FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES

INCINERATORS Section Page

EXXON VIII-N 1 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999
Changes shown by ➧

CONTENTS
Section Page

SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................................ 3

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 3
INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES.............................................................................................................. 3
OTHER LITERATURE ............................................................................................................................ 3

BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................................................. 3
INCINERATOR PROCUREMENT .......................................................................................................... 3
POLLUTION CONTROL ......................................................................................................................... 3
COMBINING STREAMS IN EXISTING UNITS ....................................................................................... 4

TYPES OF INCINERATOR HARDWARE....................................................................................................... 4

DIRECT-FIRED INCINERATORS........................................................................................................... 4
CATALYTIC INCINERATORS ................................................................................................................ 5
FLUID-BED INCINERATORS ................................................................................................................. 5
REGENERATIVE INCINERATORS ........................................................................................................ 6
ROTARY KILNS...................................................................................................................................... 6
INCINERATORS FOR PRODUCT LOADING TERMINALS ................................................................... 7

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................................. 8

WASTE STREAM CHARACTERISTICS................................................................................................. 8
DESIRED UNIT OPERATION................................................................................................................. 8
FEED SYSTEM..................................................................................................................................... 11
COMBUSTOR....................................................................................................................................... 12
CONTROL SYSTEM............................................................................................................................. 13
HEAT RECOVERY ............................................................................................................................... 14
EFFLUENT CONTROL SYSTEM ......................................................................................................... 14

PREPARATION OF DUTY / DESIGN SPECIFICATION............................................................................... 14

GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING DEMONSTRATION TESTS.................................................................. 15

AVAILABILITY OF SAMPLE WASTE STREAM ................................................................................... 15
OBTAINING MULTIPLE OBJECTIVES FROM TESTS......................................................................... 16

NOMENCLATURE ........................................................................................................................................ 18

TABLES
Table 1 Auto-Ignition Temperatures for Compounds Commonly Found in Gaseous
Refinery Incinerator Wastes ............................................................................................... 16
Table 2 Residence Times and Operating Temperatures Recommended by John Zink for
Design of Gaseous Waste Incinerators .............................................................................. 16
Table 3 Global Kinetic Expressions for Oxidation of CH4 and CO ................................................... 17
Table 4 Calculation Results for Hypothetical Incinerator Showing Required Incineration
Volume as a Function of Flue Gas Oxygen Content........................................................... 17

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 2 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

Revision Memo
12/99 The highlights of this revision are:
Page 3 Added references to IP 3-4-1, IP 7-4-1, IP 15-7-2, IP 19-3-3,
EE.13E.87 and EE.89E.93. Deleted reference to IP 4-5-1,
IP 10-13-1 and IP 16-1-1. Added that information in this Design
Practice Section applies to design specifications as well as duty
specifications.
Page 4 Added information on VPS overhead waste streams.
Pages 4 to 7 Expanded / clarified descriptive information provided for each type
incinerators.
Page 4 Eliminated outdated discussion of problem areas for direct fired
incinerators.
Pages 4 to 7 Updated advantages / disadvantages listed for each type of
incinerator.
Page 8 Added sentence pointing out that trace fouling or corrosive
components in waste streams also need to be identified. Added
sentence indicating the destruction efficiencies as high as 99.99%
required in some cases.
Page 10 Corrected destruction efficiency equations by adding brackets at
appropriate places. Clarified that substituting X = 1 in the complex
destruction efficiency equation does not directly lead to the simple
expression given later. Added in Excess Air Requirements that 2%
oxygen is on a wet basis.
Page 11 Added Item g covering corrosive or fouling compounds.
Page 12 Added that waste streams containing oxygen may require
detonation arrestors. Deleted sentence calling for use of oil burner
as a pilot since this is not normal practice.
Page 13 Eliminated sentence calling for pressure relief on the incinerator
combustion chamber as this is not done. Corrected metric units for
volumetric heat release. Added that standard vendor controls
packages are not preferred.
Page 14 Added recommendation to do economic evaluation of heat recovery
option on each incinerator application. Changed duty specification
to duty / design specification.
Page 15 Provided additional considerations on use of flame scanners.
Page 16 Added emission testing requirements.
Page 17 Corrected equations by adding brackets at appropriate places.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 3 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

SCOPE
This section describes the various types of incinerators available and presents guidelines for preparing duty / design
specifications covering incinerators for refinery and chemical plant wastes. It is concerned primarily with the combustion phase of
incineration and does not consider in detail either the upstream feed handling or the downstream flue gas or water effluent
treatment facilities. Since these items are usually included in any incinerator system, the project design engineer should treat the
entire unit as a system in preparation of the complete duty specification. The basic upstream and downstream interface
problems and operating considerations are discussed in this section, but details for duty / design specification preparation should
be obtained from the appropriate Environmental Technology Consultants.

REFERENCES

INTERNATIONAL PRACTICES
IP 2-1-1, Plant Noise Design Criteria
IP 3-4-1, Piping for Fired Equipment
IP 7-1-1, Fired Heaters
IP 7-4-1, Burners for Fired Heaters
IP 15-1-1, Instrumentation for Fired Heaters
IP 15-7-2, Protective Systems
IP 19-3-3, Linings for Fired Heaters

➧ OTHER COMPANY LITERATURE

Guidelines for Selection and Operation of Gaseous Waste Incinerator, ER&E Report No. EE.74E.84.
Economics of Onsite Incineration for Refinery / Petrochemical Sludges, ER&E Report No. EE.13E.87.
Safety Considerations for Marine Vapor Recovery Systems, EE.89E.93.
Exxon Refractory User’s Manual. EEEEE10

BACKGROUND

➧ INCINERATOR PROCUREMENT
The primary criteria required to specify any incinerator are a precise definition of the waste stream to be oxidized and the
required effluent gas quality. Items normally covered in such duty specifications are included in this section.
Incinerators are not easily classified, since each unit must usually handle a different type of waste stream. Each requires the
integration of several sub-systems: a feed system, a combustion system, a control system, and possibly a heat recovery and
effluent or flue gas emission control system. Both available technology and vendor capability and experience differ widely among
these system areas. For example, combustion-oriented vendors usually know little about sophisticated scrubbing systems and
would need assistance in that area for any waste stream incinerator requiring state-of-the-art flue gas emission control.
Because of these complexities, vendors often refuse to guarantee incinerator systems except when they have experience with
similar waste streams. There is even some reluctance to design incinerators for new, difficult, waste streams because of the
development costs involved. With the present rapidly-evolving technology, the only sure way of purchasing an incinerator for
industrial application is to find a vendor who has operational experience with similar units. Demonstration tests are a common
practice in the industry whenever experience cannot be cited. If no experienced vendors can be found for a given disposal
problem, one alternative is to develop a design using in-house technology and testing, preferably in cooperation with the most
experienced vendor available.

