HKISO Physics Review Day 2

Some Key Concepts in Basic Physics

Santa Rosa Science and Technology High School

November 24, 2022

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Table of Contents

1 Classical Mechanics
Conservation of Energy
Springs
Rotational Motion
Conservation of Momentum

2 Sounds and Fluids

Sound Waves
Harmonics and Music*
Fluid Mechanics

3 Thermal Physics
Thermal Expansion
Heat and Phase Transitions
First Law of Thermodynamics

4 Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetism
Techniques in DC Circuit Analysis

5 General Problem-Solving Tips and Techniques

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Table of Contents

1 Classical Mechanics
Conservation of Energy
Springs
Rotational Motion
Conservation of Momentum

2 Sounds and Fluids

Sound Waves
Harmonics and Music*
Fluid Mechanics

3 Thermal Physics
Thermal Expansion
Heat and Phase Transitions
First Law of Thermodynamics

4 Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetism
Techniques in DC Circuit Analysis

5 General Problem-Solving Tips and Techniques

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Energy Conservation

Law of Energy Conservation

When friction is not involved,

W = ∆Emec = ∆K + ∆U

When friction is involved,

W = ∆E = ∆Emec + ∆Eint

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Potential Energies

Gravitational Potential Energy

∆Ug = mg (yf − yi ) = mg ∆y
Moving up: Ug increases
Falling: Ug decreases
Reference point usually yi = 0

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Potential Energies

Elastic Potential Energy (Springs)

1
Ue (x) = kx 2
2
Reference configuration: x = 0, U = 0

Springs oscillate back and forth with respect to the reference configuration.

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More about Springs

Hooke’s Law: F (x) = −kx (restoring force)

Ideal springs exhibit simple harmonic motion.
…
k
ω = 2πf = (frequency)
…m
1 m
T = = 2π (period)
f k
Amplitude of oscillation is equal to the initial displacement.

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More about Springs

Hooke’s Law: F (x) = −kx (restoring force)

Ideal springs exhibit simple harmonic motion.
…
k
ω = 2πf = (frequency)
…m
1 m
T = = 2π (period)
f k
Amplitude of oscillation is equal to the initial displacement.
Food for thought: How do we apply energy conservation to relate the
velocity of the spring to the amplitude?

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Potential Energy of an Arbitrary Force*

If force F (x) is variable, then

Z xf
∆U = − F (x)dx
xi

Conversely,
d
F (x) = − U(x)
dx

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Potential Energy Curves

Figure is from Bauer, W. Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill
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Potential Energy Curves

Figure is from Bauer, W. & Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill

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Rotational Kinetic Energy

Perhaps you have your familiar:

1
K = mv 2
2

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Rotational Kinetic Energy

Perhaps you have your familiar:

1
K = mv 2
2
There is also a rotational analog:
1
Kr = I ω 2
2
where
I := moment of inertia (more on this later)
ω := angular velocity
That said, Kr is shape-dependent.

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Equations of Rotational Motion

For a fixed axis of rotation and constant angular acceleration,

Translational Motion Rotational Motion

v + v  ω + ω 
0 0
∆x = t ∆θ = t
2 2
2 2
v = v0 + 2a∆x 2 2
ω = ω0 + 2α∆θ
v = v0 + at ω = ω0 + αt
∆x = v0 t + 12 at 2 ∆ω = ω0 t + 21 αt 2
F~ = m~a ~τ = I α
~

where
∆x = r ∆θ
v = rω
atangential = r α (don’t confuse this with centripetal acceleration!)
acentripetal = v 2 /r = ω 2 r

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Equations of Rotational Motion

Translational Rotational Conversion

m I I = kmr 2 (k is shape-dependent)
F~ ~τ ~τ = ~r × F~
τ = rF sin θ
p~ ~L ~L = ~r × p~
L = rp sin θ

where θ is the angle between the position vector ~r and the vector of
interest.

