ENTREPRENEURIAL LAW (MRL203L)

Discussion Class Notes

Study Unit 1
Legal Personality

A company attains legal personality upon incorporation.

Legal personality means:

• limited liability of members.
• The assets of the company are its exclusive property.
• Where a company is wronged, the company must itself seek redress.
• Managerial and executive powers are to be exercised by directors.
• Shares in a company entitle holders certain interests in the company.

The new entity can acquire its own rights and duties separate from its members.
The Court can disregard the legal personality to avoid abuse (“lifting” or “piercing the
corporate veil”.)

LIFTING THE CORPORATE VEIL:

Cape Pacific Ltd v Lubner Controlling Investments (Pty) Ltd 1995 (4) SA 790 (A)
[47]

Hülse-Reutter v Gödde 2001 (4) SA 1336 (SCA) [48]

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Section 163(4): if a court finds that the incorporation of a company or any act by or use
of a company constitutes an unconscionable abuse of its juristic personality, the court
may declare that the company will be deemed not to be a juristic person in respect of the
rights, liabilities and obligations relating to the abuse.

Courts will not allow the use of any legal entity to justify wrong, to protect fraud or to
defend or hide crime.
Courts will then pierce or lift the corporate veil and hold directors and others personally
liable for acts committed in the name of the company.
The veil will only be pierced or lifted in exceptional circumstances where there is no
alternative remedy available and piercing the corporate veil will prevent an injustice.

This is a combination of section 65 of the Close Corporations Act and the judgment in
Botha v Van Niekerk.
Cape Pacific Ltd v Lubner Controlling Investments (Pty) Ltd: test to ascertain whether an
“unconscionable injustice” was done as applied in Botha v van Niekerk was too rigid.
View in Cape Pacific is disregarded in s 163 (4).

1.5 Legal personality of branches and divisions

If branches and divisions are not registered entities themselves but merely operate
separately for practical purposes, they do not for purposes of law have their own
separate legal personality.

Study Unit 2
Types of Companies

Types of companies

The Act provides for profit and non-profit companies.

Profit company:
Object is financial gain for its shareholders.
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May be incorporated by one or more persons.

There is no limit to the number of shareholders that it may have.

Four entities qualify as profit companies:

(1) A public company:
• Shares may be offered to the public and are freely transferable;
• This company can be listed on the JSE Limited;
• The Memorandum of Incorporation (MOI) is the governing document of this
company.

(2) A state-owned company:

• Falls under the meaning of “state-owned enterprise” as determined in the Public
Finance Management Act, or it is owned by a municipality;
• It is a National Government Business Enterprise;
• It is fully or substantially financed by the National Revenue Fund, tax, levy or
other statutory money.
• Examples of state-owned companies: CSIR, SABS and Sasria.

A personal liability company:

• Private company, mainly used by professional associations (such as attorneys);
• Directors are jointly and severally liable along with the company for debts and
liabilities contracted during their term of office. Section 19(3) uses the word
“contracted” and not “incurred”, which was held by the court in Fundtrust (Pty) Ltd
(In Liquidation) v Van Deventer 1997 (1) SA 710 (A) to limit this liability to
contractual debts, and to exclude delictual and statutory liabilities.
• Refer to Sonnenberg McLoughlin Inc v Spiro 2004 (1) SA 90 (C) (in part 2.6.3 of
your text book) on a section 53(b) company in terms of the Companies Act of
1973. This company is similar to the new personal liability company.

A private company:
• Its MOI prohibits offering of shares to the public, cannot freely transfer shares;
• See Smuts v Booysens; Markplaas (Pty) Ltd and another v Booysens 2001 (4)
SA 15 (A) on this requirement not to transfer shares freely to the public (par 2.6.4
of your text book).
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Non-profit company:
Company previously registered under section 21 of the Companies Act of 1973.
Objects must relate to social activities, public benefits, cultural activities or group
interests.
Must have directors, but they are not allowed to obtain any financial gain from the
company other than remuneration for the work they performed.
Does not have to have members.
If they have members, some members may enjoy voting rights while others may not.

Study Unit 3
Company Formation

3.2 Incorporation of a company

Section 7(b): Aims of 2008 Act:

• The creation of flexibility in the formation and maintenance of
companies.
• Simplicity in the formation and maintenance of companies.
• The encouragement of corporate efficiency.
• The encouragement of transparency.
• The provision of a predictable regulation of companies.

When dealing with the formation of companies, the objectives of flexibility and simplicity
are clear. The Act makes it possible to incorporate both simple business structures and
very complex business structures.

Note that the heading of section 13 is “Right to incorporate company”. When it

comes to incorporation, the flexibility and simplicity of the Act make it easier for
people to exercise the right to incorporate companies. When comparing the 1973
Act with the 2008 Act it is clear that the requirements for incorporation are less
stringent than they used to be.
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The Memorandum of Incorporation is the founding document of the company.

It sets out the relationship between the company and its shareholders; the company and
the directors; the company and other parties within the company as well as the company
and third parties.
Provisions in the Memorandum of Incorporation may be amended from time to time.

3.2.2 The Incorporation of a company: steps to be taken

One or more persons may incorporate a profit company. For the formation of a non-profit
company, three or more persons are required. Each of these people must complete and
sign the Memorandum of Incorporation.

The Act provides a standard form for the Memorandum of Incorporation. However, the
use of the standard form is optional. Since the Act allows for flexibility the Memorandum
of Incorporation may be in the form provided for in the Act or it may be in a form unique
to the company.

As mentioned above, the Notice of Incorporation and a copy of the Memorandum of

Incorporation must be filed with the Commission, together with the prescribed fee.

3.2.3 The Incorporation of a company: The role of the Commission

Once the two documents (the Notice of Incorporation and a copy of the Memorandum of
Incorporation) have been filed with the Commission and the prescribed fee paid, the
Commission may either accept or reject the Notice of Incorporation.

The Notice of Incorporation may be rejected by the Commission under the following
circumstances:
• If it has not been completed in full (s 13(4) (a)).
• If it has not been properly completed (s 13(4) (a)).
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The Notice of Incorporation must be rejected by the Commission under the following
circumstances:
• If the initial number of directors is less than the prescribed
minimum number (s 13(4) (b)).
• Where as a result of a director’s disqualification, the initial number
of directors become less than the prescribed minimum number
(s13(4)(b)).

In terms of section 66(2) a private company must have at least one director and
a non-profit company must have a minimum of three directors. If the Commission
realises that one of the directors does not qualify to be a director, this will reduce
the number of directors. If the reduction leads to the number of directors being
less than the prescribed number, the Commission has no choice. It must reject
the Notice of Incorporation!

3.3 Registration of a company

Registration of a company is regulated by section 14 of the Act. Once the Notice of

Incorporation has been filed, the Commission:
• Assigns a unique number to the corporation.
• Enters prescribed information regarding the company in the
Companies Register.
• Issues and delivers a registration certificate to the company, if all
the other requirements have been complied with. Note the
discussion on page 31 of your prescribed book regarding the
registration certificate.

The date stated on the registration certificate is the date on which the company
acquires legal personality. If the promoters have stipulated a specific date on the
Notice of Incorporation, the date on the registration certificate will be the later one
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of that date and the date on which the certificate is issued by the Commission.

3.3.1 Memorandum of Incorporation

• Ben-Tovim v Ben-Tovim and Others 2001 (3) SA 1074 (C)

MEMORANDUM OF INCORPORATION AND RULES

• The Memorandum of Incorporation (MOI) is the governing document of the
company.

Memorandum of Incorporation have to be consistent with provisions of the Companies Act (s

15(1) (a)). Where there are inconsistencies, provisions in the Memorandum will be void, but only
to the extent of the inconsistency (s 15(1) (b)).

Registration of Companies:
Notice of Incorporation plus a copy of the Memorandum of Incorporation must be filed with the
Commission. In addition the prescribed registration fee must be paid.

The Act is flexible and allows incorporators of a company to include provisions not
covered by the Act, in the Memorandum of Incorporation.

Section 15(2)(b) provides that the Memorandum of Incorporation of a company may

contain special conditions applicable to the company and requirements in addition to
those stipulated in the Act, for the amendment of such conditions. Section 15(2) (c) also
allows the Memorandum to prohibit the amendment of any particular provision in the
Memorandum. If the Memorandum of Incorporation of a company contains any of the
provisions allowed by section15 (2) (b) and (c), the name of the company must be
followed by the expression “(RF)”. This is an abbreviation for the words “ring fencing”
and is intended to warn outsiders dealing with the company that there are special
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conditions contained in the Memorandum which they should check. The Notice of
Incorporation filed by the company must also contain a prominent statement drawing
attention to each such provision and where it is located in the Memorandum of
Incorporation (s 13(3)).

Note that where the Act is silent on a particular issue, the incorporators of a
company are allowed to include provisions pertaining to that issue in the
Memorandum of Incorporation. The objective of flexibility with regards to
incorporation is once more highlighted. Do you think this flexibility is a good thing
or not?

3.3.2 Rules made by the Board of Directors

In terms of section 15(3), where both the Act and the Memorandum of Incorporation are
silent regarding certain matters that have to do with the governing of the company, the
board of directors of a company is generally allowed to:
• Make rules;
• Amend any existing rules;
• Repeal any rules.

Such rules must not be in conflict with the Memorandum of Incorporation of the company
or with the Act. In terms of section 15(4)(a), where there is a conflict between a rule
made by the board of directors and the Act or the Memorandum of Incorporation, the
rule will be void but only to the extent of its inconsistency.

• The board of directors has the power to make rules concerning

the governance of the company, provided that they are not
addressed in the Act or in the Memorandum of Incorporation.
• A rule made by the board which is inconsistent with the
Memorandum of Incorporation or with the Act will be void, but
only to the extent of its inconsistency.
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• Although the rule becomes effective 20 business days after

publication, ratification by an ordinary resolution at the next
shareholders’ general meeting is important.

3.4 The legal status of the Memorandum of Incorporation and the

rules developed by the board of directors

The Memorandum of Incorporation and the Rules are binding between:

• The company and each shareholder (s 15(6) (a)).
• Or among the shareholders of the company (s 15(6) (b)).
• The company and each director or prescribed officer of the
company (s 15(6) (c) (i)).
• The company and each member of the audit committee or
member of a committee of the board.

3.5 Amending the Memorandum of Incorporation

The Act allows for changes to be made to the Memorandum of Incorporation (unless the
amendment of a provision is prohibited by the Memorandum itself in terms of section
15(2) (c) as discussed above in 3.3.1). Such changes may be in the form of:
• A new Memorandum of Incorporation or
• Amendments to the existing provision of the Memorandum of
Incorporation.

Proposals for amendment may be made:

• By the board of directors;
• By shareholders who collectively exercise not less than 10% of
the voting rights;
• In terms of the procedure set out in the company’s Memorandum
of Incorporation;
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• By means of a court order. An amendment in terms of a court

order is given effect via a board resolution but there is no need
for a shareholders’ resolution.

