the influence over buried structures such as gas or oil
wells, buried tanks, buried pipelines, and any buried metallic structure.

Now consider that just the potential in the surface of the earth is needed. The potential can be
measured with two reference cells and a high resistance multimeter, as was explained in page
4 above.
The equation considering all the anodes is:

Uremot x y . ( )
0
N 1
p
o ln
x
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ t
2
+ y + p S c
x ( )
2
y p S L c ( )
2
+ t
2
+ y + p S L c

=
:=
(11)

where:

The equation 11, with =0 helps to solve for the location of remote earth , which is the location
for the first anode in the horizontal groundbed line.
U x y . ( )
0
N 1
n
o ln
x
2
y n S ( )
2
+ t
2
+ y + n S
x
2
y n S L ( )
2
+ t
2
+ y + n S L

=
:=
(11.1)
The groundbed is comprised of horizontal anodes placed perpendicular to the structure in their
own coke breeze backfill (i.e. not a continuous column of backfill).
The condition used to obtain the value of is that the potential in the ground due to the
groundbed should be equal to or less than the five percent (5%) of the value of the current
injected in the groundbed multiplied by the groundbed resistance to remote earth.
Data used as example, to determine the distance of remote earth for the case study above are:
S = 4.572 meters (15 ft) N =10
L =2.134 meters t =1.524 meters
Idis =12 Amperes = 87 ohm*m

Rremot=3.154 ohms. This is the resistance of the groundbed to remote
earth.
Van=Idis*Rremot =37.851 volts

10
By performing the calculations, the minimum distance perpendicular from the pipe where the
groundbed can be installed remote is 69 meters (226 ft).
The following subprogram in Mathcad can be used to determine the value obtained above:


This subroutine can be developed in any existing computer program, we have shown here the
author preferences, but the main objective here is remember that we have to compare the
potential developed in the ground due to the groundbed with the groundbed potential to
remote earth.
Situation 2
Horizontal anodes in individual locations, in parallel distribution with respect to the structure.
Figure 8 shows a plan view for this type of installation. The anodes are parallel to each other
and to the pipeline, but at a remote distance.
11

Figure 8: Plan view of individual horizontal anodes installed perpendicular to the pipe.

The integral is:
Uremot x y . z . ( )
Idis
4t
p
L

0
L
u
1
x u ( )
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t + ( )
2
+
1
x u ( )
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+

(
1
1
1
J
d :=
(12)
The potential equation for single anode acting over any point in the earth is:

Uremot x y . z . ( )
Idis
4t
p
L
ln
x x
2
y c ( )
2
+ t z + ( )
2
+ +
x L x L ( )
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t + ( )
2
+ +

ln
x x
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +
x L x L ( )
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +

:=
(13)

The potential equation for multiple anodes, in a groundbed configuration, for potential in any
point in the earth is:

Uremot x y . z . ( )
0
N 1
p
Idis
4 t N
p
L
ln
x x
2
y c p S ( )
2
+ t z + ( )
2
+ +
x L x L ( )
2
y c p S ( )
2
+ t z + ( )
2
+ +

ln
x x
2
y c p S ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +
x L x L ( )
2
y c p S ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +

=
:=

(14)
The equation to determine the potential in the surface of the earth, where z=0 m:

12
o
Idis p
2 t N L
:=
Uremot x y . ( )
0
N 1
p
o ln
x
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ t
2
+ x +
x L ( )
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ t
2
+ x + L

=
:=
(15)
where:


The equation 15 with =0 helps to solve for the location of remote earth , which is the location
for the first anode in the horizontal groundbed line.
U x y . ( )
0
N 1
p
o ln
x
2
y p S ( )
2
+ t
2
+ x +
x L ( )
2
y p S ( )
2
+ t
2
+ x + L

=
:=
15.1
The condition used to obtain the value of is that the potential in the ground due to the
groundbed should be equal to or less than the five percent of the value of the current injected
in the groundbed multiplied by the groundbed resistance to remote earth.
Data used as example, to determine the distance of remote earth for the case study above are:
S = 4.572 meters N =10
L =2.134 meters T =1.524 meters
Idis =12 Amperes = 87 ohm*m
Rremot=3.154 ohms. This is the resistance of the groundbed to remote earth.
Van=Idis*Rremot=37.851 volts

The minimum distance perpendicular from the pipe where the groundbed can be installed and
be at remote earth is 70 meters (227ft). Here, we used the same subprogram mentioned
above, but with the potential equation 15.1.

