Opposite Charges Attract Like Charges Repel

Electrostatic Fields of Charges in Space

1 Introduction
In this section we will discuss electric charges and their fields.
The diagram above shows the fields of
• Opposite charges on the left and
• Similar charges on the right.
• Field line direction is always
o Away from a positive charge and
o Towards a negative charge.
• The electric field is often visualised using field lines. Electric field lines follow a few rules:
o They always point in the direction of the electric field at a given point. This direction
is represented by an arrow.
o The lines never cross.
o They always start at positive charges (also known as a source) or at infinity.
o They always end at negative charges or at infinity.
o The number of lines in a given area is proportional to the field strength.
o In a simulation, a charge with +2 will have twice as many lines coming out of it as one
with +1.
2 Android Apps
If you have an Android device, you are advised to look for and download the following APP’s to
assist with this section of the course:
o This link will give useful electrostatic notes:
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=learnersseries.physics.electrostaticselectricity
o This link will help you to visualise (see) what we mean by fields.
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.efs.electricfieldsimulator

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 1 of 22

3 Coulomb’s Law
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736 - 1806) was a French officer, engineer,
and physicist. He is best known for what is now called Coulomb's law. It is the
description of the electrostatic force of attraction and repulsion. He also did
important work on friction.
If you remember school physics, Coulomb's Law tells us that the force, 𝐹*,
between two point-charges is
F=F 
k  Q1  Q2
F= 
r122

9 Nm
2
1
Coulomb’s Law constant k = = 8.988 10
4   0 C2
F
Where  0 = 8.85 10−12
m
Where:
• q1 and q2 are the values of each charge,
• The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the Coulomb's law constant.
•  0 is the permittivity of free space: 8.85⋅10-12 F/m.
• r21 is the distance between q1 and q2 and
• ∠𝜃 is the direction from q1 to q2
IMPORTANT NOTE:
In this course we will NOT use Coulomb’s law constant k in the above formula We will always
use Coulomb’s law as follows because 4 0 appears in many derivations:

Q1  Q2
Coloumb's Law is therefore stated as : F = [N]
4 0  r122

The important principle to help you remember which way the force points is that opposite charges
attract and like charges repel.
Once we know the force, we can compute the electric field. This is the force per unit charge.
The important principle to help you remember which way the force points is that opposite charges
attract and like charges repel .
Once we know the force, we can compute the electric field. This is the force per unit charge.
DEFINITON: Electric Field  is the Force on a Charge in units of [Volts per metre]
(or Newtons per Coulomb):
F N
=  V  m-1  OR  
Q C

* Remember: Force F is a VECTOR. It has Magnitude and Direction: i.e. F =F

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 2 of 22

3.1 Example:

In the above diagram, what is the magnitude of the electric field  at point E?
Q1  Q2
F=
4 0 r212

There is no charge at point E, so we assume there is a positive charge of Q2 = 1 C at E. This gives:

The Force and the Electric Field will ALWAYS be in the direction that a positive charge will move.
Q1  Q2
Force at point E , due to charge Q1 is given by F =  N
4 0 r212
Assume Q2 = 1 C
F Q1 1
− Field at point E , due to charge Q1 is given by = =
Q 4 0 r212
Q1 V
= 2 
4 0 r21  m 
NOTE: In this course we will usually use the units of V/m for -field and NOT N/C.
The direction of  is along the x-axis so θ = 0 °.
Q1
= 0
4 0 r212
is a vector and from the above, we can draw two conclusions:
• The magnitude of  at any point in a field is the force F that
would be exerted on a point charge of +1 C.
• The direction of  is the direction that a positive charge would
move if it was placed at that point.

If Q1 is negative, then the field will look like this. The magnitude of
the electric field at E is the same but the direction has reversed, so
now θ = 180 °.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 3 of 22

4 Electric Voltage and -field in
Electrical Engineering
Now is a good time understand what is meant by
electric voltage V and electric field . The
diagram shows two parallel plates with a distance
of x between them. A voltage of V is applied to
them.

