3

International
Security

Editor

Prof.Dr. Nejat DOĞAN

Authors

CHAPTER 1 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Sezai ÖZÇELİK

Asst.Prof.Dr. Emete GÖZÜGÜZELLİ

CHAPTER 2 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Aşkın İnci SÖKMEN ALACA

CHAPTER 3 Prof.Dr. Nejat DOĞAN

Assoc.Prof.Dr. Cenker Korhan DEMİR

CHAPTER 4 Assoc.Prof.Dr. Halil ERDEMİR

Assoc.Prof.Dr. Oktay BİNGÖL

CHAPTER 5 Asst.Prof.Dr. Dinçer BAYER

Dr. Mahir TERZİ

CHAPTER 6 Dr. Serkan YENAL

CHAPTER 7
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Burak Şakir ŞEKER

Asst.Prof.Dr. Sezin İBA GÜRSOY

CHAPTER 8 Dr. Gülayşe ÜLGEN TÜREDİ
 T.C. ANADOLU UNIVERSITY PUBLICATION NO: 3888
OPEN EDUCATION FACULTY PUBLICATION NO: 2690

Copyright © 2019 by Anadolu University

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Graphic Designers
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INTERNATIONAL SECURITY

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Eskişehir, Republic of Turkey, March 2019

3292-0-0-0-1902-V01
 Contents

An Introduction Major IR
CHAPTER 1 to Security CHAPTER 2 Theories and
Studies Security

Introduction.................................................... 3 Introduction.................................................... 35
International Security and Security Studies Traditional IR Approaches to Security.......... 35
In The 21St Century.......................................... 3 Realism and Security ............................ 35
The Concept of International Security......... 7 Liberalism and Security......................... 40
Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution......... 12 Critical Security Studies................................. 43
From Traditional Security Studies to
Conflict Analysis and Conflict
Critical Security Studies ........................ 44
Mapping.................................................. 14
The Welsh School (The Aberystwyth
Peace and Conflict Theories.................. 17
School) in Critical Security Studies....... 45
Conflict Intervention............................. 18 The Copenhagen School in Critical
Current and Future Global Threats and Security Studies...................................... 48
Challenges....................................................... 20 The Paris School of Critical Security
Studies..................................................... 50
International Security From a Critical
Perspective...................................................... 51
Marxism and Neo-Marxism ................. 51
Critical Theory........................................ 52
Postsmodernism and Security....................... 53
Social Constructivism and Security............... 54

iii
 Legitimate
Use of Force in
CHAPTER 3 International CHAPTER 4 Intervention
Relations
Introduction  .................................................. 65 Introduction.................................................... 97
The Un Charter and the Legitimate use of The Concept of Intervention......................... 97
Force  .............................................................. 66 Intervention and State Sovereignty............. 100
Article 2/4 of the UN Charter .............. 67 Legality of Intervention within the
Article 2/6 of the UN Charter .............. 67 Sovereignty Concept.............................. 100
Article 2/7 of the UN Charter ............... 67 The Blurring Lines of Sovereignty........ 102
Article 51 of the UN Charter:
States and Intervention: New Forms of
The Right of Self-Defense .................... 68
Intervention.................................................... 104
Article 53 of the UN Charter ................ 70
Security and Self-determination
Chapter VII of the Un Charter and the
Legitimate use of Force  ............................... 71 with Relation to Intervention............... 105
The Un Peacekeeping Forces ........................ 71 Humanitarian Intervention from
Use of Force and Legitimacy the Perspective of Responsibility to
Beyond the Un Charter Paradigm ................ 74 Protect.................................................... 106
Humanitarian Intervention ................. 74 International Organizations and
Interventions Based on a Treaty ......... 77 Intervention: Peacekeeping and
Protection of State Citizens Abroad .... 79 Peacebuilding Missions.................................. 107
Use of Force against International The Spectrum of Peace Activities......... 107
Terrorism ............................................... 80

iv
 Alliances and
CHAPTER 5 Military-Security CHAPTER 6 Terrorism
Cooperation
Introduction.................................................... 129 Introduction.................................................... 159
The Definition, Characteristics, Functions, Defining Terrorism and Giving a Typology.. 159
and Typologıes of Alliances........................... 129
Defining Terrorism ................................ 161
Defining the Concept of Alliance.......... 130
Giving a Typology of Terrorism............ 162
Basic Characteristics of Alliances.......... 131
Reasons of Terrorism .................................... 164
A Typology of Alliances ........................ 131
Main Functions of Alliances.................. 133 The Roots of Terrorism.......................... 164
Theories of Alliances and Security The Changing Facets of Terrorism....... 166
Cooperation.................................................... 134 Terrorism as a New Means of war in the
Balance of Power and Alliances ........... 134 21st Century...................................................... 167
Balance of Threat and Alliances........... 134 Proxy Wars............................................. 167
Balance of Interests............................... 135 International Terrorism: The
Historical Background and Examples........... 135 Globalization of Terror.......................... 167
THE North Atlantic Treaty Organization Cyber Terrorism: A New Form of
(NATO)............................................................ 136 Terrorism......................................................... 168
Founding the Alliance........................... 137 Defining Cyber Terrorism...................... 168
The Rivalry between the Two
Some Facts and Possible Scenarios
Alliances and the Dissolution of the
about Cyber Terrorism ......................... 169
Warsaw Pact........................................... 138
Potential Solutions to Cyber
NATO’s Transformation in the
Post-Cold War Era.................................. 138 Terrorism................................................ 170
A New Approach to Peacekeeping....... 139 Countering Terrorism..................................... 171
NATO Member Countries..................... 140 Economic and Social Solutions............. 171
Partners and Partnership Initiatives..... 140 The Role of the Military........................ 172
Turkey -NATO Relations....................... 140 International Cooperation against
The Nato Principles and the Main Terrorism................................................ 173
Organizational Structure............................... 142 The Struggle Against Financing
Political and Military Objectives of Terrorism................................................ 174
NATO...................................................... 142
Collective Defense................................. 142
Decisions and Consultations................. 142
The Organizational Structure of
NATO...................................................... 142
The Military Organizational
Structure of NATO................................. 144
NATO Immediate Response Capability.. 144
NATO Crisis Management Capability.. 144
Nato’s Tasks and Operations......................... 145
NATO’s Current Strategic Concept ...... 145
Core Tasks According to the Strategic
Concept................................................... 145
NATO Operations and Missions .......... 146
NATO’s Role in Conventional Arms
Control.................................................... 146
NATO Policy on Combating
Trafficking in Human Beings................ 146
NATO’s Role in Energy Security........... 147

v
 Non-Military
CHAPTER 7 Energy Security CHAPTER 8
Security

Introduction.................................................... 189 Introduction.................................................... 221

The Concept of Energy Security.................... 190 The Concept of Human Security................... 221
The Importance of Energy Security..... 191 Natural Rights-Rule of Law
International Institutions and Managing Conception ............................................. 221
the Energy Securıity....................................... 193 The Humanitarian Conception............. 222
The Group of Seven (G7)....................... 194 The Historical Evolution of Human
The Group of 20 (G-20)......................... 195 Security............................................................ 224
The World Energy Council.................... 195 The Cold War and the Humanitarian
The Organization of the Petroleum Conception.............................................. 224
Exporting Countries (OPEC)................. 196 The Post-Cold War Era ......................... 226
The International Energy Agency (IEA).. 197 Environmental Security................................. 229
The International Energy Forum (IEF).... 197 The Development of the Concept
The International Renewable Energy of Environmental Security ................... 229
Agency (IRENA)..................................... 198 International Initiatives on
The International Energy Charter........ 198 Environmental Issues............................ 231
The Energy Community........................ 198 Current Environmental Issues.............. 234
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization Economic Security.......................................... 237
(NATO)................................................... 198 Defining the Concept of Economic
The Organization for Security and Security................................................... 237
Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)............ 199 Poverty as a Multidimensional
The International Atomic Energy Concept................................................... 238
Agency (IAEA)........................................ 199 Food Security.................................................. 240
UN-Energy.............................................. 200 Describing the Concept of Food
The United Nations Economic Security................................................... 240
Commission for Europe (UNECE)........ 200 Dimensions of Food Security ............... 241
The United Nations Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (ESCAP)....................................... 200
Other Energy Related Organizations... 201
An Overvıew of Energy Issues Through
Global and Regional Regimes ....................... 201
Threats to Energy Security............................ 203
Energy Security and Global Power....... 203
The Impact of Global Threats on
Energy Security...................................... 205
The Emerging Energy Security Issues.. 207

vi
Preface

Dear Students,
International security is one of the major
new developments in world politics. Chapter
subjects of the study of International Relations-
3 later turns to the use of force beyond the
for the obvious reasons. As we cannot imagine
UN Charter paradigm and reviews issues
a society without some form of order and
such as peacekeeping and peacemaking, and
security, we cannot come to understand the
it specifically discusses the new forms of the
workings of international politics without
use of force such as the intervention based
assuming that there exist, to some extent at
on a treaty clause and the protection of the
least, order and stability as well as security
nationals (citizens) living abroad. Chapter 4
in the international system. Therefore, this
takes up the discussion and makes a further
textbook aims to make an introduction to
assessment of the UN peacekeeping mission
not only the academic study of international
and debates the issues surrounding the
security but also to the current and future
concept of humanitarian intervention.
threats to the international system.
Chapter 5 is on the role of alliances in the
The first chapter opens a general discussion on
management of power relations and the
international security and security studies. It
use of force in the system. It discusses some
defines international security and reflects on
major issues in alliance formation and traces
Peace Studies as well as Conflict Resolution
the historical development as well as the
as autonomous areas of research in today’s
organizational structure of the North Atlantic
International Relations. Chapter 2 is specifically
Treaty Organization (NATO). Chapter 6
about the theories of international security.
deals with one of the most critical issues in
The first section of this chapter reviews the
international security- terrorism. It tackles the
premises of the major IR theories on security
question of how to define terrorism and moves
such as Realism, Idealism/Liberalism, and
on to analyze the new forms of terrorism such
Constructivism. The second section is rather
as cyber terrorism. The Chapter also suggests
about the critical approaches to security and the
some means (tools) in an attempt to defeat
critical security studies with an emphasis on the
international terrorism.
Copenhagen School, the Welsh School, and the
Paris School. This chapter, through an analysis Chapter 7 and Chapter 8 are relatively on the
of the theoretical schools, makes it clear that new forms of security as well as the “non-
the security understanding and security threats military” security issues. Chapter 7 defines the
in the 21st century have considerably changed concept of energy security and reviews the main
and transformed so as to take into account new international institutions that help manage
developments and new threats in world politics. inter-state relations in the field of energy.
Chapter 8 goes into further detail on the non-
Chapter 3 and Chapter 4 are about the use of
military security issues and introduces the reader
force and interventions within and beyond
to such issues as human security, environmental
“the UN Charter paradigm.” These two
security, economic security, and natural
chapters also clarify the role of international
resources security, including food security.
institutions in managing the use of force
and power relations between states. Chapter It is my hope that this textbook will be helpful
3 reviews the Charter paradigm on the to you in better understanding of how the
legitimate use of force through a close analysis security threats affect not only international
of the UN Charter, especially critical Articles relations but also our daily lives. Therefore, it
of the Charter such as Article 2/4, Article 41, is also my hope that you draw firm conclusions
Article 42, and Article 51. It demonstrates about what we can and should do to create
that many issues in the Charter are open a relatively more secure and orderly world in
to debate and interpretation. Probably the the 21st century.
fathers of the UN designed the Charter so as Editor
to leave room for interpretation in the face of Prof.Dr. Nejat DOĞAN

vii
 An Introduction to
Chapter 1 Security Studies
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Identify international security and security

studies in the 21st century 2 Describe the concept of international security

3 Investigate peace studies and conflict

resolution 4 Examine current and future global threats and
challenges

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction • International Security
International Security and Security Studies in • Security Studies
the 21st Century • Peace Studies
The Concept of International Security • Conflict Resolution
Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution • Global Threats
Current and Future Global Threats and • Collective Security
Challenges • Human Security
• Responsibility to Protect
• Conflict Theories
• Intervention

2
 1
International Security

INTRODUCTION of international security have changed the power

Since the end of the Cold War, we have distribution across the board. Nowadays not only
witnessed not only drastic changes in the security the United States but also the Russian Federation,
environment but an endeavor in the academia to the People’s Republic of China, and the European
explain contemporary security issues in a global Union are considered “big powers.” Second, the
context. Among others, we have recently observed increase in the volume of global trade, international
the increase of interstate security concerns such as a communication and travel as well as the emergence
hybrid war between Russia and Ukraine (Ozcelik, of the Industry 4.0 have created an integrated
2016), the proliferation of nuclear weapons in global economy and made it necessary to take into
North Korea and Iran, the rise of China, and account some new actors, means, and perspectives
the Syrian conflict. In addition, the new security for sustaining and promoting international security.
challenges such as the rise of asymmetric conflict Third, globalization and interdependence may lead
and terrorism, global economic crises, energy to a butterfly effect in that local problems may turn
concerns, environmental problems, including into major international threats and challenges that
global warming, and threats to human security would affect regional and global security. Finally,
have threatened international order and security. because there is no one institution that would act
Despite all these threats as well as the increasing as a global government and create a just global
uncertainty for the future of humankind, we are system, globalization, in fact, functions in a way
also encouraged by the extraordinary potential of to increase international anarchy and complexity.
humanity for progress and finding solutions to This, in turn, heightens security concerns and calls
global problems. For example, Turkey has become for a creative problem-solving approach.
the number one country on the list of humanitarian This chapter examines the evolution of
assistance with $ 8.07 billion in 2017 that shows global dimensions of international security in
the will and the success of Turkey in the area of the 21st century. It reviews the major conceptual
humanitarian diplomacy (Kutlugun, 2018). frameworks to explain and understand the quest
for international security and global peace . It also
Up until the post-Cold War era, the traditional
provides a review and an assessment of peace and
focus on security has been state security and
conflict studies.
the maximization of the state’s power in the
international system. However, the transformation
of international structure calls for a broader INTERNATIONAL SECURITY
understanding of order and security. Many AND SECURITY STUDIES IN
security issues have increasingly become non- THE 21st CENTURY
military in nature. The major global security trends During the Westphalian system (the 17th
have evolved from an understanding of collective century) the nation-state and state security
security to concerns such as cyber security and have emerged to bring order and stability
the Industry 4.0. Among others, global terrorism, to the international system and to stop the
genocide, environmental and energy problems, interstate violence. Once the nation-states have
technology, and trade may be mentioned as the consolidated their dominance as powerful actors
asymmetrical current and future challenges and in the European security system in the eighteenth
threats to world order and security. and nineteenth centuries, they have acted as a
Globalization and interdependence are the monopoly on security issues. The world has been
two central components that have changed the obsessed with the issue of security during the 20th
nature of power as well as our understanding of century because of the two world wars and the
security in four major ways. First, the dynamics proxy wars of the Cold War.

3
1
An Introduction to Security Studies

under the Critical approach (Buzan and Hansen,

2009: 3). The traditionalist security approaches
have the following features: First, they have mostly
emphasized the military aspects of security as well
as the concepts such as war, defense, strategy, and
geopolitics. They have focused on the problem of
national security and the nation-state. Second, the
traditionalist security approaches mostly choose
a narrow or mono-sectoral agenda and attach
priority to one sector (military), one actor (the
Figure 1.1 Unmanned Warfare state), and one action (the use of force). Finally,
the traditionalist security approaches have a statist
Security is basically considered as a precondition perspective, which is based on a scientific and
for human existence. In the Hobbesian anarchical objectivist understanding of knowledge.
world, the raison d’être of the state is to protect The critical security approaches, on the other
its citizens and it borders from an outside invasion. hand, aim to widen the concept of security through
Therefore, the creation and maintenance of national the issue linkage and bringing into discussion
security is the most basic duty of the nation-state. new types of threats, actors, and referent objects.
As a result, seeking security becomes one of the The critical security approaches hold that threats
pivotal determinants of international relations. and referent objects are socially-constructed. The
Defending the country and ensuring the survival of critical ISS has developed over the past two decades
the state have become the core objectives of foreign with new debates on broadening and deepening
policy. Otto von Bismarck, the first chancellor of the scope of security and its referent objects. It
Germany, employs the following analogy to explain adopts diverse sets of theories and some form of
the behavior of nation states: “States are similar to post-positivist approach of security that shifts
strangers in a carriage; each constantly watching the ontological foundations of understanding
the others. When one stranger puts his hand into of security towards on an emphasis on processes
his pocket, the person sitting next to him gets his of construction, ideas, and identities. Critical
own revolver ready in order to be able to fire the approaches claim the logic of appropriateness in
first shot” (Mangold, 1990: 3). relation to norms and expectations, the logic of
exceptionalism in securitization theory, the logic
International security studies (ISS) is a sub-field
of practicality, the dynamics of discourse, or the
of International Relations (IR). It has evolved from
potential paths towards security as emancipation.
the disciplines of War Studies, Military History, and
Geopolitics after the Second World War. Traditional international security approaches
are mostly in line with mainstream realist paradigm
ISS is defined as “the study of the threat, use,
of international relations. Main issues for these
and control of military force.” It investigates how
approaches are the analysis of the threat to the
conditions make the use of force more likely and
state and especially to the control of its borders.
how the use of force affects individuals, states, and
Traditional solutions to international security
societies. It addresses the specific policies that states threats have focused primarily on war, military
embrace in order to prepare for, prevent, or engage security and enhanced border security. For realists,
in war (Walt, 1991: 212). The nation-state is the international security is an important feature of
referent object of security. contemporary international relations. In order
It is possible to classify ISS under two main to create and maintain international peace and
approaches: Traditionalist and Critical. Military- security, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)
oriented and state-centered conception of Security and international regimes are seen as an appropriate
Studies (SS) and Peace Research are classified under response of rational actors operating within the
the traditionalist approach whereas the Feminist anarchic structure of the international system. For
Security Studies, the Copenhagen School, Post- realists, the international realm is characterized by
structuralism, and Constructivist Security Studies anarchy, distrust, and competition between states.