➧ POLLUTION CONTROL
In all cases, local pollution control legislation should be carefully examined, to assess the impact of present and proposed laws
during the early years of incinerator operation. Using this information, the pollution emission requirements for the incinerator can
be determined and specified.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 4 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

BACKGROUND (Cont)

COMBINING STREAMS IN EXISTING UNITS

1. Incinerators
With proper incinerator design, more than one waste stream can be incinerated in a single unit. Examples are:
a. Combustion of a stream with a high heat of combustion to replace auxiliary fuel which would otherwise be needed to
help burn a stream with a heat of combustion so low that it has poor burning characteristics.
b. Incineration of a stream with a low heating value to replace cooling water or air in an incinerator burning a high heating
value waste.
c. Small streams that would add less than 10 or 20% to the feed rate to an existing unit can sometimes be added without
upsetting operation of the existing unit.
➧ 2. Process Heaters
In some cases, small easily handled waste streams (less than about 10% of the heat fired) can be efficiently and
economically disposed of in a process heater. If the waste is generated from the same unit, e.g. vacuum pipestill overhead
gas routed to the vacuum pipestill heater, rates equivalent to about 30% of the process heater firing rate have been
accommodated. To ensure adequate destruction of the waste, it should be injected in the throat of the burners or
immediately adjacent to the burners via a pipe angled to inject the waste into the burner flame envelope. However, control,
safety, and waste distribution systems can raise the costs.

TYPES OF INCINERATOR HARDWARE

➧ DIRECT-FIRED INCINERATORS
These are the most common of all types of incinerators, found at almost every refinery and chemical plant. They are typically
used in refineries for Claus plant tail gas and general waste gas cleanup. One or more auxiliary fuel burners are provided to heat
the waste up to 1200 to 1800°F (650 to 980°C) and provide excess oxygen needed to oxidize the waste. The waste injection and
auxiliary burners are arranged in a manner to promote rapid mixing of the waste and the combustion products from the burners.
Sufficient residence time is provided in an adiabatic chamber as required to ensure complete mixing and fully oxidize all
combustibles in the waste stream.
The units vary largely in size, and can be either vertically or horizontally fired. They generally consist of a cylindrical refractory
lined steel shell with the burner(s) located at the end (or side) wall. Quench air is sometimes introduced at the outlet of the
incinerator to cool the flue gases and permit a lower design temperature for the stack or ducting. This can result in afterburning or
stack sulfur fires on Sulfur Recovery Unit incinerators and is generally not recommended on new installations of these type
incinerators. A list of applications, advantages and disadvantages is given below. Applications
- Claus Plant tail gas cleanup.
- Incineration of gaseous streams.
• Advantages
- A large amount of operating experience has been gained. The design criteria are well known to Exxon designers.
- No size restriction, large or small units can be installed.
- Proven technology.
- Simple construction.
- Relatively low installation cost.
• Disadvantages
- High operating temperatures increases cost of waste heat recovery, if used.
- High operating temperatures increase auxiliary fuel requirements.
- Cannot incinerate solids effectively.
- Cold end corrosion concerns may limit the use of waste heat recovery in sulfur service.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 5 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

TYPES OF INCINERATOR HARDWARE (Cont)

➧ CATALYTIC INCINERATORS
As the name implies, these units rely on the action of a working catalyst to achieve high destruction efficiencies. Gaseous waste
streams are first mixed with air and then preheated to 600 – 900°F (315 – 480°C). In many cases hot, oxygen containing flue
gas generated by an auxiliary fuel fired burner is used for this purpose. The hot mixed gases are then passed over a bed of
catalyst in which the pollutants are oxidized. Heat recovery is possible from the flue gas up to a maximum level of 70%
[dependent upon the concentration of VOC (Volatile Organic Components) in the waste stream]. Heat recovery is often used to
preheat the combustion air or waste stream. Steam generation is normally uneconomic.
The incinerators can only be used to incinerate waste gaseous streams. Any liquid streams would first need to be flashed before
entering the unit. Waste streams in the region of 40 – 50,000 cfm (85,000 m3/h) are the upper limit for volumetric flowrate, and a
turndown of 6:1 from maximum design conditions is achievable. Concentrations of VOC are limited to 25% of the lower
flammability limit before dilution air is required. If dilution air is needed, a large increase in size of the unit will be necessary.
These criteria eliminate catalytic incinerators for use at product loading terminals, as the flowrates and concentrations are too
high to be economic. Also the destruction efficiency of some side reactions may not be thermodynamically favored at the lower
operating temperatures of catalytic incinerators. All reactions should be considered before selecting this technology.
• Applications
- Gaseous VOC streams.
- H2S oxidation.
• Advantages
- Lower operating temperature results in low fuel consumption.
- High destruction efficiency (up to 99%).
- Lower cost heat Recovery possible due to lower operating temperatures.
- Turndown ratios of 6:1 are achievable.
• Disadvantages
- Potential problems with catalyst disposal.
- Liquid streams must be vaporized.
- No solids incineration possible.
- Limited Exxon experience.
- Catalyst contamination reduces destruction efficiency.

