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Tomas – Recoletos,
Inc.
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Kinetic Molecular Models of Liquids and Solids
INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTIONS:
One single matter can exist in three different states, namely solid, liquid, and gas. The most common
example of which is water. It can exist as solid in the form of ice, liquid in drinking water, and gas as water
vapor. There is an orderly arrangement of the particles in solids which are held in rigid position although they
can vibrate.
The kinetic energy of the particles of liquids overcome their attractive forces and break away from their
neighbors but they can only move in short distances. For this reason, liquids flow. For gases, the very high
kinetic energy overcome the attractive forces of the particles causing them to move away and become
independent of each other.
LESSON PROPER:
The kinetic molecular theory explains the properties of gases by assuming that gas particles act
independently of each other. Due to very weak attractive forces between them, the particles are free to move
randomly and fill their containers. Gases are compressible and they diffuse through one another easily.
The particles of a liquid are close together because of strong attractive forces between them. Like gas
particles, liquid particles also collide with each other and with the walls of their containers. However, since the
particles are close together, they can move only over short distances. This type of movement allows liquid to
flow and take the shape of the container without filling it completely as gases do. This also explains why liquids
compress only very slightly, have higher densities than gases and diffuse more slowly than gases.
In solids, the attractive forces between the particles are stronger than those in liquids and gases. These
result in an ordered arrangement of particles in which the particles are not free to move around. The movement
of the particles is limited to vibrations while they remain in their fixed positions. Thus, a solid has a fixed
volume and shape. Solids compress even less than liquids and hardly diffuse.
A. FIRM – UP
Intermolecular Forces
The attractive forces of solids, liquids, and gases differ from one another as discussed by the Kinetic
Molecular Theory of Matter. Among the three states, solids have the strongest forces. The forces of
attraction for gases are very weak and therefore considered negligible. What is the nature of these forces in
solids and liquids? The particles of solids and liquids are significantly attracted to each other and therefore
are close to each other. Because of the proximity of the particles, the particles occupy a significant volume
of the substance. Also, the particles are not random motion. The particles interact with one another as they
move, creating intermolecular forces.
Intermolecular forces (bonding forces) and intermolecular forces (molecular polarities), these forces are
due to the electrostatic attraction between opposite charges. Bonding or intramolecular forces exist inside
the molecule. They may be ionic (the attraction between cations and anions); covalent (the sharing of
electrons); metallic (the attraction between metal cations and delocalized valence electrons. Intermolecular
forces occur between neighboring molecules as a result of partial charges between ions and molecules.
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Ion-Dipole Forces Neutral polar molecules experience dipole
An ion-dipole force results when an ion and the partial dipole forces. Polar molecules attract each other when
charge found at the end of the polar molecule attract the positive end of one molecule is near the negative end
each other. Polar molecules are dipoles, that is, they of another.
have a positive and negative end. Positive ions are
attracted to positive end. And Ion
Dipole forces are particularly important in solutions of - polar molecules (a) attract each other when unlike
ionic substances, such as NaCl, in polar liquids like charges are close together and (b) repel each other
water. Ion-Dipole interactions are involved in solution when like charges are close together.
process like in the case of sodium chloride dissolving in
water. When, for example, sodium chloride crystal is
placed in water, the polar ends of the water molecules
exert attractive forces on the surface ions of the crystal
and pull them away from each other, preventing them
from rejoining as each ion is surrounded by water
molecules.
- Polar molecules arrange themselves in such a way that (a) the
Dipole-Dipole Forces positive ends of the molecules are near an anion and (b) the
negative ends of the molecules are near a cation.
A dipole-dipole force is generally weaker than an ion-dipole force. The strength of a given dipole-dipole
interaction depends on the sizes of the dipole moments involved. The more polar the substance, the stronger its
dipole-dipole interaction. You can see this trend for the substance listed in Table 1.2. The higher the dipole
moment, the stronger the intermolecular forces that must be overcome for a substance to boil, and the higher the
boiling point.
London Dispersion Forces (LDF)
LDF, also called London forces or simply dispersion forces, are weak attractions that are used to explain
the attraction between nonpolar molecules. It is rather easy to understand intermolecular forces among charged
particles and polar molecules, but it is not so among nonpolar molecules or atoms. Nonpolar molecules such as
Cl2 and CH4 exhibit attractive forces. These nonpolar substances can be condensed to liquid and even solid if
cooled enough to low temperatures. The origin of this attraction was explained in 1930 by Fritz London (1900-
1954), a German- American physicist.