4.1 Electric Field 

Q
Electric field =F N / C at any point around a charge is the force another charge will
experience, if placed at that point. It is the force on a charge

4.2 Voltage V
Voltage a measure of work done or energy of a charge. Voltage is defined as the work done
W
to move an electric charge V =
Q
• Now look at the above diagram. A force F is applied to charge Q and it moves a distance dx.
The work done to move that charge is dW = F⋅dx.*
• Now divide both sides by the charge value Q
dW = F  dx
dW F
=  dx
Q Q
dW F
But dV = and =
Q Q
So dV =  dx
dV
Re-arrange = with units of  V/m 
dx
This can give two conclusions:
• Units of N/C and V/m are equivalent, and
dV
• Electric field  is the derivation of voltage by distance , OR =
dx
• Electric Potential V =  dx which will be used in some derivations.

5 Electric potential V and potential difference ΔV†

Work must be done to assemble systems of charges. For example, you must use force to move two
charges of the same polarity together. When you do this the system gains potential energy. If you let
go, the like charges move away from each other as the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.

*Work done W = F  x ...(force×distance)

†In electrical engineering the voltage we talk about (eg: V = 220 V) is ALWAYS a potential difference. In this course we use ΔV and
not simply V.

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If we have two (positive) charges Q1 and Q2 spaced a apart, it means a certain amount of work had
to be done to bring them together.
k (Q1  Q2 ) Q1  Q2
As discussed previously the force between the two charges is F = = .
r2 4 0r 2

The work that must be done to move Q2 from a long distance (approx. infinity) to a point a from Q1
is
a
W =  − F dr

A negative is in front of F because the force applied is against the force between the two charges.

a Q1  Q2
W = − dr
 4 0 r 2
( You must be able to do this integration )
Q1  Q2
W=
4 0 a

Now Voltage* or Potential is the work done to move a charge. The work done to move Q1 is the same
as the potential of Q1
W Q1
V2 = =
Q2 4 0 a

In the same way we can calculate the potential at any point among any number of charges as shown
in the figure below:
Q1 Q2 Q3
Vo = + +
4 0 r1 4 0 r2 4 0 r3
Potential at point o is given by:
1 Q Q Q 
=  1 + 2 + 3 
4 0  r1 r2 r3 

*We use the words Potential or Potential Difference for Voltage because voltage is a measure of there Potential Energy of a system
of charges.

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5.1 Electric Field of a Single Cell (1.5 V)
The figure on the right gives an idea of
the electric field (-field) around a
single battery cell. The electro-chemical
process in a battery forces the positive
and negative charges apart. In this
process the stored energy in the system
increases and the charges gain potential
energy. We now look at the process of
how this gain of energy is described in
physics. The next figure shows two
charges are moved apart a distance of a. Electro-chemical process in a cell forces positive charge to positive plate and
negative charge to negative plate.
As the charges move apart,
the distance between them
is a and the force between
Q+  Q− Charges together and nett Charges are forced apart to a distance a between them
them is F = .
4 0 .a 2 charge is zero

For all electrical supplies, (electromotive forces emf), the charges are equal and opposite
meaning that Q− = −Q+ and therefore Q+  Q− = −Q2 and we can write the force as

−Q 2 Q2
F= OR F = 180 because the -field for both charges is to the left. This is
4 0 .a 2 4 0 .a 2

shown in this diagram:

From the equations above:

• The charge difference between Q+ and Q− is

Q+ − Q− = Q − ( −Q ) = 2  Q

• The potential difference between Q+ and Q− is

Q Q
VQ+ − VQ− = −
4 0 a 4 0 a
2Q
V=
4 0 a

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5.2 Example: What is the charge difference between the ends of a 1.5 V AA Battery?

This answer is hugely approximate, but it gives you some idea. This approximation is assumes
the relative permittivity of the electrolyte is ϵr = 1, which is highly unlikely.
• What is the potential energy of this battery on full charge?

6 Capacitors and Energy storage

Capacitance is the ability of a system to store an electric charge. Capacitors are used in most electronic
circuits as energy-storage devices. The amounts of energy are often small, but capacitors have the
desirable property of rapid and almost loss-free energy exchange. They consist essentially of two
conductors which are in close proximity but are insulated from each other. A diagram representing a
capacitor is shown below:

A potential difference, V, can be applied between the terminals. This will cause a transient current to
flow, which 'charges' the capacitor. Positive and negative charges, Q, appear on the surfaces of the
conductors close to each other, as shown below.
The amount of charge is proportional to the potential difference (p.d.), so that the ratio Q/V is
independent of the supply, and it is a property of the capacitor. We can write capacitance as
Q
C=  F
V

1
The energy W * stored by the capacitor is given by W =  C V 2 . We say the
1F

2
energy is stored in the electric field between the capacitor plates. So, we write
the energy in terms of capacitance and voltage. (Not in terms of force and
distance).