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Moments of Inertia

Figure is from Young, H. & Freedman, R. (2020). University Physics with Modern Physics (15th ed.). Pearson

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Moments of Inertia

What is the moment of inertia for an object about an arbitrary axis?

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Moments of Inertia

What is the moment of inertia for an object about an arbitrary axis?

Parallel-Axis Theorem
I = I0 + Md 2
where d is the distance between the new axis with moment of inertia I and
old axis with moment of inertia I0 .

Warning! Both axes should be parallel.

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Rotational Kinetic Energy

Question: If a solid cylinder, a thin-walled hoop, a solid sphere, and a

thin-walled hollow sphere were to be roll down an incline, which would
reach the bottom first? Assume they all have the same mass and radius.

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Rotational Kinetic Energy

Question: If a solid cylinder, a thin-walled hoop, a solid sphere, and a

thin-walled hollow sphere were to be roll down an incline, which would
reach the bottom first? Assume they all have the same mass and radius.
Answer: Solid sphere reaches bottom first, then solid cylinder, then
thin-walled sphere, then thin-walled hoop.

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Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of Linear Momentum

If the net external force is zero, then:

p~f 1 + p~f 2 = p~i1 + p~i2

where p~ = m~v

Perfectly elastic collisions conserve both kinetic energy and momentum

Perfectly inelastic collisions (sticking objects) conserve momentum only.

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Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of Linear Momentum

If the net external force is zero, then:

p~f 1 + p~f 2 = p~i1 + p~i2

where p~ = m~v

Perfectly elastic collisions conserve both kinetic energy and momentum

Perfectly inelastic collisions (sticking objects) conserve momentum only.
Question: Why would momentum conservation fail when the net external
force is zero?

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Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of Angular Momentum

Given a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis of rotation and with zero
net torque,
Iω
~ = I0 ω
~0
where p~ = m~v

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Conservation of Momentum

Conservation of Angular Momentum

Given a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis of rotation and with zero
net torque,
Iω
~ = I0 ω
~0
where p~ = m~v

Examples: Ballerina/figure skaters folding their arms inward to spin faster,

core collapse of stars

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Table of Contents

1 Classical Mechanics
Conservation of Energy
Springs
Rotational Motion
Conservation of Momentum

2 Sounds and Fluids

Sound Waves
Harmonics and Music*
Fluid Mechanics

3 Thermal Physics
Thermal Expansion
Heat and Phase Transitions
First Law of Thermodynamics

4 Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetism
Techniques in DC Circuit Analysis

5 General Problem-Solving Tips and Techniques

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Sounds

Doppler Shift
v ± vd
Å ã
f 0 = f0
v ± vs

where vd is speed of the detector relative to air, vs the source, v speed of

sound.

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Waves

One-dimensional sinusoidal waves have the equation:

y (x, t) = A sin(κx ± ωt + φ0 )

λf = ν (1)
1
T = (2)
f
2π
ω = 2πf = (3)
T
2π
κ= (4)
λ
where λ := wavelength, f := frequency of the wave, ν := speed of the
wave.

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Waves

The speed of a transverse wave in a string subjected to tension F and with

linear mass density µ is:
 
F
ν= (5)
µ

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Waves

Question: In which medium will sound travel faster, rarefied (less dense)
gas or dense gas? Assume they have the same temperature.

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Waves

Question: In which medium will sound travel faster, rarefied (less dense)
gas or dense gas? Assume they have the same temperature. Answer: Less
dense gas

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Waves

For a longitudinal wave (e.g. sound) propagating along a medium,

 
β
ν= (6)
ρ

where β is the bulk modulus (resistance to uniform compression of a

material) and ρ is the density

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Waves

For a longitudinal wave (e.g. sound) propagating along a medium,

 
β
ν= (6)
ρ

where β is the bulk modulus (resistance to uniform compression of a

material) and ρ is the density

It turns out that the speed is inversely proportional to the square root of
density of a medium!

