“SAMRAKSHANA”

The Total Protection with affection

ADITYA VIDHYASHRAM RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL

Poraiyur,villianur,Puducherry-605110
ALL INDIA SENIOR CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION

CHEMISTRY(044)

Project

CERTIFICATE
Name : ____________________ std&sec :_______________

Registration number:

Title of the project:_________________________________________

Certified that this is a bonafide project work done by the above mentioned student in
our school during senior secondary course , in the year 2023-2024.

SUBJECT TEACHER PRINCIPAL

Project submitted for the CBSE–AISSCE practical examination held on __/__/2024

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
EXAMINER EXAMINER
 Acknowledgement

I would like to extend my sincere and heartfelt obligation towards all

those who have helped me in making this project. Without their active
guidance , help, cooperation and encouragement , I would not have been
able to present the project on time .

I am extremely thankful and pay my sincere gratitude to my teacher

_____________

For this valuable guidance and support for completion of this project.

I extend my sincere gratitude to my principal Mr.Nadesan Kangueyan

for the moral support extended during tenure of this project.

I also acknowledge with a deep sense of reverence , my gratitude

towards my parents , other faculty members of the school and friends for
their valuable suggestions given to me in completing the project.

Date:

Place: Signature Of The Student

 INDEX

 Introduction Physical Quantities measured

 What Is Spectroscopy
 Nature of light
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
 General Types of Spectra
 Continuous Spectra
 Emission spectra
 Absorption Spectra
 Types of Spectroscopy
 How Spectrometer work?
 Types of Spectroscopy
 Examples of Spectroscopy in Astronomy
 Probing the Formation of Stars in Colliding Galaxies in the
universe.
 Uncovering the mystery of quasar
 Spectroscopy in Astronomy camp
 Stars like our own Sun
 Bibliography
INTRODUCTION SPECTROSCOPY :

Spectroscopy is the study of matter and its

properties by investigating light, sound, or particles that are emitted,
absorbed or scattered by the matter under investigation

Spectroscopy may also be defined as the study of the interaction between

light and matter. Historically, spectroscopy referred to a branch of science
in which visible light was used for theoretical studies on the structure of
matter and for qualitative and quantitative analyses. Recently, however,
the definition has broadened as new techniques have been developed that
utilize not only visible light, but many other forms of electromagnetic and
non-electromagnetic radiation: microwaves, radiowaves, x-rays,
electrons, phonons (sound waves) and others. Impedance spectroscopy is
a study of frequency response in alternating current.

Spectroscopy is often used in physical and analytical chemistry for the

identification of substances through the spectrum emitted from them or
 absorbed in them. A device for recording a spectrum is a spectrometer.
Spectroscopy can be classified according to the physical quantity which is
measured or calculated or the measurement process.

Spectroscopy is also heavily used in astronomy and remote sensing. Most

large telescopes have spectrographs, which are used either to measure the
chemical composition and physical properties of astronomical objects or
to measure their velocities from the Doppler shift of spectral lines.

PHYSICAL QUANTITY MEASURED

 The type of spectroscopy depends on the physical quantity measured.

Normally, the quantity that is measured is an amount or intensity of
something.
 The intensity of emitted electromagnetic radiation and the amount of
absorbed electromagnetic radiation are studied by electromagnetic
spectroscopy (see also cross section).
 The amplitude of macroscopic vibrations is studied by acoustic
spectroscopy and dynamic mechanical spectroscopy. Kinetic energy of
particles is studied by electron energy loss spectroscopy and Auger
electron spectroscopy (see also cross section).
 The mass-to-charge ratios of molecules and atoms are studied in mass
spectrometry, sometimes called mass spectroscopy. Mass spectrometry is
more of a measuring technique (metric) than an observation (scopic)
 technique but can produce a spectrum of masses, a mass spectrum, similar
in appearance to other spectroscopy techniques.
 The number of molecules or atoms or quantum-mechanical states to
which the frequency or energy parameter applies. In this case the
spectrum is usually called cross section.