➧ FLUID-BED INCINERATORS
These units are used for the incineration of solid and liquid waste. The waste solid stream is conveyed to the bed of the
incinerator. The conveying system can be either pneumatic or mechanical, depending on the liquid content of the solid
containing waste stream. A liquid waste would typically be pumped to and atomized into the fluid bed. A supplemental burner
located at the base of the unit supplies hot air for the incineration of the waste and fluidization of the inert bed material, e.g. sand.
Alternatively, flue gas to air exchangers are used to preheat the air. Depending upon the combustibles content of the waste, the
heat generated by the combustion of the waste stream may be sufficient to eliminate firing the auxiliary burner. In these cases
the auxiliary burner is only needed for startup, thus saving on fuel costs. Thermal destruction efficiencies are typically 99% or
higher.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 6 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

TYPES OF INCINERATOR HARDWARE (Cont)

Acid gas emissions from the unit can be controlled. For example, NOx levels can be controlled by varying the bed temperature,
while limestone can be added to the feed to reduce SOx levels. Thus the degree of downstream flue gas scrubbing can be
reduced. However, by the nature of the wastes being incinerated, particulate cleanup, either by bag filter or electrostatic
precipitator, will be required.
• Applications
- Incineration of solids, sludges, etc.
- Waste water treatment plant sludges
• Advantages
- Acid gas concentrations can be controlled in the incinerator itself.
- Reduced fuel consumption since intense mixing promotes use of lower operating temperatures.
• Disadvantages
- High capital cost.
- Complex waste handling system.
- Size limitation at lower end.
- Particulate cleanup usually required.
- Limited Exxon experience.

➧ REGENERATIVE INCINERATORS
Regenerative incinerators employ integrated packed, ceramic bed heat recovery modules to transfer heat from the hot flue gas
products to the cooler, incoming the waste stream. A valving arrangement is provided which allows the ceramic beds to be
cycled between heating the incoming waste stream or being heated by the hot flue gas from the incineration chamber. These
units are best suited for handling a dilute waste stream that is mostly air with a small amount of VOC. The units must first be
brought up to temperature by burning an auxiliary fuel through supplemental burners. Once the temperature in the unit is above
the auto ignition temperature, the VOC stream can be introduced. Once stable combustion is achieved, the auxiliary fuel can be
reduced to very low levels or in some cases turned off. Typically the waste stream must contain VOC's equivalent to 16 % or
more of the lower flammability limit before auxiliary fuel can be completely turn off. At higher VOC concentrations, it may prove
necessary to add dilution air to control the incinerator temperature, as the temperature rise may be too great.
The VOC concentration in the waste is limited to 25% of the lower flammability limit as higher concentrations lead to large
quantities of dilution air. There is no upper limit on total volumetric flow.
• Applications
- Incineration of VOC bearing gaseous waste streams.
- Plant with high fuel cost / marginal fuel availability.
- Potential for marine vapor recovery units (see later).
• Advantages
- Low specific fuel consumption.
• Disadvantages
- High capital cost.
- Only VOC streams can be incinerated.
- Gaseous streams only.
- Limited Exxon experience.

➧ ROTARY KILNS
Rotary kilns have been used for many years for calcining aggregates. Their use in the petrochemical industry has been limited to
the manufacture of petroleum coke and incineration. Their use as incinerators is limited and only a few plants use them.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 7 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

TYPES OF INCINERATOR HARDWARE (Cont)

The waste stream is fed to the back end of the kiln as a slurry or solid. The kiln is sloped at an angle of approximately 3° to the
horizontal and rotates at speeds in the region of 4 rpm. The waste stream is agitated by the rotating action of the kiln as it moves
towards the front end of the kiln, where the burner is located. The flue and waste stream come into intimate contact at the
surface of the bed. The volatile contaminants are driven off by the heat of the flue gas, leaving a solid inert waste as the product
from the kiln.
Regenerative coolers can be fitted to the kiln to recover the heat from the product as preheated combustion air. However this is
not economically viable for small kilns such as those likely to be used for incineration. The long residence time of the waste
stream leads to high destruction efficiencies of 99%. Any form of waste steam can be incinerated, solid, liquid or gaseous
(through burner).
• Applications
- Incineration of solids / sludges.
- Contaminated soil remediation.
- Waste water treatment plant sludges.
• Advantages
- High destruction efficiency.
- Large throughputs achievable.
- Proven technology (outside Exxon).
• Disadvantages
- High capital cost.
- High particulate carryover possible.
- Limited Exxon experience.

➧ INCINERATORS FOR PRODUCT LOADING TERMINALS

Incinerators which oxidize the spurious VOC emissions emanating from the loading of product ships / barges or tanker trucks is a
more recent development in incinerator technology.
The units are typically vertically fired, with the burners grouped in a cluster towards the base of the unit which consists of a
cylindrical, internally insulated "stack". The units can be either forced or natural draft, but forced draft offers better temperature
control and lower noise and is the recommended design. Insulation materials must be specially designed due to the intermittent
nature of operation, and the exposure of the lining to the elements during downtime periods. Typically ceramic fiber block
modules are used and the modules in the upper one third of the unit are impregnated with rigidizer to provide enhanced
resistance to the elements during downtimes. Insulation materials are covered in more detail in the Exxon Refractory User’s
Manual.
When loading non inerted vessels, the hydrocarbon / air mixture leaving the vessel must be conditioned to prevent a flammable
mixture in the piping between the vessel and the incinerator. The conditioning scheme can be based on hydrocarbon
enrichment, nitrogen inerting or air dilution The waste vapors are typically enriched with a support fuel gas as this results in the
lowest total flow to the incinerator. For marine applications, the U.S. Coast Guard also requires a detonation arrestor (see 33
CFR Part 154 Subpart E). For other applications, a minimum of a flame arrestor or appropriate detection / alarm and shutdown
conditioning is required.
The ship / barges are sometimes inerted which leads to vapor streams below the flammable limit entering the incinerator. This
obviously will entail firing a support fuel. Care must be taken to insure flame stability of the burners.
• Applications
- Incineration of VOCs from ships / barges or tanker trucks.
• Advantages
- Relatively low cost.
- High destruction efficiencies achievable.
• Disadvantages
- Safety concerns – ignition source so flashback prevention hardware required.
- Higher potential maintenance costs due to frequent startup / shutdown.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 8 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The main requirements for any incinerator duty and design specifications are to categorize as precisely as possible: (a) the
waste stream characteristics, and (b) the desired unit operating requirements. Once these primary conditions are defined, the
specification should be expanded to include specific requirements for the feed system, combustor, control system, heat recovery
and effluent control systems.