An amendment may result in a profit company not meeting the criteria for that category
of profit companies. When this happens, the name and the ending expression must also
be amended in such a way that it reflects the new category that the profit company falls
under.

Section 16 relates to the amendment of the Memorandum of Incorporation. Making

changes to the Memorandum of Incorporation is allowed and it may be in the form of a
new Memorandum of Incorporation or in changes being made to existing provisions of
the Memorandum of Incorporation. There is no need to convene a meeting. As it is
sometimes difficult for some shareholders to attend meetings, the proposal to amend the
Memorandum of Incorporation may be by way of a round robin among shareholders who
are entitled to vote.

3.6 Alteration of the Memorandum of Incorporation

The Act allows for changes or alterations to be made to the company’s rules and to the
Memorandum of Incorporation. These may be made with a view to correcting minor
errors such as grammar, punctuation, spelling and references.

Note that it is the board of a company or an individual who has been given
authority to do so by the board, that may make the changes.

For an alteration to be effected:

• a notice of alteration must be published in accordance with the
Memorandum of Incorporation and the rules;
• A notice of alteration must be filed.
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3.7 Translations of a Memorandum of Incorporation

A company which has filed a Memorandum of Incorporation has the right to file a
translation thereof. The translation may be in any official language or more that one
official language of the Republic of South Africa. It must be filed together with a sworn
statement by the translator confirming that the translation is a true, accurate and
complete translation of the Memorandum of Incorporation (s 17(4)).

In the event of a conflict between a provision in the Memorandum of Incorporation and a

provision in the translated version, the provision in the original Memorandum of
Incorporation prevails.

3.8 Consolidation of a Memorandum of Incorporation

As stated above, after filing the Memorandum of Incorporation, a company may make
amendments or alterations to its Memorandum of Incorporation. Anytime thereafter, the
company may file a consolidated revision of its Memorandum of Incorporation. It is
possible, also, for the Commission to require the company to do so.

The consolidated revision of the Memorandum of Incorporation has to be filed together

with a sworn statement made by a director of the company or by an attorney or notary
confirming that it is a true, accurate, updated and complete representation of the
Memorandum of Incorporation.

3.9 Authenticity of versions of the Memorandum of Incorporation

In the event of a conflict between the Memorandum of Incorporation and its translated
versions, the Memorandum of Incorporation, as altered or amended prevails. The same
applies to a conflict between the Memorandum of Incorporation, as altered or amended,
and its filed consolidated version. The consolidated version may prevail only if it has
been ratified via a special resolution at a general shareholders’ meeting of the company.
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In the event of a conflict between the latest version of the Memorandum of Incorporation
endorsed by the Commission and any other document purporting to be a Memorandum
of Incorporation, the latest version as endorsed by the Commission will prevail.

3.10 Shareholders’ agreement

The Act allows shareholders to enter into agreements with each other regarding any
matter concerning the company. Such agreements must not be inconsistent with the Act
and with the Memorandum of Incorporation of the company. Where a provision of the
agreement is inconsistent with the Act or with the Memorandum of Incorporation, it is
void to the extent of its inconsistency.

3.11 Pre-Incorporation contracts

The common law does not allow a person to act as an agent for a principal who does not
exist. This means that under the common law no person can act as an agent for a
company which has not as yet been incorporated because the company does not exist
before incorporation. This may result in the company losing the chance to enter into
beneficial contracts which present themselves prior to incorporation. To avoid this state
of affairs, section 21 allows pre-incorporation contracts to be entered into on behalf of
the company which has yet to be incorporated.

Section 1 of the Act describes a pre-incorporation contract as “an agreement entered

into before the incorporation of a company by a person who purports to act in the name
of, or on behalf of, the company, with the intention or understanding that the company
will be incorporated, and will thereafter be bound by the agreement”.

A person who enters into such a contract is held jointly and severally liable for liabilities
emanating from the pre-incorporation contract if:
• Incorporation does not take place, or
• Once the process of incorporation has been completed, the
company does not ratify any part of the agreement. Note,
however, that joint and several liabilities will not apply where after
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incorporation the contract is substituted by another similar

contract.

Section 21 does not exclude the common law, which means that a promoter may also
use the common-law alternatives. These are the contract for the benefit of a third party
(stipulatio alteri), a trust or cession and delegation. The common-law constructions have
a major advantage over a section 21 contract because in terms of the common law, the
promoter is not automatically liable if the company is not incorporated or does not ratify
the contract.

3.12 Registration of company names

When choosing a company name one must avoid names which:

• are offensive to people of a particular race, ethnic group, gender
or religion (s 11(2)(c)(iii));
• Amount to passing off. Passing off occurs when a company
makes use of a feature which is associated with another
business. Common law prohibits passing off.

3.12.1 Criteria for names of companies in terms of the Act

The name of a company may not:

• be the same as the name of another company, close corporation
or co-operative;
• resemble the name of another company, close corporation or co-
operative to the extent that it may create confusion or create the
impression that the two businesses are associated;
• give the impression that the company is associated with the
government, or with a particular person or government office
etcetera;
• be the same as the name of a business which has already been
registered in terms of the Business Names Act 27 of 1960;
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• Be the same as a trademark of a business which has been filed

for registration in terms of the Trade Marks Act 194 of 1993.

The name of a company may:

• Be the registration number of the company, provided that it is a
‘profit’ company. The number has to be followed by the words
“(South Africa)”.

Note that this is only applicable to profit companies. Non-profit companies are
not allowed to have registration numbers as their names.
• Be in any language and it may consist of any letters, numbers or
punctuation marks and brackets. It may also contain any of the
specified symbols listed in paragraph 2.11.1 of the text book. A
combination of the above is allowed. In addition, the name of the
company must end with the appropriate expression for that type
of company. Remember to add the expression “(RF)” to the list
contained in paragraph 2.11.1 of your text book.

3.12.2 Change of Name

Where a name that is to be registered is similar to another registered name, the Act
allows the Commission to make use of the registration number of the company as an
interim name.

The registration number will appear in:

• the Companies Register and on
• The Registration Certificate.

The registration number must end with the relevant suffix, as stated in section 11(3). The
company is provided with another opportunity to file a Notice of Incorporation containing
an acceptable name. Upon receipt of the Notice of Incorporation with the amended
name the Commission has to enter the new name in the Companies Register. It must
also issue an amended Registration Certificate reflecting the amended name.
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Where, according to the Commission, there is a possibility that the name is similar to the
name of another company or another business undertaking or trade mark or that the
name gives an impression that there is a connection between the company that is
applying and another entity or state organ, the Commission may compel the applicant to
inform parties that may be interested by serving them with a copy of the application and
name reservation.

The Act also allows any person who has an interest in the name of a company to apply
to the Companies Tribunal for the Tribunal to determine whether or not the name is in
accordance with the requirements of the Act.

3.12.3 Use of name and registration number

Epstein v Bell 1997 (1) SA 483 (D).

Section 32 requires that a company provide its full name or registration number to any
person on demand. It further prohibits the misstating of the name or registration number
and the stating of the name in such a way that it may mislead or deceive a person.

Where the Registration Certificate is issued with an interim name by the Commission,
the company is obliged to use its interim name. The interim name is used until the
company name has been amended.

3.12.4 Reservation of a name for later use

In terms of section 12 a name may be reserved for use at a later stage, to be used for a
newly incorporated company or to be used as a replacement for an existing name of a
company.

A reservation is made by filing an application and paying the prescribed fee. Once this is
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done, the Commission is obliged to reserve the name.

The commission will not reserve a name if:

• It is already the name of another registered company, close
corporation or co-operative.
• It is already a name given to an external company.
• It is a name that has already been reserved in terms of the Act.

There is a six month reservation period. It is calculated from the date of application for
reservation. Should the person, who applied for reservation of a name wish to transfer
the name to another person, this is possible. It must be done by filing a notice of
transfer.

It is possible to reserve a name with a view to making use of it in the future. A name may
be reserved for use as
• the name of a new company or
• A new name of an incorporated company.

A name is reserved by filing an application and paying the prescribed fee. The
Commission is bound by law to reserve all names that appear in the application for
reservation. An applicant may reserve more than one name.

A name is reserved for six months. The six month period is calculated from the date of
the application for reservation. You must also note the fact that the Act allows for the
transfer of a reserved name to another party.
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Study Unit 4
Capacity and Representation of a Company

• Royal British Bank v Turquand (1856) 6 E & B 327, 119 ER 886

[101]

• Freeman & Lockyer v Buckhurst Park Properties (Mangal) Ltd

[1964] 2 QB 480 [103]

4.2 Capacity of a company and the ultra vires doctrine

• Sections 19(1) and 20 of the Companies Act

The capacity of a company is the sphere of actions that a company may legally
perform. In terms of our common law, a contract is ultra vires the company when the
conclusion of the transaction is beyond its legal capacity.

The ultra vires doctrine is based on the understanding that a company exists in law only
for the purpose for which it was incorporated. According to the ultra vires doctrine, when
an act on behalf of the company falls outside its main and ancillary objects, the company
does not exist in law and consequently such an act is not binding on the company. Such
an act is described as an ultra vires act.

In Attorney-General v Mersey Railway Co (1907) 1 Ch 81 (HL), the court explained that

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whether a particular contract falls within the capacity and powers of the company is a
question of fact. If the main purpose of the company was to carry on the business of a
hotel, it is clear that acts necessary to achieve this purpose, for example, the purchasing
of furniture and the hiring of staff, are intra vires.

Under section 36 of the Companies Act of 1973, if members of a company find out about
a proposed ultra vires contract before it is concluded, they may interdict the company
from entering into the contract. However, if an ultra vires contract has already been
concluded, the contract will be binding on the company. An action can then be brought
against directors who have exceeded their powers by concluding a contract on behalf of
the company which falls outside the capacity of the company, on the basis that the
directors have breached their fiduciary duty not to exceed the scope of their authority.

Section 19(1) (b) of the Companies Act of 2008 now considerably widens the capacity of
a company. It provides that a company has all the legal capacity and the powers of a
natural person except to the extent that a juristic person is incapable of exercising any
such power, or the company’s Memorandum of Incorporation provides otherwise. The
capacity of a company is therefore no longer limited by its main or ancillary objects or
business. Although the company’s Memorandum of Incorporation may limit, restrict or
qualify the purposes, powers or activities of the company (in other words impose
restrictions on the legal capacity of the company) in terms of section 19(1)(b)(ii), any
such restrictions would not render any contract invalid that conflicts with these
restrictions (section 20(1)(a)). Thus, the contract remains valid and binding upon the
company and the other party to the contract. Section 20(6) of the Act provides that each
shareholder has a claim for damages against any person who fraudulently or due to
gross negligence causes the company to do anything inconsistent with the Act or a
limitation, restriction or qualification on the powers of the company as stated in its
Memorandum of Incorporation, unless ratified by special resolution in terms of section
20(2). This is in addition to the remedy provided in section 165 (see study unit 9).