WHAT IS SPECTROSCOPY?

Spectroscopy pertains to the dispersion of an

object's light into its component colors (i.e. energies). By performing this
dissection and analysis of an object's light, astronomers can infer the
physical properties of that object (such as temperature, mass, luminosity
and composition).
But before we hurtle headlong into the wild and woolly field of
spectroscopy, we need to try to answer some seemingly simple questions,
such as what is light? And how does it behave? These questions may
seem simple to you, but they have presented some of the most difficult
conceptual challenges in the long history of physics. It has only been in
this century, with the creation of quantum mechanics that we have gained
a quantitative understanding of how light and atoms work. You see, the
questions we pose are not always easy, but to understand and solve them
will unlock a new way of looking at our Universe.

THE NATURE OF LIGHT :

 To understand the processes in astronomy that generate
light, we must realize first that light acts like a wave. Light has particle-
like properties too, so it's actually quite a twisted beast (which is why it
took so many years to figure out). But right now, let's just explore light as
a wave.
Picture yourself wading around on an ocean beach for a moment, and
watch the many water waves sweeping past you. Waves are disturbances,
ripples on the water, and they possess a certain height (amplitude), with a
certain number of waves rushing past you every minute (the frequency)
and all moving at a characteristic speed across the water (the wave
speed). Notice the distance between successive waves? That's called the
wavelength.
Keeping this analogy in mind, let's leave the ocean beach for a while and
think about light like a wave. The wave speed of a light wave is simply
the speed of light, and different wavelengths of light manifest themselves
as different colors! The energy of a light wave is inversely-proportional to
its wavelength; in other words, low-energy waves have long wavelengths,
and high-energy light waves have short wavelengths.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum Physicists classify light waves by their
energies (wavelengths). Labeled in increasing energy, we might draw the
entire electromagnetic spectrum as shown in the figure below:
Notice that radio, TV, and microwave signals are all light waves, they
simply lie at wavelengths (energies) that your eye doesn't respond to. On
the other end of the scale, beware the high energy UV, x-ray, and gamma-
ray photons! Each one carries a lot of energy compared to their visible-
and radio-wave brethren. They're the reasons you should wear sunblock,
for example.
When we look at the Universe in a different "light", i.e. at "non-
visible" wavelengths, we probe different kinds of physical conditions --
and we can see new kinds of objects! For example, high-energy gamma-
ray and X-ray telescopes tend to see the most energetic dynamos in the
cosmos, such as active galaxies, the remnants from massive dying stars,
accretion of matter around black holes, and so forth. Visible light
telescopes best probe light produced by stars. Longer-wavelength
telescopes best probe dark, cool, obscured structures in the Universe:
dusty star-forming regions, dark cold molecular clouds, the primordial
radiation emitted by the formation of the Universe shortly after the Big
Bang. Only through studying astronomical objects at many different
wavelengths are astronomers able to piece together a coherent,
comprehensive picture of how the Universe works!

General Types of Spectra:

Typically one can observe two distinctive

classes of spectra: continous and discrete. For a continuous spectrum, the
light is composed of a wide, continuous range of colors (energies). With
discrete spectra, one sees only bright or dark lines at very distinct and
sharply-defined colors (energies). As we'll discover shortly, discrete
spectra with bright lines are called emission spectra, those with dark lines
are termed absorption spectra.

Continuous Spectra:

Continuous spectra arise from dense gases or

solid objects which radiate their heat away through the production of
light. Such objects emit light over a broad range of wavelengths, thus the
apparent spectrum seems smooth and continuous. Stars emit light in a
predominantly (but not completely!) continuous spectrum. Other
examples of such objects are incandescent light bulbs, electric cooking
stove burners, flames, cooling fire embers and... you. Yes, you, right this
minute, are emitting a continuous spectrum -- but the light waves you're
emitting are not visible -- they lie at infrared wavelengths (i.e. lower
energies, and longer wavelengths than even red light). If you had
infrared-sensitive eyes, you could see people by the continuous radiation
they emit!