4
 1
International Security

The nation-states are generally described as power and Iraq has raised concern about the sole state
maximizers and bear exclusive responsibility for control over the use of violence. PMSCs have
safeguarding its own survival and independence. As introduced the concept of corporate soldiers and
a result, states must protect and possibly enhance the security privatization in international politics.
their capacity for self-help. They have penetrated everyday life and private
Globalization has had important consequences security personnel have outnumbered their public
for national security. The traditionalist ISS scholars counterparts. For example, the world’s largest PSC
challenge that contemporary globalization is a Group4Securicor (G4S) is operating in over 110
relatively new novelty and the nation-states are countries with 580.000 personnel with its largest
still a primary actor. The critical ISS scholars employer being the London Stock Exchange. Private
believe in the new borderless world and the security has unforeseen impacts on international
global village phenomenon. First, globalization security. First, they present challenges in the
changes the nature and key principle of the Cold structures of authority, legitimacy, international
War international security. The regional and sub- law, and global governance. Secondly, they erode
regional international organizations have played the power of the state and threaten state authority
more active roles in international security with inside and contemporary structures of governance.
globalization. There is a significant partnership Thirdly, they lead to the emergence of “global
between the Security Council and regional security assemblages: public and private as well as
institutions such as the Organization of American local and global new security structures. Lastly, the
States (OAS), the African Union (AU), the Arab geographical boundaries of the nation-state became
League, the European Union (EU), the Economic less important. Private security practices in different
Community of West African States (ECOWAS), parts of the world produce complex relations and
the Organization for Security and Cooperation in different tensions on private-public and global-local
Europe (OSCE), and the North Atlantic Treaty relations (Abrahamsen and Williams, 2011: 1-3).
Organization (NATO). It is necessary to cooperate Buzan distinguished five models of security due
well with the United Nations, G7, and other to newly emerging diversity of perceived threats:
regional security institutions to address many 1. Military security concerns itself with the
regional conflicts. two-level interplay of the armed offensive
More recently, informal security institutions and defensive capabilities of states and
have emerged when a security problem arises that state’s perceptions of each other’s intentions,
cannot be dealt with efficiently and effectively by 2. Political security focuses on the
existing international security organizations. For organizational stability of states, systems of
example, because of the failed state of Somalia, a government, and ideologies that give them
large international flotilla was established to fight legitimacy,
the modern maritime piracy. Different international 3. Economic security emphasizes on
institutions and independent nation states have prioritazing access to resources, finance,
participated this “a coalition of willing” without and markets necessary to sustain acceptable
a single headquarter, budget, and other attributes levels of welfare and state power,
associated with more formal organizations (Weitz, 4. Societal security concerns itself with
2011: 2). the ability of societies to reproduce their
Also, the past two decades have seen the rapid traditional patterns of language, culture,
proliferation of private military and security association, religious and national identities
companies (PMSCs) in armed conflicts around and customs within acceptable conditions
the world. PMSCs expand contemporary security for evolution,
agenda into the discussion about globalization, neo- 5. Environmental security deals with
liberalism, risk, commoditization, and moralization. the maintenance of local and planetary
PMSCs have this image: Some burly men are in biosphere as well as space in order to ensure
combat gears with automatic weapons and wrap- continued existence of all human beings
around sunglasses. The extensive outsourcing of (Buzan, 1999: 433).
military and security activities in both Afghanistan

5
1
An Introduction to Security Studies

Assume a private security contractor

kills civilians in a combat zone such
as Afghanistan. Therefore, it has been
accused of war crimes. Should this
corporate soldier be subject to the Geneva
Conventions? Can this person stand trial
Figure 1.2 Command and Control before the International Criminal Court
(ICC)?
The events of September 11, 2001, have
introduced new challenges, a new sense of danger
and new elements in global security in the 21st The Story of Nuclear Weapons began on
century. First, the nation-states were no longer as the night of 27 February 1943 when nine
important and strong as many people had presumed. Norwegian commandos climbed down a steep
Second, the civilian airplane became a weapon. gorge and across an ice-choked river in the valley
some 170 kilometers west of Oslo. On the top
Technology, innovations and new inventions based of the other side, a railway track led straight
on information technologies, precision-guided to the Vermonk hydrogen-electrolysis plant at
weapons, and stealth technology have opened new Rjukan-then the world’s only producer of heavy
and unconventional forms of warfare: irregular water. The plant, controlled by Germans in
warfare, asymmetrical warfare, psychological Nazi-occupied Norway, had become an essential
and information warfare, cyber warfare, hybrid element of Hitler’s nuclear programme. The
warfare, and Nano-warfare. Irregular warfare is a saboteurs cut open the railway gate, entered the
violent struggle among states and non-state actors plant and placed two explosive charges. Vital
for legitimacy and influence over the relevant parts of the plant were destroyed, together with
populations. Asymmetrical warfare is defined as weeks of heavy water production. The Vermork
threats outside the range of conventional warfare raid known as Operation Gunnerside was one
and attacks that are difficult to respond to in kind of the most heroic sabotage acts of the Second
such as suicide bombings. Psychological warfare World War, daring and spectacular in every
is planned psychological activities designed to way. Moreover, it was the first-act of counter-
proliferation, even though a defensive act in a
influence behavior, perceptions, and attitudes war of aggression launched by Germany. After
affecting the achievement of political and military a follow-up bombing raid by the Allies in
objectives. Information warfare is a type of battle November 1943, the Germans abandoned the
for the control of the digital space involving the heavy water production altogether. The second
whole society. The basic strategies of Information attack by Norwegian commandos, sinking a
Warfare are to deny access to information, disrupt/ local ferry, ensured that not even semi-finished
destroy information, steal data and manipulate products from the plant would arrive at Nazi
data to change its context or its perception. Cyber research facilities. Then, like now, the exceptional
warfare is an extension of policy by actions taken power of nuclear weapons called for exceptional
in cyberspace state or non-state actors that either actions (Maerli and Lodgaard, 2007: 1).
is conducted in response to a perceived threat
against a nation’s security or constitute a serious “They have three options: they can come down
threat to a nation’s security. It occurs when nation- from the mountains above the plant, which is
state engages in cyber operations and use the littered with minefields; they can cross the single-
Internet as a new battlefield in conflict. Hybrid lane suspension bridge, which is closely guarded;
or they can descend to the bottom of the valley
warfare combines both conventional (state-to- across a half-frozen river and climb a 500-foot-
state) and irregular warfare (terrorism, insurgency, high cliff. They decide to climb the cliff, in the
and counterterrorism). Nano-warfare is a newly middle of the night, in the middle of winter!” –
emerging field in strategy to use nanotechnologies Neal Bascomb, the author of The Winter Fortress:
and molecular manufacturing for future horrifically The Epic Mission to Sabotage Hitler’s Atomic
effective weapons (Malis, 2012). Bomb, on Operation Gunnerside.

6
 1
International Security

THE CONCEPT OF fail to provide their individuals with the promised

INTERNATIONAL SECURITY security. In addition, many states are undemocratic
and often prosecute their own citizens, detain
All humans strive for survival. They are also
them or murder them such as Stalin’s Soviet
born frightened. In order to balance survival and
Union, Mugabe’s Zimbabwe, Esad’s Syria, Aung
fear, states and other actors are formed to keep fear
San Sun Kyi’s Burma (Myanmar), or almost any
under control. In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
other dictatorship. Most states are far from ideal
(Griffin, 2000: 124-133), security or safety needs
providers of security. Instead the vast majority of
are at the second level after physiological needs
states are generating insecurity rather than stability
(food, water, shelter). Security is the feeling people
and prosperity in international system. Since the
get when their fears and anxieties are low. Safety
end of the Cold War, the collapse of some states
is the feeling people get when they know no harm
and unprecedented and unexpected changes in the
will physically, emotionally or mentally happen to
international system has brought the catastrophic
them. How does this relate to international actors
insecurity to ordinary people. Ethnic cleansing in
in the international system? What threats might
the former Yugoslavia, genocide in Rwanda, and
international actors perceive in the world to their
civil wars in Chechnya, Somalia, and Liberia are
physical, emotional or mental security?
some examples of insecurity. The present “New
Security means “the absence of a threat to World Order” is a cause of insecurity rather than
the stability of the international system and security. Today, individual humans are the ultimate
international actors, namely nation-states, multi- referent for security. The interstate war is far less
national corporations (MNCs), international threatening and real than environmental security,
governmental organizations (IGOs), international food security, and economic security.
non-governmental organizations (INGOs), and
The concept of the security dilemma was first
armed non-state actors (ANSAs). During the Cold
time mentioned by Herz (1950: 157):
War, international security has been conceptualized
within national security perspective that aims to
“Whenever such anarchic society has existed,…
overcome the mutual nuclear global destruction.
there has been arisen what may be called the se-
The study of international security has focused
curity dilemma of men, groups, or their leaders.
on clearly defined enemies, the threat of use of
Groups or individuals living in such a constellation
deadly military force, the fear of mutually assured
must be, and usually are, concerned about their se-
destruction (MAD), the two bloc’s ideological
curity from being attacked, subjected, dominated,
confrontations, and the attempt to avoid the Third
or annihilated by other groups and individuals.
World War. International security is in essence how
Striving to attain security from such attack, they
to protect the state against internal and external
are driven to acquire more and more power in or-
threats. After the Cold War era, the emphasis in
der to escape the power of others. This, in turn,
international security has shifted to collective
renders the others more insecure and compels
security, human security, ethnic conflicts, global
them to prepare for the worst.”
economy, environment, international migration,
global terrorism, and cyber warfare.
The main problem in the security dilemma is
There is a close link between the concept that although all actors in the international system
of security and the concept of insecurity. The aspire for security, the interaction of their efforts
states remain fundamental to provide security or creates general insecurity. When a state moves its
insecurity for some and not for others at home military expenditures from offensive to defensive
or abroad. Insecurity derives from the aggression weapons, it hopes to solve the security dilemma
of states as well as the lack of cooperation among by increasing its security without decreasing its
states. In Leviathan, Hobbes presented the solution opponent.
to the state of nature that is related to insecurity
Collective security is one of the paradigms
and authority. In anarchical world, many real
associated with coercion. Many scholars believe
existing states such as Somalia, Haiti, Afghanistan,
that the concept of collective security is a Wilsonian
and Democratic Republic of Congo are weak or
concept. But it can be traced back to the Greek-city

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An Introduction to Security Studies

states. The Amphictyonic League was established by 2. All threats and challenges to peace must
the Greek-city states in order to maintain internal have a common attention from everyone. If
security by the commitment of the collective group an aggressor is not stopped, the conflict will
of small city-states. The Amphictyonic League was have spill-over effects to spread to regional
much more than an alliance. The members of the and international system. As a result, an
League accepted following obligations: “not to attack on any one state must be regarded as
destroy any city of the Amphictyons, nor cut off an attack on all states.
their streams, in war and peace, and if any should 3. If international peace and stability is
do so, they would march against him, and destroy threatened, international community via
his cities, and should any pillage the property of the CSO act timely with appropriate acts
the god, or be privy to or plan anything against including public condemnation, economic
what was in his temple at Delphi, they would take boycott, sanctions, and the use of force.
vengeance against him with hand and foot, and all 4. Members of the CSO should commit to
their might” (Downs, 1994a: 2). use peaceful means to solve international
Since the times of the Greek city-state, there have conflicts. The CSO must provide necessary
been many proposals for collective security systems conflict resolution mechanisms including
and dozens of attempts to implement the idea of judicial organ, arbitration, mediation, and
perpetual peace with the Union of States. During third-party intervention (Kegley, 2009: 527).
and after World War I, the founders of the League of It is well known by now that collective security
Nations have supported a project for the collective differs from human security. The first difference
enforcement of peace. The League of Nations was between collective security and human security
created in 1919 to institutionalize the ideas of peace is that collective security gives more importance
and stability based on the collective security system. to states rather than the well-being and needs of
After the establishment of the United Nations, the individuals. The focus of human security is the
founders give some teeth to the new organization”: protection of individuals. Secondly, collective
preposition is missing new organization. The Charter security mostly explains the international security
gave authority to the Security Council to make with realist assumptions, the doctrine of national
recommendations, or decide what measures shall security and interest, and external threats. The
be taken in accordance with Article 41 and 42 to interests of the people are equated with the
maintain or restore international peace and security protection of the state’s boundaries, values,
“in case of any threat to the peace, breach of peace, citizens, institutions, from external and internal
or act of aggression.” One of the most important aggression and threats. Thirdly, collective security
realist scholars Hans Morgenthau believed that paradigm believes that states are unchanging and
“the organizing principle of collective security is fundamental actors and have an undisputable
the respect for the moral and legal obligation to power over its people and other states to use force
consider an attack by any nation upon any member and the threat of use of force. Furthermore, the
of the alliances as an attitude upon all members of concept of national security plays a central role
the “alliance”. Full stop is necessary. He explained in collective security. New global threats such as
He explained alliance “as universal alliance against economic, health, food, personal, environmental,
potential aggression” “was universal alliance against community and political security that are included
potential aggression” (Morgenthau, 2005:142). in human security are placed in a secondary
position. In addition, the United Nations system
Collective security is rested on Alexandre Dumas’
has become less collective security and more
d’Artagnan and his fellow Musketeers motto: “One
human security system. Lastly, collective security
for all, and all for one!” The Musketeers motto has
rests on self-help and mutual help. Human security
following rules in collective security:
is based on other-help (Peou, 2009: 3-4).
1. All actors in international system should
Human security can be defined with narrow and
become a member in a collective security
broad senses. In a narrow sense, human security is
organization (CSO). If all actors join
conceptualized negatively in terms of the absence of
a single unifying alliance, they acquire
threats to the physical security or safety of individuals.
enough power to keep international peace
The broad definition emphasizes positive aspects and
and assume international legitimacy.
vital core of all human lives including fundamental

