POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

CLUSTER V
STABILITY ANALYSIS
Contents

• Classification of power system stability

• Steady state stability

• Transient stability and dynamic stability

• Power angle characteristics and steady state stability limit

• Development of swing equation

• Equal area criterion for transient analysis

1
 STABILITY
• Concept of stability is associated with synchronous
machines.

• We know that the bulk amount of power is being generated

remote places by using conventional sources with the help
of [Link].

• It is property of syn machine in order to deliver maximum

power to load by maintaining the synchronization with the
externally connected transmission line.(Delta is less than or
equal to 90 degrees)
2
• Stable or synchronization – magnetic coupling and
Asynchronization -decoupling.

• The power system network is a dynamic network i.e, there

will be change of load and it will reflect in changing the
position of rotor with respect to stator so that airgap flux
characteristics will change.

• If the change of load is a small gradual variation, the change

in rotor position is also very small so that the stability
analysis can be made by using static model of the system.3
• If the change of load is very high, the change in rotor position
is also very high so that the stability analysis can be made by
using dynamic model of the system.

• Small Disturbances
Incremental changes in load
Incremental changes in generation

• Large Disturbances
Loss of a large generator or load
Faults on transmission lines

4
Steady state stability

• It is the ability of the syn mach in order to deliver the

maximum power to load by a [Link] without losing
the synchronization with externally connected transmission
line.

• Where the machine is having small and gradual variation of

the load.

• A small gradual variation of the load means, the frequency

of oscillation made by the rotor due to change of load are
less than the natural supply frequency. 5
Cont..

• Whenever the rate of change of load will be less

than rate of change of excitation of alternator ,
such a change of load is called as small gradual
variation.
• As the change in rotor position is negligable ,
ignore the change of rotor position. The static
model is taken into account in order to make the
stability analysis.

6
Ideal case
• In order to know the SSS analysis, the given single line
diagram is to be represented in an electrical simulation
diagram, in phase manner.

• Under assumption that change of load will be in all 3 phases

so that the system will work once again under balanced
condition.

• Due to any change of load, if the angle of the system will be

more than 90 degree, the real power transfer is reduce so
that the synchronous machine is said to be unstable or
7
Asynchronization.
8
• The sss of syn machine can be also analyse
interms of the degree of coupling between the
rotor and stator or synschronising power of the
[Link]
• Degree of magnetic coupling

9
• For greater than 90 degrees, synchronous power is
negative such that demagnetization of air gap flux.
• The sss criteria is an angle criteria i.e., if delta will
be more than 90 degrees due to any change of load,
the synchronous machine will become unstable
otherwise it will be stable.
• Draw the graph…..

10
11
12
13
14
• Whenever syn generator is connected to load
through a transmission line the maximum power
delivered to the load will be limited by the
impedance angle of transmission line.
• Where beta is impedance value
• In order to know the impedance angle of
transmission line , the sss limit will be
differentiated with respect to reactance of the line.
• The power through in transmission line will be in a
reactive nature so that the loss in the transmission
line will be less. 15
• When the syn generator connected to load through a short
transmission line the syn generator will be more stable for
the stability point of view.

• As the impedance angle pf long line is near to 90 degrees so

that the stability of syn machine will be less.

• In order to improve the stability of the system,it requires to

reduce the impedance angle of the long transmission line by
reducing the reactance of the line.

• For which the trans line recommended with series capacitor.

16
Methods to improve SSS

• Operate the system at higher voltage

• Reduce the reactance of the system
• Use parallel lines
• Use bundled conductors
• Use double circuit lines
• Series capacitors

17
Transient Stability

• It is the ability of syn machine in order to deliver the

maximum amount of power to the load by maintaining the
synchronization with externally connected transmission
lines.

• Where the syn machine is working under a sudden and long

change of load ,due to occurance of a 3 phase sckt fault in
anyone of the parallel transmission lines.

• Draw the diagram….

18
Few cycles= fault clearing time
= Relay time+ CB time
=(1-2 cycles)+(2-3 cycles)
= (3-5 cycles)
• If fault clearing time will be high, there will be
more chances,the synchronous machine may loss
the stability.
• The transient stability will be less than sssl.

19
• There are chances TSL will be zero. They are:

• If a fault occurs on anyone of the line near to bus bar it will

be assumed as fault on [Link] that real power transfer will
be zero and the max power transfer will be zero.

• Fault occurs on bus bar.

• Due to large disturbances, there will be change in rotor

angle,in order to know behavior of rotor , we require
charatersitics i.e mechanical equivalent charac of a dynamic
model. 20
Dynamic Stability

• The system is said to be dynamically stable if the oscillations do not

acquire more than certain amplitude and die out quickly (i.e., the system
is well-damped).

