Communication theory apuntes:

Clase del 17/09/2020

Messages means the same and texts are incorporated into them so they can be analyzed
later and interpretated. In the end, we can say that communication is a relational process that
affects the connections among people, because messages cannot be neutral, since, in the
beginning, the creators of a message chose how they are built. And so, messages elicit a
response, influencing the receptors.

Characteristics of a good theory: we must differentiate between objective theories and

- Objective: prediction of future events, it explains the future data, explaining what is
happening and why; and normally explaining the results and the process. They can be
tested, and they have a relative simplicity which is influenced by Ockham´s razor. They
also use the quantitative method.
- Interpretative: they clarify values, seeking to unmask the values behind certain
messages. New understanding of humanity, aesthetic appeal through simplicity and
clarity; great number of scholars who agrees with them. They aim to reform society;
and use of the qualitative method.
- Summary for both of them: Both look onto the future, simplicity and aesthetic appeal,
and for both, hypothesis testing is a way to achieve an agreement. Between the two
different methods, they reflect a commitment to learn about communication.

Traditions in the field:

Some are positivism, cultural studies, critical theories and normative ones; which are the
main ones:

- Cultural theories: They try to explain certain cultural values, tending to look at the way
we communicate since theorists of this tradition think that we create our own reality
by the way we talk. In the end, the socio-cultural tradition is designed to understand
how we create social realities. Ex: Sapir-Whorf theory.
- Critical theories: They work with the assumption that those who share information
want to perpetuate themselves into power, and therefore that is why they share their
words, media and film industries, or of any other type in general. They use interpretive
methods and they are key to understand mass media. (These types of theories are
non-representative since they represent ideal societies.)
- Normative theories: works with the assumption of an ideal society and way of
communication that we must use to achieve it. It is usually a democratic ideal possibly
achievable through dialogue. Ex: Marxists and Jurgen Habermas.
- Post-positivism: Gain knowledge about reality by objectively studying it. Use theories
and hypothesis and consequently discards them as they work or not. Uses quantitative
methods, mostly statistical, and it also uses the scientific method.
Lecture of 24/09/2020:

Models of communication:
Transmission model of communication:
- It uses a linear model/ mathematical model. Nose might interfere between the
sender and the receiver. It uses a channel such as language and encode through a
channel (like a phone), which might be interfere with noise. The message might be
received or not, but when it hits the objective, communication has occurred. All the
meaning is contained in the words. It is not useful to explain face to face
communication, but it is useful to explain communication using technology. There is
no feedback and no non-verbal communication.

Transactional model of communication:

Constitutive model:
- Communication produces our social world; it is the driving force which makes the
rest of our society. Communication as an expression and mean of creating reality. If we
stop communicating, life organization would become a holt. Communication
conformed everything.

Jakobson´s model:
- Six functions of language. Each function comes from the different elements of
communication. It starts on a linear base, where an addresser sends a message to an
addressee. The message must be referring to something other than itself, being this
the context. Then, two more factors are added, one is contact, meaning the physical
channel; and the other is the code, a shared meaning system by which it is structured.
- Each element has different functions; the emotive function describes the
relationship of the message, with its emotions, attitudes, status, etc… The conative
function is for the relationship of the addressee, it is of vital importance in propaganda
or commands. Aligned to the context we have the referential function, is important in
objective, factual communication.
- The other three functions of language might appear to be less familiar; for example,
the phatic function is used to keep the channels of communication open, and used to
keep the different communication´s channels opened, confirming that communication
is taking place. The metalingual function, associated to the code, which invites us to
look for the aesthetic proportions and relationships of language. Finally, the poetic
function of the language, associated with the message itself, which makes us look the
rhymes, and style of the text.
Lecture of the 8/10/2020: (plenary session.)
The first mass communication theories started in the beginning of the 20 th century,
coming from sociology and psychology in the US, interested in measuring the effect that
media had. The early propaganda theories started in the 20´s, 30´s and 40´s, being the
origin to media theories. There are 2 types, ones where media had a strong effect on
people, and the others where they were not that strong.