A graphical approach of the above equation including the potential to remote earth of the
protected structure is shown in Figure 8 for the case of a pipeline with good coating and the
anodes installed horizontally. The potential graph is for potentials in the surface of the earth.

Figure 8: Graph of combined potentials for a well coated pipeline and groundbed

13
o
Idis p
2 t N L
:=
Situation 3
Vertical anodes in a groundbed perpendicular to the structure.

Figure 9: Plan view of vertical anodes installed perpendicular to the pipe.

The integral is:
Uremot x y . z . ( )
p
4t
I 0 ( )
L

0
L
u
1
x ( )
2
y c ( )
2
+ z u + t + ( )
2
+
1
x ( )
2
y c ( )
2
+ z u t ( )
2
+
+

(
1
1
1
J
d :=
(16)

The potential equation for the case of single vertical anode, acting over the earth is:
Uremot x y . z . ( )
p
4t
I 0 ( )
L
ln
L t + z + x
2
y c ( )
2
+ z L + t + ( )
2
+ +
z t + x
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t + ( )
2
+ +

ln
z t x
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +
z t L x
2
y c ( )
2
+ z t L ( )
2
+ +

:=
(17)

The equation for multiple vertical anodes in groundbed configuration is:
Uremot x y . z . ( )
0
N 1
p
p
4t N
I 0 ( )
L
ln
L t + z + x
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ z L + t + ( )
2
+ +
z t + x
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ z t + ( )
2
+ +

ln
z t x
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ z t ( )
2
+ +
z t L x
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ z t L ( )
2
+ +

=
:=
(18)

The equation to determine the potential in the surface of the earth where z=0 m is:

Uremot x y . ( )
0
N 1
p
o ln
L t + x
2
y p S c ( )
2
+ L t + ( )
2
+ +
t y p S c ( )
2
t
2
+ +

=
:=
(19)

where:
14
The equation 19, with =0 helps to solve for the location of remote earth , which is the location
for the first anode in the horizontal groundbed line.
U x y . ( )
0
N 1
p
o ln
t L + x
2
y p S ( )
2
+ t L + ( )
2
+ +
t x
2
y p S ( )
2
+ t
2
+ +

=
:=
19.1
Example of a vertical shallow groundbed:
S = 6.096 meters
N =3
L = 3.658 meters
T =2.438 meters
Idis = 5 Amperes
= 20 ohm*m
Rremot=1.477 ohms
Van=Idis*Rremot=7.386 volts

Minimum distance to install the groundbed is 38 m (125 ft). Here, we used the same
subprogram mentioned above, but with the potential equation 19.1.
CURRENT DENSITY CALCULATION FOR DISTRIBUTED ANODE SYSTEMS.

Another advantage of knowing the potential equation for specific cases is that the current
density that will be at the structure surface can be calculated using the following formulation:
By definition the current density due to an electric field is defined as:
20), where E is the intensity of the Electric field generated in the earth due to the
electrode or group of electrode charges, and is the soil resistivity.
Now the intensity of the Electric field is defined using the potential theory and the potential
equation per specific cases as follow:
8
21), this is for the case where the potential just
depend on two variables, in the case of also depending on z, the gradient is calculated
including z component.

With this in mind we can calculate the current density at the structure surface to be sure we
are providing adequate amount of current and that the distance between anodes is optimum:
to protect the underground structures and also to keep the corresponding amount of anodes
for that purpose. An example of this use is shown in the Power point presentation.