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Waves

Speed of sound in gases is:

…
γRT
ν= (7)
M
where γ is adiabatic constant (for air, γ ≈ 1.4), M molar mass of the gas,
R is the ideal gas constant, and T temperature.

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Waves

Speed of sound in gases is:

…
γRT
ν= (7)
M
where γ is adiabatic constant (for air, γ ≈ 1.4), M molar mass of the gas,
R is the ideal gas constant, and T temperature.

Moral of the story: At a given T , heavier gases = slower sound.

At a given M, Hotter gas = faster sound

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Harmonics

Figure is from Bauer, W. & Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill

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Harmonics

Mathematically,
Å ã
λn
n =L (8)
2
We can relate the nth harmonic frequency as:
ν ν 
fn = =n (9)
λn 2L
 
F
=⇒ fn = n (10)
4L2 µ

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Harmonics

Mathematically,
Å ã
λn
n =L (8)
2
We can relate the nth harmonic frequency as:
ν ν 
fn = =n (9)
λn 2L
 
F
=⇒ fn = n (10)
4L2 µ

Tightening the knobs on a guitar increases the pitch (frequency).

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Harmonics

Mathematically,
Å ã
λn
n =L (8)
2
We can relate the nth harmonic frequency as:
ν ν 
fn = =n (9)
λn 2L
 
F
=⇒ fn = n (10)
4L2 µ

Tightening the knobs on a guitar increases the pitch (frequency).

Bass strings have thicker strings. Why?

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Harmonics

Mathematically,
Å ã
λn
n =L (8)
2
We can relate the nth harmonic frequency as:
ν ν 
fn = =n (9)
λn 2L
 
F
=⇒ fn = n (10)
4L2 µ

Tightening the knobs on a guitar increases the pitch (frequency).

Bass strings have thicker strings. Why?
A cello is longer than a violin. Which produces a lower-pitched sound?

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Fluid Mechanics

Which of the containers have the greatest pressure at the bottom?

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Fluid Mechanics

Which of the containers have the greatest pressure at the bottom?

Answer: All experience the same pressure.

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Fluid Mechanics

Pressure-Depth Equation (Incompressible Fluids)

P = P0 + ρgh

where ρ is the density of the liquid, h the depth, P0 pressure at the

“surface”, P the pressure at depth h.

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Fluid Mechanics

Pressure-Depth Equation (Incompressible Fluids)

P = P0 + ρgh

where ρ is the density of the liquid, h the depth, P0 pressure at the

“surface”, P the pressure at depth h.

For gases, the formula is a bit more complicated. Approximately,

P(h) = P0 e −hρ0 g /P0

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Fluid Mechanics

Pressure-Depth Equation (Incompressible Fluids)

P = P0 + ρgh

where ρ is the density of the liquid, h the depth, P0 pressure at the

“surface”, P the pressure at depth h.

For gases, the formula is a bit more complicated. Approximately,

P(h) = P0 e −hρ0 g /P0

All you need to know is that as we move up the atmosphere, the air
pressure decreases.

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Fluid Mechanics

Pascal’s Principle
When a change in pressure occurs at any point in an incompressible,
confined fluid, the change in pressure is transmitted equally across all
points in the fluid.
Fin Fout
Pin = Pout =⇒ =
Ain Aout

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Fluid Mechanics

Pascal’s Principle
When a change in pressure occurs at any point in an incompressible,
confined fluid, the change in pressure is transmitted equally across all
points in the fluid.
Fin Fout
Pin = Pout =⇒ =
Ain Aout

This is the basis for hydraulic pumps.

Aout
Fout = Fin (11)
Ain

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Fluid Mechanics

Buoyant Force
The buoyant force is the force acting on a submerged object in a fluid
that counteracts its weight. It is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.