• In a dynamically unstable system, the oscillation amplitude is large and

these persist for a long time (i.e., the system is underdamped);

• This kind of instability behaviour constitutes a serious threat to system

security and creates very difficult operating conditions.

• Dynamic stability can be significantly improved through the use of

power system stabilizers.

21
Mechanical Equivalent model

22
23
24
Dynamics of a syn machine

25
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27
Power System Transient Stability

 In order to operate as an interconnected system all of

the generators (and other synchronous machines)
must remain in synchronism with one another
– synchronism requires that (for two pole machines) the
rotors turn at exactly the same speed
 Loss of synchronism results in a condition in which
no net power can be transferred between the
machines
 A system is said to be transiently unstable if
following a disturbance one or more of the
generators lose synchronism
28
Generator Transient Stability Models

 In order to study the transient response of a power

system we need to develop models for the generator
valid during the transient time frame of several
seconds following a system disturbance
 We need to develop both electrical and mechanical
models for the generators

29
Example of Transient Behavior

30
Generator Electrical Model

 The simplest generator model, known as the

classical model, treats the generator as a voltage
source behind the direct-axis transient reactance;
the voltage magnitude is fixed, but its angle
changes according to the mechanical dynamics

VT Ea
Pe ( )  '
sin 
Xd

31
Generator Mechanical Model

Generator Mechanical Block Diagram

Tm  J m  TD  Te ( )
Tm  mechanical input torque (N-m)
J  moment of inertia of turbine & rotor
 m  angular acceleration of turbine & rotor
TD  damping torque
Te ( )  equivalent electrical torque 32
33
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d
In general power = torque  angular speed
Hence when a generator is spinning at speed s
Tm  J m  TD  Te ( )
Tm s  ( J m  TD  Te ( )) s Pm
Pm  J ms  TDs  Pe ( )
Initially we'll assume no damping (i.e., TD  0)
Then
Pm  Pe ( )  J ms
Pm is the mechanical power input, which is assumed
to be constant throughout the study time period 34
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d
Pm  Pe ( )  J ms
m  st    rotor angle
d m
m    m  s  
dt
m  m  
Pm  Pe ( )  Js m  Js
Js  inertia of machine at synchronous speed
Convert to per unit by dividing by MVA rating, S B ,
Pm Pe ( ) Js 2s
 
SB SB S B 2s 35
Generator Mechanical Model, cont’d
Pm Pe ( ) J s 2 s
 
SB SB S B 2 s
Pm  Pe ( ) J s
2
1
  (since  s  2 f s )
SB 2S B  f s
J  s2
Define H  per unit inertia constant (sec)
2S B
All values are now converted to per unit
H H
Pm  Pe ( )   Define M 
 fs  fs
Then Pm  Pe ( )  M  36
Generator Swing Equation
This equation is known as the generator swing equation
Pm  Pe ( )  M 
Adding damping we get
Pm  Pe ( )  M   D
This equation is analogous to a mass suspended by
a spring
• If any change of load is taken place,it will reflect the change
in position of rotor axis with respect to stator axis where as
there is no change in stator axis with respect to ref axis .
• Hence relative speed will be zero
37
• The swing eq of syn generator will provide the change in position of
rotor wrt to stator having a function of time.

• Over a specified number of cycles in which the synchronous machine

does experience a large disturbances due to occurrence of fault.

• The swing eq will be a non-linear differential equation.

• The transient stability analysis can be made with the help of swing
equation.

• To know the stability of syn machines, the solution for swing equation
is required.

38
Swing Equation

• Single machine system-syn generator is connected to an

infinite bus.

• Two machine system - syn generator is connected to syn

motor ( Equal Area Criteria)

• Multi Machine System-More than one synchronous

generator(Point by point method)

39
Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB)

 To understand the transient stability problem we’ll

first consider the case of a single machine
(generator) connected to a power system bus with a
fixed voltage magnitude and angle (known as an
infinite bus) through a transmission line with
impedance jXL

40
SMIB, cont’d

Ea
Pe ( )  sin 
Xd  XL
'

Ea
M   D  PM  ' sin 
Xd  XL

41
SMIB Equilibrium Points
Equilibrium points are determined by setting the
right-hand side to zero
Ea
M   D  PM  ' sin 
Xd  XL

Ea
PM  ' sin   0
Xd  XL
Define X th  X d'  X L
1  PM
X th 
  sin  
 Ea 
42
Swing Eq for Two machine system

• In two machine system syn motor is connected to syn

generator and for the stability point of view.