Discrete Spectra:

Discrete spectra are the observable result of the

physics of atoms. There are two types of discrete spectra, emission (bright
line spectra) and absorption (dark line spectra). Let's try to understand
where these two types of discrete spectra.
Emission Line Spectra:
Unlike a continuous spectrum source, which can have any energy it wants
(all you have to do is change the temperature), the electron clouds
surrounding the nuclei of atoms can have only very specific energies
dictated by quantum mechanics. Each element on the periodic table has
its own set of possible energy levels, and with few exceptions the levels
are distinct and identifiable. Atoms will also tend to settle to the lowest
energy level (in spectroscopist's lingo, this is called the ground state).
This means that an excited atom in a higher energy level must dump'
some energy. The way an atom dumps' that energy is by emitting a wave
of light with that exact energy.
In the diagram below, a hydrogen atom drops from the 2nd energy level
to the 1st, giving off a wave of light with an energy equal to the
difference of energy between levels 2 and 1. This energy corresponds to a
specific color, or wavelength of light -- and thus we see a bright line at
that exact wavelength! ...an emission spectrum is born, as shown below:
An excited Hydrogen atom relaxes from level 2 to level 1, yielding a
photon. This results in a bright emission line.
Tiny changes of energy in an atom generate photons with small energies
and long wavelengths, such as radio waves! Similarly, large changes of
energy in an atom will mean that high-energy, short-wavelength photons
(UV, x-ray, gamma-rays) are emitted.

Absorption Line Spectra :

 On the other hand, what would
happen if we tried to reverse this process? That is, what would happen if
we fired this special photon back into a ground state atom? That's right,
the atom could absorb that specially-energetic' photon and would become
excited, jumping from the ground state to a higher energy level. If a star
with a continuous' spectrum is shining upon an atom, the wavelengths
corresponding to possible energy transitions within that atom will be
absorbed and therefore an observer will not see them. In this way, a dark-
line absorption spectrum is born, as shown below: How does a
spectrometer work?
Many people know how a telescope works, but relatively few have much
experience with the innards of a spectrometer. So let's take apart the
Astronomy Camp spectrometer to see how it works! Keep in mind that
there are as many optical designs for spectrometers as there are optical
designs for telescopes, and that this is but one example. Nevertheless, it
points out the salient features of most optical spectrometers. It all starts
with the telescope light beam entering the spectrometer. The focal point
of the telescope beam is brought to the slit of the spectrometer. This slit is
what is ultimately imaged on the detector. In the case of the Camp
spectrometer, the slit is arranged at an angle and the slit surroundings are
silvered so that the portion of the telescope beam not passing through the
slit can be routed instead to an eyepiece for easy telescope guiding.
The light passing through the slit then is reflected off a collimating
mirror, which parallelizes the beam of light, before sending it off... ... to
the diffraction grating! This optical element disperses the parallel beams
of light into their component colors/wavelengths/energies. Each
different wavelength comes off of the grating at a slightly different
angle. So now, we have an image of the slit that is spread out like a
rainbow by color. This new color-dispersed beam of light is then
focused and imaged on the detector by the camera lens. A 35 mm
camera is the detector in this diagram, but at Camp, we typically use an
eyepiece or a CCD array.
So, now let's put all of this together to make a spectrometer!
There is something interesting to note here -- in spectroscopy, we are not
looking at ALL of the light from an object, just a certain "band" of
wavelengths or colors. Furthermore, even that band is dispersed
("smeared out") over the entire detector. This means that the effective
brightness, or surface brightness of an object on the detector is much
lower than when simply taking images of an object. This means that it
takes a bigger telescope and/or more integration time to get a good
spectrum of a given object than an image. The broader you disperse the
light and the narrower you make the slit, the better your spectral
resolution; you can see finer and more subtle features in the spectrum.
However, there is a stiff price to pay: the emergent spectrum becomes
much dimmer and more diffuse. High resolution spectroscopy therefore
 requires large telescopes and fairly bright objects. For very faint objects,
some spectral resolution often must be compromised to even SEE the
object.