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International Security

human rights, survival of livelihood, and fulfillment Jones and Miller, 1995: xix). Thirdly, collective
of human dignity and freedoms (Shani, 2011: 56). security systems diminish the possibility of war
It is unlikely for many poor people in the world’s less because they help in identification of aggressor
developed countries (LDCs) to be killed by hard or states, provide effective balancing against aggressors,
real threats such as dying would be better in attacks reduce the uncertainties of coalition formation, and
by terrorists or with weapons of mass destructions deter aggression by encouraging states to maintain
than soft threats such as lack of safe drinking water, relatively low levels of military and enhancing
hunger, lack of sanitation, and endemic diseases. For transparency (Downs, 1994b: 45).
example, the 2005 Human Development Report Collective security has been criticized from
presented some astonishing and gloomy pictures. different perspectives. First, nuclear weapons and
Despite India’s economic success, its child mortality mutually assured destruction (MAD) weaken the
rates were much higher than its poorer neighbor deterrent effect because they make it impossible
Bangladesh. In India, 732,000 more children have to use predominant force against a nuclear-capable
died in 2005 than in Bangladesh. Girls who aged aggressor. Secondly, collective security organizations
1-5 were 50 percent more likely to die than boys. (the League of Nations and the United Nations)
This means “130,000 girls were discriminated to have failed to prevent aggression in the 1930s and
death every year in India” (UNDP, 2005: 31). the postwar era. Thirdly, collective security is hard
to implement in an anarchical world of sovereign
nation-states because collective security forces
state to equate national security with international
security. It is almost impossible to convince states
to believe that an attack on anyone is an attack on
all. Furthermore, when states are attacked, they
are forced to give up their sovereign right to use
of force because they should ask collective security
organization. In addition, it is highly unlikely that
in a collective security system, states may not punish
friends as well as enemies and powerful countries as
well as weak ones. Lastly, collective security makes
the states believe that only in two conditions, use
of force is a legitimate form of aggression. The first
condition is that collective security organization
authorizes the use of force. Second condition is
Figure 1.3 Nonviolence and leadership: Mustafa self-defense, which is a legitimate use of force.
Abdülcemil Kırımoğlu In conclusion, it is exactly the peace that creates
Source: http://enacademic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/1900981 collective security, not that collective security leads
to peace. Common great power interests cause
collective security that diminishes the chance of
International institutions especially the United war. But world politics is intrinsically based on
Nations can significantly reduce the risks of war. As rivalry and power maximization that cause conflicts
labeled “anti-realist” perspective for international among great powers (Frederking, 2007: 27-28).
security, critical theorists present another point
of view. Their first argument is that international
institutions prevent cheating and free-rider The nuclear weapon states are the Treaty
problems and provide information while promoting on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear
cooperation. They can promote global peace. Weapons (NPT)-designated nuclear weapon
Their second argument is that even in an anarchic states (China, France, Russia, United
international system, in order to eliminate war, Kingdom, and United States) and other
new norms, rules, principles, ideas, and decision- states with nuclear weapons (India, North
making procedures (international regimes) should
Korea, and Pakistan) (Krieger, 2017: 112).
be created, implemented and evaluated (Lynn-

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An Introduction to Security Studies

It is possible to explain, analyze and understand Human security, in the narrow sense, is defined
the international security in six levels: as “freedom from fear and freedom from want”
• Individual level: Security for the individual. (UNDP, 1994, p. 24). It includes two aspects:
• Societal level: Security for the social group, 1- safety from direct threat, and the guarantee
i.e. ethnic, national, religious, linguistic, or of their physical integrity, and 2- the satisfaction
community groups. of basic human needs. In a broad sense, human
• National level: Security for the state or security is defined as:
nation.
• Regional level: Security for the region, that “Protecting the vital core of all human lives in
is, a coherent security region. ways that enhance human freedoms and human
• International level: Security for the fulfillment. Human security means protecting
international society, the society of nations, fundamental freedoms – freedoms that are the
and most states in the world. essence of life. It means protecting people from
• Global level: Security for the planet Earth critical (severe) and pervasive (widespread) threats
and space (Heurlin and Kristensen, 2010: and situations. It means using processes that
69). build on people’s strengths and aspirations. It
means creating political, social, environmental,
economic, military, and cultural systems that
Regional Security in the Middle East together give people the building blocks of
survival, livelihood, and dignity” (Commission on
Since the beginning of the twentieth century,
Human Security, 2003: 4).
the Middle East has been remembered as hotbed
of conflicts, violence and security threats. The
Israel/Arab-Palestine conflict, the US-led war on Human security is an interdisciplinary concept
Iraq, and the Syrian conflict have demonstrated that brings ‘human elements’ of security, rights,
regional insecurities in the region. The Middle and development with five main features. First,
East security has usually been shaped by the human security is based on universal principles,
great power security interests during the bipolar trans-cultural and trans-systemic values, and
international system: The uninterrupted flow of global applicability. Secondly, the components of
oil at stable prices, the end of the Arab-Palestine/ human security are interdependent. It is suitable
Israel conflict, the prevention of any regional for the maximalist or holistic approaches of
hegemon, and the maintenance of ‘friendly international security. Thirdly, it addresses the
regimes’. During the Cold War, the West made root causes of insecurities and risks in security
alliances with Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Israel areas. The focus is on prevention that is multi-level,
and Turkey including them in two security reproductive and participatory. Furthermore,
umbrella organizations: The Middle East it is people-centered that the individual is placed
Defense Organization (1951) and the Baghdad at the center of the analysis. Lastly, it is multi-
Pact (1955). In the post-Cold War era, the
sectoral and comprehensive to broaden the concept
Middle East regional security has been defined
of security by including economic, food, health,
within four alternative representations: The
(New) Middle East, the Arab Regional System, environmental, personal, community, and
the Euro-Med Region, and the Muslim Middle political security (Persaud, 2016: 142).
East. Even though the Middle East during the
Cold War has been analyzed with the top-down
and military-focused character of the regional
security approach, in post-Cold War era, the
focus has moved towards more multi-level and
multi-dimensional approach to security such
as democratization, globalization, democratic
peace, multilateralism, technological change,
and economic transformation (Bilgin, 2005: 1).

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Table 1.1 The Comparison of Collective Security with Human Security

Collective Security Human Security
Actor The state is the primary provider of Individuals are co-equal with the state. State
security. If the state is secure, all other security is the means, not the end. Own state,
actors are secure. A coalition of states, climate change, hate groups, corporations,
UN Security Council, state-sponsored traffickers, failed state, terrorists, foreign
private security firms. intervention.
Objective, National sovereignty, power, territorial Personal safety, well-being and individual
What is to be integrity, national independence. freedom: 1- Physical safety and provision for
protected basic needs; 2- Personal freedom (liberty of
association); 3- Human rights, economic and
social rights.
Threats Direct organized violence from other Direct violence: Death, drugs, dehumanization,
states, violence and coercion by other discrimination, international conflicts, WMD,
states and from non-states. gendered violence.
Indirect violence: Deprivation, disease, natural
disasters, underdevelopment, population
displacement, environmental degradation,
poverty, inequality, ethnic/sectarian oppression.
Threats from identifiable sources (such as states
or non-states actors)
Threats from structural sources (relations
of power ranging from family to the global
economy).
Tools Retaliatory force or threat of its use, Promoting human development: Basic human
the balance of power, military means, needs are satisfied plus equality, sustainability,
strengthening economic power, little greater democratization and participation at all
attention paid to respect for the law or levels.
international institutions. Promoting political development: Global
norms and institutions plus collective use
of force as well as sanctions if and when
necessary, cooperation between states, reliance
on international institutions, networks, and
coalitions, and international organizations.
Threat External/international system Internal, international, global
location
Philosophical Realism, neo-realism, neoliberal Liberal multilateralism, international law,
Roots institutionalism human rights scholarship, critical theory, critical
feminism
Source: Tadjbakhsh, 2005, p. 28; Persaud, 2016, p. 142.

The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine represents a major paradigmatic transformation in

human security paradigm. Humanitarian intervention has evolved into a normative innovative concept
that transforms international law and politics. It should be emphasized that R2P is one of the tools through
which international security is provided to ensure the protection of civilians but it does not construct
the whole of human security. R2P came into existence to offer a solution to one of the worst issues in
international security – mass atrocities and gross human right violations. R2P refers to third-party initiatives
and pre-emptive measures to prevent violent conflicts to escalate. In 2001, International Commission

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An Introduction to Security Studies

on Intervention and State Sovereignty (ICISS)

sponsored by the Canadian government concluded
in its report that states have dual responsibility: 2
“externally – to respect the sovereignty of other “Since we see that every city is some of the
states, and internally, to respect the dignity and partnership and that every partnership is
basic rights of all the people within the state” constituted for the sake of some good (for
(ICISS, 2001: 8). everyone does everything for the sake of
Since 1648, the state sovereignty and what is held to be good), it is clear that all
nonintervention–the basis of the international partnership aim at some good, and that
system–was redefined in terms of responsibility the partnership that is most authoritative
rather than authority and control. With R2P, the good of all. This is what is called the city
or the political partnership” (Aristotle,
traditional three characteristics of the Westphalian
The Politics). Explain this phrase within
system (territory, authority, and population) have
the role of regional organization on
been added a fourth “respect for human rights. international security.
R2P has three main pillars: First, states have
their own responsibility to protect all peoples on
its territory. Secondly, international community PEACE STUDIES AND
should assist a state’s capacity to build and deliver
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
its own responsibility. Thirdly, the international
responsibility to protect should be built. R2P Peace matters. It is almost impossible to make
includes respectively three responsibilities (to sense of international security without referencing
prevent, to reach and to rebuild) in protecting peace and conflict resolution. Although both peace
civilians against the worst war crimes, genocide, and conflict studies are the relatively new focus
ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, and of study in international security, they are both
human right violations (Bellamy, 2009: 1-3). broad and fast-growing interdisciplinary academic
fields where theory and practice intertwine with
The securitization is related to societal security
real-world events. Many analysts, practitioners,
theory. Societal security comes into existence
and diplomats work on theories, ideas, and
in response to a series of ethnonational conflicts
methods to understand conflict, reduce violence,
such as the former Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union,
and harmonize competing national interests.
Rwanda, and Somalia. This theory makes
Peace studies make it possible for us to prevent
references to “possible threats” and “actual threats”.
all forms of violence through equity and equality.
The construction of identity is closely linked
Conflict studies facilitate us to deal with conflicts
to the discursive conceptualization of security.
with creativity, empathy, and non-violence.
Securitization in the simplest terms is the process
Reconciliation studies enable us to avoid future
of presenting an issue in security terms with an
violence through healing and closure after the past
existential threat. It frames the security issue with
violence is receding (Galtung, 2004: 114).
ranging from high-politics to low-politics but it
also limits the securitization within “securitizing Peace has become an important area of study
actors” namely political leaders, governments, in international security. In the wake of the new
bureaucracies, lobbyists, and pressure groups. global order, terrorism and suicide attacks, the
The “referent object” of the security needs to be world needs to find the pathway toward peace and
expanded from state to non-state actors (Buzan conflict resolution. Since the Melian Dialogue of
and Hansen, 2009: 214). the Peloponnesian War in 416 BC, the Realpolitik
is the dominant paradigm in conflict resolution:

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International Security

“The strong do what they can and the weak suffer Instead of defining conflict, sometimes it is better
what they must” (Thucydides, 2018: 311). The end to list its features. First, conflict is normal, inevitable
of the Cold War has revived the effective handling and everywhere. Human beings inherently live in
of conflict and the resolution of self-stimulating the conflict-laden world since the beginning of time
and self-perpetuating violent conflicts with multi- itself. Secondly, a conflict exists at the center of all
disciplinary analysis. Conflict occurs in different human societies and is occasionally useful. Thirdly,
contexts, namely interpersonal, intergroup, it is almost impossible to eliminate the conflict in its
organizational, international and global levels. entirety but it is possible to manage the violent side
The conflict also escalates, de-escalates and of the conflict. Lastly, in some specific instances,
escalates again in a cyclical manner. Conflict can threat and coercion can be applicable to de-escalate
be influenced by attitudes, situations, behaviors, the conflict (Bercovitch, et al.: 3-4).
goals, values, and beliefs. In order to cope with International conflict and international dispute
the incompatible goals, objectives, images, and are usually used interchangeably in international
emotions, the conflicting parties may use five security studies. However, they are terminologically
main conflict styles: Avoidance, Accommodation, different. International conflict occurs when
Competition, Compromise, and Collaboration. basic human needs such as identity, security or
Peace can be defined in two ways. Negative recognition are not satisfied and incompatible
peace focuses on reducing, eliminating, and ending aspirations of power exist in international and
all physical violence as well as war. It is the absence intergroup relations. The international dispute
of direct violence. Positive peace means negative is originated from incompatible territorial and
peace plus the absence of structural and cultural economic interests and incompatible values or
violence. Violence is traditionally understood ideologies (Fisher, 1990). For example, a statement
as the infliction of bodily harm with the intent “Turkey and Greece had a conflict over the status
to hurt. Direct violence involves intentionally of Cyprus” means that two governments have
hurting or killing people and directed against opposed human needs and incompatible power
a specific group or person. It also incorporates relations that is hard to reconcile with. The Cyprus
verbal violence. (Galtung and Fischer, 2013: conflict, deep-rooted and protracted interstate
12). Structural violence occurs when people and inter-group conflict is caused by the denial of
can be killed, psychologically harmed, deprived intrinsic human needs.
or maldeveloped because of violent political or The basic human need approach differentiates
socioeconomic structures (Galtung, 1969). the symptoms and causes of conflict. Hostage
Cultural violence is the use of nationalism, taking, terrorism, gang warfare, public protest
racism, sexism, Islamophobia, xenophobia, and movements, and illegal strikes are symptoms. The
other forms of discrimination in the media, the causes of conflict cannot be seen in public eyes
arts, education, literature, films, street names, because they are under the iceberg. The international
monuments, celebrating special national days dispute on the other hand, is a situation where
and heroes, etc. to intellectually justify direct and the parties perceive incompatible interests and
structural violence (Galtung, 1990). The producer values/ideologies. The conflict behavior in which
of Third World insecurity is structural violence. conflicting parties use resources for damaging each
Examples of negative peace are as follows: Absence of other, does not occur in international disputes.
wife battering, rape, child abuse, dowry deaths, street For example, a disagreement between Britain
killings, and war. Positive peace can be exemplified and Spain over the sovereignty of Gibraltar is an
as the absence of inequalities and repression in international dispute rather than an international
microstructures leading to unequal life chances and conflict (Nicholson, 1992: 13). It is important to
less freedom of choice and fulfillment. In addition, emphasize that most international disputes may
it is the absence of economic structures in a country transform into international conflicts such as the
or between countries that causes the reduced life Iraq-Kuwait dispute, the Beagle Channel dispute,
chances of some people and the effects of damage the Vietnam-Cambodia dispute, the Tanzania-
on nature by pollution, radiation, etc. as well as the Uganda dispute, and the Yugoslavia dispute.
absence of repression in a country of free speech, the
right to organize, etc. (Broch-Utne, 1997: 150-160).

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An Introduction to Security Studies

“Africans are captured, forced across the Atlantic multi-level conflict causes and conditions and
to work as slaves; millions are killed in the process designs necessary conflict intervention strategies,
– in Africa, on board, in the Americas. The perspectives, and processes. It is an exercise of
massive direct violence over centuries seeps down drawing your own map, your own perceptions, and
and sediments as massive structural violence, with reading of a particular conflict with a playful way
whites as master top-dogs and blacks as the slave to organize theories and data via “mind mapping”
underdogs, producing and reproducing massive (Demmers, 2017: 15). Conflict mapping should
cultural violence with racist ideas everywhere. include conflict parties, conflict issues, conflict
After some time, direct violence is forgotten, sources, dynamics, means, conflict orientations
slavery is forgotten, and only two labels show up, and conflict environment (Sandole, 1999).
pale enough college textbooks: ‘discrimination’ The basic conflict mapping includes conflict
for massive structural violence and ‘prejudice’ for parties, conflict issues, conflict relations, and
massive cultural violence. Sanitation of language: so on. The systemic conflict mapping aims to
itself cultural violence” (Galtung, 1996: 200). analyze the complex, deep-rooted and protracted
conflicts not only for academic purpose but
also for conflict resolution practitioners, aid
and development workers, and politicians. It is
usually a huge challenge to explain, analyze and
understand the systemic complex conflicts. It
requires the application of conflict resolution
theories with multi-level, multi-modal, and inter-
disciplinary approaches. In addition, it necessitates
conflict intervention with the emphasis on design,
implementation, prevention, and evaluation.
Conflict mapping assesses the scope of the
conflict, goals of the conflicting parties, types of
their relationship, and the contentious issues. The
Figure 1.4 TRT International April 23 Children’s Festival
first step of conflict mapping is the identification
Source: http://www.trt23nisan.com/en/ of conflicting parties. This helps us to understand
their positions, interests, and capacities as well as
Conflict Analysis and Conflict the level of external support. Secondly, the conflict
Mapping dynamics must be examined in order to overview
short-term and long-term relationships between
Conflict analysis is a tool of the complex
parties and their social context. It also presents
dynamics of interactive processes to explain and /
a timeline of how the conflicting parties see the
or understand (Hollis, 1994) why and how people
significance of each event, especially in a long-
use violence. As a research method, it sheds light
running conflict. Thirdly, the conflict processes are
on linking ideas (theory) and evidence (data) by
investigated to determine the origins of contention
breaking conflict into its basic structural parts and
with relations to security, political, economic, and
different key dynamic elements and by presenting
social issues (Sandole, 2006).
the whole conflict in drone-like snapshot view. The
most used conflict analysis tool is conflict mapping. It also links between micro-level activities and
macro-level forces that help us to uncover the
By mapping of a conflict, a person can present
internal and external factors behind prolonging
a road-map or a visual flip chart/blackboard
the conflict. The conflict mapping aims to obtain
for conflict analysts, practitioners and policy-
fundamental knowledge for constructive, win-win,
makers. Conflict mapping gives a comprehensive
positive-sum, and integrative solutions. The purpose
framework to explain deep-rooted and protracted
of conflict mapping is moving the conflicting
international conflicts, explores the complex,
parties from their existing positions and interests to