WASTE STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

This is the most critical portion of the duty and design specifications for any incinerator, because the waste streams are
traditionally the most poorly defined in any process; yet small changes in composition and properties can seriously affect the cost
and operability of an incinerator system. The main considerations are:
➧ 1. List All Components
The list should include any trace elements or compounds that can affect toxicity of inorganic ash carryover, or that can react
with metals or refractories. This data will be used by the vendor for testing and design purposes. Flow rates and constituent
heating values should also be given, so that all vendors' designs can be evaluated on a consistent basis. It is important that
trace fouling or corrosive components are identified, particularly if sensitive equipment such as flame arrestors are included
in the system design.
2. Identify the Dynamics of Stream Flow and Composition
The waste streams from many typical refinery and chemical plant processes can vary markedly in both composition and flow
rate during times of unusual process operation, e.g., startup, shutdown, upsets, etc. Since pollution control legislation often
includes limits on even short-term emission levels, the incinerator must be designed to cope with these dynamic variables in
its feed. This is especially critical in gaseous streams where holdup is impossible, and in liquid streams which can be
contaminated with intermittent slugs of solids or high viscosity compounds or water that would not enter the incinerator under
normal conditions.
3. Predict Future Changes to Stream Quantity and Quality
In many cases, a plant will be built for future expansion but the incinerator will have to handle both the initial and the final
flow rates. Also, changes in waste stream composition will occur as process feed, product or catalysts change.
4. Predict Future Potential to Combine Waste Streams
If several plants are being built concurrently, or if several incinerators are being designed for one location, consideration
should be given to combination units, especially for compatible streams. Naturally, existing units should be examined for
possible use in such combination service.

DESIRED UNIT OPERATION

It is essential to completely describe the unit operating features desired for any given installation.
➧ 1. Destruction Efficiency (DE) Required
One of the first items to consider in the design of a gaseous waste incinerator is the required destruction efficiency, that is,
how much of the incoming pollutants must be oxidized. Destruction efficiency is defined as the difference between the
incoming and outgoing pollutant flowrate divided by the incoming flowrate.
The required destruction efficiency is ultimately set by local air quality regulatory agencies. The required destruction
efficiency is typically in the range of 95 – 99%. However, destruction efficiencies as high as 99.99% have been required in
some cases. Increases in efficiency tend to require higher investment and operating costs, so there is an incentive to
minimize the efficiency required.
2. Residence Time and Operating Temperature Requirements
Once the desired destruction efficiency has been defined, the residence time and incinerator operating temperature
necessary to achieve it must be determined. These two parameters are related in that at a fixed destruction efficiency higher
temperatures permit lower residence times and vice versa. Thus higher temperature results in a smaller incinerator volume,
but requires more auxiliary fuel firing while lower temperatures minimize auxiliary fuel at the expense of requiring a larger
incinerator.
For dilute wastes, the incinerator operating temperature must be high enough to insure oxidation reactions for combustibles
in the waste stream proceed at a reasonable rate. The auto ignition temperature of the combustibles involved is one
parameter which is considered when determining the required operating temperature. Vendors typically recommend
operating temperatures in the region of 300 – 500°F (170 – 280°C) above the auto ignition temperature of the combustible(s)
in the waste stream. This results in typical incinerator operating temperatures of 1000 – 1500°F (540 – 815°C). Table 1 lists
the ignition temperatures for some of the more common combustibles (pollutants) found in Exxon incinerator waste streams.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 9 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

With rich wastes, the incinerator operating temperature is by definition always above the minimum level required for
combustible oxidation reactions to proceed. Operating temperatures with rich wastes are usually 1600°F (870°C) or higher,
and are set by the flame temperature resulting from combustion of the waste (and auxiliary fuel) gas.
The total residence time required must take into account both chemical reaction rates (kinetics) and mass transport rates
(mixing). For more dilute wastes, mixing time is related to the time required to bring the cool waste stream up to the
incinerator operating temperature by mixing with the hot flue gas from the support fuel. The reaction time is related to the
residence time required to oxidize the waste after it reaches operating temperature. For rich wastes, mixing time is related to
the time required to mix the waste combustibles with air, and the reaction time is related to the time for flame oxidation
reactions to proceed to completion.
For rich wastes, where the adiabatic flame temperature of the waste stream is above 1600°F (870°C), the total residence
time requirements are usually governed by mixing. This is because flame reactions at these higher levels are very fast.
Total combustion chamber residence times provided in this case are usually in the 0.1 – 0.5 second range. However, with
dilute wastes, where incinerator operating temperatures are lower, mixing and reaction times can be comparable. For dilute
wastes typically found in refinery applications, the total incinerator residence time is usually in the range of 0.5 – 1.0
seconds.
Incinerator vendors usually have proprietary design / performance curves which they use to determine the operating
temperature and total residence time. The design curves are valid for a particular incinerator geometry and waste type, and
are usually developed empirically using data from pilot and/or field data.
Table 2 shows the minimum recommended residence times for dilute gasses (CO, HC, and H2S) and 99% destruction
efficiencies, supplied by one of the major suppliers of waste gas incinerators.
3. Process / Incinerator Interface
If the stream dynamics have been determined, this part of the specification should merely itemize the required modes of
operation under which the incinerator must function. Some items to be considered are liquid / solid holdup capacity, diluent
or flux availability to counteract composition variations during stream upsets, and alternative disposal systems for gas waste
streams during upsets.
4. Evaluating Reaction Time / Temperature Requirements
It may be necessary to evaluate the validity of vendor recommendations for incinerator residence times and operating
temperatures. Reaction time / temperature requirements can be estimated by using experimental reaction rate data
available. The very basics of reaction kinetics are described here.
Assuming a homogenous gas phase, the destruction of waste combustibles can be represented by the following overall
chemical equation:

X C a H b + Y O 2 → Products

where Ca Hb denotes the waste combustible and X and Y are stoichiometric factors. The global chemical reaction rate for
the disappearance of the combustible can be written as:
d [C f ]
= − K [C f ] [O 2 ]
X Y
dt

where: [Cf] = Concentrations of the waste combustible, lb moles/ft3 (g-moles/cm3)

K = Rate constant
X = Stoichiometric factor for waste combustible
Y = Stoichiometric factor for oxygen
[O2] = Concentration of oxygen lb moles/ft3 (g-moles/cm3)
where items in [ ] are the concentration of the species usually in lb moles/ft3 (g-moles/cm3) and K is a rate constant. The
rate constant is commonly written in the Arrenhius form:

K = A e −E / RT

where: A = Pre-exponential factor

E = Activation energy Btu/lb mole (cal/g mole)
T = Temperature °R (°K)
R = Universal Gas constant 1.986 Btu/lb mole °R (cal/g mole °K)

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 10 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

In incinerator systems it is often possible to assume constant temperature and oxygen concentrations and in this case the
rate equation can easily be integrated over time. Also, if the destruction efficiency, DE, is defined as:

DE =
[Cfo ] − [Cf ]
[Cfo ]
where: Cfo = Initial combustible concentration

➧ The following equation can be obtained:

(1/ 1 − X )
 1 − (1 − X ) K′t 
DE = 1 −   x < 1

 [C fo ]1 − X 
where: K′ = Ae-E/RT [O2]Y

➧ For X = 1, the following simple expression is obtained: Note: the equation below has its own derivation and cannot be
obtained by substituting X = 1 in the above destruction equation which is valid for X less than 1.

DE = 1 − e −K′ t

In deriving the above equations, plug flow has been assumed. If mixing in the direction of flow is significant, then the
destruction efficiency will be lower than predicted for all positive reaction orders (X > 0).
As mentioned earlier, to use the above expressions, one must first find experimental data for the global reaction rate
constant of the combustible component(s) of interest. If data is available, careful attention must be paid to the conditions
during the experiment. If the temperatures and concentrations of the experiment are significantly different from those
envisioned for the incinerator, then erroneous results may be obtained.
Table 3 summarizes expressions found which relate to destruction efficiency as a function of residence time and
temperature. Two different expressions are found for two common pollutants CO and CH4, are given. While a fair amount of
relevant reaction rate data is available for these compounds, finding data for others can be difficult.
➧ 5. Excess Air Requirements
Sufficient combustion air must be provided to combust all the incinerator auxiliary fuel (if any) and also oxidize the
combustible in the waste stream. For a waste stream with negligible oxygen content, sufficient air is normally provided to
produce 2% oxygen (wet basis) in the flue gas leaving the incinerator. This oxygen content normally results in optimum
incinerator size and auxiliary fuel firing rate for a given destruction efficiency.
Table 4 illustrates this point for a simple waste composed of 1 wt% methane and 99 wt% nitrogen. Using the second
destruction efficiency expression for CH4 in Table 3, the temperature requirements for a fixed residence time of 0.5 seconds
and 99% destruction efficiency, were determined for a range of oxygen concentrations in the flue gas. The corresponding
incinerator volume and auxiliary firing rates increase rapidly with oxygen concentrations above 3%. Thus, even though
required operating temperatures are lower with higher flue gas oxygen concentrations, increased incinerator volume and
auxiliary firing rates are still required to accommodate the additional combustion air involved with higher oxygen operation.
If the waste itself contains significant volumes of oxygen, then oxygen concentrations greater than 3% may result in the flue
gas exiting the incinerator.
6. Evaluating Mixing Times
All combustion processes take place in the following stages:
Mixing → Ignition → Chemical Reaction → Dispersal of Products

The rate of combustion is dependent on the slowest of the above stages. In most industrial combustion systems the mixing
is slow while the reaction (kinetics) and ignition are very fast. The rate of combustion is therefore governed by the degree of
fuel / air mixing.
The mixing rate is especially important in incineration systems where the reaction times can be fractions of a second
compared to mixing times of 0.5 seconds or greater. Leaner waste streams tend to have longer mixing times.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 11 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

The total incinerator residence time should include time for mixing as well as time for reaction. However obtaining
quantitative estimates for mixing efficiencies and times is difficult requiring experimental flow and/or mathematical modeling
studies. In many cases such studies are hard to justify and instead mixing efficiencies are evaluated only qualitatively.
Some commonly used mixing techniques are described below:
a. Swirl / Tangential Inlet: Swirling the combustion air through the burners is a common way to enhance mixing of waste
stream and/or auxiliary fuel. Also, the waste is sometimes injected into the incinerator in a tangential manner departing
a swirling motion to promote mixing with the combustion products of the burners.
b. Cross Stream Injection: The waste enters one end of the incinerator chamber and one or more flue gas jets are injected
cross stream into the waste flow. The location of the waste stream relative to the burners can also be reversed. This
technique is usually employed on CO boiler combustion chambers.
c. Jet Entrainment / Intersection: The waste stream is injected into an annular space surrounding an auxiliary burner so
the flue gas jet entrains the waste stream. In addition, multiple burners are used and arranged such that the flue
gas / waste gas jets intersect with other to promote further mixing.
d. Internal Baffle Plates: Discs / Doughnuts, checker brick walls etc., are sometimes used to enhance mixing between
waste and flue gas products. An attempt is usually made to avoid using these types of devices, as they can lead to
increased maintenance.
7. General Incinerator Operation
Certain design considerations should be specific regarding the scope of incineration operation desired. These include:
required service factor, manning, degree of automatic vs. manual control, and intermittent vs. continuous firing operation.
8. Design Details
In the case of multi-stream units, it will be necessary to calculate the heat balance of the unit to determine the approximate
number of burners, their turndown, and auxiliary fuel requirements for all possible operating modes. Simple, single-stream
incinerators do not require such calculations, since operability is fixed by the one stream. The designer should construct for
the vendors a matrix of all the potential operating modes of the various waste streams.
Usually, for these complex units, vendors will have to be consulted to determine which types of arrangements are possible or
practical. For example, it is possible to combine several streams in one burner, or to build multi-chamber units to separate
incompatible streams.
9. Effluent Quality Specification
Information on applicable laws must be furnished with the duty specification, including both water and air effluent
requirements and applicable noise limitations and stack requirements. If an existing, or common stack is to be used, details
of the stack design and other stack flue gases must be supplied to the vendor for calculation purposes; and an isolation
damper must be provided.