RESULTS
15

These equations have been used for design applications in cathodic protection systems. In
each case, the location for the ground bed was chosen based on the remote earth
calculations. One application involved installations to protect gas injection wells. Based on
measurements taken during the commissioning of these groundbeds, all wells are receiving
protection even though they are located far from the groundbed and have other wells located
between the protected wells and the groundbed. Other cases have resulted in the location of
remote easements for the groundbed installation, with protection levels covering the extent of
the structure.

In the case of new pipelines with purchased easements, these newly developed equations
aided in the determination of the groundbed location prior to the pipeline installation, allowing
for the pipeline owner to not only budget for the additional easement, but to procure the
easement during the initial stage of the project. Using the graphical output of these equations,
the reluctance of the pipeline owner to purchase additional easements is overcome when they
have a better understanding of the affect of the cathodic protection design not only on their
pipeline, but also on foreign structures in the area.
The following example shows the case when the equation for single horizontal anode, for
several anodes in the same coke bed, with the bed perpendicular to the pipe was used. The
client just could acquire the right easement in one of the two locations selected for groundbed
location. As can be seen, just the shift in one location is observed in the graph below. It is the
location where the horizontal groundbed was not remote enough from the new pipeline. In the
location where the easement was properly acquire no shift in the on potential is observed,
because the influence of the groundbed is evenly distributed in the complete pipeline
extension that is receiving protection, there is not accumulation on the pipe surface of
excessive charges (IR) close to the groundbed location.
16
Pipe-to-Soil Potentials
Taken at Test Station Locations
-5.50
-5.00
-4.50
-4.00
-3.50
-3.00
-2.50
-2.00
-1.50
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
00+00 100+00 200+00 300+00 400+00 500+00 600+00 700+00 800+00 900+00 1000+00
Stationing
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

(
V
)
DC P/S pot (Nat)
Minimum prot. Pot.
DC P/S pot (On)
DC P/S pot (Off)


CONCLUSION

The efficiency of cathodic protection systems depends on the accuracy of groundbed location
with respect to protected structure and foreign structures. If the intent of the cathodic protection
system is to protect a large extension of the structure, like a pipeline or well casing for
example, and the groundbed is not truly remote to the structure, the possibility exists for
sections of the protected structure to receive less than adequate protection and for the parts of
the structure closest to the groundbed to receive excessive protection. In the same manner,
foreign structures inside the influence of the groundbed will be susceptible to stray current.

The developed equations allow the calculation of the area of influence of groundbeds in the
ground in order to facilitate the determination of the right location for the groundbed
installation. Graphical presentations illustrate the area of influence allowing for the selection of
the appropriate location for the groundbed installation and to facilitate the understanding of
influence of the cathodic protection system.

These equations have important advantage for CP design:
- They regard anodes in groundbed configuration.
- They can calculate the potential not just in the surface of the earth, but also in any point
deep in the earth.
17
- The possibility to accurately calculate the current density at the protected surface, in the
case of distributed anode system; help to the cathodic protection designer to determine
the optimum anode distribution and the accurate distance between anodes and protected
structure.

REFERENCES

1
Sunde, Erling D., Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems, 1968, Chapters 2 and
3

2
Sunde, Erling D., Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems, 1968, Chapter 3

3
A treatise on Electricity & Magnetism, Volume One, chapter XI, page 246, James Clerk
Maxwell, third Edition, Dover Publications, Inc. New York

4
Sunde, Erling D., Earth Conduction Effects in Transmission Systems, 1968, Chapters 2

5
Oliver

Dimon Kellogg, Foundations of Potential Theory, 1953, chapter 1

6
Von Baeckmann and Schwenk; Handbook of Cathodic Protection, 3
rd
edition, Chapter 24

7
NACE International, NACE Cathodic Protection Course Level 4, 2004; Chapter 6

8
Sunde,Erling D., Earth Condution Effects in Transmission Systems, 1968, Chapter 1.