FB = mf g (12)

A floating object displaces its own weight of fluid

Figure is from Bauer, W. & Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill

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Fluid Mechanics

Equation of Continuity
For an incompressible fluid,

R = A1 v1 = A2 v2 (13)

where A := cross-sectional area of pipe and v := speed of fluid flow.

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Fluid Mechanics

Place two soda cans side-by-side with a tiny gap in between. Now blow air
to the gap using a straw.
Question: What would be the motion of the two soda cans?

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Fluid Mechanics

Place two soda cans side-by-side with a tiny gap in between. Now blow air
to the gap using a straw.
Question: What would be the motion of the two soda cans?
Answer: The cans will stick. Try it for yourself!

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Fluid Mechanics

Bernoulli’s Equation
1
P + ρgy + ρv 2 = constant
2

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Fluid Mechanics

Bernoulli’s Equation
1
P + ρgy + ρv 2 = constant
2
At constant elevation, ∆y = 0, so:
1
P + ρv 2 = constant
2
This means that if the velocity of a fluid is increased, pressure decreases.

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Fluid Mechanics

Bernoulli’s Equation
1
P + ρgy + ρv 2 = constant
2
At constant elevation, ∆y = 0, so:
1
P + ρv 2 = constant
2
This means that if the velocity of a fluid is increased, pressure decreases.

Bernoulli’s principle partially explains airplane lift and automobile traction.

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Fluid Mechanics
Problem: Suppose your naughty friend punctures a hole in your water
bottle at depth h from the initial water level. What is the velocity of the
fluid that exits through the hole?

h v

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Fluid Mechanics

The fluid exits the hole at constant elevation, so y is constant.

1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2

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Fluid Mechanics

The fluid exits the hole at constant elevation, so y is constant.

1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
But, v1 = 0, P2 = Patm , so:
1
P1 = Patm + ρv22
2

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Fluid Mechanics

The fluid exits the hole at constant elevation, so y is constant.

1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
But, v1 = 0, P2 = Patm , so:
1
P1 = Patm + ρv22
2
From the pressure-depth formula, P1 = Patm + ρgh

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Fluid Mechanics

The fluid exits the hole at constant elevation, so y is constant.

1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
But, v1 = 0, P2 = Patm , so:
1
P1 = Patm + ρv22
2
From the pressure-depth formula, P1 = Patm + ρgh
1
=⇒ Patm + ρgh = Patm + ρv22
p 2
=⇒ v2 = 2gh

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Fluid Mechanics

The fluid exits the hole at constant elevation, so y is constant.

1 1
P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
But, v1 = 0, P2 = Patm , so:
1
P1 = Patm + ρv22
2
From the pressure-depth formula, P1 = Patm + ρgh
1
=⇒ Patm + ρgh = Patm + ρv22
p 2
=⇒ v2 = 2gh

We just derived Torricelli’s Law

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Table of Contents

1 Classical Mechanics
Conservation of Energy
Springs
Rotational Motion
Conservation of Momentum

2 Sounds and Fluids

Sound Waves
Harmonics and Music*
Fluid Mechanics

3 Thermal Physics
Thermal Expansion
Heat and Phase Transitions
First Law of Thermodynamics

4 Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetism
Techniques in DC Circuit Analysis

5 General Problem-Solving Tips and Techniques

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Thermal Expansion

Why do train tracks have gaps between them? Why are electrical cables
hung loosely?

Railway track expansion joint. From Rwendland, licensed under CC 3.0

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Thermal Expansion

Linear Expansion
∆L = αL∆T
where
∆L := change in length,
L := initial length,
∆T := change in temperature, and
α := linear expansion coefficient

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Thermal Expansion

Area Expansion
∆A = 2αA∆T
where
∆A := change in area,
A := initial area,
∆T := change in temperature, and
α := linear expansion coefficient

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Thermal Expansion

Problem: (From Bauer and Westfall, University Physics 2nd ed.) A brass
plate has a hole with diameter d = 2.54 cm. How much does the area of
the hole in the plate increase as a result of heating from 20.0◦ C to
220.0◦ C? For brass, α = 19 · 10−6 ◦ C−1