FEED SYSTEM
Many incinerator problems occur in the feed systems, primarily because of interface problems between the contractor and the
incinerator vendor. Some of the main problem areas requiring design consideration for feed systems are listed below.
➧ 1. Definition of Stream Variables
a. Pressure available at incinerator.
b. Temperature of stream at incinerator.
c. Flow rate: Maximum, minimum and nominal.
d. Viscosities of liquids, molecular weights of gases, densities of solids.
e. Btu heating value: All possible extremes must be defined and the incinerator designed accordingly. For example,
should a fume stream become hydrocarbon rich due to a unit upset, the incinerator could be overheated and damaged
unless designed for the case.
f. Contaminants: Inorganic solids, reactive chemicals, toxic elements (i.e., contaminants to the incineration process).
g. Corrosive or fouling compounds

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 12 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

2. Liquid Waste Streams
a. Pumpability: Especially if the stream has hard, abrasive solids that can wear pump parts or settle out at low flow rates
or in large, low-velocity or stagnant, lines.
b. Flow measurement and control: Special types of meters required for high-viscosity and solids-containing liquids.
c. Holdup tankage: Several days, if possible.
g. Flushing capability: For shutdowns, either manual or automatic. Starting and shutting down with flux oil is a
recommended practice for heavy liquid or high solids content streams.
d. Pre-treatment: Dewatering, settling solids, thickening, etc.
e. Filtering: Not usually applicable, because many liquid waste streams have high solids contents.
➧ 3. Gaseous Waste Streams
a. Flame or detonation arrestors may be required if the waste contains oxygen. Flashback protection is required to isolate
the combustor from process equipment. Flame arrestors are adequate for normal services, but ineffective in fouling or
high-temperature services.
b. Drains and liquid knockout: Condensate can be sent to incinerator or drain; but must be specified if vendor is to design
for incineration.
c. Preheat to vaporize condensate or reduce auxiliary fuel requirements.
d. Flow control is not always required, and can be expensive.
4. Solid Waste Streams (not often burned in refineries)
a. Handling system: Various types are available; grates, screw feeders, etc.
b. Feed rate control: Waste heating value varies widely, so this must be controlled.
c. Ash content: Inorganics can be separated out to eliminate flue gas effluent problems.
d. Pre-treatment: Remove metals, glass, etc.

COMBUSTOR
The combustor consists of a burner and a chamber. The burner atomizes the waste and/or provides auxiliary fueled combustion
to oxidize the waste. The waste is oxidized by remaining in the combustion chamber or zone for the time required to obtain the
desired degree of conversion into innocuous flue gas products.
1. Design Considerations for Burners
a. Liquid Wastes
(1) Pilots: Can be intermittent or can use igniters with flame verification to detect presence of a flame.
(2) Auxiliary fuel: Distribution of heat is important for multi-burner installations, especially with multiple waste stream
injection positions. System should be as symmetrical as possible to give an even heat flux throughout the
combustor.
(3) Solids-contaminated streams: These require multiple burners with adequate spare capacity for high maintenance.
(4) Atomizing medium: Requirements must be specified as to maximum steam usage and pressure.
(5) Maintenance: Both guns and burners must be easily removable and atomizers made from hardened steel.
➧ b. Gaseous Wastes
(1) Pilot: Must be a safe, reliable system with flame verification.
(2) Grid burners: Pilots must be distributed throughout the grid, not just at one location. Many small auxiliary fuel gas
holes are to be avoided.
c. Combination Units
Never mix auxiliary gas fuel and waste liquids in the same burner. Always use two or more burners with intersecting
flame patterns.
d. Fluid Bed Units
(1) Lances must be removable for cleaning.
(2) Preheat burner must have a separate control system and must be removable for servicing.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 13 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

➧ 2. Design Considerations for Combustion Chamber
a. Construction
(1) Operating temperature: Normally, 1800°F (980°C) is the maximum operating temperature. Anything higher than
this would require special materials.
(2) Design temperature: 2500 – 2800°F (1370 – 1540°C) minimum for firebox refractory; 2000°F (1100°C) elsewhere.
3000°F+ (1650°C+) refractory brick for target walls where burner flames impinge.
(3) Contaminants: Construction materials must be checked to withstand any chemically active elements that might be
put into the chamber or stack.
(4) Visibility: View ports must be spaced for good observation of all burners and as much of the combustion chamber
as practical.
(5) Instruments: Temperature indicators should be located so as to detect possible temperatures maldistribution, and
not just at one point near the chamber exhaust.
(6) Heat distribution: Air or water can be used to control the temperature of the chamber, but only proven designs will
be accepted.
(7) Access: Large, ground-level access doors are advisable for liquid-fired units that may need cleaning of ash and
other solid deposits.
➧ b. Sizing
(1) Volumetric heat release: Average for incinerators is about 30,000 Btu/hr/ft3 (310 kW/m3). A range of 10,000 to
60,000 Btu/hr/ft3 (103 to 620 kW/m3) is not uncommon.
(2) Conversion: Time at temperature is the standard criterion for each stream constituent, and should be supplied by
the vendor for specified conversion percentages. Anything less or greater than 0.5 to 1.0 sec. at 1100 to 1800°F
(600 to 980°C) should be questioned.
(3) Units over 1800°F (980°C): For special cases only.
c. Thermal Control
(1) Air doors: Must be adjustable from grade.
(2) Forced draft: Can be automatically controlled via fan inlet guide vanes.
(3) Effluent control: Scrubber system materials are often based on flue gas temperature.