However, if the company or directors have not as yet performed the planned action (for
example concluded the contract) that is inconsistent with a limitation or qualification of
the company’s powers contained in the Memorandum of Incorporation, one or more
shareholders, directors or prescribed officers of the company may obtain a court order
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restraining (i.e. preventing) the company or directors from doing so. A third party who did
not have actual knowledge of this limitation or qualification and acted in good faith, will in
such a case have a claim for any damages suffered as a result. In terms of section
20(4), shareholders, directors, prescribed officers and a trade union representing
employees of the company may also institute proceedings to prevent the company from
doing anything inconsistent with the Act. Note that it is only in the last-mentioned case
that a trade union may prevent the company from acting.

4.3 Representation

Representation relates to a person acting under the company’s authority. If a

company gives an agent authority to act on its behalf, the agent possesses actual
authority and will bind the company in acts which fall within the scope of the mandate
given to him. Authority can be given expressly (in writing or orally) or by implication.
Whether authority has been conferred is a question of fact.

A company may also be bound to a contract on the basis of estoppel where the person
purporting to conclude the contract on its behalf lacked actual authority, express or
implied, but the other party to the contract had been misled by the company into
believing that he did have authority. This is referred to as ostensible or apparent
authority. (See the discussion in 4.3.3 below.)

4.3.1 The Doctrine of Constructive Notice

The doctrine of constructive notice provides that third parties dealing with a company are
deemed to be fully acquainted with the contents of the public documents of the
company. Section 19(4) of the Act partly abolishes this doctrine. Thus, third parties
contracting with the company will no longer be deemed to have had notice of the
contents of the public documents of a company merely because they have been filed
with the Commission or are accessible for inspection at the office of the company. But
section 19(5) of the Act provides for two exceptions: firstly, a person is deemed to have
knowledge of any provision of a company’s Memorandum of Incorporation in terms of
section 15(2)(b) (relating to special conditions applicable to the company and additional
requirements regarding their amendment). This is subject to the condition that the Notice
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of Incorporation contains a prominent statement drawing attention to such a provision as

required by section 13(3). The second exception applies to a personal liability company.
A person is also regarded as having received notice and knowledge of the effect of
section 19(3) on a personal liability company. Section 19(3), in turn, provides that the
directors and past directors of a personal liability company are jointly and severally
liable, together with the company, for any debts and liabilities of the company contracted
during their respective periods of office.

Section 19(4) of the Act provides that third parties contracting with the company are not
deemed to have had notice of the contents of the public documents of a company
merely because they have been filed with the Commission or are accessible for
inspection at the office of the company. Therefore, Mr Matthews is not expected to know
that the general meeting’s consent was required for the validity of a contract of that size.
It seems from the set of facts that the exceptions in section 19(5) are not applicable.

4.3.2 The Turquand Rule

The Turquand rule was derived from Royal British Bank v Turquand (1856) 6 El. & Bl.
327; 119 ER 886). According to the common-law Turquand rule, an outsider contracting
with the company in good faith is entitled to assume that all internal requirements and
procedures have been complied with. The company will be bound by the contact even if
the internal requirements and procedures have not been complied with. The exceptions
are: if the outsider was aware of the fact that the requirements and procedures have not
been complied with; or if the circumstances under which the contract was concluded
were suspicious. It was formulated to keep an outsider’s duty to inquire into the affairs of
the company within reasonable bounds.

For the Turquand rule to come into operation, the person who acted must have
possessed actual authority, which was subject to an internal formality. In Tuckers Land
and Development Corporation (Pty) Ltd v Perpellief 1978 (2) SA 11 (T) the court found
that third parties may not automatically assume that a branch manager or an ordinary
director has authority to act on behalf of the company. The company may still escape
liability on the grounds that the person had no authority.
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Section 20(7) of the Companies Act of 2008 now codifies the Turquand rule in a
modified form by providing that a person dealing with a company in good faith is entitled
to assume that the company has complied with all of the procedural requirements in
terms of the Act, the company’s Memorandum of Incorporation and any rules of the
company unless the person knew or reasonably ought to have known of any failure by
the company to comply with its formal and procedural requirements.

4.3.3 The Doctrine of Estoppel

Estoppel applies only when the agent did not have actual authority to bind the company.
Take particular note of the fact that the misrepresentation (i.e. that the agent had the
necessary authority when, in fact he or she did not) must have been made by the
company as principal. Based on such misrepresentation, the company will be estopped
from denying liability if the third party can prove that:

a) The company misrepresented, intentionally or negligently, that the agent concerned

had the necessary authority to represent the company;
b) The misrepresentation was made by the company;
c) The third party was induced to deal with agent because of the misrepresentation;
d) The third party was prejudiced by the misrepresentation.

Study Unit 5
Corporate Finance: Shares, Debentures and Distributions

• Lipschitz v UDC Bank Ltd 1979 (1) SA 789 (A) [138]

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5.2 The definition of a share

The Companies Act 71 of 2008 defines a ‘share’ as “one of the units into which the
proprietary interest in a profit company is divided.”
A shareholder is essentially one of the contributors of the fund that sets up a company.
This fund is the share capital of the company.
A ‘share’ is the unit of the contribution made to the share capital. It is property in itself
and can be traded.

The Value of Shares:

Companies Act of 1973 distinguished between par value and no- par value shares.
Par value shares were shares issued with a nominal value attached, for instance, a
company could issue 100 shares with a nominal value of R1 each.
Companies Act 2008: no shares will in future be issued with a nominal value attached.
Only the number of shares must be authorised in the Memorandum of Incorporation, not
their value.

Authorised share capital:

The Memorandum of Incorporation of a company must set out the classes of shares and
the number of each class that a company is authorised to issue.
A company may only issue shares that are authorised by the Memorandum of
Incorporation.
However, a company’s board may increase or decrease the authorised share capital.
They may further reclassify any shares authorised but not issued.

Issued Share capital:

The board decides when to issue shares and how many shares must be issued. In other
words, not all the authorised shares need to be issued. These are shares that have been
issued and for which a counter-performance has been received.
 23

5.3 Classes of shares

Shares are divided in classes according to the specific rights that a share confers on its
holder. The rights that differ among the various classes can usually be divided into the
following:
• The right to vote.
• The right to information.
• The right to share in the profits that have been declared as a
dividend.
• The right to share in the assets that are left on the winding-up of a
company after the company’s creditors have been paid.
The classes of shares most commonly found are preference shares, ordinary shares,
and deferred shares.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHARES
• Preference shares
• Ordinary shares
• Deferred shares

PREFERENCE SHARES:
• Preferential right to dividends.
• Preferent right upon winding up
• Expressed as percentage.
• Shareholder entitled to claim when dividends are declared.

(a) PARTICIPATING PREFERENCE SHARES

- right to both fixed % preference & share a residual distributable profit.
(b) CONVERTIBLE PREFERENCE SHARES
- Right to be converted to ordinary shares.
(c) REDEEMABLE PREFERNCE SHARES
• Company authorised by articles
- Issue preference shares redeemable either at option of the company/ given date.
- The articles prescribe terms and manner
 24

- May be redeemed out of two possible sources:

(1)Out of proceed of a fresh issue
(2)Out of divisible profits
(d) CUMULATIVE PREFERENCE SHARES-
- unpaid dividends accumulate.

ORDINARY SHARES;
• Considered after dividend for preference shares has been made.
• No limit on the amount of dividend
• Regarded as residuary heir

DEFERRED SHARES:
• Considered after dividend has been paid to ordinary shareholders
• Issued by way of remunerating promoters for services rendered.

5.4 Issue of shares

The Companies Act regards the decision to issue shares as a management decision.
Unless specifically limited in the Memorandum of Incorporation, the board of directors
will have the authority to take the decision to issue shares without approval of the
shareholders. The board of directors also has the authority to increase the authorised
shares of the company.

However, in the following circumstances a resolution by the board of directors to issue

shares must be approved by a special resolution of the shareholders:
• Where the shares are issued to the directors, future directors or
prescribed officers of the company. A ‘future director’ or ‘future
prescribed officer’ does not include a person who becomes a
director or officer more than six months after the shares were
issued.
• Where the shares are issued to a person related or inter-related to
the company, a director or a prescribed officer of the company. A
natural person is related to another natural person if she is
married to, or lives together with, that person as if they were
married, or is that person’s parent, sister, aunt or first cousin. A
 25

natural person is related to a company when she directly or

indirectly controls the company by either having the majority of
voting rights or by having the right to appoint the majority of
directors of the company. A juristic person is related to another
juristic person if it directly or indirectly controls the other by either
having the majority of voting rights or by having the right to
appoint the majority of directors of the company, or if it is a
subsidiary of the company, or if it controls the business of the
company.
• Where the shares are issued to a nominee of a director or a
prescribed officer of the company.
• Where the voting power of the shares to be issued will exceed 30
per cent of the voting power of the shares of that class held
immediately before the issue.

5.4.1 Right of pre-emption

As a general rule, shareholders of private companies have a right of pre-emption to new
shares issued by the company. This means that when the company issues new shares,
these shares must be offered to existing shareholders first, pro rata to their current
shareholdings.

The reason why this provision was included in the Companies Act is to guard against the
dilution of ownership in private companies. Dilution of ownership can be explained as
follows: Suppose that Fidelity (Pty) Ltd has two shareholders who each hold 10 shares.
At a meeting of shareholders they will have equal voting power. Suppose that Fidelity
(Pty) Ltd wants to issue 20 more shares. If a third person acquires all 20 of these shares,
that person will have half of the voting rights at a meeting of shareholders. The original
shareholders will now only have a 25 per cent voting power in the meeting of
shareholders. If they exercised rights of pre-emption, each of them would have been
entitled to half of the 20 shares, and consequently they would retain the same voting
power in the company.
 26

5.5 Debentures

A debenture is an acknowledgment by a company that the company owes the debenture

holder a certain sum of money, as evidenced in the document. Debenture holders are
creditors of the company by virtue of having extended loans to the company.

The duties of the company towards the debenture holders can be secured or unsecured.
A trustee will usually be appointed to hold security on behalf of the debenture holders. If
the company defaults on its commitments to the debenture holders, the trustee will be
able to enforce the security on their behalf, without the need for every debenture holder
to institute action individually.

The board of directors can decide whether to issue debentures without approval of the
shareholders, unless otherwise indicated in the Memorandum of Incorporation.

5.6 Distributions

In the Companies Act of 1973 the concept of ‘distributions’ was rather narrowly defined.
Payments made to shareholders in their capacity as shareholders were included in the
concept, but a repurchase of shares by a company and redemption of shares were
expressly excluded. In the Companies Act of 2008 the last-mentioned acts are now also
classified as distributions.

Section 46 of the Companies Act regulates distributions. You need to know that the
payment of dividends to shareholders is a distribution in terms of the Act. Other acts that
fall under the definition are the purchase by a company of its previously issued shares,
the incurrence of a debt for the benefit of one or more of the shareholders of the
company, or the forgiveness of a debt owed to the company by one or more of the
shareholders of the company

A distribution may be made in the following circumstances:

• The board of directors must authorise the distribution.
 27

• It must reasonably appear that the company will be able to satisfy

the solvency and liquidity test immediately after the distribution
has been made.