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Thermal Expansion

Problem: (From Bauer and Westfall, University Physics 2nd ed.) A brass
plate has a hole with diameter d = 2.54 cm. How much does the area of
the hole in the plate increase as a result of heating from 20.0◦ C to
220.0◦ C? For brass, α = 19 · 10−6 ◦ C−1
Å 2ã
πd
∆A = 2αA∆T = 2α ∆T
4
παd 2 ∆T
=
2
π(19 · 10−6 ◦ C−1 )(2.54 cm)2 (200.0 ◦ C)
=
2
≈ 3.9 · 10−6 m2

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Thermal Expansion

Volume Expansion
∆V = 3αV ∆T = βV ∆T

where
∆V := change in volume,
V := initial volume,
∆T := change in temperature, and
β := volume expansion coefficient

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Specific Heat

The relationship between temperature change and heat is:

Q = mc∆T (14)

where Q is heat, m is mass, c is the specific heat capacity (J · K−1 kg−1 ),

and ∆T change in temp.

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Specific Heat

Question: Consider three blocks of aluminum, all with the same mass.
You raise the temperature of aluminum block 1 from 12 ◦ C to 42 ◦ C,
aluminum block 2 from 69 K to 99 K, and aluminum block 3 from −10 ◦ C
to 20 ◦ C. Which block received the most heat?

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Specific Heat

Question: Consider three blocks of aluminum, all with the same mass.
You raise the temperature of aluminum block 1 from 12 ◦ C to 42 ◦ C,
aluminum block 2 from 69 K to 99 K, and aluminum block 3 from −10 ◦ C
to 20 ◦ C. Which block received the most heat?

Answer: All of them received the same amount of heat.

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Phase Transitions

When an object is undergoing a phase transition, its temperature does

not change.

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Phase Transitions

When an object is undergoing a phase transition, its temperature does

not change.

Head added to the object →

− change in phase (state). (latent heat)

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Phase Transitions

Figure: Heating curve for 0.500 kg of ice

Figure is from Bauer, W. & Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill

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Phase Transitions

Latent heat of fusion (melting)

Q = mLmelt (T = Tmelting ) (15)

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Phase Transitions

Latent heat of fusion (melting)

Q = mLmelt (T = Tmelting ) (15)

Latent heat of vaporization

Q = mLvap (T = Tboiling ) (16)

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Phase Transitions

Latent heat of fusion (melting)

Q = mLmelt (T = Tmelting ) (15)

Latent heat of vaporization

Q = mLvap (T = Tboiling ) (16)

Question: What are the SI units of Lmelt and Lvap ?

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Thermodynamic Systems

Open system: Exchange energy and mass with surroundings.

Closed system: Exchange energy only.
Isolated system: No exchanges

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First Law of Thermodynamics

In a closed system,

∆Eint = Q − Wby (17)

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First Law of Thermodynamics

In a closed system,

∆Eint = Q − Wby (17)

Warning: In some references, you might see Q + W . Here, W is work

done on the system.

The internal energy of a gas depends only on its temperature, not

on the pressure or volume.

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Thermodynamic Processes
Constant-pressure (isobaric) process

Wby = P∆V = P(Vf − Vi ) (18)

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Thermodynamic Processes
Constant-pressure (isobaric) process

Wby = P∆V = P(Vf − Vi ) (18)

Constant-volume (isochoric) process

Wby = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = Q (19)

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Thermodynamic Processes
Constant-pressure (isobaric) process

Wby = P∆V = P(Vf − Vi ) (18)

Constant-volume (isochoric) process

Wby = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = Q (19)

Adiabatic Process

Q = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = W (20)

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Thermodynamic Processes
Constant-pressure (isobaric) process

Wby = P∆V = P(Vf − Vi ) (18)

Constant-volume (isochoric) process

Wby = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = Q (19)