TYPES OF SPECTROSCOPY :

In general there are three main types of spectroscopy. They are as listed
below:
 Absorption Spectroscopy
 Emission Spectroscopy
 Scattering Spectroscopy

Absorption spectroscopy:

It uses the range of

electromagnetic spectra in which a substance absorbs. In atomic
absorption spectroscopy, the sample is atomized and then light of a
particular frequency is passed through the vapour. After calibration, the
amount of absorption can be related to the concentrations of various
metal ions through the Beer-Lambert law. The method can be automated
and is widely used to measure concentrations of ions such as sodium and
calcium in blood. Other types of spectroscopy may not require sample
atomization. For example, ultraviolet/visible (UV/ Vis) absorption
spectroscopy is most often performed on liquid samples to detect
molecular content and infrared (IR) spectroscopy is most often
performed on liquid, semi-liquid (paste or grease), dried, or solid
samples to determine molecular information, including structural
information.

EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY :

It uses the range of electromagnetic spectra in which a

substance radiates. The substance first absorbs energy and then radiates
this energy as light. This energy can be from a variety of sources,
including collision (either due to high temperatures or otherwise), and
chemical reactions.

SCATTERING SPECTROSCOPY:

It measures certain physical properties by

measuring the amount of light that a substance scatters at certain
wavelengths, incident angles, and polarization angles. Scattering
spectroscopy differs from emission spectroscopy due to the fact that the
scattering process is much faster than the absorption/emission process.
One of the most useful applications of light scattering spectroscopy is
Raman spectroscopy.

NMR SPECTROSCOPY:

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy is a

powerful and theoretically complex analytical tool. On this page, we will
cover the basic theory behind the technique. It is important to remember
that, with NMR, we are performing experiments on the nuclei of atoms,
not the electrons. The chemical environment of specific nuclei is
deduced from information obtained about the nuclei. Examples of

SPECTROSCOPY IN ASTRONOMY :

Spectroscopy is a powerful tool in astronomy --

from it, we can often get information about the temperature, density,
composition, and important physical processes of an astronomical
object. This information can help us answer the questions:
What is it?
What is it like?
What is it made out of?
How did it get there?
What will happen to it?
Does it give us clues as to how WE got here?
A few examples of astronomical spectra are highlighted here. Some
cool Astronomy Camp spectra also live in these pages.

MOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY AND COMETS :

Comets consist of almost

pristine material from the early formation of our solar system,
unprocessed by harsh solar sunlight. Studying the chemistry of these
"dirty snowballs" gives us a clue as to the composition and nature of our
solar system in its infancy and constrains theories of how life may have
formed on Earth.
A link to radio-wavelength spectroscopy of comets may be found here.

Probing the Formation of Stars in Colliding Galaxies :

Billions of years ago, when our galaxy took

form, it is thought that there must have been an epoch of rapid star-
forming activity that has since subsided. We can get clues to how this
may have looked by observing galaxies currently exhibiting violent,
extreme star-formation. Such "starburst" galaxies are studied best in the
infrared and at radio wavelengths, since star-forming galaxies often
harbor so much dust and gas that visible light cannot penetrate to the
centers where the majority of the star formation is taking place. Below is
an infrared (2.0 - 2.5 microns wavelength, or 20,000 - 25,000
Angstroms) spectrum of two such starburst galaxies. Most of the
features you see are from molecular hydrogen, H2, the stuff from which
stars are made! These molecular hydrogen emission lines tell us that the
molecular gas we see is very warm; in the top galaxy, the gas is excited
by shock-heated gas. The bottom galaxy has molecular hydrogen excited
by ultraviolet light emitted from recently-formed young, hot stars.
K—band spectra Wavelength (/^m)