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International Security

their real needs and values. It is the first step before (coercive peacemaking) or conflict
we manage and intervene in a particular conflict. It resolution is applied to deal with underlying
has been used mostly in conflict resolution training conditions and causes of the fire (non-
and problem-solving workshops. coercive peacemaking) both of which are
The Sandole’s Three Pillars Framework (3PF) reactive. In Bosnia, NATO’s bombing of
presents a detailed technique to show a conflict the Serb forces led to the Dayton Peace
graphically. The main hypothesis of 3PF is in Accords. Peace enforcement began with
order to deal with any given conflict situation, we the Stabilization Force (SFOR), followed
first must understand it. The essential elements by the Implementation Force (IFOR),
are located in Pillar 1 such as parties, issues, and eventually the European Union Force
objectives, means, handling orientations, and the (EUFOR-“Althea”).
environment. Pillar 2 learns about the underlying 4. Peacebuilding or conflict transformation
causes and conditions of the conflict and factors (John Burton calls conflict provention)
operative at individual, societal, international, is a reactive and proactive intervention
and global/ecological levels that drive the conflict. technique designed to work with the
When conflict mapping is done at Pillar 1 and 2, survivors of the fire on their long-term
it is appropriate to design conflict intervention. relationships so that the next time, they
We can use a “burning house” metaphor to do not have to burn down the house,
demonstrate how diplomats, military and third- the neighborhood, or the larger country
party interveners respond to actual conflict. The to solve their problems and to deal with
interveners have the following options: the conflict process. The best example of
effective conflict resolution plus conflict
1. Preventive diplomacy: Violent conflict
transformation (peacebuilding) is the
prevention takes necessary steps based on
European Union (Sandole, 2010: 4-5).
early warning systems and aims to prevent a
First, in Pillar 1, we must define the primary,
house catching fire with proactive measures.
secondary and third parties. In addition to main
The early warning system (EWS) has
parties, marginalized groups and external third
successfully implemented by undertaking
parties must be added in to the conflict mapping.
the preventive mission of the UN Preventive
The relationships of the parties should be represented
Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) to work
on the map. Is the relationship an alliance or a
as a dam to prevent the genocidal explosion
confrontation? Do the parties have close contacts or
of Bosnia-Herzegovina into Macedonia
broken relations? Secondly, it is useful to overview
(Ozcelik, 2006).
the issues causing the conflict among the parties
2. Conflict management or peacekeeping:
of the conflict. It answers the question of why the
If violent conflict prevention fails or
conflict exists. In this stage, it is necessary to show
the third-party interveners do not apply
the positions of the conflicting parties. Also, it
preventive measures, the house is on fire. As
helps us to distinguish between positions, interests
a result, the interveners take necessary steps
(material interests, values, relationships) and needs.
to prevent existing fire from spreading with
Thirdly, conflict objectives focus on the analysis
reactive measures. During the collapse of
of antagonism and incompatibilities, essentials of
the former Yugoslavia, the UN Protection
the ideology of warring parties, representation in
Force (UNPROFOR) reactively responded
countries, the relationship between leadership and
to prevent the fire from spreading.
their political constituencies, the roles of leaders,
3. Peacemaking is the third option when
the legitimization of violence, legitimate leaders
attempts to prevent the fire from spreading
versus gang leaders and warlords, mobilization of
have failed. In this stage, conflict settlement
is used to suppress the fire or conflict support and recruiting of activists.

15
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An Introduction to Security Studies

Lastly, conflict means can be conflict formation Individual, societal, international, global/
and the process of militarization. Conflict ecological. When we analyze the conflict at the
resources can be a war of economy, means of individual level, the Freudian psychoanalytical
warfare, equipment, arms, strategies, sanctuaries, theory and the concepts of aggression, instincts,
international networks, diasporas, and hinterland. and drive must be the focus of analysis.
Conflict handling orientations are conflict styles Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology explain
and conflict dynamics (hidden/deeper conflict why war occurs and why human nature is prone to
momentum, triggers, escalators, de-escalators, the violence and conflict that is determined by human
degree of persistence, intensity, and essentials). biological structure. In addition, prejudice, enemy
They can be affected by different conflict actors’ image, attributions, needs for enemy and alliances,
motivations, interests, and open and hidden scapegoating, chosen traumas/glories, collective
agendas. Conflict dynamic is related to the phasing identity, Self/Other identity, victimization, the
of conflict, paradigmatic changes, and different narcissism of minor differences, Islamophobia,
phases in the course of violence/warfare: xenophobia, and dehumanization occur as psycho-
1. Different periods of a conflict: Violence dynamic processes. (Ogretir and Ozcelik, 2008;
escalates and de-escalates and is sometimes Ozcelik, 2010; Ozcelik, 2013).
interrupted by a period of peace. When a society experiences a mass historical
2. Changes of intensity: The route of violence, trauma like 9/11, nation’s collective identity is
strategies, and availability of weapons can reshaped and the enemy image is re-emerged
be changed. and disseminated through the popular culture.
3. Paradigmatic changes: Objectives may Each conflict group forms the ‘Self and Other’
change. New alliances, fall of the regime, identity with enemy images and dehumanization.
and political shifts can happen Many such psycho-dynamic processes resulted in
4. Cross-cultural and inter-cultural a cycle of violence and escalation of the conflict.
component: Conflict handling can be The societal level compromises economics, history,
affected by high-context and low-context political science, sociology, and anthropology.
cultural environment (Scherrer, 2002: 13). The international level is basically international
Conflict environment is related to conflict history relations. And the global/ecological level is
genesis/origins of destructive group interaction, climatology, geography, ecology, and geology
colonial legacies, the immediate and root causes (Sandole, 2016: 1906).
of conflict. Also, the international structure is an It should be mentioned that conflict mapping
important input that affects a nation’s conflict activity cannot provide all of the answers and solutions. It
to a degree. The unipolar, bipolar and multipolar can only provide partial insight into the nature of
international systemic structures may stimulate a conflict. Often the conflict resolution analysts
conflict. Last but not least, conflict environment is and practitioners need to look at the underlying
conflict context (political structures, communication observed relationships and issues and deep-rooted
networks, geographical boundaries). sources of the conflict. Pillar 1 is situated in the
In Pillar 2, the Sandole’s conflict mapping middle of the model because it is the main pillar to
investigates conflict conditions in four levels: map the conflict.

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International Security

Table 1.2 Dennis Sandole’s Three Pillar Model

Source: S. Ruckstuhl, 2010. https://slideplayer.com/slide/5905590/

Peace and Conflict Theories

The democratic peace theory has a very simple proposition that democracies do not fight each other. It
highlights a causal relationship between an independent variable (democratic structure) and the dependent
variable (the absence of war between democratic states). This theory has been used to promote American
security in the world because the spread of democracy has seen as the antidote for preventing future wars. It is
believed that if international system composes of enough democratic states, it is possible to establish a liberal
world that replaces the realist principles of anarchy and security dilemma. It is assumed that the democratic
regime type is only one of a number of factors encouraging less conflict in contemporary world politics.
Instead of the causal path of democracy leads to peace argument, peace first causes democracy that results
in democracy again. The second criticism is that democracies do not respect or trust each other when their
national interests clash. Thirdly, the democratic peace is post-World War II phenomenon and is restricted
to the Americas and Western Europe because the hegemonic American power has created regional peace.
Furthermore, some scholars reject the democratic peace theorists’ statistical and empirical findings because it
is hard to find a statistical relationship between the infrequent incidence of war and any propensity toward
peace. Lastly, the absence of war between democracies is more plausibly explained by that very few democracies
have existed throughout history and the incidence of war is also fairly rare for most of the recorded history.
The main international conflict theory, Burton’s conflict and conflict resolution theory all assume the
origin of conflict is the basic human needs, namely security, identity and participation. Human beings
follow those needs regardless of the consequences to themselves and to an international system. When
the basic needs are not satisfied, international conflicts arise. The international conflict resolution theory
claims that differentiating deep-rooted needs from surface interest, bettering and furthering the openness in
communication between the conflicting parties, changing of conflict structures and institutions, and using
problem-solving workshops can lead to creative solutions to the conflict (Vayrynen, 2001: 6).

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An Introduction to Security Studies

diplomatic response. It involves the positioning of

troops, military observers and related personnel on
The Basic Human Needs (BHNs)
one or both sides of a border between entities that
Approach assumes that the origin of
are in dispute (or where there is an emerging threat
conflict is rooted in the unmet basic
of conflict). The primary objective is the deterrence
human needs such as identity, security or
of the escalated situation into an armed conflict.
recognition/participation. It also analytically
The other objectives may be to calm down the
differs needs and interests. BHNs are
communities in the area by monitoring law and
universal, intrinsic (biologically founded
order and general conditions and to render other
in human nature), ontological, non-
forms of assistance to local authorities.
negotiable (non-mediatable), trans-cultural,
and generic theory. It assumes a resolution Coercive diplomacy refers to a defensive
of conflict. Interests are negotiable, strategy in order to secure a peaceful resolution
manageable, compatible, tractable, and of a serious dispute. This strategy primarily
materialist. Conflict resolution process is involves the threat of force or sanctions. The use
based on turning an interest-based, zero- of threats as an instrument of peaceful diplomacy
sum (win-lose) solution into a need-based, is preventive by definition since threats are meant
integrative (win-win) solution in which to prevent the escalation of a given conflict into
conflicting parties’ basic human needs are war. Military and economic threats and sanctions
mutually satisfied (Avruch, 2013). are used extensively as alternatives to war. A threat
of punishment for non-compliance is credible and
potent. Also, external intervenors should rely on
Conflict Intervention positive incentives for face-saving purposes.
The world has changed; the major conflicts Although coercive diplomacy basically depends
threatening world peace and security have changed, on the use of force, it should be a last resort; in
the parties involved in the conflicts have changed, some circumstances, the threat of force should be
the international environment has changed, and the moved upstream for preventive purposes. In passive
relationship between international organizations and or tripwire coercion, a potential use of force may be
the conflicting parties has changed. The new specific enough for the preventive purposes. One example
challenge for the world and European leaders is how of such an approach is preventive deployment
to respond to emerging ethno-national conflicts in introduced in Macedonia. It has two objectives: To
this new international environment. As Neil J. Kritz prevent the spread of the Bosnian conflict, and to
indicates, the overwhelming majority of wars around provide assistance to maintain local security.
the world are intra-national rather than international.
He claims that the ethnic and religious conflicts,
disputes over self-determination or secession, and
violent power struggles between opposing domestic
political factions account for 96 percent of the major
armed conflicts (Kritz, 2001: 801).
Conflict intervention methods consist of
the following: Conflict prevention, conflict
management, conflict settlement, conflict
resolution, conflict transformation, and conflict
provention (Sandole, 2003: 40).
Preventive deployment is a new concept for
the UN. It was first advocated by the Secretary-
General in Agenda for Peace and was applied for
the first time in Macedonia. The essence of this
strategy is a preventive military action rather than a Figure 1.5 International solidarity

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International Security

The Western versus the Middle Eastern (Islamic) Third-Party Role

In the Middle Eastern/Islamic sociocultural context, the most important factor in the dispute process is the
nature of the social and personal relationship between the parties. The structure of social relationships among
the parties and third-party intervenors may cause the conflict process toward escalation or de-escalation.
Because it is important to continue the relationships between parties and to preserve the social harmony
in the group, unlike the Western approach, which emphasizes the maximization of the personal
and group interests, the Middle Eastern/Islamic approach focuses on the restoration of the broken
relationships between the parties and within the community. In other words, the Western approach is
based on the zero-sum or non-zero sum (win/lose or win/win) outcome; whereas, the Middle Eastern/
Islamic approach emphasizes that it isn’t the zero and non-zero sum outcome that is important, but
the preservation of the social harmony as a superordinate goal. In other words, the dispute resolution
processes attempt to restore social order and the disrupted balance of power rather than to reach interest-
based and cooperative solutions (Abu-Nimer, 1996b: 46). Secondly, the sources of the conflict in the
Western approach are the control over scarce resources, especially material sources such as land, money,
and control over women. However, the Middle Eastern/Islamic cultures call for the sustaining of the
nonmaterial resources such as honor, prestige, pride, power, and valor. This old saying summarize this
aspect of the culture: “A good name is worth more than money.”
Another difference between the third-party intervention in the Western and Middle Eastern models is
the characteristics of the intervenor. The professionalism and satisfaction of the parties’ interests, needs,
desires, and rights are important in the Western model. The distinct features of the Middle Eastern
mediator/arbitrator come from local beliefs and values about the third-party. In order to implement the
mediation role, the third-party should have high status and authority in the community. For example,
age, family ties, marriage, generosity, political and military power (village reeve, governor, and military
officers), religious values and affiliation are some important indicators for the credibility and access
to a conflict (Witty, 1978: 298). In the Western model, mediators should have knowledge about the
legal procedures and structures; whereas, the mediator in the Middle East should know more about the
history of the dispute, the history of mediation and intervention in the region, and the customs and
norms of all religious community (Abu-Nimer, 1996a: 31). Also, the preference of the third-party is
insider-partial and within the community instead of outsider-neutral.

Table 1.3 The Basic Assumptions of the Middle Eastern/Islamic and the Western Model of Third-Party Intervention
The Middle Eastern/Islamic Model The Western Model
Go-between negotiation Face-to-face negotiation
Social harmony, social status, relationship Problem-solving
Group-oriented Individual-oriented
Verbal agreement Written agreement
Socially/morally binding Legally binding
Value-based Interest-based
Insider-partial Outsider-impartial
Traditional/religious values and norms Civic laws
Face-saving/Indirect communication Direct communication
Rituals and symbols Rules and guidelines
Experience, status, kinship Professional certificate
Social institution Pseudo-legal institution
Public/Pseudo-public setting Private and formal setting
Triadic structure Dyadic structure

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An Introduction to Security Studies

insecurity, poverty, failed states, pollution, global

economic crises, human rights abuses, crimes
3 against humanity, genocide, war crimes, etc.
Map a conflict in the system and analyze Security threats emanated from global
the parties, sources, and dynamics of this environmental problems present four future
conflict. political dilemmas:
1. Environmental threats are usually less-clear-
cut and direct than other security threats.
CURRENT AND FUTURE They are like threats without enemies.
GLOBAL THREATS AND 2. Threats such as global warming and ozone
CHALLENGES depletion are mostly perceived as longer-
Since the end of the Cold War, the world has term emergencies rather than imminent
changed radically. Politics, business, economy, attacks and disasters.
society, culture, and technology – all these changes 3. Environmental threats are often
have made old global threats and challenges accompanied by significant economic,
irrelevant. Sometimes students need to forget what social and political costs. Unsolved, they
history has taught them and see the world with may lead to the creation of environmental
fresh eyes. refugees in the future.
The events of September 11, 2001, have shown 4. They are only confronted by a globally
the politicians, scientists, public and the media that coordinated holistic approach with
military threats and great power rivalry is no longer political, economic, social, and educational
the gravest danger to the world security. Security actions (Hough, 2008:148).
threats are no longer generated from nation-states. The world has been reshaped and
Current global threats and challenges have taken affected by globalization, trans-nationalism,
new forms in the twenty-first century. New threats internationalization, integration, and
are coming from mostly non-state actors (NSAs). interdependence. As a result, current global
The list of current and future global threats and threats are caused by separatism, disintegration,
challenges have become longer with the end of fragmentation, hyper-nationalism, isolationism,
the Cold War: Transnational terrorism, Weapons ethnic and religious fanaticism, and self-sufficiency.
of mass destruction (WMD), organized crime, The most appropriate tools to solve global threats
global health epidemics, AIDS, population boom, are global security, justice, prosperity, peace, and
drought, climate change, regional conflicts, mass conflict resolution.
migrations, environmental degradation, energy

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International Security

Table 1.4 Top ten bloodiest terrorist attacks by non-state actors

Source: Hough, 2008, p. 76.