• The above system will be treated as single equivalent

machine i.e., at any point of time both the machines will be
stable or unstable.

• When the frwuency oscillations made by the motor due to a

sudden and large change mech. output will be more than the
natural frequency of the motor. Syn motor will be pulled
out mechanically. 43
• If the syn motor pulled out mechanically ,the load on the
generator will be zero so that the generator will get
acclerated then the frequency of the oscillation will be
always more than the natural freq of generator.

• So that the syn generator will be always pulled out.

• Hence, the above machine always be treated as single

equipment.

• Syn gen to infinite bus or syn gen to motor will be an

application of EQUAL AREA CRITERIA. 44
45
46
47
48
49
50
• In order to get the swinging of two machines , the
two machines will be drop to new capacity in order
to get the equivalent inertia constant.
• Whenever the machines have two different ratings
then, choose a base of machine rating
• G1-S1,KV and H1
• G2-S2,KV and H2

51
The swing equations on the common system base are

52
53
Transient Stability Analysis

 For transient stability analysis we need to consider

three systems
1. Prefault - before the fault occurs the system is
assumed to be at an equilibrium point
2. Faulted - the fault changes the system equations,
moving the system away from its equilibrium
point
3. Postfault - after fault is cleared the system
hopefully returns to a new operating point

54
Transient Stability Solution Methods

 There are two methods for solving the transient

stability problem
1. Numerical integration
 this is by far the most common technique, particularly
for large systems; during the fault and after the fault the
power system differential equations are solved using
numerical methods
2. Direct or energy methods; for a two bus system
this method is known as the equal area criteria
 mostly used to provide an intuitive insight into the
transient stability problem
55
SMIB Example

 Assume a generator is supplying power to an

infinite bus through two parallel transmission lines.
Then a balanced three phase fault occurs at the
terminal of one of the lines. The fault is cleared by
the opening of this line’s circuit breakers.

56
SMIB Example, cont’d

Simplified prefault system

The prefault system has two

equilibrium points; the left one
is stable, the right one unstable
1  PM
X th 
  sin  
 Ea  57
SMIB Example, Faulted System

During the fault the system changes

The equivalent system during the fault is then

During this fault no
power can be transferred
from the generator to
the system
58
SMIB Example, Post Fault System

After the fault the system again changes

The equivalent system after the fault is then

59
SMIB Example, Dynamics

During the disturbance the form of Pe ( ) changes,

altering the power system dynamics:
1  EaVth 
   PM  X sin  
M  th  60
Power Angle Equation

In solving the swing equation, certain assumptions are normally

made
(i) Mechanical power input Pm is a constant during the period of
interest, immediately after the disturbance

(ii) Rotor speed changes are insignificant.

(iii) Effect of voltage regulating loop during the transient is

neglected i.e the excitation is assumed to be a constant
• It is necessary to determine the dependence of the electrical
power output (Pe) upon the rotor angle
• So the power–angle relationship plays a vital role in the
solution of the swing equation. 61
 POWER–ANGLE EQUATION FOR A NON–SALIENT
POLE MACHINE

• The simplest model for the synchronous generator is that of a

constant voltage behind an impedance.

• This model is called the classical model and can be used for
cylindrical rotor (non–salient pole) machines.

• Practically all high–speed turbo alternators are of cylindrical

rotor construction, where the physical air gap around the
periphery of the rotor is uniform.

62
Power-Angle Equation..

• This type of generator has approximately equal magnetic

reluctance, regardless of the angular position of the rotor,
with respect to the armature mmf.

• The phasor diagram of the voltages and currents at constant

speed and excitation is shown in Fig.

• Let us consider

63
Cont..

64
65
 POWER ANGLE EQUATION FOR A SALIENT POLE
MACHINE

• In the salient pole machine, the reluctance of the magnetic

circuit in which the flux produced by an armature mmf in line
with the quadrature axis is higher than that of the magnetic
circuit in which the flux produced by the armature mmf in
line with the direct axis.

• These two components of armature mmf are proportional to

the corresponding components of armature current

66
• The component of armature current producing an
mmf acting in line with direct axis is called the
direct component, Id.

• The component of armature current producing an

mmf acting in line with the quadrature axis is called
the quadrature axis component, Iq.