UNCOVERING THE MYSTERY OF QUASARS:

 The distant nature of quasars
were discovered in the early 1960's, when spectral lines were noted to be
substantially-shifted redder than they should normally be. This redshift
can be attributed to the recession (speeding away) of quasars from us. In
the standard Big Bang model of cosmology (the faster it's speeding away
from you, the more distant it is), this rapid motion implies that quasars
are the most distant objects known. Below is a typical spectrum of a
quasar. The wavelength scale has been rescaled to the "appropriate" rest
wavelengths for the spectral lines. The most noticeable feature is the
broad emission line at 1216 Angstroms due to hydrogen atoms making
the transition from the first excited state to the ground state. Although
1216 Angstroms lies deep in the ultraviolet, where the Earth's
atmosphere is opaque, many quasars are receding from us so fast, this
line is redshifted into the visible part of the spectrum (4000-7000
Angstroms).
X
W
m
1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2300 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
Wavelength (A)
I

SPECTROSCOPY AT ASTRONOMY CAMP!:

 Spectroscopy at Astronomy Camp is
done with a spectrograph from Optomechanics Research Inc, coupled
with the Mount Lemmon 40" or 60" telescopes and the Camp's SBIG
ST6 CCD detector array. With relatively short exposure times, good
quality spectra can be taken of most catalogued stars and high surface-
brightness deep-sky objects. A few examples of Astronomy Campers'
handiwork are shown below.

PLANETARY NEBULAE, OR 'WHY LIGHT POLLUTION

FILTERS WORK'!:

Here's an image of M57 (a.k.a. the Ring

Nebula), with a crude representation of the spectrometer slit
superimposed. This image is a 180 second exposure using the Camp's
ST6 CCD on a 10" Meade Schmidt-
Cassagrain telescope. Astronomy Camp's spectrograph was mounted on
the Mount Lemmon 60" telescope with the same ST6 CCD. The slit
length is about 8 arcminutes long and 1 arcsecond wide; the
representation of the slit width in the diagram is exaggerated.
We combined four 5-minute exposures on the Ring Nebula using the
60" and the ST6 camera. We subtracted an appropriate 5 minute dark
frame from each image and then combined the images using IRAF. The
resulting ST6 image follows: the dispersion (wavelength) axis is
horizontal, and the spatial axis (along the Ring Nebula) is vertical. The
central lines are M57, the upper and lower spikes are the calibration
lamp spectra (Hg+He).
blue ■• wavelength *- red :
We make a 1-D spectrum from the 2-D image by summing over the
aperture of the slit covering M57. Using the well-characterized
wavelengths of the calibration lamps, we can use IRAF to register our
spectrum to provide a nice wavelength scale. Here's what our spectrum
looks like once plotted as intensity versus wavelength. The emission line
at 4861 Angstroms comes from hot, excited atomic hydrogen. Highly-
excited hydrogen atoms in M57's gaseous shell, starting in energy level
4, may eventually de-excite to level 2, giving up the energy difference in
waves of light at that particular energy (and... they have a wavelength of
4861 Angstroms!).
The brightest two lines at 4959 and 5007 Angstroms come from twice-
ionized oxygen (labeled O++, or O III in spectroscopic notation). This
means that two of oxygen's eight electrons have been ripped away. This
is a also clue that conditions in this nebula must be harsh. In fact, these
lines can only be excited to emit light in temperatures of several
thousand Kelvins and rather thin densities of 1-100 atoms per cubic
centimeter. There is no continuous spectrum here -- this points out the
important fact that planetary nebulae are hot rarified gases -- you see a
LINE spectrum. This also points out how astronomers can get valuable
information about the physical conditions and important processes in
distant astronomical objects.
This spectrum also demonstrates why you can use light-pollution filters
(like those made by Lumicon or Orion) to get great contrast from
reflection/ emission nebulae! These filters pass light waves that lie at
wavelengths covered by these three lines, but block light at all other
wavelengths. For nebulae, this is very beneficial since they only emit
visible light in this wavelength range. You can remove all that ugly
skyglow and light pollution without reducing the brighness of the nebula
you're looking for.
Would such a narrow-band filter be good for looking at stars or
galaxies? Hmm?