The hypodermic needle theory was the first to assume that the first effect of mass
media was the control of the mass population, which was homogeneity and passive. This
theory used a linear model, with PR, politics and advertising industries being interested in
mass media research in order to influence the effect of the message, gaining importance
during the wars (Specially by the US government.).

The key concept of these theories is the mass society, where each person is isolated,
and society lacks bonding. The assumption in early effects theories is social behaviorism
(Rep. of certain behaviors), which can be studied through observation and experiments;
treating humans as if they were not free.

Since the 19th century till the 40´s, a growth of mass media occurs, along with the
growth of sophistication and persuasion careers; with a massive output in propaganda
(WW1 was taking place). Later in the 40´s and 50´s a connection of the mass media with
the tragic experience of totalitarian regimes took place, with a mass distribution of
messages and mass communication was understood as a simple nervous system. Also,
psychological, and sociological approaches fused at one point.

The sociologist Harold D. Laswell was interested in Wodrow´s Wilson propaganda, and
in themes such as symbolism, understood as symbols as a tool of manipulation. He also
measured audience sizes and studied nationalism and manipulation of emotions, always
taking a distanced position towards propaganda. He always studied through the linear
model and post-positivism attitude.

Other founding father of the communication studies is Carl Hovland. He invented the
Yale approach in order to study persuasive messages and wartime propaganda. One of his
experiments was the study of Frank Capra´s propaganda films in ´´Why we fight´´ series to
American soldiers in a training camp. He attempted to measure the effects of movies and
information on soldiers, with the results depending on their educational level. (The higher
the educational lvl, the higher % of getting the answer right.)

More premises that Hovland did was the role of the media as an unition tool, the effects
of it on the public, and the Hovland´s model, where in order to convince the public, the
source has to be credible, with an argument and evidence based message in order to the
public to change attitudes and beliefs.

Some of the findings in Hovland´s investigations are the 2 effects of the message. The
first one is that the receivers of the message show different interest in acquiring
information, being the problem for communications to promote the interest to be
informed among those who haven´t been exposed. The 2 nd effect is that the recipients of
the message are exposed to communication in a selective way (Bartlett effect). He
identifies the latent effect (Sleeper effect). We tend to forget if we listen over an over to
the same argument, but with a progressive increase of the influence of it as we listen to it
over and over.

The types of effect on Hovland´s investigations are 2: 1- The primacy, when the initial
argument of the message is more effective, it is when the receiver does not have any
knowledge of the subject. 2- Recency, when the final arguments of the message are more
effective. (When audience is familiarized with the subject.)

Paul Lazarsfeld, other of the founding fathers, initiated the Columbian university
tradition by his Bureau of Applied Social sciences. He, along with Robert K. Meton, tied to
make sociology into an instrument servicing public institution. His model used the two-
step flow of communication, with his main book being The people´s choice, in which he
studied the Erie county presidential elections. His main hypothesis was if the
characteristics of the people influenced their voting. The 2 questions he asked was that
how people decided his vote, and their major influences.

The ones that were most likely to vote the democratic party were the most exposed to
the Pre-democratic propaganda. The exposure alone did not change their voting behavior,
in the end, he could only predict 76% of the votes. He also identified opinion leaders,
concluding that interpersonal communication is most important. Our conclusion is that
media has effect, just not as big as the hypodermic needle thought, and his findings found
out that media effects are small compared to the role of personal influences.

Lazarsfeld´s book The personal influence rediscovered the primary group, being it an
important variable of the mass communication process.

The role of the media. Although persuasion works through complicated routes, mass-
mediated messages still impact people strongly. Several factors, relating to the message´s
characteristics and audience, must be considered to study media impact. The role of the
people is conditionate by their own characteristics, with individual differences being a key
factor, and the importance of group over mass.

Some critiques are that the Hypodermic needle theory assumes a rationalist
understanding of the action and the nation as social mass. The media effects assume
empirism, content and effects must be measurable and observable, and also that it was
closely connected to the American government and enterprises.