* We use W (work done = energy) because E is used for Electric Field or emf.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 7 of 22

6.1 Example: A 100 μF capacitor is charged up the 250 V. Calculate the energy and charge on the
capacitor.

7 Electric Flux Ψ * 2F

Electric flux Ψ is defined as the total number of electric lines of

force emanating from a charged body. An electric field is
represented by electric flux lines.
Electric field lines are usually considered to start on positive
electric charges and to end on negative charges. Field lines
directed into a closed surface are considered negative; those
directed out of a closed surface are positive.
Perhaps you have seen fireworks in the sky. If there is a positive point charge Q in space, we can
imagine the lines of flux Ψ spreading out in all directions away from the charge†. Electric flux is not
real. We use it to imagine how the charge of Q induces forces on charges around it. It is important to
realise that the field is three-dimensional. It spreads out in all directions from the charge.
We generally denote electric flux with Ψ. We take the measuring unit of flux as the amount flux
emanated from one coulomb positive electric charge. We know that number of lines of flux emanated
from a positive charge body is numerically equal to the charge of the body measured in coulomb.
As the flux is total number of lines of force emanated from the charge body, the unit of flux is also
taken as Coulomb. So, if Q is the charge of a body and Ψ is the electric flux emanated from the body,
then we can write,
number of lines of flux = charge of the body
Ψ=Q
Also, when we say flux Ψ, we mean ALL the field lines around Q not just one line.
Flux Ψ always means TOTAL FLUX

7.1 Electric Field  and Electric Field Ψ of a point charge Q in

space.

For a sphere, the electric field  at a radius of r is given by:

Q
=
4 0r 2

As shown above, Ψ = Q which gives:

Ψ
=
4 0 r 2

* Greek letter Psi is written as Ψ

† If Q is a negative charge, the flux will be inwards towards Q

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 8 of 22

7.2 Electric Field  and Electric Flux Density D of a point charge Q in space.
Flux Ψ
Flux Density D = =
Area A
Q
But Ψ = Q so D =
A
The surface area A of a sphere at radius r is given by A = 4 r 2 which gives:

Q
D=
4 r 2

Divide both sides by the permittivity of free space  0 to get:

D Q
=
0 4 0 r 2

Q
Now = . Substitute into above and re-arrange to get
4 0 r 2

D = 0

This brings us to the definition of Electric Flux Density:

The electric flux density at a point is the product of the permittivity of free space and the
electric field strength at that point:
D = 0
Electric flux density has units of Coulombs per metre squared. It is used to describe the electric
field in terms of flux Ψ rather than Force, F.
8 Gauss Law
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss was a German mathematician and physicist who
made significant contributions to many fields in mathematics and science.
He is sometimes referred to as "the greatest mathematician since antiquity".
Gauss had an exceptional influence in many fields of mathematics and
science. He is ranked among history's most influential mathematicians.
Gauss’ law is now accepted as one of Maxwell’s four equations that form the
basis of all electromagnetism theory.
Now we introduce Gauss Law which states:
The total flux linked with a closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the closed surface.

or simply: ( Total flux from a closed surface ) = ( Total charge inside that surface )
 = QT

The electric field is the basic concept of knowing about electricity. Generally, the electric field of the
surface is calculated by applying Coulomb’s law, but to calculate the electric field distribution in a
closed surface, we need to understand the concept of Gauss law. It explains the electric charge
enclosed in a closed or the electric charge present in the enclosed closed surface.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 9 of 22

Look at the diagram on the right. There is a total amount of charge Q
inside the sphere. At a radius of r, the electric field is . The flux density
in area dA is D.
In integral form, we write Gauss's Electric Field Law as:
Q
From Coulomb’s Law we know that =
4 0 r 2

Now remember that D =  0 and multiply both sides by the area dA and absolute permittivity  0 to
get:
Q
 0 dA =  dA
4 r 2
Now we integrate both sides, a surface integral:
Q
  0 dA =
4 r 2  dA
 dA = 4 r   dA = Q
2
For a sphere, so this equation becomes: 0

This is one way of stating Gauss Law:

The surface integral   0 dA = Q of an enclosed surface of a body is equal to sum of the charges
Q inside that surface.
The charges do not all have to be at the centre of the body.
Now remember that the flux density D =  0 and that the surface integral of flux density

 DdA = the total flux. This gives another way of stating Gauss Law:
 =Q
The total flux from the enclosed surface of a body is equal to the total charge inside that body.