The international relations scholars have moved from narrow to the broad and deep understanding of
security and from military threats to non-military threats of security policy. As a result, global security is
conceptualized within not only a nuclear but also climate change Armageddon. More human beings have
been killed by structural violence than direct violence inflicted by soldiers and weapons. The new apparent
threat is exposed by global warming and ozone depletion. Most of the less developed countries (LDCs)
are mostly concerned with internal, domestic and trans-border issues rather than external threats. The
rise of ultra-nationalism and the social impact of mass migration has been widening and deepening the
conventional realist threats and security studies.
The widening of security is expanding it from political and military dimensions to economic, social and
especially environmental dimensions. The deepening of security is broadening its national security focus to
collective and human security. In other words, the referents of securitization include not only nation-states
but also individuals and other international actors. The dramatic decline in traditional security threats
such as nuclear deterrence and mutually assured destruction (MAD) is a paradigmatic change in security
thinking with the special emphasis on intra-state conflicts, large-scale atrocities, and genocide. The new
security agenda includes the following issues: “intra-state conflict, ethnic-religious violence, landmines,
terrorism, democracy, human rights, gender, crime, poverty, hunger, deprivation, inequality, diseases and
health hazards, human development, economic security, markets, water, energy, migration, environmental
degradation, cyber security, and so on” (Brauch, 2010: 104).

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An Introduction to Security Studies

The Copenhagen School of IR has widened risky events and processes. Risks affect vulnerability.
the concept of security by including non-military This concept is related to poverty, famines, and
issues that could be non-existential threats. Also, food security. The reconceptualization of security
non-military issues can be considered under have led to new debates about security threats
security concept even if they are not intimidating and challenges. Human security may address new
nation states. For example, the collapse of multi- threats through universal rights and freedoms as
ethnic and national Yugoslavia and the conflicts well as humanitarian intervention. In addition,
in Eastern Europe have resulted from competition there must be jurisdictional arrangements and R2P
between different ethnic groups within the state to stop atrocities and genocide and to improve the
“internal societal security dilemmas” (Hough, condition of people subject to conflict and war.
2008: 9). Wider security concentrates on deliberate It must include not only freedom from fear but
and direct violent threats and less directly human- also freedom from want which includes human
caused forms of insecurities such as disasters and development issues. Another important step in
diseases. Since the notion of security is perceived R2P is R2Prevent which encompasses diplomatic
more as a social construct, the security threats pressures or incentives, economic sanctions or
are what they are but what we think the most rewards, or coercive actions (Bellamy and Dunne,
threatening countless issues on the contemporary 2016: 1-19).
global political agenda.
The widening and deepening of international Table 1.5 Types of Human Security Threats
security in the new millennium and during the
Type of Security Examples of Main Threats
1990s is necessitated to analyze it with four
Economic Persistent poverty.
concepts: threats, challenges, vulnerabilities and
Security
risks (TCVR). With the end of the Cold War,
Food Hunger, famine.
the past security threats have been increasingly
Security
replaced by new security challenges and risks.
The vulnerabilities of modern societies have been Health Deadly infectious disease,
Security unsafe food, malnutrition, lack
multiplied by non-state terrorist actors. The
of access to basic health care.
vulnerability and risks could mostly be used within
Environmental Environmental degradation,
the context of global environmental problems such
Security resource depletion, natural
as climate change, biodiversity, desertification,
disasters, pollution.
hazardous waste, trans-boundary air pollution,
Personal Physical violence, crime,
stratospheric ozone, wetlands, endangered species,
Security terrorism, domestic violence,
and polar environmental issues.
child labor.
The concept of vulnerability has been Community Inter-ethnic, religious, and
increasingly used by in a number of disciplines Security other identity-based tensions.
including international security studies. It has two Political Political repression, human
fundamental elements – risk and resilience. The Security rights abuses.
vulnerability is the probability of suffering physical Source: UN Trust Fund for Human Security, 2009, p. 7;
and socio-economic consequences as a result of Özçelik and Bostan, 2016, p. 491.

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International Security

Worldwide, what do you think will be the biggest root causes of insecurity in the next five years?
(% respondents, top eight responses)

In the medium-term In the long-term

Political or ideological differences within 37
countries or across international borders 36
Poverty/High levels of income inequality 36
31
Scarcity of key resources 35
35
Low levels of education 33
30
Hostility to globalisation 29
22
Disruption caused by migration flows 24
31
21
Pollution/Environmental degradation 18
Widespread human rights violations 21
28
Source: Economist Intelligence Unit survey, 2017.

Figure 1.6 Perceived Threats

Source: Economist Intelligence Unit Survey, 2017.

In order to preserve a state’s political and economic status in the 21st century, the control of energy
market especially in the area of hydrocarbons is one of the most important subject in energy security.
International actors give high priority to diversification of fuel sources, the stability of producers and
transit routes and the development of a domestic and international strategy. Over the past twenty years,
integration between energy systems and increase of alternative energy resources has reduced inefficiencies
in energy sector and dependency on third countries. Still, there is a need to guarantee energy supply and
which creates symmetric level of energy security. It emphasizes that growing concerns over energy security
result from rapidly increasing global energy demand because oil consumption may rise by 50 percent by
2040 (Collins, 2016: 346).

Micro Chips, Nano Threats and Cyber Threats

In the autumn of 2018, the world has witnessed a new frontier in nano warfare. According to the reports, a Chinese
military unit has used tiny microchips, as small as the size of rice or the tip of a sharpened pencil to access com-
puter data of government agencies and companies including Amazon and Apple. This micro chip was developed
by a specialized computer hardware attack unit in the People’s Liberation Army (the Chinese military). Although
the attack was discovered in 2015 by the US intelligence services, it was interestingly resurfaced in October 2018.

Almost on the same day, three Western countries (USA, UK, and the Netherlands) accused the Russian gov-
ernment of cyber attacks. The Netherlands authorities believed that four Russian spies attempted to hack the
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) that investigates the Salisbury novichok attack
to ex-Russian spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter. The US Justice Department alleged that Russian intelligence
targeted football’s governing body FIFA, nuclear technology company Westinghouse and World Anti-Doping
agencies offices in Canada and Switzerland. Last but not least, the UK accused that the Russian Main Intelligence
Directorate (GRU) was behind four higher-profile cyber-attacks. Both Chinese and Russian officials denied the
allegations and Russia told it is “Western spy mania”

Source: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/oct/04/china-planted-chips-on-apple-and-amazon-servers-
report-claims; and https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45746837.

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An Introduction to Security Studies

Infectious diseases are seen as security threats. Tuberculosis, HIV, etc. are required to have global
response and to broaden security thinking to a ‘people-centered’ approach. These new threats are not
calculated in terms of weaponry. Its emphasis is placed on human life and human dignity. Biosecurity is a
general term to put necessary measures to prevent unwanted biological invasions that may include human,
plants, animals, viruses, and so on. In addition to infectious disease, another domain of biosecurity is
terrorism and surveillance. The third domain is genetic manipulation, synthetic biology, and dangerous
pathogens. The fourth one is food safety and food security.

What is the domain of biosecurity?

Figure 1.7 Nuclear Armageddon

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International Security

Identify international security and security

LO 1 studies in the 21st century

International security (IS) is basically the defense of citizens from invasion of foreigners.
Traditionalists of IS mostly emphasize the nation-states and the military aspects as well as
the concepts of war, defense, strategy and geopolitics of security. Critical approaches believe
that other actors other than states are important and international security is socially
constructed. The structure of global security is changeable and determined by social constructs.
Globalization, for some scholars, may bring greater peace and security. For others, it may cause
greater fragmentation and conflict. The regional international organizations, private military

Summary
and security companies (PMSCs) are powerful forces and have contradictory effects on global
security. The 21st century has opened new and conventional forms of warfare: Irregular
warfare, asymmetrical warfare, psychological warfare, information warfare, cyber warfare,
hybrid warfare, and Nano-warfare.

LO 2 Describe the concept of international security

Security is a multi-dimensional, dynamic, fluid process, always in flux. International security

occupies a central position in the broader academic discipline of international relations. In
recent decades, environmental, economic, health, and other ‘low politics’ issues have been
transformed into ‘high politics’ security problems. Also, international security has balancing
description/explanation against prescription/advocacy. The ‘us-them’ polarization exacerbates
insecurity and creates inequality and neglects. International security must exceed the narrow
state based system’s bounds and broaden to encompass all valued things on the planet.
Collective security is predominantly use of force to maintain international peace and security.
It must be approved and implemented by international community via a global organ, United
Nations (UN) being the current implementation with security issues handled mostly by the
Security Council (SC). Human security is defined as “freedom from fear and freedom from
want” and includes seven different topics: Economic, food, health, environmental, personal,
community, and political security. In order to overcome frequent inaction of the SC and the
shortcomings of humanitarian intervention, the responsibility to protect (R2P) is introduced
into international security. Regional security organizations can resolve conflicts between their
members peacefully without the authorization of the SC. Regional organizations require
the authorization from SC to act outside of their respective regions as Operation Artemis
undertaken in Congo in 2003 demonstrates.

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An Introduction to Security Studies

LO 3 Investigate peace studies and conflict resolution

Social conflict emerges when two or more parties have real or perceived incompatible
differences in values, beliefs, or interests. Conflict resolution refers to a variety of tools and
means including negotiation, mediation, and third party interventions to prevent, resolve,
manage, and transform the deep-rooted and protracted international conflicts. Peace is not
the absence of war but also the establishment of positive, life-enhancing social structures and
values. Peace studies came into existence as a response to the atrocities of the First and Second
World Wars. It aims to provide a non-state centric and more global view of major issues. It
Summary

examines all levels of analysis from interpersonal to ecological/global. It is action-oriented,

value-based and prescriptive to violence. It is broadly inter-disciplinary and includes a wide
range of different fields in the social and natural sciences. Peacekeeping mainly consists of
monitoring, observing, reporting, and supervising the ceasefire, and interposing forces between
fighting parties. Peacekeeping operations can be undertaken by the UN, other international
organizations, or groups of States.

Examine current and future global threats and

LO 4 challenges

Over the last sixty years, there has been a significant shift in the nature of the threats that
the world has been facing. The founders of the UN have mostly focused on the aggression
between states. The twenty-first century has been dominated by different set of security threats
ranging from global warming to HIV/AIDS. Wars, arms races, weapons of mass destructions
(WMDs), terrorism, insurgencies, suicide bombings, genocides, infectious diseases, refugee
crisis, oil depletion, global climate change, economic collapse, drug trafficking, cyber war,
and piracy make disturbing headlines on a regular basis. Scientists believe that Earth has been
through at least five mass extinction events in the past. They claim that we are currently in the
midst of a sixth great extinction due to climate change and global warming. Four major crises
in the condition of humanity, trade, the environment, and current global governance call for
the creation of social democratic globalization and human security agenda. Terrorist threats
have increased because of global terrorism. Cyber threats have risen because of the increasing
number of internet users around the globe and the rise of networking and connectivity of
government and infrastructure systems. Natural hazards and environmental threats have
increasingly gained greater importance through a series of cataclysmic disasters in the early
twenty-first century. International military crises will remain a risk for the national security
and international security in the foreseeable future.

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International Security

1 If the World Anti-Doping Agency’s informa- 5 Which of the following statements is correct
tion technology systems were to be hacked, which on human security?
of the following warfare types would occur?
a. It explains the security with the doctrine of na-

Test yourself
a. Cyber Warfare tional interests and external threats.
b. Nano Warfare b. It is based on self-help and mutual help.
c. Asymmetrical Warfare c. New global threats such as economic, health,
d. Hybrid Warfare food, personal, environmental, community and
e. Irregular Warfare political security are primary issues in internati-
onal security.
2 I. The Stabilization Force (SFOR) d. States are the sole authority to use force or thre-
aten others with the use of force.
II. The European Union e. It gives more importance to states.
III. UNPREDEP
IV. EUFOR “Althea” 6 Which of the following is not a regional se-
curity organization?
Which of the above are among the examples for
peacemaking and peacebuilding? a. Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS)
a. I and III b. Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)
b. II and III c. African Union
c. I, III and IV d. Organization of American States (OAS)
d. I, II, and III e. Organization for Security and Cooperation in
e. I, II, and IV Europe (OSCE)

3 Which of the following countries is the only 7 Which of the following is not one of the
Muslim state with nuclear weapons? conflict intervention methods?
a. Iraq a. Conflict settlement
b. Syria b. Conflict transformation
c. Turkey c. Conflict prevention
d. Saudi Arabia d. Conflict mitigation
e. Pakistan e. Conflict prevention

4 Global environmental threats present four fu-

ture political dilemmas except for…?
a. They are perceived as longer-term emergencies
b. They are like threats with defined enemies.
c. They must be solved by the global coordinated
holistic approach
d. The solution to the environmental problem is
costly
e. They are less clear-cut and direct

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An Introduction to Security Studies

8 Which of the following cannot be included 10 Which of the following is not true with re-
in the Buzan’s model? gard to violence and peace?
a. International security focuses on the organizati- a. The political or socio-economic structures cause
onal stability of states, systems of government, direct violence.
and ideologies that give them legitimacy. b. The use of nationalism, racism, sexism, Isla-
Test yourself

b. International security concerns with the ability mophobia, xenophobia, and other forms of
of societies to reproduce their traditional pat- discrimination is related to cultural violence.
terns of language, culture, association, and reli- c. Infant deaths due to hunger, poverty, and disea-
gious and national identities and customs. se are an example of structural violence.
c. International security analyzes domestic crimes d. Wife battering, rape, child abuse, dowry deaths,
such as burglary, theft, rape, and murder. street killings, and war are examples of direct
d. International security deals with the mainte- violence.
nance of local and planetary biosphere as well as e. Positive peace is absence of direct, structural
space in order ensure continued existence of all and cultural violence.
human beings.
e. International security emphasizes on priorita-
zing access to the resources, finance, and mar-
kets necessary to sustain acceptable levels of wel-
fare and state power.

9 Which of the following is not a part of the

new security agenda?
a. Landmines
b. Crime
c. Water
d. Culture
e. Migration

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International Security

If your answer is not correct, review the If your answer is not correct, review the
1. A section on “International Security and 6. B section on “International Security and
Security Studies In the 21st Century” Security Studies in the 21st Century”
section. section.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. E If your answer is not correct, review the 7. B If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “Peace Studies and Conflict section on “Peace Studies and Conflict
Resolution” section. Resolution” section.

If your answer is not correct, review the

3. E If your answer is not correct, review the 8. C section on “International Security and
section on “The Concept of International
Security Studies in the 21st Century”
Security” section.
section.

4. B If your answer is not correct, review the 9. D If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “Current and Global Threats and section on “Current and Global Threats and
Challenges” section. Challenges” section.

5. C If your answer is not correct, review the 10. A If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “The Concept of International section on “Peace Studies and Conflict
Security” section. Resolution” section.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Assume a private security contractor kills civilians in a combat zone
such as Afghanistan. Therefore, it has been accused of war crimes.
Should this corporate soldier be subject to the Geneva Conventions?
Can this person stand trial before the International Criminal Court
(ICC)?

International humanitarian law (IHL) defines the armed forces de jure under
the domestic law of the state in question. The individual is entitled to priso-
ner of war status if he/she is members of the armed forces. In order to clarify
the status of PMSCs, the Montreux Document (2008), an initiative of the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) was accepted. The PMSCs
was internationally recognized as an acceptable actor and very distinct from
your turn 1 mercenaries. A treaty or convention may be needed. There is a need to have a
better coordination between multi-stake holders and states to clarify PMSCs’
accountability and international legal obligations. The main role of the ICC
could be its ability to encourage national legislation on serious crimes and
to encourage the states to put in the trial of perpetrators of genocide, crimes
against humanity, and war crimes on their own. Theoretically, the ICC could
punish the employees of the PMSCs if they commit above-mentioned crimes
because its jurisdiction is based on individual criminal responsibility.

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An Introduction to Security Studies

Explain this phrase within the role of regional organization

on international security.

In order to answer this question, we must first start from the mandate of the
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Council. The United Nations mandate states when it perceives a potential

threat to international peace or security, it considers taking necessary actions
to maintain international peace and security in following issue areas including
preventive diplomacy and mediation, peacekeeping, peacebuilding, counter-
your turn 2 terrorism, and disarmament. In examining the partnership between the Se-
curity Council and regional organizations, it is important to be thoughtful
of the need to recognize the peace and security imperatives that should influ-
ence the Council. The Security Council is a political body. Peacemaking is a
complex process. All international security actors seek to impact the Security
Council. At the same time, they implement their respective duty of the main-
tenance of international peace and security.

Map a conflict in the system and analyze the parties,

sources, and dynamics of this conflict.