Adiabatic Process

Q = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = W (20)

Free Expansion

Q = Wby = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = 0 (21)

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Thermodynamic Processes
Constant-pressure (isobaric) process

Wby = P∆V = P(Vf − Vi ) (18)

Constant-volume (isochoric) process

Wby = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = Q (19)

Adiabatic Process

Q = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = W (20)

Free Expansion

Q = Wby = 0 =⇒ ∆Eint = 0 (21)

Cyclic Process

∆Eint =⇒ Q = Wby (22)

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Reading PV Diagrams

P I
a
d

II
b c

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Table of Contents

1 Classical Mechanics
Conservation of Energy
Springs
Rotational Motion
Conservation of Momentum

2 Sounds and Fluids

Sound Waves
Harmonics and Music*
Fluid Mechanics

3 Thermal Physics
Thermal Expansion
Heat and Phase Transitions
First Law of Thermodynamics

4 Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetism
Techniques in DC Circuit Analysis

5 General Problem-Solving Tips and Techniques

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Electrostatics

Coulomb’s Law
For discrete point charges, the total force F~ experienced by a charge q (in
vacuum) due to charges qi is:
n
X 1 qqi
F~ = (23)
4π0 |~ri |2
i=1

where 0 = 8.99 × 10−12 C2 · N−1 m−2 is the permittivity of free space

I’ve implicitly included the principle of superposition here.

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Electrostatics

Coulomb’s Law
For discrete point charges, the total force F~ experienced by a charge q (in
vacuum) due to charges qi is:
n
X 1 qqi
F~ = (23)
4π0 |~ri |2
i=1

where 0 = 8.99 × 10−12 C2 · N−1 m−2 is the permittivity of free space

I’ve implicitly included the principle of superposition here.

For continuous charge distributions, the sum turns into an integral.

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Electric Fields

Electric Fields
The total electric field E~ due to qi point charges is: due to charges qi is:
n
X 1 qi
E~ = (24)
4π0 |~ri |2
i=1

where 0 = 8.99 × 10−12 C2 · N−1 m−2 is the permittivity of free space

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Electric Fields

Electric Fields
The total electric field E~ due to qi point charges is: due to charges qi is:
n
X 1 qi
E~ = (24)
4π0 |~ri |2
i=1

where 0 = 8.99 × 10−12 C2 · N−1 m−2 is the permittivity of free space

This means the force experienced by a charge q subject to electric field E~

is:

F~ = q E~ (25)

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Electric Field Lines

Figure from Griffiths, D.J. (2017). Introduction to Electrodynamics. (4th Ed.) Cambridge University Press

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Gauss’s Law

For symmetric charge distributions, we use the remarkable result.

Gauss’s Law
For any closed surface,
Qenclosed
EA = (26)
0
A is the surface area of the Gaussian surface with “perpendicular
components” to the electric field lines.

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Gauss’s Law

For symmetric charge distributions, we use the remarkable result.

Gauss’s Law
For any closed surface,
Qenclosed
EA = (26)
0
A is the surface area of the Gaussian surface with “perpendicular
components” to the electric field lines.

This is basically telling us that a charged sphere acts like a point charge at
its center.

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Gauss’s Law

Figure from Griffiths, D.J. (2017). Introduction to Electrodynamics. (4th Ed.) Cambridge University Press

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Electric Fields

For a sphere of total charge Q,

Q
E= (27)
4π0 r 2

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Electric Fields

For a sphere of total charge Q,

Q
E= (27)
4π0 r 2
For a long thin wire with constant line charge density λ,
λ
E= (28)
2π0 r

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Electric Fields

For a sphere of total charge Q,

Q
E= (27)
4π0 r 2
For a long thin wire with constant line charge density λ,
λ
E= (28)
2π0 r
For a sheet of constant charge density σ,
σ
E= (29)
20

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Electric Potential

Consider a charge q moving through a constant electric field E~ .