Gauss Law applies to any enclosed surface. It does not matter the shape of the surface is, as long as
it is enclosed.
Another concept of Gauss law is shown in the
diagram on the right.
The net flux from the charge Q, for the surface
shown by (a) is non-zero as it encloses a net
charge, Ψ  0 .
The net flux from the charge Q, for the surface
shown by (b) is zero since it does not enclose
any charge, Ψ = 0 .
Note: The Gauss law is only a restatement of
the Coulombs law. If you apply the Gauss theorem to a point charge enclosed by a sphere, you will
get back Coulomb’s law easily.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 10 of 22

8.1 Electric Flux on the surface of a thin wire

As an example: Use Gauss Law in a short derivation to show what the electric field would be at a
radius of r around a thin conductor having charge density of   C/m .

The wire above has a total charge of Q. If it has a length l, then the charge per unit length,
Q
 =  C/m. For a short part of the wire, x the charge will be Qx =  x .
l
Gauss Law says that the total flux  in a surface around a charge Q is equal to that charge. Therefore,
the total flux for that length x is  x = Qx =  x .

x x
At a radius of r, the surface area is 2 r  x , so the flux density at radius r is D = = .
A 2 r  x
Qx
Now remembering that Ψ = Q , we show the density of the flux at radius r is D =
2 r  x
Qx 
Above we showed that D =  0 so = OR
2 r 0  x 2 r 0

9 Parallel Capacitor

V
In the parallel capacitor above, the electric field , so the voltage V =  d . The total plate
=
d
Q
charge Q = D  A . Now remember that Q = C V giving C = . So, we can calculate the capacitance
V
Q D A
as C = = . Remember that D =  0  .
V d
D A
We combine these last two equations to get C =
d
  A
C= 0
d
0  A
C=
d

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 11 of 22

Make sure you can do this derivation for capacitance.
 0 of course, only applies to free-space (Vacuum). When the capacitor has a dielectric of relative
0 r  A
permittivity of  r then the capacitance is C = .
d

1
The energy in the -field between the capacitor plates is given by W =  C V 2 .
2

10 Example
A capacitor consists of two aluminium plates 100 mm square. They have a dielectric 0.9 mm between
them having permittivity of  r = 7 . Calculate the capacitance. Confirm this value using FEM, (Apply
a voltage of 1 V).

Using QuickField, The geometry will look like this (It is very thin.):

The solution looks like this. There is only one colour because the -field is uniform.:

To calculate the capacitance, click on: and select

Capacitance Wizard. Select Next>. Now click on the plate voltage
. Click on Calculate Energy and you will see an
answer come up. Click Next>.Click Finish. Your answer will now come up: These values agree with
what was calculated above.
11 Example- Tubular Capacitor
The diagram shows the cross-section of a tubular capacitor.
Dimensions are given in millimetres, and it is 100 mm long.
Assume the relative permittivity is  r = 21 . Estimate the
capacitance using traditional methods and then confirm this value
using FEM.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 12 of 22

QuickField geometry is given on the right. It is only necessary to have mesh in one quarter of the
geometry because it is symmetrical. Field property settings are shown so that vectors of -field
strength can be seen.

The Capacitance Wizard gives the following:

These values are slightly less (and probably more accurate) than the values calculated above.
Agreement is good.

A contour is drawn as shown on the previous page. Even though the calculation is only done for a
voltage of one volt, the maximum -field value is nearly 410 V/m. This can be converted to
0.41 V/mm. This is a measure of the Maximum stress on the dielectric. This will be explored in the
subject if High Voltage Engineering.
NOTE: Electric Field and Voltage are NOT the same thing.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 13 of 22

12 What do the terms Dielectric Stress and Dielectric Strength mean?
Now is a good time to discuss Dielectric Stress and Dielectric Strength.
A Dielectric or Dielectric material is a material that is a very poor conductor of electric current
because it has no free electrons to allow conduction. A dielectric is an electrical insulator.