For example, the Crimea conflict has three main conflict parties: Russia, Uk-
raine, and the Crimean Tatars. Conflict sources are rooted in basic human ne-
eds theory. Security and identity needs of the parties must be satisfied. Crimea
is important for Russia, Ukraine, and the Crimean Tatars not only geo-strate-
gically and geo-economically but also historically and identity-based reasons.
The territorial integrity of Ukraine must be satisfied. At the same time, the
your turn 3 identity needs of the Crimean Tatars and Russians must be addressed. The
Crimean conflict has escalated after the Cold War in 1994 but the OSCE
third-party intervention has de-escalated the conflict. But in 2014 the Crime-
an conflict has resulted in a hybrid war that has spill-over effects in the Eastern
Ukraine and Syria. The Russian involvement in Syria cannot be separated
from the Russian invasion of Crimea in 2014. It shows that international
conflict is a complex, self-stimulating and enigmatic event that can result in
structural changes in the international system.

What is the domain of biosecurity?

The current concern with new microbial threats has developed at least four
distinct domains: emerging infectious disease, bioterrorism, the cutting-edge
life sciences, and food safety. The first domain came into existence because of
the AIDS crisis and the drug-resistant strains of tuberculosis and malaria. We
were witnessing a return of the microbe by the appearance of new diseases such
as West Nile virus, SARS, and the influenza pandemic. Rogue states, the glo-
bal terrorist organization and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction
your turn 4
calls for biodefense measures focused on bioterrorism. Thirdly, the cutting-
edge life sciences have opened the possibility of technical capacities to create
lethal organisms via synthetic biology and genetic manipulation. Lastly, the
food safety crises in Europe have caused anxieties about agricultural biosecurity
and the contamination of food supply. The outbreaks of mad cow disease and
foot-and-mouth disease have led to public outcry over food safety in Europe.

30
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International Security

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 Chapter 2 Major IR Theories and Security
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Recognize the changing understanding of

Identify traditional IR approaches to security security and characterize critical security studies

3 Evaluate the theories of international security

from a critical perspective 4 Discuss the relationship between
postmodernism and security

5 Analyze the relationship between social

constructivism and security

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction • Security • Survival
Traditional IR Approaches to Security • Insecurity • Security Dilemma
Critical Security Studies • Securitization • Self-Help
International Security from a Critical • De-Securitization • Referent Object
Perspective • International Security • Sectoral Analysis
Postmodernism and Security • Traditional Security • Emancipation
Social Constructivism and Security Studies • Human Security
• Critical Security • Regional Security
Studies
• Internal and External
• State-Centric View Security
• Human-Centric View • Security Agencies

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International Security

INTRODUCTION At the University of Aberystwyth, Ken Booth

International Relations (IR) can be cast as a and Richard Wyn Jones have developed a brand
discipline of theoretical disagreements (Burchill, of ‘Critical Security Studies’ that challenged the
1996). Debates surrounding security studies have definition of security in terms of military threats
evolved through several interrelated turns. Some of to the state and, instead, linked the study of
the most influential reviews address how various IR security to human emancipation. Ole Waever and
approaches understand security (Williams 2013), Barry Buzan along with other colleagues at the
and security problems (Baldwin, 1997). Other Copenhagen Peace Research Institute (COPRI)
scholars, on the other hand, tackle the evolution of have introduced the concept of ‘securitization’
international security studies as a field of research which emphasizes the role of threat discourses in
(Buzan and Hansen, 2009 citied in Bourbeau, the social construction of security. Scholars from the
Balzacq and Cavelty, 2015). As Linklater argues, Paris Institute of Political Studies and Journal
“all social analysts should reflect upon the cognitive Cultures of Conflicts edited by Didier Bigo have
interests and normative assumptions which developed a sociological approach to security
underpin their research” (quoted Burchill, 1996). practices ranging from policing to border control.
In fact, security is defined as an ‘essentially This chapter focuses on how major IR theories
contested concept’ (Gallie, 1956; Buzan, 1983). As understand security and how their understanding
Baldwin states, the conceptual analysis of security of security have changed. Moreover, critical security
has been neglected in IR studies (1997). Burchill approaches and their differences from traditional
and Linklater argue that although all major IR
security studies are examined.
theories deal with issues such as the state and
nationalism, the struggle for power and security,
the use of force, they analyze these conceptions in TRADITIONAL IR APPROACHES
increasingly diverse ways (1996). TO SECURITY
Security Studies during the Cold War era was During the Cold War, military threats to national
a rather limited and narrow research field in IR, security dominated all others in the eyes of most
mainly focusing on state security and defining security specialists. This traditional understanding
threat only in military terms. However, by the end of is the old military and state-centered view, which
the Cold War period, new schools of thought have places the nation state at the center of security
emerged in the field of Security Studies in parallel debate. This is called old military and state-centred
with the emergence of new kinds of threats against view of traditionalist mainstream international
human well-being and security. Critical Security theories” (Buzan, Weaver and Wilde, 1998).
Studies (CSS) is an umbrella term for a range of
approaches which seek to challenge the orthodoxy
of ‘traditional’ security studies. Critical approaches Realism and Security
apply post-positivist perspectives such as critical Realism defines international relations in terms
theory and post-structuralism and change the of power. The exercise of power by states toward
referent object of security. Today, CSS represents each other is called power politics (Pevehouse and
a large group of scholars, schools, approaches, and Goldstein, 2014). There are two main approaches
understandings. Keith Krause, Michael Williams, of realism: classical realism that considers power
Ken Booth, and Richard Wyn Jones are scholars
politics in terms of egoism and neorealism, or
associated with the CSS. The Aberystwyth
structural realism, that explains power politics in
(Welsh) School, Copenhagen School, and Paris
terms of anarchy (Heywood, 2011).
School are the main schools of thought. These
European schools are distinguished by their aims
and modes of analysis. They all made the security Classical Realism
agenda broader and deeper by incorporating non- The roots of realism can be traced back to
military threats such as the global economic crisis, ancient times. Chinese strategist Sun Tzu advised
the refugee crisis, international terrorism, and
the rulers of states on how to survive in an era
environmental problems into the security agenda.
when the war had become a systematic instrument

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Major IR Theories and Security

of power for the first time (Chatturvedi, 2005). on national interests defined in terms of power
In ancient Greece, Thucydides wrote on the (Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014). For all realists,
Peloponnesian War (431–404 B.C.), focusing on the struggle for power is the main motivation in
relative power among the Greek city-states. Power political life. As Morgenthau notes, the ‘will to
is regarded as a zero-sum game. According to the power’ is unlimited, and states try to maximize
zero-sum game, “the actors in the international their power in international politics where anarchy
system must deprive one another of their power in is a ‘permissive force’ (Shimko, 1992).
order to add it to their own” (Molloy, 2006). Morgenthau outlines the “six principles of
During the Renaissance, Machiavelli, the political realism” as follows:
Italian statesman and philosopher, defined the • Politics is governed by objective laws which
key objective of the prince must be to preserve his have their root in human nature.
position and the security of his realm in a world • The key to understanding international
filled with wicked men who may threaten his politics is the concept of interest defined in
position (Walt, 2010). Thomas Hobbes, in his terms of power.
book Leviathan, refers to similar concepts. His • The forms and nature of state power will
idea about the state of nature incorporates some vary in time, place and context but the
of the main realist principles, such as the state of concept of interest remains consistent.
anarchy (Oldemeinen, 2010). From Thucydides to • Universal moral principles do not guide state
Hobbes, human nature is seen as the source of an behavior, although this does not rule out
endless desire for power. an awareness of the moral significance of
political action.
• Moral aspirations are specific to a particular
nation; there is no universally agreed set of
moral principles.
• The political sphere is autonomous
(Heywood, 2011).
The notion of national interest has
underpinned foreign policy since the advent of the
Westphalian system. As posited by Morgenthau,
“objectives of a foreign policy must be defined
in terms of the national interest” (Morgenthau,
1960). He defines the national interest “in terms
of power” (1993). That means power is the
ultimate result and cause of the national interest
taking its roots from the will to power inherent
in human nature. Whatever the ultimate aims
of international politics, power is always the
immediate aim. Therefore, international politics
is a struggle for power (Morgenthau, 1993).
Power can be conceptualized in different ways.
Power as an influence, for instance, is the ability to
influence the behavior of others. Military force and
Figure 2.1 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, 1651 economic sanctions are among the various means
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/ that states and non-state actors use to influence
each other. It is also conceptualized as capability:
For realism, the importance of power politics “The traditional approach to power in
is timeless and cross-cultural. Hans Morgenthau, international politics is to treat it in terms of
a classical realist, argues that international politics capabilities. Power is therefore an attribute or
is governed by objective, universal laws based possession. Such an approach has, for instance,

36
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International Security

been reflected in attempts to list the ‘elements’ system and the structure of international politics
or ‘components’ of national power (Military is seen as the distribution of power capabilities
strength, Economic development, Population, across the units.
Geography). The most significant of these
usually include the size and quality of a state’s
armed forces, its per capita wealth and natural
resources, the size and skills of its population, its
land mass and geographical position and so on.
The advantage of this approach is that it enables
power to be analyzed on the basis of observable,
tangible factors, such as military and economic
strength, rather than intangibles, suggesting that
power is quantifiable. The often quoted example
of the Vietnam War (1959–75) helps to illustrate
this. The USA failed to prevail in Vietnam despite
enjoying massive economic, technological and
military advantages over North Vietnam and its
communist ally” (Heywood, 2011).
For realists, war is a permanent feature of
international relations. The possibility of war
stems from the inescapable dynamics of power
politics: as states pursue their national interest
they will inevitably come into conflict with one
another, and this conflict will sometimes (but not
always) be played out in military terms (Heywood, Figure 2.2 Kenneth Waltz’s seminal work: Theory of
2011). For realism, the state is the most important International Politics.
actor in the international system and is, therefore, Source: www.abebooks.co.uk
the primary unit of analysis. The state, as an actor,
must ensure its survival in a self-help situation.
Survival becomes the first objective of the state. Structural realism emphasizes four core
In a world where a number of sovereign nations elements of international politics:
compete with and oppose each other for power, the • States are seen as rational actors and
foreign policies of all nations must necessarily refer by far the most important actors in the
to their survival as their minimum requirements international system.
(Morgenthau, 1952). As such, security is first • The international system is anarchic;
understood in the sense of national security. In a there is no international authority that can
self-help international system, all states are under prevent the use of force between states.
the threat of all other states. For national security, • Each state cannot take its security for
military power is essential because the more granted and thus, is responsible for ensuring
powerful a state’s military is, more secure that state its own survival, most notably through the
is likely to be. nurturing of material capabilities.
• The balance of power (the formation of
alliances with certain states to counter
Neorealism
the threat of other states) is the defining
From the 1970s onwards, neorealism or mechanism that regulates the international
structural realism began to emerge as new thinking system and explains war and peace.
of the realist tradition with the work of Kenneth According to Waltz, theories about
Waltz. In neorealism or structural realism, the international politics can be developed at three
international system is accepted as a self-help levels of analysis: the individual level, the state

37
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Major IR Theories and Security

level, and the international system level. Structural Waltz sees the pursuit of power as a means for
realism conceptualizes international politics at the survival and security. In an anarchical international
system level and describes the behavior of states in system, security is the highest end. Only if survival
terms of the structure of the international system. is assured can states safely seek other goals such as
While shifting attention towards the international tranquility, profit, and power. Therefore, “power
system, structural realism emphasizes the effects is a means and not an end” (Waltz, 1979). The
of anarchy on the behavior of states. For neo- survival is the ultimate aim of all states on which
realists, international anarchy necessarily causes John Mearsheimer also agrees as an offensive
tension, conflict and inevitable warfare for three neo-realist. Like Waltz, he states that other goals
main reasons. First, the states are autonomous and of states apart from survival such as “prosperity
formally equal political units which ultimately rely and protecting human rights… take a back seat
on their own resources to achieve their interests to survival, because if a state does not survive, it
in international politics. As states cannot trust cannot pursue those other goals” (Mearsheimer,
other states, international anarchy is a “self-help” 2007). However, Mearsheimer argues that power,
system. Second, relations between states are always as a means to ensure survival, can also become an
shadowed by uncertainty and doubt, which creates end. In his words, “states should maximize power,
a security dilemma. Due to the self-help system, and their ultimate goal should be hegemony”
states strive for security and survival and try to (Mearsheimer, 2007). Here power becomes an
obtain sufficient military capacity to deter other end which states must strive for. This apparent
states from attacking them. However, these actions contradiction with the above stems from the
are always subject to interpretation as hostile or different power understandings of defensive and
aggressive. For this reason, the uncertainty about offensive neo-realists. Defensive neo-realists see
motives forces states to treat themselves as hostile it futile “to pursue hegemony” (Mearsheimer,
to all other states. Therefore, persistent insecurity is 2007), whereas offensive neo-realists defend the
the inevitable result of living in anarchy conditions. idea that states must try to gain as much power
Third, conflict is also encouraged by the fact that as possible because of firstly, to ensure the survival
states are primarily concerned about maintaining in the system and secondly, to pursue hegemony.
or improving their position relative to other states Ensuring the survival treats power as a means while
through relative gains. Each state is actually the struggle for hegemony treats power as an end.
more worried about whether other states benefit Only the accumulated power can give the state the
more than it does, which discourages cooperation chance to pursue hegemonic projects.
and reduces the effectiveness of international
organizations (Heywood, 2011).
Offensive realism - Defensive realism
Offensive realism is a form of structural
Self-help refers to a state’s reliance on its realism that portrays states as ‘power
own capacities and resources, rather than maximizers’, as there is no limit to
external support, to ensure security and their desire to control the international
survival. environment. Defensive realism is a form
Security dilemma arises from the fact that of structural realism that views states as
a build-up of military capacity for defensive ‘security maximizers’, placing the desire to
reasons by one state is always liable to be avoid attack above a bid for World power.
interpreted as aggressive by other states.
The concept of relative gains refers to the
position of states in relation to one another, “Neorealists believe that conflict can be
reflected in the distribution of benefits and contained by the balance of power. This is a
capabilities between and amongst them. key concept for all realist theorists. However,
while classical realists treat the balance of power

38
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International Security

as a product of prudent statecraft, neorealists see Strange insisted that the same state or states
it as a consequence of the structural dynamics need not dominate each of these structures, but
of the international system, and specifically, of rather that their structural power may vary across
the distribution of power (or capacities) between the structures. This analysis of power provides an
and among states. In short, the principal factor alternative to state-centrism and highlights the
affecting the likelihood of a balance of power, important and growing role played by regimes and
and therefore the prospect of war or peace, are international organizations. The issue of structural
the number of great powers operating within the power also clearly demonstrates how questions
international system. Although neorealists believe about the nature of power are closely linked to
that there is a general bias in the international debates about the shape of world order. During
system in favor of balance rather than imbalance, the 1980s, Strange used the theory of structural
world order is determined by the changing fate power to reframe the debate about hegemonic
of great powers. This is reflected in an emphasis stability theory and to challenge the then
on polarity. Neorealists have generally associated fashionable notion of US decline, which had largely
bipolar systems with stability and a reduced been based on the USA’s economic decline relative,
likelihood of war, while multipolar systems have in particular, to Japan and Germany” (quoted in
been associated with instability and a greater Heywood, 2011). Hegemony demands power,
likelihood of war (neorealist stability theory). This which is defined by Susan Strange as the ability
inclined neorealists to view Cold War bipolarity of one party to affect outcomes such that their
in broadly positive terms, as a ‘long peace’, but to preferences take precedence over the preferences of
warn about the implications of rising multipolarity other parties. The question of whether the United
in the post-Cold War era. Realists, nevertheless, States is still a hegemon is tied into whether or not
disagree about the relationship between structural it has lost power. Susan Strange uses this logic to
instability and the likelihood of war. For so-called argue that the United States is still a hegemon.
offensive realists, as the primary motivation of
states is the acquisition of power, if the balance of
power breaks down (as it tends to in conditions
Focus on China and the USA
of multipolarity), there is a very real likelihood China may increasingly bristle at international
that war will break out (Mearsheimer, 2001). rules and norms that it feels serves the
Defensive realists, on the other hand, argue that interests of the United States. For its part,
states tend to prioritize security over power, in the United States may fear that growing
which case states will generally be reluctant to go to Chinese economic and military power will be
war, regardless of the dynamics of the international used to challenge U.S. power. In 2010, the
system (Mastanduno, 1991)” (Heywood, 2011). U.S. military’s strategic review questioned
China’s “long-term intentions,” raising
British scholar Susan Strange (1996) offers
new questions about future power transition
Structural Power Thoeory and defines it as “the
(Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014). China is taking
power to decide how things shall be done, the
advantage by industrializing its army using their
power to shape frameworks within which states
wealth. China’s military budget is increasing and
relate to one another, relate to people or relate to
the troops are expanding (Andrew, 1992). Steven
corporate enterprises”. She distinguishes between
W. Mosher insists that China is building up its
four primary power structures:
armed forces «to break America’s back in Asia and
• The knowledge structure, which influences thus end America’s reign as the sole superpower in
actor’s beliefs, ideas or perceptions; the World”. However, many argue that China has
• The financial structure, which controls a symbiotic relationship with the United States. If
access to credit or investment; the United States declines, it is likely that China
• The security structure, which shapes defence also may be in jeopardy. John Gulick points out
and strategic issues; that China’s prosperity is “deeply ensconced in the
• The production structure, which affects ‘China produces and lends, the US borrows and
economic development and prosperity. spends’ framework” (Gulick, 2011). Economic