The solvency and liquidity tests are set out in section 4 of the Act:
Solvency test: considering all reasonably foreseeable financial circumstances of the
company at that time, the assets of the company, fairly valued, equal or exceed the
liabilities of the company as fairly valued.
Liquidity test: considering all reasonably foreseeable financial circumstances of the
company at that time, it appears that the company will be able to pay its debts as they
become due in the ordinary course of business for a period of 12 months after the
distribution. If the distribution was in the form of giving a loan to a shareholder or
forgiving a loan made to a shareholder, the period runs from 12 months after the test
was considered.

The distribution must be made within 120 days after the test was applied, otherwise the
resolution by the board must be taken again and the test must be applied again.

As long as these requirements are met, dividends can be paid out of the share capital of
a company. However, usually dividends are paid from the profits of a company. The
board of directors decides how much of the profits they want to pay out to shareholders.
They are free to decide that they are going to keep all profits for the expansion of the
business of the company. Normally in such circumstances the shareholders are not
entitled to dividends.

5.7 Capital maintenance

Originally companies were required to maintain their share capital. In other words, they
were not allowed to return to shareholders some of the funds originally given in return for
their shares, nor were companies allowed to issue shares at a discount, causing the
company to gain less share capital in return for the shares than the nominal value of the
shares reflected.

Gradually the maintenance of capital was relaxed through amendments to the

 28

Companies Act of 1973. You do not need to know the details of these provisions. All you
need to know now is the following:
• A company is allowed to repurchase its shares. This is considered
a distribution, which means that the solvency and liquidity tests
must be met. See above for the definition of these tests.
• After the company has purchased its shares, there must be
shares left other than convertible or redeemable shares. Some
shares must be held by shareholders other than the company’s
subsidiaries.
• If the company repurchased shares and it emerges that it did not
meet the solvency or liquidity tests, the agreement between the
shareholder and the company in terms of which the company
would repurchase his shares, remains enforceable.
o The company must apply for a court order to suspend the repurchase of
the shares. The company bears the burden of proof that it did not meet
the financial requirements of the Act. The court may make any order it
deems fit.
o The court’s order must ensure that the person from whom the shares are
bought will be paid at the earliest time that the company will still be able
to fulfill its financial obligations as they fall due and payable.
• Alternatively, if the repurchase was in contravention of the
solvency and liquidity tests, the company can apply for a court
order to have the repurchase reversed:
o The person from whom the shares were bought will then be required to
return the consideration received.
o The company will have to issue shares to that person in return.
Directors who approved a repurchase of shares in contravention of the requirements
relating to distributions are liable in the same manner as set out on page 57 of the text
book.
 29

5.8 Financial assistance for the purchase of shares

In terms of the Companies Act of 1973 it was prohibited for a company to provide
financial assistance to a person to enable that person to acquire shares or other
securities in the company, except for some very specific exceptions.

In terms of section 44 of the Companies Act of 2008 a company may assist a person in
acquiring shares and other securities in the company, provided that such assistance is
not prohibited by the Memorandum of Incorporation and that certain requirements are
met.

The decision to assist a person to acquire shares in the company rests with the board of
directors, but only where the assistance is in terms of an employee share scheme or
where a special resolution by the shareholders authorised such assistance to a specific
person or persons that fall in a specific class or category. In the latter case the person to
whom the assistance will be given must fall in that class and the resolution must have
been taken within the two years preceding the board’s decision to assist.

Section 44 further requires that the board must be satisfied that the solvency and
liquidity requirements are met (see above) and that the assistance is given under terms
that are fair and reasonable to the company.

The Memorandum of Incorporation may place further restrictions on the provision of

financial assistance and the board must ensure that these requirements are also met.

The Lipschitz decision dealt with the prohibition of financial assistance in terms of the old
Act. However, the decision is still important for the application of section 44, because it
gives us guidelines of when the provisions of the section will be applicable to a particular
scenario.

In Lipschitz it was held that the transaction must be assessed in two phases:
• First, it must be ascertained whether there was financial
assistance. In Gradwell (Pty) Ltd v Rostra Printers Ltd 1959 (4)
SA 419 (A) the ‘impoverishment test’ was formulated to assist in
 30

determining whether financial assistance was provided. In terms

of the impoverishment test, one considers whether a transaction
will have the effect of leaving the company poorer. If so, financial
assistance was provided. In Lipschitz the court held that this is
not the only measure of financial assistance, but that exposing
the company to risk will also qualify as financial assistance for
purposes of the Act. For example, if the person obtained a loan to
purchase shares in the company and the company stood surety
for that loan, it will count as financial assistance. If the company
buys an asset form the person in order to enable that person to
purchase shares in the company, it will depend on the facts
whether there was financial assistance. Factors that have
emerged from case law to assist in this regard are whether the
company needs the asset in its normal business and whether the
company paid a fair price for it.
• Second, it must be determined whether that assistance was for
the purpose of acquiring shares in the company. Suppose
Company A is a major creditor of Company B. Company A
acquires most of the shares in Company B. After the acquisition,
Company A causes Company B to grant security over its
movable assets to secure the loans. This will be financial
assistance in terms of the first test, but it is not in connection with
the purchase of shares. The assistance is to secure a loan.

When a transaction passes these two phases, it will have to comply with section 44 to be
valid. If it was not financial assistance, or if the assistance was not in connection with the
purchase of shares, section 44 is not relevant to the transaction.
 31

Study Unit 6
Shareholders and Company Meetings

• Gohlke and Schneider v Westies Minerals (Pty) Ltd 1970 (2) SA 685 (A) [61]

• In re Duomatic Ltd [1969] 1 ALL ER 161 (Ch) [71]

• Pender v Lushington (1877) 6 ChD 70 [70]

• Sammel & Others v President Brand Gold Mining Co Ltd 1969 (3) SA 629 (A)
[114]

6.2 Notice of Meetings

Section 62 provides that a notice:

o must be in writing
o must include the date, time and place for the meeting;
 32

o must explain the general purpose of the meeting;

o must contain a statement that a shareholder is entitled to appoint a proxy
to attend, participate in and vote at the meeting in the place of a
shareholder;
o should indicate the participants will be required to provide proof of identity
at the meeting;
o must be accompanied by a copy of any proposed resolution which will be
considered at the meeting; and
o a notice of 10 days must be given before the date of the meeting.

6.3 Representation by Proxy

6.3.1 Appointment of a proxy

The appointment:
• Must be in writing and signed by the shareholder;
• Is valid for one year;
• May be for a specific period of time;
• May be for two or more persons concurrently exercising voting
rights for different shares;
• A proxy may delegate authority to act on behalf of the shareholder
to another person;
• A copy of the proxy appointment form must be delivered to the
company before the shareholders meeting;
• A shareholder is not compelled to make an irrevocable proxy
appointment;
• A shareholder may alter proxy by cancelling it in writing,
appointing another proxy and deliver a copy of the revocation to
the proxy and the company.
 33

6.4 Demand to convene a shareholders’ meeting

• Section 61 of the Companies Act

A shareholders’ meeting may be called by the board or any person authorised by the
Memorandum of Incorporation . A meeting must be convened if required by the Act or
the Memorandum of Incorporation, or demanded by shareholders holding at least 10%
of the voting rights that may be exercised at that meeting.

6.5 Shareholders acting other than at a meeting

• Gohlke and Schneider v Westies Minerals (Pty) Ltd 1970 (2)

SA 685 (A)

The Companies Act of 1973 provides that a particular annual general meeting need not
be held if all the members who are entitled to attend such a meeting consent in writing.
In such a case, any resolution that would have been dealt with at this meeting will also
be deemed to be valid if it is in writing and signed by all the members entitled to vote at
that meeting. Otherwise, resolutions have to be taken at properly constituted members’
meetings.

Unanimous Assent:

In terms of this rule, certain decisions may be valid without a meeting being held, if all
the members are fully aware of the facts and all of them assented thereto, although it
need not be in writing. In Gohlke and Schneider v Westies Minerals (Pty) Ltd 1970 (2)
SA 685 (A) the court held that members may validly appoint a director to the board
without any formal meeting being held because there was evidence of their unanimous
consent. The court in In re Duomatic Ltd [1969] 1 ALL ER 161 (Ch) held that the
 34

unanimous approval of directors’ remuneration by the two directors holding all the voting
shares in a company could be regarded as a resolution of a general meeting approving
the payment.

Although the general principle still remains that shareholders exercise their rights
through resolutions at meetings, a resolution may be submitted to shareholders and, if
adopted in writing by the required majority, will have the same effect as if it had been
adopted at a meeting without actually holding a general meeting of shareholders (s 60).
This means that the unanimous assent of all shareholders will no longer be necessary.
However, any business of a company that must, in terms of the Act or the company’s
Memorandum of Incorporation, be conducted at an annual general meeting may not be
conducted by using this procedure.

6.6 Annual General Meeting

In terms of the Companies Act of 1973, every company was compelled to convene an
annual general meeting at the times prescribed by the Act unless all the members who
were entitled to attend the meeting agreed in writing that the meeting need not be held.
In terms of the Companies Act of 2008, only public companies have a statutory
obligation to convene annual general meetings.

Section 61(8) stipulates that at least the following matters must be transacted at the
Annual General Meeting:
• Election of directors to the extent required by the Act or the
company’s Memorandum of Incorporation;
• Appointment of an auditor for the following financial year;
• Appointment of an audit committee;
• Presentation of the directors’ report;
• Presentation of audited financial statements for the immediately
preceding financial year;
• Presentation of an audit committee report;
• Any matter raised by shareholders.
 35

6.7 Convening a meeting in special circumstances

section 61(11): company cannot convene a meeting because it has no directors or all its
directors are incapacitated.

section 61(12): company, fails to convene its annual general meeting or a meeting
required by its Memorandum of Incorporation or shareholders.

6.8 Quorum

Section 64 : A meeting may not begin until sufficient persons holding at least 25% of all
the voting rights are present. Furthermore, if a company has more than two
shareholders, at least three shareholders must be present.

6.9 Conduct of meetings

The requirements for both a special and an ordinary resolution clearly state that the
required percentage of votes exercised on the resolution must be in favour of the
resolution to have it validly adopted. Only the votes of shareholders who actually
exercise their votes are thus taken into consideration.

6.11 Exercise of voting rights

Three possible situations are discussed under this heading. Briefly summarised, they are
the following:

(1) A profit company (other than a state-owned enterprise) with only one shareholder:
• The shareholder may exercise all the voting rights.
• Rules of setting a record date etcetera do not apply.
 36

(2) A profit company (other than a state-owned enterprise) with only one director:
• The director may exercise any power or perform any function of
the board at any time except when the Memorandum of
Incorporation provides otherwise.

(3) A company (other than a state-owned enterprise) where every shareholder is also a
director:
• Shareholders may decide on any matter to be referred by the board at any time,
without notice or compliance with any internal formalities except when the
Memorandum provides otherwise; subject to certain specified conditions.