➧ CONTROL SYSTEM
1. General controls may or may not be designed and supplied by the incinerator vendor. In some cases these are designed
and supplied by the main contractor. General control requirements / philosophy should be covered in design / duty
specifications. Vendor standard control packages are usually only accepted on small package units or non
critical / intermittent services
2. Additional Requirements
The Duty / Design Specification usually specifies some additional items:
a. Which instruments, alarms, and controls will be paralleled to the control house.
b. Sometimes additional indicators are required to start up and line out the unit, or to insure that design requirements are
met.
c. Consider if any extra automatic devices would be advantageous.
d. After any automatic shutdown, a manual restart at the incinerator is recommended.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 14 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (Cont)

➧ HEAT RECOVERY
Often, incinerators can use heat recovery to reduce their operating costs. An economic analysis should be conducted for each
incinerator application to determine if the operating cost credits for heat recovery justify the incremental investment required.
However, recovering heat for a vital steam supply, or for any critical process stream, is unquestionably risky and should normally
be avoided. Preheating the waste stream to reduce incinerator auxiliary fuel requirements is the usually the preferred approach
for incinerator heat recovery systems. However preheating of combustion air can also be an option.
Disadvantages of heat recovery are:
1. Investment: Usually high-temperature materials are needed and many streams can cause corrosion and fouling, especially
during upsets.
2. Maintenance: Especially high for dirty waste streams.

EFFLUENT CONTROL SYSTEM

Because environmental control regulations vary greatly from one location to another, each project must be carefully investigated
both for existing legislation and for possible trends. This must be done early in the project, since flue gas treatment equipment
can double incinerator system costs. Some items that can significantly affect the cost and operation of effluent control systems
are:
1. Cooling flue gases to reduce the cost of materials used in downstream flue gas treatment equipment.
2. Ducting incinerator effluent to a larger common stack to dilute the gases. (Temperature control is required to prevent
exceeding breaching material temperature limits.)
3. Emergency disposal of gaseous waste streams when the incinerator is down.

➧ PREPARATION OF DUTY / DESIGN SPECIFICATION

The following checklist outlines the items normally covered in incinerator duty / design specifications. Refer to the BASIC
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS for details regarding each item.
1. Waste Stream Characteristics
a. Include all properties, flow rates, heating values, ash, contaminants.
b. For new, difficult streams, determine feasibility of incineration before issuing duty specification.
c. Define stream dynamics.
d. Predict future changes to stream quality and quantity.
2. Type of Operation Required
a. Specify continuous vs. intermittent, manual vs. automatic operation; especially give details on complex multi-stream unit
operations.
3. Required Effluent Quality
a. Furnish information on all local pollution control laws.
(1) Forecast limits to be imposed by pending legislation.
(2) Define which existing laws must be met.
4. Utility Specifications
a. Give characteristics of auxiliary fuel, steam, air, electricity, pilot fuel.
b. Specify available plot area.
c. Supply utility cost data for economic evaluations.
5. Interfaces for Vendor-Supplied Hardware
a. Describe interfaces with the feed system, utilities, stack, foundation, etc.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 15 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

PREPARATION OF DUTY / DESIGN SPECIFICATION (Cont)

6. Erection Costs
a. Request that vendor estimate field erection costs and provide general details of shop vs. field-fabricated sections.
7. Feed System and Controls
a. Specify items of equipment the vendor is to supply, and what will be supplied by the general contractor.
(1) Usually, we buy standard vendor controls (if proven).
(2) Usually, the contractor supplies the feed system.
b. Indicate which controls are to be mounted in the control house.
c. Specify holdup capacity for liquid wastes.
d. Specify how to handle gaseous waste during unit shutdown (vent, flare, etc.).
8. Combustor and Burners
a. Forced or natural-draft burners are acceptable.
b. Specify easy removal of burners and guns for maintenance without unit shutdown.
c. Call for sufficient view ports at several elevations to sight each burner and most of the chamber in the expected flame
zone.
d. Must meet IP 2-1-1 requirements for Noise.
e. If solid wastes or high-ash liquids are being burned, supply ample access for chamber cleanout and maintenance.
Possibly consider two chambers.
f. Air doors and damper must be adjustable from grade.
➧ 9. Controls
a. Vendor / contractor must supply control drawings and written operating instructions detailing all the functions of the
control / safety system.
b. Control system must include flameout protection similar to that required by the furnace and boiler International
Practices. Note that most incinerators are built with such systems, but each must be carefully reviewed for consistency
with the intent of the IPs. One potential problem areas is:
(1) Flames from waste streams may be not be adequately detected with ultraviolet type flame detectors. Therefore,
flame detectors should be selected which have demonstrated good experience in the required service and keeping
in mind that with infrared type detectors there is potential for false detection from hot refractory.
10. Heat Recovery
a. Specify that the unit heat balance without heat recovery is such that the unit meets the required limits in case of heat
exchanger failure.
b. Provide for heat exchanger bypass if desired.
c. Specify the flue gas composition, percent conversion of waste, etc., for a no-heat-recovery case.

GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING DEMONSTRATION TESTS

Because of the unique requirements of each incinerator, and because of the lack of standardization and vendor experience in the
industry, it is common practice to require a demonstration test of any proposed new incinerator design before contract award.
Also, for any unusual streams, demonstration / feasibility tests must be run as early as possible, to provide time for development.
The test requirements can be satisfied in existing units or at a test facility, depending upon the objectives. These objectives are
to provide data to prove the acceptability of all the various sub-systems in a given incinerator design. Vendors are cooperative in
these efforts and usually conduct tests at nominal cost, in the hope of obtaining future business.