12.1 Dielectric Stress

When a voltage is applied to a dielectric, an electric field is set up. The electric field applies
forces = F to all the charge particles of the molecules or atoms.
Q

• Electrons (negative charge) are forced toward the positive plate and
• Protons (positive charge) are forced toward the negative plate.
The atoms (or molecules) are therefore experiencing stress that is trying to pull them apart. this
is called dielectric stress. The same symbol  is used for it and is in the same units of [V/m].

12.2 Dielectric Strength

When the dielectric stress becomes too high the atoms (molecules) can
be ripped apart and the insulation property breaks down. In this picture
the dielectric stress applied by the high voltage is higher than the
dielectric strength of air, so flashover has occurred.
Dielectric strength is the maximum electric field that an
insulating material can withstand before breakdown occurs.

13 Example: Cylindrical Capacitor

The diagram shows the cross section of a single core co-axial 11 000 V,
240 mm2, XLPE* high voltage cable. The core is copper. E-field stresses and
capacitance of high voltage cables must be carefully studied to ensure that the
cable does not breakdown while in service.
The cylindrical capacitance is also important because it is an example a
non-uniform field. We start with a QuickField example.
The diagram on the right shows a section of a cylindrical capacitor. You are given
the following values: a = 0.75 cm; radius b = 3 cm. Dielectric between a and b
has relative permittivity of  r = 15 . In this simulation, we must assume that the
length l is much longer than the diameter 2⋅b. Let l = 250 cm.
Here are the settings for the problem:

* XLPE means Cross Linked Polyethylene

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 14 of 22

Assume the outer radius b is at a potential of 1 V and the inner radius a is grounded.
The geometry and field picture are as follows:

After processing, the capacitance wizard is run and the following is given:

Remember this value of capacitance. We will mathematically calculate the capacitance later and
compare.
As you can see the -field has much higher values on the centre conductor. and this is confirmed
when a plot is done. A contour is shown on the solution diagram and when it is plotted, the following
is shown:

This means that the -field has the highest values on the surface of the inner conductor. If the voltage
is too high, electrical dielectric breakdown will probably start on the surface of the inner conductor.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 15 of 22

Highest -stress value is about 76 V/m. You can click on the Field Picture to find the highest
dielectric stress.

14 Use QuickField to find the highest dielectric stress

On the field picture, select the “Local Values on the menu. . The cursor will
now look like a meter . Use this to click on the field where you expect to see the highest electric
Field Intensity, . You can now read off this value at the left .

15 Derive formula for cylindrical capacitance.

Now we look at how the capacitance can be calculated
mathematically.
The cross-section of the cylindrical capacitor is shown here.
It has a length l. Look at the radius r. Here the circumference
is 2πr. All of the electric flux Ψ from the inner radius a passes
through the surface of the cylinder r, so this surface is called
a Gaussian surface. The surface area of this Gaussian surface
is A = ( Circumference×Length ) = ( 2 r  l ) .

In free space the flux density is D =  0 . When we have a

dielectric of relative permittivity  r , the flux density becomes D =  0 r . Now remember the flux
Q
density D is the Charge divided by area. D = . We can combine these to give:
A
Q 1
= 
2  0 r l r

Now remember that voltage V =  dx . Integrate between a and b to get the voltage between inner
and outer conductors:
b Q
V = dx
a A   0 r
Cylinder surface area A = 2 rl
b Q
Substitution gives V =  dx
a 2 rl   0 r

NOTE: You must be able to do this integration and derivation.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 16 of 22

 Q b
Integration gives V= ln  
2 l  0 r  a 
Q
And Q = CV OR C =
V
Substitute and re-arrange to get cylindrical capacitance
2 l  0 r
C=
b
ln  
a

16 -Field stress in the dielectric

Now have another look at this cylindrical cross section. At
dV
a radius r the electric stress at this radius =
dr
Q 1 Q b
= 
and V = ln  
2  0 r l r 2 l  0 r  a 
Make Q the subject of the second equation
V  2 l  0 r
Q=
b
ln  
a
Now substitute Q into the first equation for above
V  2 l  0 r 1 1
=  
b 2  0 r l r
ln  
a
V
This finally gives = with units of  V/m 
b
r  ln  
a

17 Example: Calculate the cyclindrical capacitance using the above derivations.

The diagram on the right shows a section of a cylindrical capacitor. You are
given the following values: a = 0.75 cm; radius b = 3 cm. Dielectric between
a and b has relative permittivity of  r = 15 . In this simulation, we must
assume that the length l is much longer than the diameter 2⋅b. Let l = 250 cm.
Highest -stress value is about 76 V/m.