6.12 Shareholder resolutions

Two types of resolutions that may be taken in a shareholders’ meeting:

Ordinary resolution
• Requires more than 50% of the voting rights exercised;
• The Memorandum may provide for a higher percentage;
• The Companies Act provides that there should be a margin of at
least ten percentage points between the requirements for the
adoption of a special resolution and an ordinary resolution.

Special resolution
• Requires at least 75% of the voting rights exercised;
• The Memorandum may provide for a lower percentage;
• There must be a margin of at least ten percentage points between
the requirements for a special resolution and an ordinary
resolution.
 37

6.13 Decisions that require a special resolution

A special resolution is compulsory for certain resolutions stipulated in the Act but may
also be required by the Memorandum of Incorporation.

6.14 Postponement and Adjournment of meetings

A meeting may be adjourned for a week if within an hour of the scheduled starting time
the quorum is not formed.
A notice of adjournment will only be given if the location of the adjourned meeting is
different. A meeting may be adjourned for a fixed time and place or until further notice.
Where a meeting is adjourned, it may not be adjourned for more than 120 business
days.

Study Unit 7
Directors and Board Committees

7.2 Meaning of the word “director” and the different types of

directors.

A director is a member of the board of a company and includes any person occupying
the position of a director or alternate director. A person becomes a director only:
• when that person has given his or her written consent to serve as
director,
• after having been appointed or elected or holding office in
accordance with the provisions of section 66 of the Companies
Act.

The King Code differentiates between the following three types of directors:
• Executive directors;
• Non-executive directors;
 38

• Independent directors.

Howard v Herrigel 1991 (2) SA 660 (A): It is unhelpful or even misleading to

classifycompany directors as ‘executive’ or ‘non-executive’ for purposes of
determining theirduties to the company or when any specific or affirmative action is
required of them.Once a person accepts an appointment as director, he or she is
obliged to display theutmost good faith towards the company irrespective of whether
such a person is an‘executive’ or ‘non-executive’ director.

The Companies Act recognises the following types of directors:

• An ex officio director;
• A Memorandum of Incorporation- appointed director;
• An alternate director;
• An elected director;
• A temporary director who is appointed in order to fill a vacancy.

7.3 Directors and managers

Robinson v Randfontein Estates Gold Mining Co Ltd 1921 AD 168 An employee or

manager of a company has duties similar to that of the fiduciary duties of a director
towards a company.

There are many differences between being a ‘director’ and a ‘manager’. A manager is
an employee of a company whereas a director does not have to be an employee.
Managers and directors also differ in their roles with regards to inter alia, leadership,
decision making and their respective duties and responsibilities. The boards of directors,
for example, are responsible for the leadership and direction of a company while the
managers’ tasks are to carry out the strategy on behalf of the directors. Directors are
also responsible for organisational decision making while mangers are concerned with
the implementation of such decisions and policies.
 39

7.4 Number of directors and consent

The different types of companies should each have a specified minimum number of
directors in terms of the Companies Act.
Type of company Number of directors
Private company
Personal liability company
Public company
Non-profit company

A person becomes a director of a company when that person:

• has been appointed or elected as a director in terms of the Companies Act or
Memorandum of Incorporation,
• or holds an office, title, designation or similar status entitling that person to be an
ex officio director of the company.
A person will only become a director once he or she has delivered a written consent
accepting such a position.

S v Vandenberg and Others 1979 (1) SA 208 (D)

Where a company does not have the prescribed minimum directors this does not negate
or limit the authority of the Board. This will also not invalidate any act performed by the
Board or the company.
 40

7.5 Directors: the Act and a company’s Memorandum of

Incorporation

Read

7.6 Ineligible and disqualified persons

Ineligible:
o means that such a person is absolutely prohibited from becoming a
director without any exceptions.

Disqualified:

o Person may still be appointed as a director of a company with the

permission of the court.
o The other disqualifications are not absolute because the court has
discretion on application to allow such disqualified persons to be
appointed as directors.

7.7 Director disqualifications: exemptions

Section 69(11) : court has a discretion to exempt certain disqualified persons

Section 69(12): shareholders of certain private companies may avoid disqualification.

7.7.1 Exemptions by a court

A court may exempt certain disqualified persons from the disqualification.

Ex Parte Schreuder 1964 (3) SA 84 (O) and Ex Parte Tayob 1990 (3) SA 715 (T).
 41

In Ex Parte Barron 1977 (3) SA 1099 (C) the Court held that it could be more lenient in a
case where a private company is affected than where a public company is affected. This
is due to the fact that a director of a public company deals with funds in which a vast
number of people are involved.

7.8 Application to declare a person delinquent or under probation

The power given to a court to declare a director either delinquent or under probation is
introduced into South African company law for the first time by the Companies Act of
2008. Depending on the grounds on which a person has been declared to be a
delinquent, he will subsequently be either unconditionally disqualified from being a
director for the rest of his life, or disqualified for a period of at least seven years and
subject to any conditions that the court considers appropriate.

An order of probation, on the other hand, may not exceed a period of five years and may
be made subject to any conditions the court considers appropriate, such as a designated
remedial program. Refer to the table on pages 91-94 of your text book for a summary of
who may apply to court, the grounds for application, the order sought and the effect of
the order. You should also take note that three additional grounds to apply for an order
of delinquency are available to the Commission or Takeover Regulations Panel (see
page 94 of your text book in this regard).

• A company can apply to a court of law for an order to have a director declared as
delinquent;
• Where a director grossly abused his position as director and acted in a manner
that amounted to a breach of trust a declaration of delinquency may be made;
• This declaration may be subject to any conditions the court consider appropriate
and will be for at least seven years from the date of the order.

7.8.1. Application to court to suspend or set aside a delinquency order

This application may be made only in those cases where the declaration was not made
 42

unconditional and for the lifetime of the person declared delinquent.

The applicant first has to apply for a suspension of the order and then, after a further two
years, may apply for it to be set aside.

7.9 First directors of a company

Different types of companies must have a minimum number of directors required for that
specific type of company. At the incorporation of a new company, every incorporator is
deemed to be a director of such company until sufficient directors have been appointed
to meet the required minimum number of directors. If after its incorporation, the number
of directors of that company is lower than the minimum number of directors required for
that company the board of the company will have to call a meeting within 40 business
days after the date of incorporation for the purpose of electing sufficient directors to fill all
vacancies.

7.10 Vacancies on the Board

A vacancy will arise on the board of a company if, for example, a director resigns, dies or
is unable to perform his or her duties as director.

In the Rosebank Television& Appliance Co (Pty) Ltd v Orbit Sales Corporation (Pty) Ltd
case the court confirmed that a director’s resignation becomes effective once it has been
communicated to a company irrespective of whether it was only later accepted.

7.11 Filling of vacancies

• Section 70 of the Companies Act

If a vacancy arises in the board, other than as a result of an ex officio director ceasing to
hold that office, it must be filled by a new appointment or by a new election as prescribed
by the Act.
 43

7.12 Removal of directors

A director can be removed by shareholders and in some circumstances by the board of

directors.

A director who has been removed from office may apply to a court to review the
determination of the board. This application must be brought within 20 business days
from the date of a decision taken by the board. The court has discretion whether to
confirm the determination of the board.

7.13 Board committees

The board of directors may, except to the extent that a Memorandum of Incorporation
provides otherwise, appoint committees and may delegate any of the authority of the
board to such committee. You should, however, note that a director will still remain liable
for the proper performance of his or her duties despite the delegation of a duty to a
committee.

The Minister of Trade and Industry may in terms of the Companies Act 71 of 2008
prescribe that a company or a certain category of company must have a social and
ethics committee. In terms of section 94(2), every public or state-owned company must
appoint an audit committee of at least three members.

In terms of the King Code a public listed company should at least have both an audit and
remuneration committee. The establishment of a nomination committee is also
recommended. The respective committees make certain recommendations and assist
the board of directors with regard to the specific area of expertise.

7.14 Board meetings

Board meetings may be called by directors so authorised. The necessary notice must be
given to all directors before any meeting is held. A majority of the directors of the board
must be present at a meeting before a vote may be called. Every director has one vote
 44

per meeting, while the chairman has a deciding vote in the event of a tie. Minutes of all
decisions as well as any resolution taken by the board at a meeting must be kept.

7.15 Duties of directors

There are four sources from which the duties of directors arise, namely their contracts
with the company (if any), the company’s constitution (Memorandum of Incorporation),
the Companies Act and the common law. The rights and duties created by contract are
determined by reference to the specific contract. Those created by the company’s
constitution were discussed in study unit 3 while the duties imposed by the Companies
Act 71 of 2008, as well as by the common law will be discussed in this study unit.

Apart from a few specific duties and limitations placed on directors by the Companies
Act of 1973, such as the duty to disclose to the board any interest in contracts of the
company, most of the duties of directors were determined by the common law. At
common law directors are subject to fiduciary duties to exercise their powers bona fide
(in good faith) and for the benefit of the company, and to the duty to exercise their
powers with care and skill.

The Companies Act 71 of 2008 now introduces a partially codified regime of directors’
duties, which includes duties similar to the common-law fiduciary duties and the duty to
perform their functions with reasonable care and skill. However, the common law is not
excluded by the statutory provisions, and will continue to apply except insofar as it is
specifically amended by the Act or is in conflict with a provision of the Act. Note that for
purposes of these codified duties, “director” includes an alternate director and a member
of a committee of the board who is not a director.

For the first time, the Act now also places an explicit duty on the board of directors to
manage the company (s 66(1)).

Briefly summarised, the newly codified duties of directors in the Companies Act of
2008 are the following:
 45

(1) To disclose to the board any personal financial interest in matters of the
company (s 75).
(2) Not to use the position of director or information obtained as director to gain
an advantage for himself or another person, or to knowingly cause harm to the
company or a subsidiary (s 76(2) (a).
(3) To disclose to the board of directors any material information that comes to a
director’s attention (s 76(2)(b))
(4) To act in good faith and for a proper purpose (s 76 (3) (a)).
(5) To act in the best interests of the company (s 76 (3) (b)).
(6) To act with a reasonable degree of care, skill and diligence (s 76 (3) (c)).

7.15.1 Standards of directors’ conduct

7.15.2 Directors must not abuse their position or information (s 76(2)) and must
act in a certain way when there is a personal financial interest (s 75)

Firstly, section 75 of the Companies Act of 2008 prescribes how a director should act
when his or her personal financial interests conflict with those of the company. Two
different situations are regulated in this provision. If a director is the only director but not
the only shareholder of the company, he must disclose any personal interest in an
agreement or other matter of the company to the shareholders and obtain their prior
approval by an ordinary resolution before he enters into this agreement or deals with the
matter. In all other cases, disclosure must be made to the board of directors of any
personal financial interest of the director in a matter to be considered at a board meeting
and may not be present or take part in the discussion. A director may also make an
advance general disclosure of his personal financial interests to the shareholders or
board, as the case may be.