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interdependence of China derives from the rights generally, as well as over growing resource
fact that they are a producing state rather than rivalry in Africa, the Middle East and elsewhere.
a consuming state. China’s economy is export However, others have portrayed the rise of China
heavy as its driving force lies in “export processing in a far less threatening light. Not only are China
measures” (Gulick, 2011). The export dependent and the USA bound together by the bonds of
structure could severely dampen economic growth economic interdependence (the USA is China’s
if demand for Chinese exports is reduced by main export market, and China is the USA’s
another economic crisis in the United States. Thus, most important creditor), but, as the twenty-first
China’s economic woes are one of the barriers to century progresses, these two powers may create
its hegemonic aspirations. However, it is not the a new form of bipolarity, which, as neorealists
only barrier that China must overcome to achieve argue, would usher in a higher level of security and
hegemony. In fact, Hegemonic Stability Theory stability. The USA, furthermore, has an interest
demonstrates that theoretical requirement for in China assuming greater global responsibilities,
world leadership is the will to lead and the ability both to share the burden of such responsibilities
to lead and that China should strive for this ability and to encourage China to bandwagon rather
in order to gain hegemonic status. Also, other than balance (Heywood, 2011).
factors- for example, domestic political instability,
environmental degradation, public health issues,
and demographic trends- could possibly hinder Bandwagon is to side with a stronger
China’s ascent to great power status (Susan, 2007). power in the hope of increasing security and
The balance of threat theory was suggested by influence; ‘jumping on the bandwagon’.
Stephen M. Walt first in an article titled “Alliance
Formation and the Balance of World Power” in
1985. The balance of threat theory modified the Liberalism and Security
balance of power theory in the neorealist school of
Liberal ideas and theories have been influencing
international relations. According to the balance of
the discipline of IR following World War I.
threat theory, states’ alliance behavior is determined
Liberalism was characterized as idealism which was
by the threat they perceive from other states. Walt
based on Kant’s account of universal and perpetual
contends that states will generally balance by
peace. From the 1970s onwards, liberalism has
allying against a perceived threat, although very
taken the form of neoliberalism. The increasing
weak states are more likely to bandwagon with the
influence of globalization after the end of the Cold
rising threat in order to protect their own security.
War and a new wave of democratization in the
He points to the example of the alliance patterns
1990s each gave liberal theory an additional boost.
of European states before and during World
War I and World War II, when nations with a
significantly greater combined power allied against Security in Liberalism
the recognized threat of German expansionism. Liberalism asserts that collective security will
There are a number of sources of potential be ensured by the establishment of international law
Chinese–US conflict. For example, cultural and and norms. In this respect, it implies a special role
ideological differences between ‘liberal-democratic’ for institutionalization by stating that international
USA and ‘Confucian’ China may provide the institutions will provide international regulation.
basis for growing enmity and misunderstanding. International law will also create collective
In this light, the peaceful transition from British security, and establishes collective order and peace.
hegemony in the nineteenth century to US global The collective security system, which will become
hegemony in the twentieth century was only operative with this institutionalization, will gain a
possible because of historical, cultural and political new dimension as a result of the democratization
similarities that allowed the UK to view the rise of states through common norms and rules. Liberal
of the USA as essentially unthreatening. A conflict theories are trying to establish a roadmap for the
could also arise from divisions that already exist establishment of security by focusing on how to
over issues such as Taiwan, Tibet and human create channels of cooperation among actors in the

40
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International Security

international system. According to these theories, have given way to ‘global’ security (Heywood, 2011).
the relations between the actors can gain an identity Adler and Barnett (1998) emphasize the
based on common security through international potential impact of institutions, values and
norms, rules and regimes. identities even in the high politics of international
For liberalism, the security agenda in modern security. The concept of security communities is
global politics has changed in a number of ways. an attempt to find a remedy for the insecurity of
These include, on the one hand, the expansion of states in the international arena. It is thus related
‘zones of peace’ in which the tensions and incipient to the concept of collective security, in the sense
conflicts implied by the security dilemma appear that security communities aim to provide collective
to be absent. Thus ‘security regimes’ or ‘security security for members. Deutsch defined the security
communities’ have developed to manage disputes community as a group of states that had become
and help to avoid war, a trend often associated integrated to the point at which there is “real
with growing economic interdependence (linked to assurance that the members of that community will
globalization) and the advance of democratization. not fight each other physically, but will settle their
On the other hand, September 11 and the wider disputes in some other way” (Adler and Barnett,
threat of terrorism has highlighted the emergence 1998). In other words, in a security community,
of new security challenges that are particularly states perceiving common threats construct
problematic because they arise from non-state actors collective identities against a commonly perceived/
and exploit the greater interconnectedness of the identified enemy, which in turn help overcome
modern world. International security may, therefore, security dilemma.
Levels of Analysis
Individual Domestic Interstate Global

Realism

Neorealism

Liberal Theories
(Kant)

Democratic Liberal Institutionalism

Peace (Neoliberalism)

RIES
CIAL THEO Constructivist
SO
Theories
Marxism
(Imperialism)
Postmodernist
Theories

Peace Studies
Gender Theories
Figure 2.3 Liberal Theories
Source: Dr Clayton Thyne, PS 235-001: World Politics, Spring 2010, Pevehouse and Goldstein, International Relations,
8/e Student notes version.

Liberalism has three different forms:

• Republican Liberalism
• Interdependence Liberalism
• Liberal Institutionalism

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Major IR Theories and Security

Republican Liberalism Interdependence Liberalism

“Liberalism’s mentions on peace and Idealists often emphasize the concept of
international harmony. Liberals believe that the economic (commercial) interdependence. This is
external behaviour of a state is crucially influenced based on ideas of trade and economic relations,
by its political and constitutional make-up. This is such as the birth of commercial liberalism in
reflected in a tradition of republican liberalism that the 19th century. Therefore, free trade is no
can be traced back to Woodrow Wilson, if not to less important in drawing states into a web of
Kant. While autocratic or authoritarian states are economic interdependence so that the material
seen to be inherently militaristic and aggressive, costs of international conflict are so great that
democratic states are viewed as naturally peaceful, warfare becomes virtually unthinkable. The stress
especially in their dealings with other democratic on interdependence that is basic to commercial
states (Doyle 1986, 1995). In this light, liberals liberalism has been further developed by neoliberals
have seen democracy as a guarantee of peace,” into what Keohane and Nye (1977) called complex
(Heywood, 2011:64). interdependence. Complex interdependence
Having emerged in the 1980s, democratic reflects the extent to which peoples and governments
peace theory is based on an assumption that there in the modern world are affected by what happens
is an intrinsic link between peace and democracy; elsewhere, and particularly by the actions of their
in particular, that democratic states do not go to counterparts in other countries. This applies not
war with one another. Relied on a Kantian logic, only in the economic realm, through the advance
democratic peace emphasizes three core elements, of globalization, but is also evident in relation to
namely republican democratic representation, and a range of other issues, including climate change,
ideological commitment to human rights, and development and poverty reduction, and human
transnational interdependence. rights (Heywood, 2011).

Liberal Institutionalism
Liberal institutionalism is an approach to
study that emphasizes the role of institutions (both
formal and informal) in the realization of liberal
principles and goals. Liberal institutionalism
rejects a realist argument that international
politics is a struggle for power in which military
security issues are the top priority. In fact, the chief
‘external’ mechanism that liberals believe is needed
to constrain the ambitions of sovereign states is
international organizations. This reflects the ideas
of what is called liberal institutionalism.

Changing the Nature of Power

“In the modern world, states, therefore,
compete through trade rather than through the use
Figure 2.4 Michael W. Doyle, a proponent of of force. The realist understanding of hard power
Democratic Peace Theory, Currently University which encompasses both military and economic
Professor at Columbia University. power is declined. Hard power is ‘command
Source: www.columbia.edu power’, the ability to change what others do

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International Security

through the use of inducements (carrots) or threats scholars with interests in security and with concern
(sticks). By contrast, there has been a growth in about new security studies in the early post-Cold
soft power. Soft power is co-optive power; it rests War era. This conference title was used as the title
on the ability to shape the preferences of others of the book, edited by Keith Krause and Michael C.
by attraction rather than coercion (Nye 2004). Williams. In their 1997 book, Critical Security Studies:
Whereas hard power draws on resources such as Concept and Cases, Krause and Williams suggested
force, sanctions, payments and bribes, soft power a broad definition of critical security studies which
operates largely through culture, political ideals covered all “new approaches” from Constructivism
and foreign policies (especially when these are through Feminism and “Copenhagen School” to
seen to be attractive, legitimate or to possess moral Poststructuralism.
authority)” (Heywood, 2011:214). Krause and Williams helped shape critical
security studies as a pluralistic field. In addition,
they pose such questions to open a broad and
Hard power is the ability of one actor (usually
complex agenda for security studies. Questioning
but not necessarily a state) to influence
the referent object of security, ‘who or what is to
another through the use of threats or
be secured’, Krause and Williams challenged the
rewards, typically involving military ‘sticks’ or
traditional state-centric understanding of security
economic ‘carrots’. Soft power is the ability to
and instead put forward the individual as the object
influence other actors by persuading them to
of security. However, according to Barry Buzan, this
follow or agree to norms and aspirations that
approach has never gained wide support, and the
produce the desired behavior.
term Critical Security Studies was more widely used
to refer to “Aberystwyth School” or “Welsh School”
as a coherent school of thought in the discipline of
international security studies (Buzan, 2009: 206).
1 The term Critical Security Studies is also used to refer
to the coherent theoretical school created mostly by
How does liberal institutionalism
the endeavor of Professors Ken Booth and Richard
see security?
Wyn Jones, Andrew Linklater and their colleagues
from the Aberystwyth University. Booth and Wyn
Jones developed a brand of ‘Critical Security Studies’
CRITICAL SECURITY STUDIES that challenged the definition of security in terms of
During the Cold War era, security was military threats to the state, and instead linked the
overwhelmingly a matter of state’s sovereignty, its study of security to human emancipation.
territorial integrity, and its political autonomy.
The end of the Cold War is often regarded as
the beginning of a fundamentally different
international political environment. This change
in the environment brought new approaches to
thinking about international security. Since 1991
the focus of security studies as a discipline has been
broadened and deepened. It has moved away from
merely military concerns and included economic,
political, societal and environmental issues,
focusing on people rather than the state.
Critical Security Studies is an academic
discipline within security studies which rejects
mainstream approaches such as realism and
neorealism. In May 1994, a small conference was
held at York University in Toronto entitled Strategies
Figure 2.5 Ken Booth, Professor at Aberystwyth University
and Conflict: Critical Approaches to Security Studies. It
brought together from around the world a variety of Source: https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/fellows/
ken-booth-FBA
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Major IR Theories and Security

Critical Security Studies contributes to for those presently in power with the purpose of
security studies by broadening and deepening the maintaining their dominance. From a Coxian
concept of security. This provides to have better Critical perspective (theory is for someone and
and fuller agendas that cover all those issues that for purposes) this worldview is itself derived from
engender security. The broadening camp argues the theories of white, Western and predominantly
that a predominantly military definition does not male academics (Cox, 1981: 1544).
acknowledge that the important threats to state
survival may not be military, but also environmental, Key Concepts in Critical Security Studies
social, political and economic (Buzan, 1991). The Referent Object: It is an object that is taken as
deepeners, on the other hand, asked the question the focus for analysis in security studies. As to
of whose security is being threatened and supported this concept, there are two main approaches to
the construction of a definition of security that the security: state-centric security (the state is
allows for individual or structural referent objects, the referent object) and human-centric approach
as opposed to the state (Booth, 1991a). Another (human is the referent object).
main idea of critical security studies is the argument
that security is a derivative concept. This means Traditional Security Studies: It refers to Realist,
that the view of security reflects our understanding Liberal, Peace Studies and Strategic Studies
of the world and the perception of our threats. perspectives in the study of security. All of
them prioritize the state as the referent object
Critical security studies take the Frankfurt of security and focus on military threats to the
School critical theory as a guide in order to security of the state.
define the world. Critical theory rejects positivism
by claiming that knowledge does not arise from Broadening: The broadening security agenda
the objective reality but it reflects some interests refers to Barry Buzan’s sectoral analysis that the
and purposes (Linklater, 1996: 279). Critical security agenda includes not only military sector
security studies use post-positivist epistemological issues but also political, economic, societal and
methodology. Positivism is an epistemological environmental issues.
approach that includes certain methodology and Deepening: The state is not only the referent
methods. Positivists claim that social sciences can object of security but it also includes human
be built upon the same model as natural sciences. individuals, institutions and groups.
Using this epistemological approach to international Positivism: It claims that social sciences can
relations discipline, observation is possible for be built upon the same model as natural
acquiring knowledge and social truth exists sciences. Scientific principles such as objectivity,
independent of the observer. Thus, there is objective verification/falsification, and generalization can
truth and the international relations theory is the adapt to the study of society.
result of this objective knowledge. However, the Post-Positivism: It rejects the idea that it is
Frankfurt Critical Theory opposes a constant world possible to analyze the natural world and the
structure and the distinction between the subject social world in the same way. There is no objective
(observer) and the object (observed). For example, view (Peoples and Vaughan-Williams, 2010:4).
the identity of the observer is important in observing
the subject. His/her beliefs and world vision affect
the knowledge. According to this perspective, the From Traditional Security Studies
definition of security is what we define it. In the to Critical Security Studies
contemporary case of Syria, the Syrian government
Traditional security studies refer to work
may define security as the freedom from the Western
associated with the broader approach to
influence. The opponent groups, on the other hand,
international relations known as political realism,
may view it as the self-determination from Bashar Al
both in its classical and structural (or neorealist)
Assad’s dictatorship. European Union countries may
variants. As to political realism, the state is the
define it as migration issues.
main object of security and war is the main threat
From the point of critical theorists, it is not to it. The question of ‘which security should have
possible to claim the existence of value-free priority?’ on the subject of realist security studies
knowledge. If all knowledge is for someone and revealed the state and its existence, sovereignty
for some purpose, theories are the ones that are
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International Security

and integrity. Neorealist Stephen Walt has the world were intrastate (civil wars) conflicts instead
defined security studies as ‘the study of threat, of interstate (two or more states’ war). In addition,
use, and control of military force’. As to his view, the intensified process of globalization, rising new
international security means competition for technologies (computer, communication etc.), and
power (military power) among states (Walt, 1991: the integration of global finance, investment and
212-213). Therefore, security is viewed narrowly in production challenged the traditional state-centric
terms of the survival of the state and issues such security thinking.
as nuclear proliferation, deterrence, and power. In To sum up, the field came to understand that the
addition to the state-centric and military –focused traditional approach to security was inadequate and
security agenda, traditional security also embraced needed new approaches. Critical Security Studies
the positivist methodology of realism. Positivism share the belief that in order to respond to complex
rejects human subjectivity and argues that only threats of the post-Cold War period, the agenda
objective knowledge can lead to science. of security should be expanded. This paradigmatic
Realists, however, failed to anticipate the end shift, that took place during the 1980s, broadened
of Cold War. Rapid transformations in world the security agenda. Critical security theorists are
politics led to the emergence of new non-state particularly interested in human beings as the
actors and their security challenges, the growth central referents of a dynamic security discourse.
of interdependence, the declining importance of They challenge the military focused approach of
military power and prioritizing environmental the traditional security understanding.
issues. In the 1990s, most of the armed conflicts in

Table 2.1 Key Dimensions of Approaches in Security Studies

Approach Referent Object Threat Type Conception of Security Methodology
Traditional State Use of force Objective/material Rationalist
Critical Individuals, Use of force,
Subjective and discursive Post-positivist,
economical, societal,
(Wider/Deeper) Groups (securitization) Constructivist
political