67
Phasor diagram

68
S1φ=Via*…(1)
V=V∠−δ=Vcosδ−jVsinδ…(2)
Ia=Iq−jId
∴Ia*=Iq+jId…(3)
S1φ=(Vcosδ−jVsinδ)(Iq+jId)…(4)
From the phasor diagram, we obtain,
CD=AM=IqXq=Vsinδ

∴Iq=Vsinδ/Xq…(5)

69
AC=MD=OD−OM=IdXd=Ef−Vcosδ
∴Id=Ef−Vcos:δ/Xd…(6)
Substituting the values of Iq𝐼𝑞 and Id𝐼𝑑 in Eqn. (4),
we have,

70
71
• The relation gives the steady state power angle relationship
for a salient pole machine.

• The second term does not depend on the excitation and is

called the reluctance power component.

• This component makes the maximum power greater than in

the classical model.

• However, the angle at which the maximum power occurs is

less than 90o. 72
POWER ANGLE RELATIONSHIP IN A SMIB SYSTEM:

• In a Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB), where a generator

supplies power to an infinite bus.

• The concept of an infinite bus arises from the fact that if we

connect a generator to a much larger power system, it is
reasonable to assume that the voltage and frequency of the
larger system will not be affected by control of the generator
parameters.

• Hence, the external system can be approximated by an

infinite bus 73
• In Fig., the infinite bus voltage is taken as reference and δ is
the angle between Eg and Eb.
The generator is assumed to be connected to the infinite bus
through a lossless line of reactance xe.
• The power transferred (using classical model) is
given by

74
Power-Angle Equation..

• The stability limit is the max. power that can be transferred in

a network between source and load without loss of
synchronism.

• The steady state stability limit is the max. power that can be
transferred without the system becoming unstable, when the
load is increased gradually, under steady state condition.

• Transient stability limit is the max. power that can be

transferred with out the system becoming unstable when a
sudden or large disturbance occurs.
75
Methods to improve SSSL are

1. Operating the system at higher Voltages

2. Reducing the net reactance of the system by
• Parallel lines
• Mid point compensation
• Series capacitors
• Double circuit
• Bundle conductors

76
 Steady state stability swing equation

• The steady state stability limit of a particular circuit of a

power system is defined as the maximum power that can be
transmitted to the receiving end without loss of
synchronism.

77
78
• Before small and gradual variation of load, the syn
generator will be neither acceleration nor deceleration so
that rate of change of angle at will be zero.

Let the system be operating with steady power transfer

of

• Assume a small increment DelP in the electric power with

the input from the prime mover remaining fixed at Pm
(governor response is slow compared to the speed of energy
dynamics), causing the torque angle to change to

79
80
81
Status of the roots
Case 1:

• Due to moment of inertia of the system ,the syn machines

will be oscillatory manner without any damping.

• There is a small and gradual variation of the load and the

moment of inertia will be high so that the amplitude of
oscillations are very less.

• Incase of salient pole machine, the oscillations can be

damped out by using damper winding.

• Hence,syn machines will be stable because undamped

82
oscillations can be CHANGED TO damped .
Case 2:

83
Transient stability

• In order to the stability of the system by using the swing

equation, it is required to know the maximum power
transfer during the fault i.e., transient stability limit.

• The per phase reactance diagram can be referred with the

following assumptions in order to evaluate the transient
stability limit.

84
 Assumptions

• Resistance and shunt capacitances are to be ignored.

• Further any external shunt elements can be also ignored and remaining
network can be modeled as transfer reactance between the source and
load.

• The voltages behind the reactances of the machine can be ignored.

• The mechanical input is assumed constant.

• The damping force provided by the damper winding is ignored.

• There is no change in the speed of the alternator.

85
86
• Fault occurs on transmission line near to busbar
• Fault occurs on busbar

87
Equal Area Criteria

• EAC gives the solution for swing eq. in a graphical manner.

• EAC says that the net area covered by syn machine between
two swinging points of the first swing will be zero.

• As the EAC dealing with single machine system , the

swinging of the machine will be maximum during the first
swing , so that calculations can be done for the first swing
only.

• In EAC, the area covered during acceleration equal to the

area covered during the deceleration of first swing. 88
89
90
• By using EAC, it can evaluate the angle made by
the rotor at time of fault clear by the CB which is
known as critical clearing angle of the system.
• Consider the first swing
to make the stability analysis
• A1<A2
• A1=A2
• A1>A2
Area comparison

91
92
• Eventhough maximum delta during the first swing will be
more than 90 degrees but there are chances to maintain
stability because it’s area comparison.

• If a syn machine is stable during the first swing i.e., A1 <

A2. It should be also stable during subsequent swings.

93
Applications of EAC

• A sudden increase mech input to the synchronous generator.

• A sudden increase mech output to the synchronous motor.