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Electric Potential

Consider a charge q moving through a constant electric field E~ .

Question: What is the work done by the electric force over a displacement
~
d?

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Electric Potential

Consider a charge q moving through a constant electric field E~ .

Question: What is the work done by the electric force over a displacement
~
d?

W = −∆U = q E~ · d~ = qEd cos θ (30)

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Electric Potential

Consider a charge q moving through a constant electric field E~ .

Question: What is the work done by the electric force over a displacement
~
d?

W = −∆U = q E~ · d~ = qEd cos θ (30)

Notice the negative sign. But if we’re dealing with the work required (by
an external mover) to displace the charge q,

Wext = ∆U (31)

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Electric Potential

We define the quantity

We Wext
∆V = − = (32)
q q
as the electric potential difference between two reference points.

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Electric Potential

We define the quantity

We Wext
∆V = − = (32)
q q
as the electric potential difference between two reference points.
At reference point ∞,
We,∞
V =− (33)
q

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Electric Potential

We define the quantity

We Wext
∆V = − = (32)
q q
as the electric potential difference between two reference points.
At reference point ∞,
We,∞
V =− (33)
q

Units of V : [V ] = J · C−1 .

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Electric Potentials

For point charges,

N
1 X qi
V = (34)
4π0 ri
i=1

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Electric Potentials

For point charges,

N
1 X qi
V = (34)
4π0 ri
i=1

The principle of superposition still applies!

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Electric Potentials

Figure is from Bauer, W. & Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill

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Equipotentials

Figure is from Bauer, W. & Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill

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Equipotentials

Figure is from Bauer, W. & Westfall, G.D. (2014) University Physics with Modern Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill

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Conductors

In a conductor, all charges reside on the surface.

+ + + + + + + +
+ +
+ + + - - - +
+ + + -- - +
+ + + - +
- +q - +
+ + + - -
+ + - - +
+ - -
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +

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Conductors

In a conductor, all charges reside on the surface.

+ + + + + + + +
+ +
+ + + - - - +
+ + + -- - +
+ + + - +
- +q - +
+ + + - -
+ + - - +
+ - -
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +

The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface

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Electric Potentials

Problem: What is the electric potential 45.5 cm away from a point charge
of −12.5 pC ?

Solution:
1 q
V =
4π0 r
1 (12.5 × 10−12 C)
=−
4π0 (0.455 m)
= −247 mV

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Capacitors
The capacitance is defined as:
 q 
C = (35)
 
∆V


(separated conductor plates with charges ±q and field ∆V )

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Capacitors
The capacitance is defined as:
 q 
C = (35)
 
∆V


(separated conductor plates with charges ±q and field ∆V )

For a parallel-plate capacitor,

r 0 A
C= (36)
d
For a cylindrical capacitor*,
2πr 0 L
C= (37)
ln(r2 /r1 )
For a spherical capacitor*,
r1 r2
C = 4πr 0 (38)
r2 − r1
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Magnetic Force

The electromagnetic force experienced by a (positively) charged moving

particle in field E~ and field B
~ is:

F~ = q(E~ + ~v × B)
~ (39)
FB = qvB sin θ (40)

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Magnetic Force

On a current-carrying long wire,

F~ = i ~l × B
~ (41)

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Magnetic Field
Biot-Savart Law
The magnetic field produced by a current element id~s is:

~= µ0 id~s × rˆ
dB (42)
4π r 2
µ0 ids sin θ
dB = (43)
4π r 2
The principle of superposition also applies to magnetic fields.