Secondly, in terms of section 76 (2) (a) of the Companies Act of 2008, a director may not
abuse his position as director, or information obtained while acting as a director, to gain
an advantage for himself or for another person other than the company or a wholly-
owned subsidiary of the company, or to knowingly cause harm to the company or a
subsidiary of the company.
 46

The third duty that is discussed under this heading is the duty of a director to disclose
any information that comes to his attention, subject to the exceptions mentioned in the
text book.

• Robinson v Randfontein Estate Gold Mining Co Ltd 1921AD 168

[case 75]

• Regal Hastings Ltd v Gulliver 1All ER 378(HL) [case 76]

• Atlas Organic Fertilizers (Pty) Ltd v Pikkewyn Ghwano (Pty) Ltd

1981 (2) SA 173(T) [case 80]

• Sibex Construction (SA) (Pty) Ltd v Injectaseal CC 1988 (2) SA 54

(T)

• CyberScene Ltd and Other v i-Kiosk Internet and Information (Pty)

Ltd (page 104 and 107 of you text book)
 47

• Ghersi and Others v Tiber Development (Pty) Ltd and Others

(page 105 of your text book) and answer the following question:

A director may be in breach of the duties owed by him or her to the company despite
termination of his or her office. In Sibex the directors resigned from their office to form a
close corporation which competed directly with the special business of the company.
The court found that the knowledge they had gained whilst employed by the company
could not be used to the advantage of a rival before or after they had left the employ of
the company.

7.15.3 Acting with a certain degree of care, skill and diligence

Fisheries Development Corporation of SA v Jorgenson [case 87]

Philotex (Pty) Ltd v Snyman and Others; Braitex (Pty) Ltd and Others v Snyman and Others
1998(2) SA 138(SCA) Although the test is an objective one, it contains subjective elements
in that the general knowledge, skill and experience of the particular director in question are
taken into account. A director who is a chartered accountant will therefore need to be more
skilful when it comes to the company’s financial affairs than a director who is an electrician
by trade.

The Companies Act introduced what is called the business judgment rule (s 76(4)). This
provision states that a director will be regarded as having acted in the best interests of the
company and with the required degree of care, skill and diligence if the director:
• took reasonable steps to become informed about the matter;
• had no material personal financial interest in the subject matter of the decision or knew
of anybody else having a financial interest in the matter, or disclosed his interests; and
 48

• made or supported a decision in the belief that it was in the best interests of the
company;
A director is also entitled to rely on information provided by certain persons specified in the
Act.

7.15.4 Liability of directors and prescribed officers

Directors may be held liable for certain losses or damage sustained by the company due to
their actions. These actions may include acting without the necessary authority, fraudulently
or in contravention with the provisions of the Companies Act or the company’s
Memorandum of Incorporation or duties.

A director will be jointly and severally liable with any other person who is or may be held
liable for the same act. The court may however relieve a director from liability, other than for
willful misconduct or willful breach of trust, provided it appears to the court that the director
acted honestly and reasonably.

7.15.5 Indemnification and director’s insurance

A company may not indemnify a director in respect of liability arising out of certain
circumstances such as a breach of his or her fiduciary duties.

A company is however entitled to take out indemnity insurance to protect a director against
any liability or expenses for which the company is permitted to indemnify a director. The
company may also take out insurance to insure itself against expenses that the company is
permitted to advance to a director to defend litigation.

It is impossible to exempt directors from personal liability for negligence, default, breach of
duty or breach of trust. The Memorandum of Incorporation may not conflict with any
statutory rule.
 49

Study unit 8
Auditors and the company secretary

• Thoroughbred Breeders’ Association v Price Waterhouse 2001 (4) SA 551 SCA

[149]

• International Shipping Co (Pty) Ltd v Bentley 1990 (1) SA 680 (A) [153]

Duties of Auditors:

In terms of section 44 of the Auditing Profession Act 26 of 2005, it is the duty of an auditor to
examine a company’s financial statements and accounting records and to express an opinion as
to the truth and fairness, in all material respects, of the statements and the accountant’s
adherence to financial reporting standards. Section 1 of the Auditing Profession Act 26 of 2005
states that an “audit” means the examination of, “in accordance with prescribed or applicable
accounting standards, (a) financial statements with the objective of expressing an opinion as to
their fairness or compliance with an identified financial reporting framework and any applicable
statutory requirements; or (b) financial and other information, prepared in accordance with
suitable criteria, with the objective of expressing an opinion on the financial and other
information”. By attesting that the financial statements fairly present the financial condition and
past performance of a company, an auditor plays a vital function in reinforcing the reliability of
financial information.
8.3 Appointment of an auditor

• A public company or state-owned company is required to appoint an auditor

every year at the annual general meeting.
• Other companies such as private companies, personal liability companies and
 50

non-profit companies are not required under the Companies Act to appoint an
auditor, but may do so voluntarily.
• Section 85 of the Companies Act: Every company that appoints an auditor must
file a notice of the appointment with the Registrar within ten business days after
the appointment. The notice must reflect the name of the auditor and the date of
appointment.
• Section 85(4) requires that the incorporators of a company file a notice of the
appointment of the company’s first auditor as part of the company’s Notice of
Incorporation.

Section 90(2) of the Companies Act: persons disqualified from being appointed as the auditor :
• a director or prescribed officer of the company;
• an employee or consultant of the company who was or has been engaged for
more than one year in the maintenance of any of the company’s financial records
or the preparation of any of its financial statements;
• a director, officer or employee of a person appointed as company secretary;
• a person who, alone or with a partner or employees, habitually or regularly
performs the duties of accountant or bookkeeper, or performs related secretarial
work, for the company;
• a person who, at any time during the five financial years immediately preceding
the date of appointment, was a person contemplated above or is a person related
to a person contemplated above.

8.4 Resignation and vacancies

• Resignation effective upon receipt of notice
• Must within 40 days appoint new auditor

• Must propose a new auditor within 14 days after vacancy arose

8.5 Rotation of auditors

Section 92 of the Companies Act: Rotation of auditors.

The same individual may not serve as the auditor or designated auditor of a company for more
than five consecutive financial years.
This rotation requirement applies to individual auditors only and not to firms and also does not
 51

apply to private companies.

8.6 Rights and restricted functions of auditors

Section 44(6) of the Auditing Profession Act provides that a registered auditor may not conduct
the audit of any financial statements of an entity, whether as an individually registered auditor or
as a member of a firm, if the registered auditor has or had a conflict of interest in respect of that
entity, as prescribed by the Independent Regulatory Board for Auditors (IRBA).The IRBA is
required to define in the code of professional conduct (see s21(2)(a) of the Auditing Profession
Act) which non-audit services an auditor is prohibited from rendering to the company it is
auditing.

Section 93 of the Companies Act:

• Company auditor has a right to access the accounting records and all books and
documents of the company.
• An auditor may require from the directors or officers such information and
explanations as are necessary for the performance of his or her duties.
• The auditor may apply to court for an order to enforce the above rights and the
court may make any order that is just and reasonable to prevent frustration of the
auditor’s duties by the company, directors, prescribed officers or employees.
• The court may further make a costs order against any director or prescribed
officer whom the court has found to have willfully and knowingly frustrated, or
attempted to frustrate, the performance of the auditor’s functions.

Hamid is therefore entitled to have access to the documents requested from Barney, and may
apply to court if necessary for an order that the documents be furnished to him. The court may
make a costs order against Barney in his personal capacity.

8.7 The Auditing Profession Act 26 of 2005 – read only

 52

8.8 Audit committees

Section 94 Companies Act 2008:
At each annual general meeting, a public company, a state-owned enterprise and any other
company which has voluntarily decided to have an audit committee, must appoint an audit
committee for every financial year.
The audit committee must have at least three members and consist only of non-executive
directors of the company who have not been involved in the day to day management of the
company in the preceding three financial years.

8.9 The company secretary

8.9.1 Mandatory appointment of company secretary

The company secretary is the principal administrative officer of his or her company.
Every public company or state-owned enterprise must appoint a company secretary.
A private company, personal liability company or a non-profit company may voluntarily appoint a
company secretary.

The first company secretary of a public company or state-owned enterprise may be appointed
by:
• the incorporators of the company; or
• within 40 business days after the incorporation of the company, by either the directors of
the company or an ordinary resolution of the company’s shareholders (s 86(3)).

Within 60 business days after a vacancy arises in the office of company secretary, the board
must fill the vacancy by appointing a person whom the directors consider to have the requisite
knowledge and experience (s 86(4)).

Every company secretary must be a permanent resident of the Republic, and must remain so
while serving in that capacity (s 86).
 53

8.9.2 Disqualification as company secretary –

• A person who is disqualified to serve as a director of a company

Other disqualified person is a person that-
• has been prohibited to be a director or has been declared to be delinquent by a court
order;
• is an unrehabilitated insolvent;
• is prohibited in terms of any public regulation to be a director of the company;
• has been removed from an office of trust, on the grounds of misconduct involving
dishonesty; or
• has been convicted, in the Republic or elsewhere, and imprisoned without the option of a
fine, or fined more than the prescribed amount, for theft, fraud, forgery, perjury, or an
offence (i) involving fraud, misrepresentation or dishonesty; (ii) in connection with the
promotion, formation or management of a company; or (iii) under the Companies Act or
some other Acts listed in the section and also listed in your text book on page 146.

Section 87: a juristic person or partnership may be appointed to hold the office of company
secretary if every employee of that juristic person, or partner and employee of that partnership,
as the case may be, satisfies the requirements contemplated in section 84(5); and at least one
employee of that juristic person, or one partner or employee of that partnership, as the case
may be, satisfies the requirements contemplated in section 86.

8.9.3 Duties of company secretary

• providing the directors of the company collectively and individually with guidance as to
their duties, responsibilities and powers;
• making the directors aware of any law relevant to or affecting the company;
• reporting to the company’s board any failure on the part of the company or a director to
comply with this Act;
• ensuring that minutes of all shareholders meetings, board meetings and the meetings of
any committees of the directors, or of the company’s audit committee, are properly
recorded in accordance with this Act;
 54

• certifying in the company’s annual financial statements whether the company has filed
required returns and notices in terms of this Act, and whether all such returns and
notices appear to be true, correct and up to date;
• ensuring that a copy of the company’s annual financial statements is sent, in accordance
with this Act, to every person who is entitled to it; and
• carrying out the functions of a person designated in terms of section 33(3) (i.e., person
responsible for filing the company’s annual return).

8.9.4 Resignation or removal of company secretary

Section 89(1): A company secretary may resign from office by giving the company one month
written notice, or, with the approval of the board, less than one month written notice. If the
company secretary is removed from office by the company’s board, the secretary may require
the company to include a statement in its annual financial statements relating to that financial
year setting out the secretary’s contention as to the circumstances that resulted in the removal.