• Removal of one of the parallel transmission line forcible by using fast

acting circuit breaker.

• Fault occurs at middle of the transmission line in parallel transmission

line system.

• Fault occurs on a line near to bus bar in parallel transmission line

system.

• Fault occurs on bus bar in parallel transmission line system.

94
Assumption of EAC

95
INCREASED TO MECH INPUT

96
CONT.

• A syn generator is supplied initially with [Link] and

electrical input and it is represented by point a on power
angle curve.
• A mech. input to syn gen will be increased suddenly but
there is no corresponding change in electrical output
because rotor does not allow.
• Hence excess mechanical input will be store in the form of
K.E in the rotor.
• The syn gen will experience a acceleration so that the actual
speed is more than syn speed.
• Whenever there is a relative speed exists then there is a
change in the rotor angle.(swinging)
97
• The angle will increase till W=Ws ,

• It should be in a region, where the electrical output

must be more than mech input.

• The area covered beyond b is Already covered from a

to b

• The stored K.E in the rotor during the acceleration will be

converted into electrical output.

• With the above condition, the angle will be increased

beyond b to get W=Ws will be assumed as point C. 98
• The rotor angle will start decreasing.

• While swinging from B to A , the rotor of alternator will not

go to “a” again because relatively there will be a change in
the rotor position.

• Hence, the next swinging starts from “a1” rather than “a”.

• After completing all the oscillations , the syn machine will

be stable at “b” so that the speed of machine will be syn
speed.
99
• The above EAC is A1 <A2 so that the syn machine will be
stable.
• If W=Ws is obtain before the critical point of curve then the
syn machine will be always stable.
• The purpose of EAC is to evaluate the critical clearing
angle made by the rotor at the time of fault cleared by CB
by considering the critically stable condition.

100
Sudden increase of mech Output

• The EAC of syn motor will be mirror image of syn

motor.
• Electrical input should be more than the mech
ioutput beyond “b” acceleration.

101
 Removal of one parallel transmission line
(Sudden Loss of one of the parallel line)

• Whenever the existing load on the system is more than

available genertation, then the syn machine will get
decelerated which will result as the frequency of supply
falling down and it is continuous, so there are chances to
system will be maintain instability.
• In order to stabilise the syn gen, it is necessaary to remove
one of the parallel line so that the stability of syn gen can be
mainatined.
• The transmission lines are normally bulk amount of power
capacity so that there will be transient effect on the
alternator.
• It can be analyse by using equal area criteria.
102
• Whenever the frequency decreases, then remove the load of
consumers.
• Whenever the frequency increases, then reduce input.

103
104
• The syn gen is supplied initially with mech input and
electrical output .

• It is indicated by point “a”.

• In order to maintian the stability of syn machine,one of the

parallel transmission line is removed so that the output of
syn gen is reduced due to change in the reactance suddenly.

• It is represented by point “b”.

• The actual speed of syn gen is more than syn speed so that
there will be relative speed rotor angle changes.(starts) 105
 Fault occurs on middle of parallel trans
line

• Before the occurrence of a fault, the power angle

curve is given by

106
• Upon occurrence of a three-phase fault at the generator end
of line 2, the generator gets isolated from the power system
for purposes of power flow.
• Thus during the period the fault lasts,
PeII = 0
• The rotor therefore accelerates and angles delta increases.
Synchronism will be lost unless the fault is cleared in time.
• It can be assumed as one of the point on curve Pe2 at C.
• Whenever the fault is cleared by C.B the line will be
isolated and the angle made by the rotor is called as initial
clearing angle.

107
108
• Even though one of the line is isolated but the alterntor will
be able to deliver the electrical output through another
parallel transmission line.
• Where as the mechanical input remains same, it is
represented by d.
• Due to the moment of inertia of rotor the angle will be
further increased in order to get w=ws in a critically stable
manner, i.e point e.
• Fault cleared by breaker at w=wmax.

109
110
111
112
113
Fault occur on a line near to bus bar

114
• It is to be observed that the equal area criterion
helps to determine critical clearing angle and not
critical clearing time.
• Critical clearing time can be obtained by
numerical solution of the swing equation.
• In case of special fault, the CCA will be able to
convert into CCT.

115
116
117
Fault occurs on busbar

118
 Methods to improve the Transient
stability

• Increasing the system voltage.

• Increase in the X/R ratio.

• ​Using high-speed governors on machines.

• faster fault clearing.

• High-speed circuit breakers help to clear the fault as quickly as possible.

• By turbine fast valving.

• High-speed excitation.

• Use of auto re-closing breakers

119