STELLAR SPECTROSCOPY :

A look at Sirius Now, onto stellar

spectroscopy. This 1/2 second exposure of Sirius is centered near 4000
Angstroms (blue, near-ultraviolet) and clearly shows a series of deep
absorption lines. These lines are due to the hydrogen atom. Let's explore
how. calibration lamps ultraviolet *.....................
wavelength .............................. blue
In the cooler outer "atmosphere" around Sirius, mildly excited hydrogen
atoms in the 2nd energy level (the 1st excited state) are 'zapped' by
photons (light waves) with just the right energy to send them to even
higher excited states. In this figure, we match the dark absorption line
that results from each transition upward in the hydrogen atom. Notice
that the higher-energy transitions on the left result in higher energy
absorption lines out in the ultraviolet. This series of lines, starting from
level 2, is called the Balmer series after their discoverer. Stars are
classified by their temperatures, which can be determined by the star's
spectral features. The hottest stars are termed O-stars, the next cooler are
B stars, then A, F, G, K, and finally M-stars. Sirius is a relatively hot A-
type star at about 10,000 degrees Kelvin. Such stars have the strongest
hydrogen-features (simply due to temperature -- cooler stars can't 'zap'
the hydrogen atoms as effectively, and hotter stars will destroy/ionize
the hydrogen atoms that create the spectral lines!).

MOLECULES IN COOL STARS! :

On the other end of the scale -- here is Delta

Virgo; a cool M3-type giant star at about 3,500 K and viewed at about
6000 Angstroms (in red light). Note a bright continuum at far left, which
suddenly dims into a series of striations (bands).
These don't look like the sharp absorption lines of the hydrogen atom,
do they? In fact, these bands are due to MOLECULES that can live in
the atmospheres of these cool stars!
This particular molecule is TiO (titanium oxide). Molecules have a
dizzying number of lines because they not only have the electron energy
levels like atoms, but also have energy sublevels due to the rotation and
vibration of the molecule!
At the modest resolution of our spectrometer, these hundreds of lines are
blended into absorption bands like what we see here.

STARS LIKE OUR SUN:

Somewhere between hotter A-type stars and

cool M-class stars are stars like our sun, around 5500 degrees Kelvin.
Here's Beta-Bootes, a G8 giant star (roughly what our sun will be when
it begins dying in about 5 billion years). The first spectrum is at 5500
Angstroms (yellow light), just like the M-star spectrum above. Notice
that molecules don't form here (it's too hot for molecules to readily form
without being quickly destroyed), but there are still an awful lot of lines
around. Most of these features are due to heavy elements -- things like
carbon (in several ionization stages), iron, oxygen, magnesium, calcium
etc.
This is a spectrum of the same star, but now taken at 4000 Angstroms
(deep blue-violet light). The deep absorption lines at left are due to the
ion Calcium II (the difference between this and normal, neutral calcium
is that one electron has been stripped off here). The small dip in the
middle is due to a blend of metallic features and hydrogen. Notice that
the hydrogen lines are very weak here nothing at all like Sirius (a hotter
A-class star).
 BIBLIOGRAPHY:

This project is made using the analytical data

provided by the following reference books and websites:
 Schaum's Outlines Organic Chemistry, Third Edition, Chapter
Spectroscopy, Page number 230-244.
 The Science of Spectroscopy - supported by NASA, includes Open
Spectrum, a Wiki-based learning tool.
 Wikipedia (Encyclopedia) Professors Lectures University of Arizona
(Semester II)