AVAILABILITY OF SAMPLE WASTE STREAM

In many cases, it is difficult to obtain a truly representative sample, with all trace contaminants. In such cases, it will be
necessary to simulate the stream as closely as possible in as many parameters as possible. Of particular interest are viscosity,
ash content, solids content and particle size, heating value, water, or inert content.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 16 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

GUIDELINES FOR CONDUCTING DEMONSTRATION TESTS (Cont)

➧ OBTAINING MULTIPLE OBJECTIVES FROM TESTS

Typically, a vendor sets out to prove one thing: that a stream is or is not capable of sustaining combustion to the desired limits of
conversion, either with or without auxiliary fuel, in his particular combustor design. Although this is the primary objective of any
incineration test, data must also be obtained for design of the feed handling, control and exhaust emissions systems. Feed
system data should include temperature range, pumpability, viscosity, required pressure and required recirculation rate. Controls
should be checked for orifice sizing and combustion cutoffs. It would be best if the entire control system could be utilized in the
test. Exhaust emission testing should include the measurement of all trace species of interest e.g. sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, total hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, particulates and etc.
The combustion test should provide data for atomizing steam requirements, tip drillings, refractory wear, auxiliary fuel and
conversion of the stream (time, temperature vs. % conversion). Finally, flue gases should be sampled by experienced vendor
personnel or by an independent testing laboratory, to determine flue gas treatment requirements. A complete analysis should be
made on several samples, to determine composition as well as particle size.

TABLE 1
AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURES FOR COMPOUNDS
COMMONLY FOUND IN GASEOUS REFINERY INCINERATOR WASTES

COMPOUND AUTO-IGNITION TEMPERATURE, °F (°°C)

Ammonia 1204 (651)

Hydrogen Sulfide 554 (290)

Carbon Monoxide 1128 (609)

Hydrogen 1065 (574)

Methane 1170 (632)

Ethane 914 (490)

Propane 898 (481)

Butane 807 (430)

TABLE 2
RESIDENCE TIMES AND OPERATING TEMPERATURES
RECOMMENDED BY JOHN ZINK FOR DESIGN
OF GASEOUS WASTE INCINERATORS

MINIMUM MINIMUM OPERATING

WASTE COMPOUND RESIDENCE TIME, sec. TEMPERATURE, °F (°°C)

Hydrocarbons 0.6 1400 (760)

Hydrogen Sulfide 0.6 1200 (650)

Carbon Monoxide 0.75 1600 (870)

Note:
(1) Above numbers for destruction efficiency (mass reduction) of 99%. Higher residence time and/or temperature
would be required for higher destruction efficiency.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 FIRED HEATERS DESIGN PRACTICES
INCINERATORS Section Page
EXXON VIII-N 17 of 18
ENGINEERING Date
PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only December, 1999

➧ TABLE 3
GLOBAL KINETIC EXPRESSIONS FOR OXIDATION OF CH4 AND CO

APPLICABLE TEMPERATURE
COMBUSTIBLE DESTRUCTION EFFICIENCY (1) RANGE °F (°°C)
CH4

1 − 1 −
( )( )
5.23 x 1011 e − 48,400 / RT (f O 2 ) 0.8 (t )

3.33 1525 – 2065 (830 – 1130)

 (f CH 4i )0.3 T1/ 2 
CH4
[ ( )
1 − exp − 1.22 x 1012 (f O 2 ) e − 46,060 / RT ( ) (t )] 1200 – 1500 (650 – 815)

CO
(
 − 1.58 x 1012
1 − exp 
) (f O 2 )1/ 2 (f H2O)1/ 2 (e −30,000 / RT ) (t)  1060 – 3795 (570 – 2090)

 T 

CO (
 − 1.43 x 1013
1 − exp 
) (f O 2 )0.25 (f H 2 O) 0.5 (e −40,000 / RT ) (t)  1400 – 1760 (760 – 960)

 T 0.75 

Notes:
(1) Destruction efficiency = (mass combustible entering – mass combustible leaving) / (mass combustible entering).
(2) Temperature range covered in reaction rate experiments.
(3) Units in Destruction Efficiency Expressions are: T = °K, f = avg. mole fraction in incineration section, f = mole fraction entering
incinerator, t = seconds, R = 1.986 cal/g-mole °K.

TABLE 4
CALCULATION RESULTS FOR HYPOTHETICAL INCINERATOR SHOWING
REQUIRED INCINERATION VOLUME AS A FUNCTION OF FLUE GAS OXYGEN CONTENT

VOL. % O2 IN FLUE REQUIRED

GAS EXITING REQUIRED INCINERATION AUXILIARY FIRING RATE, FLUE GAS FLOW, INCINERATOR VOLUME,
INCINERATOR TEMPERATURE, °F (°°C)(2) kg FUEL/100 kg WASTE(3) kg/kg WASTE m3/1000 kg/h WASTE(2)
1.0 1520 (825) 1.9 1.60 0.695
2.0 1450 (790) 1.9 1.65 0.692
3.0 1415 (770) 1.9 1.73 0.713
4.0 1390 (755) 2.2 1.96 0.795
5.0 1375 (745) 2.5 2.15 0.866
10.0 1320 (715) 5.4 4.22 1.64

Notes:
(1) Waste in all cases is composed of 1 wt% CH4 and 99 wt% N2.
(2) Calculated using second expression listed in Table 3 and assuming constant residence time of 0.5 seconds and constant destruction
efficiency of 99%
(3) Auxiliary fuel basis is 100% CH4.

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.

 DESIGN PRACTICES FIRED HEATERS
Section Page INCINERATORS
VIII-N 18 of 18 EXXON
Date ENGINEERING
December, 1999 PROPRIETARY INFORMATION - For Authorized Company Use Only

NOMENCLATURE
A = Pre-exponential factor, determined from experiment
[Cf] = Concentration of waste combustible, lb moles/ft3 (g-moles/cm3)
[Cf]o = Initial concentration of waste combustible, lb moles/ft3 (g-moles/cm3)
DE = Destruction efficiency, expressed as a fraction
E = Activation energy, Btu/lb mole (cal/g mole)
f = Mole fraction in incinerator section
K = Temperature dependent reaction rate constant
K′ = Temperature dependent reaction rate constant, when X = 1
R = Universal gas constant, 1.986 Btu/lb mole °R (cal/g mole °K)
T = Temperature, °R (°K)
X = Stoichiometric factor for the waste combustible
Y = Stoichiometric factor for the oxygen

EXXON RESEARCH AND ENGINEERING COMPANY - FLORHAM PARK, N.J.