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On the average, the electrons in a nonpolar molecule or atom are distribute d uniformly around the
nucleus. However, at certain instances, the electrons may be on one side of the nucleus. The molecule becomes
temporary dipole or momentary dipole or instantaneous dipole. An instantaneous dipole exerts an influence on
nearby particles. It causes the
distortion of the electron clouds of
neighboring molecules. As a result,
the neighboring molecules also
become dipoles. They called
induced dipoles because they are
caused by the formation of the first
dipole. This kind of attraction is
called instantaneous dipole
induced dipole attraction or
London dispersion forces. They
are short-lived attractions because
electrons keep on moving which causes the dipole to vanish as quickly as they are formed.
These ease with which a dipole can be induced is called polarizability. Polarizability increases with
increased molecular mass. In large molecules, the electrons are less firmly held and ae therefore easier to be
polarized. As polarization an London dispersion forces increase, the boiling and melting points of covalent
substances generally increase with increasing molecular mass. (refer to Table for comparison).
Molar Mass, Melting Points, and Boiling Points of Halogens
Halogen Molar Mass (g/mol) Melting Point (K) Boiling Point (K)
F2 38 53.5 85.0
Cl2 71 172.2 239.1
Br2 160 265.9 331.9
I2 254 386.7 457.9
The strength of instantaneous and induced dipoles also depends on molecular shape. Molecules with
small and compact structures are more difficult to polarize than molecules with elongated structures. Between
C2H6 and C5H12, that with the longer chain has the higher boiling point. The boiling point of C 2H6 is 184.4 K
while that of C5H12 is 309 K, both at 1 atm.
Dispersion forces occur between all molecules whether dipole dipole forces and to hydrogen bond.
they are polar or non-polar. They add to the effect of
Hydrogen Bonds - the cylindrical n pentane molecules make more contact with each
other than spherical neopentane molecules do. Thus, n- pentane is
easier to be polarized and therefore has a higher boiling point.
Hydrogen bonds is a weak bond formed when a hydrogen with partial positive charge (a hydrogen
bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom) is close to an atom in a molecule with lone pairs of electrons or
with excess electronic charge (negative). It is formed as a result of weak electrostatic interaction between the
partially positive hydrogen and the negative group or lone pair of electrons.
It is a weak type of electrostatic attraction (2 to 10 kcal/mol). The strength of the H bond is influenced by
the electronegativity of the atom to which it is bonded.
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The H bond can be looked upon as a bridge between two highly electronegative atoms, either F, O, or N,
with the latter being covalently bonded to other hydrogens.
Example of H bonds are shown below. In set A, H bonds are between molecules; Set B, the bonds are
between different molecules.
These intermolecular forces are weaker than either ionic or covalent bonds, but their importance cannot be
underestimated. They are responsible for determining whether a molecular compound is a gas, a liquid, or a
solid at a given temperature. They also account for the differences in some physical properties of matter in
the different phases
- Hydrogen bonding. The solid lines represents covalent bonds while the rede dotted lines represent hydrogen bonds.
DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT TERMS:
Kinetic Molecular Theory – explains the properties of gases by assuming that gas particles act independently of
each other.
Intermolecular forces – is the force that mediates interaction between molecules, including the electromagnetic
forces of attraction or repulsion which act between atoms and other types of neighboring particles
Intramolecular forces – is any force that binds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound, not to
be confused with intermolecular forces, which are the forces present between molecules.
SUMMARY
1. Intramolecular forces are relatively strong because their charges are larger and closer together.
Intermolecular forces are relatively weak because they involve smaller charges that are farther apart. 2.
Intermolecular forces as a whole are usually called van der Waals forces, named after the Dutch scientist ],
Johannes van der Waals (1837-1923). The types of van der Waals forces ae ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, and
London dispersion forces.
3. Another more specific intermolecular force that affects only certain kinds of molecules is the hydrogen
bond.
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Colegio de Sto.
Tomas –
Recoletos, Inc.