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Magnetic Field
In a long current-carrying wire,
µ0 I
B= (44)
2πr
In a circular loop of radius R, the magnetic field at the center is:
µ0 I
B= (45)
2R

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Ampere’s Law*

The magnetic field equivalent of Gauss’s law is Ampere’s law

I
~ · d~s = µ0 ienclosed
B (46)

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Ampere’s Law*

The magnetic field equivalent of Gauss’s law is Ampere’s law

I
~ · d~s = µ0 ienclosed
B (46)
H
I won’t discuss line integrals in depth here but just know that d~s for a
circle of radius R equals 2πR, and the dot product of B ~ to that is B(2πR)
so
µ0 I
B(2πr ) = µ0 ienclosed =⇒ B = (47)
2πr

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Magnetic Fields

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Voltage Divider

Vout,i

... ...

R1 R2 Ri RN

Vin

Å ã
Ri
Vout,i = Vin (48)
R1 + R2 + · · · + R

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Current Divider

R1 R2

IT A I1 I2

Å ã
R2
I1 = IT (49)
R1 + R2
Å ã
R1
I2 − IT (50)
R1 + R2

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Delta-Wye Networks

Rb Rc R2 R3
R1 = Ra = R2 + R3 +
Ra + Rb + Rc R1
Rc Ra R3 R1
R2 = Rb = R3 + R1 + (51)
Ra + Rb + Rc R2
Ra Rb R1 R2
R3 = Rc = R1 + R2 +
Ra + Rb + Rc R3

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Table of Contents

1 Classical Mechanics
Conservation of Energy
Springs
Rotational Motion
Conservation of Momentum

2 Sounds and Fluids

Sound Waves
Harmonics and Music*
Fluid Mechanics

3 Thermal Physics
Thermal Expansion
Heat and Phase Transitions
First Law of Thermodynamics

4 Electromagnetism
Electrostatics
Magnetism
Techniques in DC Circuit Analysis

5 General Problem-Solving Tips and Techniques

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Tips

1 Approach physics problems calmly and methodically. Write down

your givens and assign variable names to them that make sense to
you. Use descriptive subscripts such as qenclosed or qenc .

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Tips

1 Approach physics problems calmly and methodically. Write down

your givens and assign variable names to them that make sense to
you. Use descriptive subscripts such as qenclosed or qenc .
2 Draw/visualize the situation at hand.

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Tips

1 Approach physics problems calmly and methodically. Write down

your givens and assign variable names to them that make sense to
you. Use descriptive subscripts such as qenclosed or qenc .
2 Draw/visualize the situation at hand.
3 Write down pertinent equations that you think will help in solving the
problem. Doesn’t matter if they turn out to be useless; just write
them.

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Tips

1 Approach physics problems calmly and methodically. Write down

your givens and assign variable names to them that make sense to
you. Use descriptive subscripts such as qenclosed or qenc .
2 Draw/visualize the situation at hand.
3 Write down pertinent equations that you think will help in solving the
problem. Doesn’t matter if they turn out to be useless; just write
them.
(If you gain enough experience through practice, the equations needed
to solve the problem will come naturally to you.)

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Tips

1 Approach physics problems calmly and methodically. Write down

your givens and assign variable names to them that make sense to
you. Use descriptive subscripts such as qenclosed or qenc .
2 Draw/visualize the situation at hand.
3 Write down pertinent equations that you think will help in solving the
problem. Doesn’t matter if they turn out to be useless; just write
them.
(If you gain enough experience through practice, the equations needed
to solve the problem will come naturally to you.)
4 Solve the desired quantity in terms of the variables you’ve
written. Avoid intermediate calculations as much as possible (bad
practice!)

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Tips

1 Approach physics problems calmly and methodically. Write down

your givens and assign variable names to them that make sense to
you. Use descriptive subscripts such as qenclosed or qenc .
2 Draw/visualize the situation at hand.
3 Write down pertinent equations that you think will help in solving the
problem. Doesn’t matter if they turn out to be useless; just write
them.
(If you gain enough experience through practice, the equations needed
to solve the problem will come naturally to you.)
4 Solve the desired quantity in terms of the variables you’ve
written. Avoid intermediate calculations as much as possible (bad
practice!)
5 Circuit analysis is an exception to guideline 4, especially for complex
networks.

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