8.10 Registration of company secretaries and auditors

Sections 85 of the Companies Act

In addition to the record of company secretaries and auditors that a company must keep, every
company that appoints a company secretary or auditor is required to file a notice of the
appointment, or the termination of service of such an appointment, with the Registrar within ten
business days after the appointment or termination, as the case may be

Section 85(4) : The incorporators of a company may file a notice of the appointment of the
company’s first company secretary as part of the company’s Notice of Incorporation.

Study Unit 9
Remedies, Enforcement Agencies and Alternative Dispute Resolution
(ADR)
 55

Donaldson Investments (Pty) Ltd v Anglo-Transvaal Collieries Ltd 1979 (3) SA 713 (W)
[166]

9.2 Remedies against directors who have abused their position

Against directors who have abused their position.

• Application to declare a director delinquent or under probation and
• The derivative action in terms of section 165.

9.2.1 Application to declare a director delinquent or under probation

• A court may declare a director to be a delinquent director or place a director

under probation;
• Such an order has serious consequences for a director;
• A court is obliged to make an order declaring a person to be a delinquent director
if one of the statutory grounds is established;
• A court may place a director under probation on the grounds in section 162(4).

9.2.2 Derivative action in terms of section 165

TWK Agriculture Ltd v NCT Forestry Co-operative Ltd and Others 2006 (6) SA 20 (N)
regarding the nature of the derivative action:

• The common-law derivative action was unsatisfactory for a number of reasons,

hence section 266 of the 1973 Act introduced a statutory derivative action as an
alternative to the common-law remedy;
• In Thurgood v Dirk Kruger Traders (Pty) Ltd 1990 (2) SA 44 (E) [par 11.3 of your
text book] the applicant brought a successful application in terms of section 266
of the 1973 Act for the appointment of a curator ad litem;
 56

• Section 165 of the 2008 Act retains the statutory derivative action in terms of
section 266 of the 1973 Act, but with important changes;
• Section 165 abolishes the common-law right of a person other than the company
to bring legal proceedings on behalf of the company;
• Specific steps must be taken to institute an action in terms of section 165;
• Instead of a curator ad litem appointed by the court, the new procedure provides
for the appointment of an independent and impartial person or committee by the
company to investigate the demand and report back to the board.

9.3 Remedies available to shareholders to protect their own rights

Statutory remedies for shareholders:

S 163: Relief from oppressive or prejudicial conduct

S 164: Dissenting shareholders’ appraisal
S 161: Application to protect the rights of the holders of securities.

9.3.1 Relief from oppressive or prejudicial conduct in terms of section 163

• Section 252 of the 1973 Act provided a statutory remedy to minority shareholders
who were the victims of oppressive conduct by the majority;
• This remedy was in addition to the personal action which minority shareholders
could bring against the company under the common law;
• Section 163 of the 2008 Act essentially retains the remedy provided for in section
252 of the 1973 Act, but with a number of important refinements;
• In Donaldson Investments (Pty) Ltd v Anglo-Transvaal Collieries Ltd 1979 (3) SA
713 (W) [case 166] preference shareholders were unsuccessful in their action
under section 252 where they were deprived of certain rights but granted
additional privileges, because an order in terms of section 252 would have
resulted in the shareholders receiving a price for their shares that was far in
excess of their actual market value;
• Robson v Wax Works (Pty) Ltd 2001 (3) SA 1117 (C) is an example of a situation
where section 252 would have brought appropriate relief.
 57

9.3.2 Dissenting shareholders’ appraisal rights in terms of section 164

Section 164 of the Companies Act

• Although section 163 of the 2008 Act retains the remedy provided for in section
252 of the 1973 Act, and although relief under section 252 could include the
purchase by the company of a dissenting shareholder’s shares, the current Act
provides for an independent remedy for dissenting shareholders, called
dissenting shareholders’ appraisal rights;
• An appraisal right is the right of a shareholder to require his company to buy his
shares at their fair value if his company takes any of the listed triggering actions;
• A specific procedure must be followed by the shareholder once his company has
taken a triggering action.

9.3.3 Application to protect the rights of securities holders

in terms of section 161

Section 161 of the Companies Act

• The holder of issued securities may apply to court for a declaratory order
regarding his rights;
• Alternatively, the holder of the securities can apply for an appropriate order to
protect his rights or to rectify any harm done to him by the company as a result of
an act or omission in contravention of the Act, the Memorandum of Incorporation,
rules or applicable debt instrument, or harm done by any of the company’s
directors, but only to the extent that they may be held liable under section 77.

9.4 Liability for abuse of separate juristic personality of company

Section 163 Relief from Oppressive and Prejudicial Conduct

Appraisal rights in section 164.

 58

9.5 Enforcement agencies and ADR

Unlike the 1973 Act which extensively provided for criminal sanctions, the 2008 Act generally
uses a system of administrative enforcement.

The body normally responsible for the enforcement of the Act is the Companies and Intellectual
Property Commission (the Commission), except as regards matters within the jurisdiction of the
Takeover Regulation Panel. The Commission takes the place of the Registrar of Companies
under the 1973 Act. Among other things, the Commission must monitor proper compliance with
the Act, investigate complaints concerning contraventions of the Act, promote the use of ADR
by companies for resolving internal disputes, keep a Companies Register, advise the Minister
on changes to the law, etcetera.

The Commission plays a central role in the enforcement of the Act. Any person may file a
complaint with the Commission and the Commission may also initiate complaints on its own
motion or at the request of another regulatory authority. The commission may respond to
complaints in different ways.

The Act also establishes a new entity, namely the Companies Tribunal. Its two main functions
are to serve as a forum for voluntary ADR in any matter arising under the Act and to carry out
reviews of administrative decisions made by the Commission.

As an alternative to applying to court or filing a complaint with the Commission, an applicant or

complainant may refer a matter to the Companies Tribunal or to an accredited entity for
resolution by mediation, conciliation or arbitration. There are certain differences between these
three methods of ADR. Use of ADR is voluntary and all parties must agree to the use of the
process.

Study Unit 11
 59

Close Corporations

• Haygro Catering CC v Van der Merwe and Others 1996(4) SA 1063 (C) [176]

• Gatenby v Gatenby 1996 (3) SA 118 (E) [169]

• De Franca v Exhaust Pro CC (De Franca Intervening) 1997 (3) SA 878 (SE)
[170]

11.3 The Number and Nature of Members

• Even though certain natural persons may not have the legal capacity to
participate in the management of a close corporation, even minors, insolvent
persons and other persons with legal disabilities may with assistance become
members of a close corporation.
• No juristic person (i.e. another close corporation or a company) may however be
a member.
• Trustees in their capacities as trustees of trusts mortis causa or inter vivos, or as
administrator of persons under legal disability, may become members of a close
corporation unless a juristic person would be a beneficiary of such a trust or the
beneficiaries would result in the close corporation’s membership exceeding the
restricted number.

Should a person that is disqualified from membership become a member, such person bears
the risk of being held personally liable for all the debts of the close corporation.
 60

11. 4 Formation of a close corporation and members’ interests

Before a close corporation can be registered a name has to be reserved. After name
reservation, the founding statement must be lodged at the registration offices (CIPRO) in
triplicate, accompanied by a letter of the accounting officer accepting his or her appointment as
such and payment of the prescribed fee.

Founding members are required to sign:

- Each founding member is required to sign the founding statement or provide written
authorisation (a power of attorney) for it to be signed on their behalf.
- A guardian or parent is required to sign on behalf of a minor.
- Where a trustee or curator signs on behalf of a member, such a person must indicate
the capacity in which they sign the document.

Transitional provisions
After the coming into force of the Companies Act of 2008, it will no longer be possible to register
new close corporations in terms of the Close Corporations Act or to convert existing companies
into close corporations.

- Close corporations are registered by 1 to 10 natural persons

- Upon registration, a close corporation acquires separate legal personality.
- The existence of a close corporation will not be terminated by changes in
membership, insolvency or personal circumstances of its members.
- A close corporation also holds its asset separate from its members and therefore it is
not severely affected should the estate of a member be sequestrated.

11.5. Acquisition and Disposal of Member’s Interest

The following are characteristics of member’s interest:

 61

• Member’s interest is expressed as a percentage (out of a total of 100%) in the founding

statement.
• Member’s interest may not be jointly held
• The aggregate member’s interests must at all times be 100%
• A member’s interest in a close corporation is similar to a share in a company
• Member’s interest is an incorporeal, moveable thing
• Member’s interest is a personal right to share in the profits of the close corporation after
its creditors has been paid.

Member’s interest can be acquired by:

• Becoming a member upon registration of the founding statement
• Acquiring member’s interest from existing members
• Making a contribution to the close corporation.

Disposal of member’s interest:

Controlled by the members to a large extent.

Requirements for disposal of member’s interest:

• Must be made in accordance with association agreement; or
• Consent from all members.

Death of a member:

A member may bequeath his or her member’s interest to his or her heir/ legatee in a Will.
Transfer of the member’s interest to the heir/ legatee may however only occur with the consent
of the other members.

Should the members not permit such transfer, the executor of the estate may:
• Sell the member’s interest to the close corporation
• Sell the member’s interest to other members
• Sell the member’s interest to a third party subject to the other members’ pre-emptive
right to purchase the member’s interest.
 62

The money value will thereafter be paid over to the heir/ legatee.

Insolvency of member:

Section 34(1) mandatory procedure for disposal of an insolvent member’s interest.

If a member becomes insolvent, the trustee may realise the member’s interest and:

• Sell the member’s interest to the close corporation

• Sell the member’s interest to the other members
• Sell the member’s interest to a third party subject to the other members’ pre-emptive
right to purchase the member’s interest.

The money value will thereafter be paid over to the creditors.

Attachment and sale in execution:

Section 34A of the Close Corporations Act :

The member’s interest may then be sold to the close corporation, other members or an outsider
subject to the right of pre-emption in favour of the close corporation and other members.

11.6 Duties members owe to the close corporation

Members owe two duties to the close corporation, namely:

• A fiduciary duty (duty of good faith) -s 42 of the Close Corporations Act 69 of 1984 and
• A duty of care and skill.

11.6.1 Fiduciary Duty

Similar to the fiduciary duty a director owes to a company.

Section 42 of the Close Corporations Act states that a member should:

• act honestly and in good faith;
 63

• avoid a conflict of interest between his or her own interests and those of the close
corporation;
• exercise powers in the interest of the corporation;
• disclose any interest in a transaction to the other members of a close corporation as
soon as possible;
• not gain any financial gain by virtue of being members of the close corporation.

Contracts concluded between member and close corporation:

Fiduciary duty
Members must disclose material interests and all material facts to other members.

Effect of non-compliance:
Non-disclosure wil render contract voidable at the option of the close corporation.
Application can, however, be made to the Court to declare the contract as binding upon the
parties despite failure to disclose.

If the fiduciary duties are breached a member may be held personally liable for any loss
suffered by the corporation or debts incurred as a result of such a transaction (s 42(3)). The
member would in such an event have to repay any profit made by him or her.

Personal liability for debts:

A member may incur personal liability for the debts of the close corporation should a contract be
concluded in conflict with his or her fiduciary duty to the close corporation.