DepEd-FAPE/
PEAC Certified
School
DOJ-Bureau of Immigration Accredited School
Azcona St., San Carlos City, Negros Occidental
Tel Nos. 312-5242 & 312-5220 Telefax: 729-9169
Properties of Liquids
INTRODUCTION AND FOCUS QUESTIONS:
Have you seen a spider or other insect walking on water, or a leaf remaining dry on the surface of still water
for some time, until the water is distributed? Have you wondered what makes it possible for the insect of the leaf to
remain on the surface, considering they are being denser than water?
This phenomenon is due to a property of liquids brought about by the strength of the attractive forces
between the molecules.
LESSON PROPER:
The properties of liquids can be explained by the intermolecular forces and the average kinetic energy of the
liquid particles. Three important properties describes a liquid: viscosity, surface tension, and capillarity. Surface
Tension is the force that causes the molecules on the surface of a liquid to “tighten their hold to one another”,
creating the effect of a thin membrane on the surface. At the liquid’s surface, the attractive forces are mainly
downward and inward. The molecules occupy at least surface area possible, which pulls the surface into spherical
shape when a small amount is dropped. Substances with strong attractive forces between the molecules have high
surface tensions. Surface tension is temperature-dependent; it decreases as temperature increases. You see small
insects flit (walk) on bodies of water, needles “float” on water, and water “bead up” on a newly waxed car. These
phenomena happen due to unequal intermolecular forces at the surface of the liquid. Molecules in the interior (below
the surface) are attracted equally on all sides, whereas those at the surface are attracted only below and to the sides,
producing a net inward force. This inward force makes the molecules at the surface to pack closely together, causing
the liquid to occupy the smallest possible area and behave like a tight skin. To increase the surface area of a liquid,
molecules move to the surface by breaking some attractions in the interior, which requires energy. The energy
required to increase the surface are of a liquid is called surface tension. Surface tension, like viscosity, is higher in
liquids that have higher intermolecular forces. Both properties are temperature dependent because at higher
temperatures, molecules have more kinetic energy to counteract the attractive forces holding them. Surfactants
(surface-active ingredients) such as detergents, soaps, and biological fat emulsifiers decrease the surface tension of
water and destroy H-bonds.
Capillarity When you go for a simple blood tests, the blood sample may be obtained by pricking your fingers
with a needle. A narrow tube called capillary tube is placed on the skin opening and the blood rises through the
tube. The rising of the blood or any liquid, in a tube is called capillarity or capillary action. This results from a
competition between the intermolecular forces within the liquid molecules (cohesive forces) and those between the
liquid molecules and the walls of the tube (adhesive forces).
When water is placed in a narrow-mouthed tube, the surface or meniscus takes a U-shape (concave) because
adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces. In mercury, the meniscus is curved downward (convex) because the
cohesive forces (metallic bonding) are stronger than the adhesive forces.
Capillarity is also observed in the transport of water from the roots to the other parts of a plant.
The spontaneous rising of a liquid (capillary action) in a narrow tube, is also observed in liquids. This action
results from the cohesive forces (intermolecular forces) within the liquid and the adhesive forces between the liquid
and the walls of the container. When the attraction between the liquid and the walls of the container is greater than
the attraction within the liquid itself, the liquid will rise within the container. This property of matter in the liquid
state explains how plants get nourishment (water and dissolved minerals) from the soil through their roots and to all
parts.
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The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its tendency to resist flowing motion. Polar molecules and molecules
with complex structures (with “branches”) tend to have higher viscosity, being less able to slip and slide over one
another than those with simple structures and less polarity. For example, cooking oil (with chains of more than 12
carbons) is more viscous than gasoline (with 7-8 carbons) due to stronger London dispersion forces; glycerol, with
three OH groups, is more viscous than rubbing alcohol because of more H-bonding.
A liquid with high viscosity is said to be viscous or simple “thick”. When viscosity is so high that it cannot
flow anymore, the matter is said to be glassy or vitreous. The opposite of viscosity is fluidity. Highly fluid liquid is
said to be free-flowing, mobile, or “thin”.
The viscosity of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature because at higher temperature, the average
kinetic energy of molecules that overcomes the attractive forces between the molecules is greater. Viscosity can be
measured using a viscometer. It measures the time it takes for a known volume of a liquid to flow through the small
neck.