Manual calculation gets the following values:

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 17 of 22

 This shows the geometry for one quarter of the This shows the field picture after solution
Cylindrical Capacitor
Capacitance wizard values are given on the right. Since we
are looking at the equivalent of four capacitors in parallel,
the total capacitance will be:

18 Compare calculation and simulation

We now look back and compare the different ways the calculations were done. This is summarised
in this table:

QuickField Method*
1/4 Cylinder
219 nodes Full Cylinder
Parameter Formula 194 nodes
(Equiv to 876 nodes
for full capacitor)
C [F] 1.50510-9 1.50810-9 1.43410-9
max [V/m] 96.18 91.6 75.51
* Remember the values you get with your simulation will be a bit different.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 18 of 22

The formula gives ideal answers. You can see the answers to the simulation get better as the mesh
elements get smaller and more nodes are created.

Electromagnetic Field Theory Page 19 of 22

19 Some problems for you to work on
1. What is electric field strength? Use a diagram in your answer.

2. What is the force between two electrons spaced 1.310-8 cm apart?

a. What is the electric field at each electron?

b. Calculate the potential energy of the system.

c. What is the potential of one of the electrons?

d. What is the potential difference between the electrons in the above question?

3. Explain what is meant by the term electrical potential. Use a diagram in your answer.
4. Two conducting balls A and B having radius of 0.1 m each are 3.0 m apart in free space.
Electrons transfer from one ball to the other at a rate of 1013 electrons per second. How long
will it take for the potential difference between the balls to be ΔV = 100kV?

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 5. Four identical charges form a square. Each has a charge of Q and the square
sides have length a. Derive a formula that can be used to calculate the work
done to bring the charges to the four corners of the square.

6. Three identical charges, each of Q = 5 nC are spaced 0.01 mm apart to form an equilateral
triangle. Calculate the work done to bring the charges to this formation.

7. Two charges of value Q1 = +5 nC and Q2 = +8 nC are spaced 0.01 mm apart.

a. What is the energy of this system?

b. Another charge of Q3= -11 nC is placed 0.003 mm away from Q1. It is on the straight
line between Q1 and Q2. What is the new energy of the system?

Answer is negative meaning that the total energy in the system was reduced in the
system when Q3 is introduced.
8. One sphere has a radius of a and it is inside another sphere of radius b. Derive
an expression of the capacitance C of the two spheres.
Q dV
At a radius r the electric field = but =
4 0r 2
dr

dV Q
So = =
dr 4 0r 2

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 b Q
V =  dr
a 4 0 r 2
( You must be able to do this integration.)
Q 4 0
C= =
V 1 1
 − 
a b
9. An isolated sphere in space has a radius of a. Derive an expression of the
capacitance C of this sphere.
Answer is same as above as concentric spheres above but assume the second sphere is
far away. a stays the same and b →  . [Answer: C = 4 0  a  F ]

10. A spherical capacitor has the following radii, a = 20 cm, and b = 21 cm. Calculate the
capacitance and verify your answer using QuickField.

(Calculation based on charge appears to give the better answer.)

11. A mixed dielectric capacitor is shown in the diagram.

Derive an expression to calculate the total capacitance. (Do
this from first principles.)
Supply voltage VS = V1 + V2
The electric field is constant so,
VS = 1  d1 + 2  d2
Q
But =
0 r  A
Q Q
VS =  d1 +  d2
 0  1  A 0 2  A
1 VS d1 d2
= = +
C Q  0  1  A  0   2  A
−1
 d1 d2 
C = + 
  0  1  A  0   2  A 

12. A mixed cylindrical dielectric capacitor is shown in the diagram. It

has a length of l. The inner dielectric ab has a relative permittivity
of 1 and the outer dielectric bc has a permittivity of  2 . Derive an
expression to calculate the total capacitance. (Do this from first
principles.)

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