Personal liability can however be avoided by disclosing all material facts regarding the
member’s interest in a transaction to the other members of the close corporation and acquiring
prior written approval from all the other members.

11.6.2 Duty of Care and Skill

A member will be liable only if the close corporation suffers a loss as a result of the breach of
this duty (s 43(1)).

Test : objective test

 64

measured against the conduct which could reasonably have been expected from a person with
the same skill and knowledge as the member (to establish negligence).

Consequence: Another member may institute action against the close corporation or its
members in his or her personal capacity.

Geany v Portion 117 Kalkheuwel Properties CC and Others and Moosa NO v Mavjee Bhawan
(Pty) Ltd and Another

11.6.3 Remedies in Case of Breach

Section 50 of the Close Corporations Act 69 of 1984: Statutory derivative action

Action instituted by member against a fellow-members

on behalf of the close corporation for liability to the company on the specified grounds
including a breach of a fiduciary duty or the duty of care and skill.
Person instituting action will be liable for costs if action is unsuccessful

11.7 Cessation of membership by order of court

There are two remedies for members against other members:

• Section 36: Order of court terminating membership
• Section 49: Assistance from court regarding unfairly prejudicial conduct.

Section 36
 65

Gatenby v Gatenby and De Franca v Exhaust Pro CC

Section 49

Section 49 is a remedy available to a member where there was a single act or omission in the
conduct or affairs of the business by the corporation or other member/s which was unfairly
prejudicial to such member. The court will only intervene if it is just and equitable to do so. The
court may then direct that the aggrieved act or omission be stopped, order the corporation to
amend the founding statement or association agreement, or in certain cases upon application
make an order to wind-up the corporation.

11.8 Acquisition of member’s interest by the corporation

Acquisition of a members’ interest:

It is possible for a close corporation to acquire a member’s interest from one of its members.

Requirements for acquisition of member’s interest by a close corporation:

• Must have at least one other member;
• Aggregate member’s interests must remain 100%;
• Written consent from all members prior to payment;
• The corporation must be solvent and liquid.
 66

Financial Assistance:

Section 40 of the Close Corporations Act 69 of 1984 requires:

• Prior written consent from every member;

• Solvency and liquidity of the close corporation.

11.9 Association agreements

Association agreements:

- Founding statement is the only compulsory constitutive document.

- Association agreements are optional.
- Association agreements must be in writing and signed by or on behalf of each
member.
- Association agreements are not viewed as a public document and only members
may inspect it, but must be held at the registered offices of the business.

Alterable provisions:
• The rights of the members to carry on business and manage the close corporation
• What the requirements are for making a decision and voting
• The procedure and proportions for payments to members.

Unalterable provisions:
- Rights of members to call meetings
- Disqualification from participating in management
- How insolvent members’ interest must be disposed of.

Any stipulation in contravention of the Close Corporations Act in the association agreement will
be void.
 67

11.10 Power of members to contract on behalf of the close corporation

J& K Timbers (Pty) Ltd v GL& S Furniture Enterprises CC 2005 (3) SA 223 (N):

Section 54 of the Close Corporations Act states that every member has the authority to
conclude contracts on behalf of the close corporation in relation to a person who is not a
member (an outsider or third party).

- The doctrine of constructive notice does not apply to close corporations.

- Ultra vires doctrine does not apply - it does not matter whether or not the transaction
falls within the scope of the main business of the corporation.

Exception: (CC not bound)

Outsider or third party knew or reasonably should have known that the member who concluded
the contract on behalf of the close corporation lacked authority.

11.11 Payments by corporation to members

Capacity as member – s 51 must be adhered to

Creditor – s 51 not applicable

11.12 Prohibition on loans to and security on behalf of members

Section 52 of the Close Corporations Act:

- The provision of loans and security to members is prohibited,
- unless all the other members consent in writing may such loan or security be
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extended

Loans/ security otherwise extended are invalid

members who permitted the transaction will incur liability.

11.13 Accounting officer, records and financial statements

- Close corporations are not exempted from financial reporting.

- An annual financial statement must be approved by or on behalf of members holding
at least 51% of the member’s interest in the close corporation.
- A report must be drawn up by the appointed accounting officer.

DUTIES OF ACCOUNTING OFFICERS:

Maccelari and Others v Help U Build Project Management CC

- A close corporation need not appoint an auditor. However, an accounting officer

must be appointed.
- Accounting records must be kept and approved by members annually.
- The accounting records need not be submitted to the Registrar.
- The accounting officer must account in conformity with generally accepted
accounting practice. He or she also plays a very important reporting function.
- If an accounting officer becomes aware of irregularities in the accounting policies or
practices within the corporation, this must be disclosed to the members.
- The Registrar must also be informed should the accounting officer be removed, the
corporation is not carrying on business or if its liabilities exceed the assets at the end
of the financial year.
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11.14 Circumstances when members and others can be liable for a

corporation’s debts

Haygro Catering BK v Van der Merwe en Andere 1996 (4) SA 1063 (C):

Airport Cold Storage (Pty) Ltd v Ebrahim and others 2008(2) SA 303

Piercing the Corporate Veil:

A close corporation is a separate legal person.

The court at times may ‘pierce the corporate veil’ to hold the guilty parties liable.

Personal Liability:
S 23……………………………………………………………………………………….
S 26………………………………………………………………………………………..
S 42………………………………………………………………………………………..
S 43………………………………………………………………………………………..
S 52……………………………………………………………………………………..
S 55……………………………………………………………………………………..
S 65………………………………………………………………………………………

Joint Liability:
S 63………………………………………………………………………………………..

S 64 - Reckless and Fraudulent Trading:

A person who knowingly conducts or is party to conducting the business of the close corporation
in a reckless or fraudulent manner will be held liable for all debts of the corporation.
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Questions:

1. The Companies Act 2008 changes the classification of companies. Discuss the new position
regarding to the classifications of Companies.

Discuss Profit and Non-Profit Companies under the 2008 Act. Profit companies are divided
into:
• Private
• Public
• State-owned
• Personal Liability.
Each has its distinctive features – you should be able to explain this

Non- profit: Know the distinctive features of these types of companies.

2. A concludes a written agreement with B for the purchase of a delivery vehicle. A informs B
that he is acting as an agent for a company to be incorporated in due time. The contract is
after incorporation of the company not ratified.
 Explain, with regard to the common law position, whether a valid contract was concluded.
 Explain the position in terms of the Companies Act 2008

Common Law
 Agency impossible in case of non-existent principle
 Contract would be void.

 SECTION 21 COMPANIES ACT 2008

 Requirements: Written
APPLY TO FACTS!
 3 months after incorporation board must ratify or reject
 if unratified/ rejected after 3 months deemed to be ratified
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 if company does not ratify promoter liable jointly and severally

 Promoter has a claim against company for any benefit in terms of the agreement

3. Compare the fiduciary duties of directors in companies in terms of the Companies Act 2008
with the fiduciary duties of members of a close corporation.

CLOSE CORPORATIONS:

A member’s fiduciary duties towards the close corporation are similar to the fiduciary
duty a director owes to a company. However, it is not only the common-law principles
regarding good faith that apply but also provisions of the Close Corporations Act.

The Close Corporations Act (s 42) provides that a member should:

• act honestly and in good faith;
• avoid a conflict of interest between his or her own interests and those of the close
corporation;
• exercise powers in the interest of the corporation;
• disclose any interest in a transaction to the other members of a close corporation
as soon as possible;
• not gain any financial gain by virtue of being members of the close corporation.

COMPANIES:

DIRECTORS DUTIES

 Sources of Duties:
(1) Common Law
(2) Contract
(3) MOI
(4) Companies Act 2008

(1) COMMON LAW:

-Fiduciary Duties
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-Reasonable Care and Skill

Companies Act 2008 partially codifies duties

 Duties in Companies Act 2008:
-s 75: disclose financial interest

Directors must avoid a conflict of interest:

Regal Hastings Ltd v Gulliver:
Robinson v Randfontein Estate Mining
CyberScene Ltd and Others v i-Kiosk Internet and Information

-s 76(2)(a): not abuse information

-s 76(2)(b): disclosure of material information
-s 76 (3)(a): Act in good faith and for a proper purpose
-s 76(3)(b): Act in best interest of Company

4. Briefly discuss and operation of the doctrine of constructive notice in terms of the
Companies Act 2008.
The doctrine of constructive notice has been abolished. Third parties will therefore
no longer be deemed to have knowledge of the content of companies’ public
documents. Much like in close corporations a company will only be able to escape
liability where the third party was not acting in good faith (i.e. he or she knew or
reasonably ought to have known that the person contracting on behalf of the
company in fact did not have the required authority).

5. Samuel wishes to start a business early in 2013. He does not know whether he should
register a private company or a close corporation. Advise Samuel.
Transitional Provisions – after incorporation of the Companies Act 2008 it will no
longer be possible to register new Close Corporations.

6. Distinguish between shares and debentures and the distinctive rights of their holders.
SHARES
• Complex of rights and duties INCLUDING VOTING RIGHTS
• Shareholders participate in the profits of the company
• Shareholders entitled to dividends when declared
DEBENTURES
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• Debenture holder is a creditor

• Receives interest at predetermined rate, payable at fixed times
• Does not confer voting rights

7. The main object of XYZ (Pty) Ltd is buying and selling of second hand cars. In terms of
the articles of association any director of the company is authorized to conclude contracts
on behalf of the company. Contracts exceeding R75 000 must be approved by the company
in general meeting first. Explain whether the company is bound to the contract if a director
buys a car for R145 000 on behalf of XYZ (Pty) Ltd, from X, a member of the company.

Application of the Turquand Rule – see section 20(7) of the Companies Act 2008
If a person other than a director, shareholder or prescribed officer deals with company in
good faith, such person may presume the company is making any decision in exercise of
its power complied formal and procedural requirements in terms of the Companies Act
and its Rules and its MOI
UNLESS… *Person knew
*Reasonably ought to have known company failed to do so

IMPORTANT NOTES REGARDING EXAMINATION:

(1) The examination consists of two different question papers – one for persons registered for this
year and the other for persons that registered last year and are writing a supplementary/ aegrotat.
Please make sure that you do the correct section!!!
(2) The examination is divided into 2 sections. 70% of the paper is longer questions dealing with
Close Corporations (20) Companies (General) (25) Companies (Shares) (25). 30% is 10 multiple
choice questions for 3 marks each. Remember that Partnerships and Trusts are not included at
all in the examination. Do not waste time studying this!
(3) In answering questions ensure that you distinguish first whether the question deals with a
company or a close corporation! Do not confuse the two as you shall be penalized!
(4) If applicable you should always refer to relevant case law by including part of the name (one of
the parties to the case at least) and the short summary as you have done in these notes in your
answer.
(5) Please make sure that you answer the questions! Apply the law to facts provided and conclude!!!
(6) This is an aid only in your preparation for the examination. Please allow enough time to read
through sections that are not discussed herein.
(7) The cryptic guidelines in answering the questions above should not be viewed as a
memorandum.