EVAPORATION, VAPOR PRESSURE and BOILING POINT
When liquid particles at the surface of a liquid have enough kinetic energy to overcome the attractive forces
of neighboring molecules, they escape into the gaseous or vapor state. The process is called evaporation. The escape
of more energetic molecules on a liquid surface reduces the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules. Since
kinetic energy is directly proportional to temperature, the liquid temperature decreases. This causes the cooling effect
when perspiration evaporates from the skin’s surface. Allowing volatile liquids such as alcohol or acetone to
evaporate from your skin has the same effect. An application of this is the use of porous clay vessels or pots to keep
water cooler than the outside temperature. Evaporation occurs through the pores in the clay, leaving the “slower” or
colder molecules behind. As the liquid cools, the insulating property of clay keeps the liquid from absorbing heat
outside.
When evaporation occurs in an open container, some particles collide with air molecules and return to the
liquid, but most of them escape until the liquid evaporates completely. However, molecules in a closed container are
trapped. As the vapor particles increase some collide with the liquid surface and return to the liquid state. This is
known as condensation. After some time, the number of liquid molecules vaporizing equals the number of
molecules condensing, and a dynamic equilibrium is reached. At this point, the container becomes saturated with
vapor, and there is no more change in the liquid level.
Evaporation and condensation continue steadily at equilibrium. This type of equilibrium implies motion, not a
static situation.
Like other properties of a liquid, vapor pressure depends on the magnitude of intermolecular forces and on
temperature. Volatility is the ability of a substance to vaporize. The volatility of a substance is proportional to its
vapor pressure. The higher the vapor pressure, the more volatile the liquid. Liquids like acetone and alcohol have
high vapor pressure and are considered volatile because their intermolecular forces are weak; on the other hand,
molasses and honey have low vapor pressures and are, therefore, nonvolatile. The volatility of a liquid at a given
temperature is determined by its intermolecular forces of attraction. An increase in temperature decreases the
intermolecular force of attraction in a liquid, thereby also increasing vapor pressure (refer to the table below).
Vapor Pressure (in torr) of Some Liquids at Different Temperatures
Liquids 0oC 25 oC 50 oC 75 oC 100 oC
Water 4.6 23.8 92.5 300 760
Benzene 27.1 94.4 271 644 1360
Methyl alcohol 29.7 122 404 1126 n/a
Diethyl ether 185 470 1325 2680 4859
The temperature at which boiling occurs at a pressure of 1 atm is called the normal boiling point of the
liquid. This property changes as pressure changes. If the atmospheric pressure is below 1 atm, especially at high
altitudes like in Baguio City, liquids boil at temperatures lower than 100 oC. At an altitude of 1600 atm, atmospheric
pressure is about 640 torr or 0.84 atm, and water boils at 95 o. This is because particles in the liquid need less kinetic
energy to escape. Cooking under these conditions takes longer than at sea level. The effect of high altitudes and
lower boiling temperature can be countered by using a pressure cooker. In a pressure cooker, water boils at higher
temperature and higher pressure. The increased heat content of the boiling water allows the food to absorb heat from
the water faster than at 100 oC. a rise of about 10 oC inside a pressure cooker cooks food twice as fast as at 100 oC.
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DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT TERMS:
A. Boiling point - the temperature at which a liquid boils and turns to vapor.
B. Capillarity - the tendency of a liquid in a capillary tube or absorbent material to rise or fall as a result of
surface tension.
C. Surface Tension - the tension of the surface film of a liquid caused by the attraction of the particles in
the surface layer by the bulk of the liquid, which tends to minimize surface area.
D. Viscosity - the state of being thick, sticky, and semifluid in consistency, due to internal friction.
E. Vapor pressure - the pressure of a vapor in contact with its liquid or solid form.
SUMMARY
1. The properties of water, which are unique and usual, are due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds formed
between polar water molecules. These properties are explained as follows.
• Water has a high surface tension. This property enables water to move from the roots to the other parts
of plants and trees by capillary action.
• Water has a high boiling point which is why it is liquid at room temperature.
• The density of solid water or ice is less than the density of liquid water. This is due to stronger hydrogen
bond in ice than in liquid water.
• Water has a high heat of vaporization.
• Water is a good solvent. It is usually referred to as the universal solvent because of its polar nature. 2.
Evaporation is an indication of the escape of molecules from the surface of the liquid. It is an evidence of molecular
motion.
3. Vapor pressure. When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, the space above the liquid becomes saturated with
vapor and an equilibrium state exists between the liquid and the vapor.
4. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
5. Liquids that have high vapor pressure have low boiling points.
6. The higher the vapor pressure of a liquid, the lower its boiling point is.
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