The Welsh School (The Aberystwyth School) in Critical Security Studies

The Welsh School is a name that it is attributed to the security studies school at the Aberystwyth University.
The Welsh School has been one of the leading critical security schools and it draws all the attention with the
contributions of the scholars such as Ken Booth, Richard Wyn Jones, Andrew Linklater, and Pınar Bilgin.
The school criticizes the approach of Traditional Security Studies that locates its analysis on a state as a central
concern of the study and declares that traditional security approaches are not sufficient for the security needs
of today. Even though the international structure is presented as an anarchical order, the scholars of the
Welsh School believe that security and cooperation are possible. They contributed to a reconceptualization of
security studies and expanded the agenda by including the other security issue areas. The main books of the
school belong to Ken Booth who edited Critical Security Studies and World Politics (2005) and wrote Theory
of World Security (2007).
The Welsh School originally identified emancipation as a key concept for security and placed it at the
centre of their work. The concept of emancipation has a special significance within the Marxian thought. Marx
believed that under the capitalist economic system people were subject to a range of unnecessary constraints
such as wage labor and exploitation. Therefore, people should become emancipated. The concept was later
taken up by the Frankful School consisting of a group of German social theorists such as Max Horkheimer,
Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Jürgen Habermas. The Welsh School was inspired by the ideas of
Jürgen Habermas on emancipation. Habermas, writing from the Frankfurt School’s perspective, claims that
his reconstruction of private and public autonomy has an emancipatory aim. He offers communication or
interaction rather than class power and the forces of production as an emancipatory movement. Habermas
underlines an ideal speech community, which is open to all human beings and accepts all claims legitimate
and equal, as an important condition for emancipation (Habermas, 1984).
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Ken Booth is the first scholar who has developed In utopian realism, the role of the state is not limited
the idea of security as emancipation. He defined only to being a security provider. As some instances
emancipation as “the freeing of people (as individuals in the world show, many people are under the threat
and groups) from those physical and human constraints, of oppressive administration of their own state. From
which stops them from carrying out what they would that point, the state is a part of insecurity rather than
freely choose to do” (Booth, 1991a:319). Security and a solution. In addition, he rejects the identification of
emancipation are regarded as two sides of the same security with military threats. Compared to military
coin. Since the publication of Booth’s article ‘Security threats, new security threats such as environmental
and Emancipation’ (1991) this approach has confirmed disasters, international migration and xenophobia
its originality by combining three sets of ideas; have different characteristics. Those kind of threats
• It has shifted the focus towards individuals are threats without enemies and require different
as the ultimate referent object of security. solutions (Cheeseman, 2004: 71).
• Security understanding and practices are To sum up, what are the main features of the Welsh
political. School? First, it is highly critical of seeing the state
• The normative side of this view is that the as a referent object and rather puts the emphasis on
condition of insecurity means oppressive individual security. Moreover, its researchers think that
relations and structures (economic, social states often create threats to individuals. To Wyn Jones
and political) which determines the lives of (1999: 309), Critical Security Studies implies “placing
individuals and groups. the experience of those men and women and communities
As to Booth, security means the absence of threats. for whom the present world order is a cause of insecurity
To widen the security issue, Booth ranges threats rather than security at the center of the agenda”. Second,
from direct bodily violence from other humans (war), the Welsh School has its roots in the Gramscian and
through structural, political and economic forms of Frankfurt School tradition of critical theory. That is
oppression (slavery) into more existential threats to where its normative approach and the perception
identity (cultural imperialism) (Booth, 1991a). People of security as emancipation come from. Thus the
can feel secure not just through protection from military third distinctive characteristic of the approach is its
threats but also through protection from the threat of emphasis on emancipation which is understood as
poverty, ill-health, environmental degradation and so removing any barriers that prevent individuals from
on. The Welsh School believes that sustainable peace freedom. The Welsh School believes that if people are
can only be obtained with the emancipated society, emancipated, what they freely choose to do is peaceful
which is free from constraints and able to choose freely. (Buzan, 2009: 206). Furthermore, the School is easily
In short, the emancipatory security approach focuses distinguishable from the other approaches due to its
on human security and human rights. Therefore, the normative-political agenda. Last, they intensify the
instrumentality of justice and law are more important understanding of security by viewing it as a derivative
than military and force. In other words, justice is concept of politics (Booth, 2007: 150). The security is
important rather than order and human rights are also seen as a reflection of the nature of politics.
significant rather than state sovereignty. Criticisms against the Welsh School are mostly
Booth brought forward an alternative to directed to the concept of emancipation. First, it is not
the realism which is “utopian realism”. This is a easy to define the emancipation concept universally.
challenge to realism and its assumptions. According While its usage is ambiguous within western
to his utopian realist view, security and cooperation countries, it may also produce legitimate illiberal
is possible under the anarchical system; instead of practices. In non-western countries, emancipation
state level of analysis, security should be evaluated in can be defined as the right of the independence of
the holistic manner. This means that the individual any ethnic group. This, in turn, may lead to chaos
and international system levels of analysis should and rebellion instead of security (Ayoob, 1997: 127).
be taken into account to evaluate the referents of Many poststructuralists argue that emancipation
the security; lastly security does not mean military is a dangerous ‘meta-narrative’ term and use it for
security (Booth, 1991b: 527). Common security, overarching sceptical explanations of the world.
which is an alternative choice to the realist term The second group of criticisms is about equating
self-help system is also realizable under an anarchic emancipation with security. Emancipation cannot
international system. For example, Western security always provide security. In civil wars, people feel
communities such as the European Union prove themselves more insecure under the regime oppression
that security under the anarchical system is possible. and they have problems with emancipation.
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From the Welsh School Perspective: The Case of South Africa

South Africa is an important case that cannot be explained by traditional security approaches and Anglo-
American political science perpectives. Colonialism and also the apartheid regime shaped the security
situation in the country during the Cold War. During the Cold War, South Africa’s Foreign Policy
consisted of racial discrimination in favor of whites internally, and destabilization of their neighbors
externally.
Ken Booth and Peter Vale’s work (1997) on South Africa is the practical application of critical security
studies. They argue that the historical experience of South Africa and the region represents key arguments
of critical security studies as follows:
• The state is often a problem, not a solution. The South African Nationalist Party exercised apartheid
policy among whites, blacks, Indians and Coloreds (people of mixed race) and maintained white
rich minority rule through institutionalized social, economic, political and legal segregation of South
African people.
• The insecurity situation of apartheid ended with the transition to democracy in the 1990s. The referent
object here was the white minority of South Africa. In other words, the national security for South
Africa meant security for the white minority only, not for the vast majority of citizens in the state.
• The threat of food security, economic underdevelopment, poverty, mass and illegal migration,
environmental degradation, and health conditions are greater than military threats. They also represent
human security threats. Therefore, we have to apply a widening approach to security in this case.

Human Security
Human security means the protection of the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human
freedoms and human fulfillment. It means protecting people from critical and widespread threats and
situations (CHS, 2003:4). It is a universal concern relevant to people everywhere, both in rich and in
poor nations. Threats to people’s security may differ; hunger and disease afflict those in poor nations
while crime and drugs affect rich nations. Some threats are indeed common to all nations such as job
insecurity and environmental threats. The main principles of human security are people-centered, multi-
sectoral, comprehensive and context-specific and prevention-oriented (UNOCHA, 2010).
In the United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) 1994 Human Development report, seven main
threats were identified for human security. These are economic security, food security, health security,
environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security (UNDP, 1994:24-
25).

Type of Security Examples of Main Threats

Economic Security Poverty and unemployment
Food Security Hunger, famine
Health Security Lack of access to basic health care, infectious diseases
Environmental Security Natural disasters, pollution
Personal Security Physical violence, crime, terrorism
Community Security Ethnic-religious based tensions
Political Security Political repression, human rights abuses.

Human security integrates three freedoms: freedom from fear, freedom from want and freedom from
indignity. Freedom from fear refers to protecting individuals from threats directed at their physical
security which includes a various forms of violence (war, civil war, terrorism, and crime etc.). Freedom
from want refers to satisfy people’s basic needs. Freedom from indignity refers to the enhancement of
human welfare and provide an improved quality of life. In the case of the Syrian civil war, many had to
flee to neighboring countries to stay alive and were forced to leave their assets in Syria.

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The Copenhagen School in Therefore, the ‘wide’ versus ‘narrow’ debate ended
Critical Security Studies in the favor of widening supporters. Thinking
about security in terms of sectors has widened the
The Copenhagen School of security studies
agenda of security. Buzan examines the dynamics
emerged at the Conflict and Peace Research
of security in five sectors: military, political,
Institute (COPRI) of Copenhagen. Its most
economic, environmental and societal. Each sector
prominent scholars are Barry Buzan, Ole Waever
is identified with specific types of interaction and
and Jaap de Wilde. They all claim that traditional
determined by securitizing actors and referent
methods are inadequate to describe the current
objects. These five sectors do not operate in
security needs. Their main argument is the
isolation from each other.
necessity of ‘broadening and widening’ the security
agenda. In the school’s primary book, Security: A
New Framework for Analysis (1998) Buzan, Waever Five Sectors in the Analysis of Security
and Wilde have built two important conceptual Military Sector refers to the two-level
contributions to the study of security. Barry interplay between the armed offensive capacity
Buzan’s notion of sectoral analysis of security and defensive capabilities of states and their
and Ole Waever’s concepts of securitization and perceptions of each other’s intentions. It is
societal security are the significant contributions about relationships of forceful coercion. Here
of the Copenhagen School. the referent object can be states.
Political Sector means the regime type of
states and their ideologies that provide them
with legitimacy and authority. It is related to
authority, governing status and recognition. In
this sector, the referent object can be national
sovereignty or an ideology.
Economical Sector shows the welfare of the
state and its access to natural resources and
financial markets. It concerns trade, production,
and finance. Its referent object refers to national
economies.
Societal Sector relates to national identity,
Figure 2.6 Barry Buzan, Emeritus Professor in the sustainable culture, customs, and religion. It is
Department of International Relations at LSE and a about relationships of collective identity. The
Fellow of the British Academy referent object here is collective identities.
Source: www.lse.ac.uk Environmental Sector includes the
maintenance of the planetary biosphere. It refers
to the relationship between human activity and
Barry Buzan put forward first sectoral analysis
planetary biosphere. Its referent object is species
of security in his book People, States, and Fear in
or habitats (Buzan, Waever, and Wilde, 1998: 8).
1983. In this book, he points out the limitations of
the realist approach as it gives importance to state
actors only and the military power. In opposition Moreover, to broaden the issue, Buzan claims
to the realist theory, he argues that people are more that the level of analysis is also important for
affected by threats in different areas than military deciding the referent objects of security. Issue levels
ones, such as economic, political, societal and include substate, state, and international system
environmental sectors. The rise of economic and levels. The Copenhagen School believes that in
environmental questions in the 1970s and 1980s, addition to the state, other complementary actors
and later by the rise of concerns with identity issues should be taken into consideration. Although
and transnational crime in the 1990s cannot be Buzan admits non-state actors are also important
explained through a narrow definition of security. units in the securitization model, the state is still
the main actor as a policy-making actor in his

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International Security

approach. As his state-centric view, Buzan can be school defines security as speech act and it is about
called as ‘neo-realist’ and his sectoral analysis is a survival. For them, securitization means ‘an act
synthesis of constructivist and realist approaches. which is presenting an issue as an essential threat that
The most important contribution the requires emergency measures and justifying actions
Copenhagen School to security studies is the outside (Buzan, Wide and Waever, 1998: 24). In
development of an analytical framework of other words, when an issue comes to be treated as
securitization and de-securitization models. a security issue, it is justifiable to use exceptional
The School defines securitization as an act which political measures to deal with it. Waever also
is shifting an issue out of the realm of normal defines securitization as a ‘conservative mechanism’
political debate into the realm of security as an which is created by state elites (Bilgin, 2004: 29).
existential threat. Therefore, this school is also On that issue, Buzan asserts a spectrum from non-
known as ‘securitization studies’. In this model, the politicized through politicized to securitized as
demonstrated in Table 2.3.

Table 2.2 Securitization Spectrum

Non-Politicized Politicized Securitized
The state does not cope with the The issue is managed within The issue is framed as a security
issue. the standard political system. question.
It is a part of public requiring A securitizing actor articulates
The issue is not included in the
government decision and an already politicized issue as an
public debate.
resource allocations. existential threat to a referent object.
Source: Emmers, 2010:138.

The Copenhagen School relies on a two-stage process of securitization to explain how and when an issue
is to be perceived and acted upon as an existential threat to security. The first stage is to declare a referent
object existentially threatened. This move can be initiated by both state and non- state actors. The second
stage is to convince the public that a referent object is existentially threatened. Only then can extraordinary
measures be imposed. The center of these two-stage process of securitization is speech act. Thus an issue
can become a security question through the speech act alone. From that process, we can summarize the
key components of securitization as securitizing actors (government, political elites, military or civil
society), referent objects (state, groups, national sovereignty, legal ideology etc.), threats for referent
objects, and extraordinary measures. Securitization of an issue may provide advantages to government
and political elites in authoritative states such as eliminating opponents and building hegemony on certain
groups. Deciding to securitize one issue and desecuritize the other is a political decision. From that point,
securitizations can be regarded as a massive politicization process.
Another contribution of Ole Waever is the development of the concept of societal security. Taking
conflicts the in Balkans as an example, he mentions the importance of the identity groups inside the
state and their threat perceptions. In his security approach, people and state are defined as two different
referent objects. While the state security focuses on sovereignty, societal security attaches importance
to identity. Thus under societal security, “Identity of a group is presented as threatened by cultural flows,
economic integration or population movements” (Buzan, 1993:47). The state itself may be the cause of the
societal insecurity. An ethnicity or a religious group can create the ‘we’ feeling inside the state, the state
may take extraordinary measures to press these demands. In the Yugoslavian ethnic conflict, Croats, Serbs,
and Bosnians perceived each other as an existential threat and tried to protect their identity in order to
survive (Crawford and Lipschultz, 1997: 178).
The last concept of the Copenhagen School is Regional Security Complex Theory developed by
Barry Buzan and Ole Waever in their book Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security in
2003. They argued that international relations would take on a more regionalized character in the post-

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Major IR Theories and Security

Cold War world. Therefore, they take the regional international relations, and criminology to analyze
level as the main level of analysis instead of the security. The academic works of the Paris School
international system in the neorealist view. In this are related to post-structural approaches to security.
theory,“a Security Complex is defined as a set of states The school opposes the domination of international
whose major security perceptions are interlinked that relations on security studies. One of the well-
their national security problems cannot be reasonably known scholars of the Paris School is Didier Bigo.
analyzed or resolved apart from one another” (Buzan, He examines the relationship between liberty and
Waever and Wilde, 1998: 12). Security and threats security from the International Political Sociology
are clustered in geographical regions. Security perspective. Bigo has published works related to
regions can be regarded as miniature systems this school in his journal Cultures & Conflicts. The
of international politics where all International school is mostly inspired by French social theorists
Relations theories can be applied such as alliance Pierre Bourdieu and French phiolospher Michel
theory, polarity, and balance of power etc. A Foucault. To date, the most important book of this
regional security complex is is based on four school is Controlling Frontiers: Free Movement into
components as follows: and within Europe (2005) edited by Didier Bigo
1. Regional boundaries, which differentiate and Elspeth Guild.
itself from its neighbors. For Didier Bigo, (in)security is largely a
2. Regional anarchical system, which consists product of security discourses and security policy.
of two or three independents states Like some other non-traditional approaches to
3. Power differences among countries in the security, the Paris School treats security as a social
region, construction as opposed to objective reality. It is
4. The patterns of amity and enmity (Buzan argued that security is the result of what it refers to
and Waever, 2003: 53). an (in) securitization process. The school questions
The most useful aspect of this theory is that it the understanding of security as survival and as a
is a framework for organizing empirical studies of positive value.
regional security. The Regional Security Complex
Theory provides a view of four levels of analyses: state
level, inter-state relations, inter-regional interactions,
and the global level (Buzan and Waever, 2003: 51).
In any time, these regional security complexes
are open to changes, due to internal and external
transformation, or to protect their status quo.
To sum up, the Copenhagen School has
introduced a constructivist approach to security
studies. Its main contributions are securitization
theory, sectoral analysis of security, regional
security complex theory, and societal security. In
addition, this school has been criticized due to
its Eurocentric approach to security. Realists also
argue that their widening of security agenda may
lead to destruction in intellectual coherence (Walt,
1991:213). Furthermore, there is a lack of a clear
definition of security. Figure 2.7 Didier Bigo: Professor at King’s College
London Department of War Studies, and MCU Research
Professor at Sciences-Po Paris.
The Paris School of Critical
Source: https://didierbigo.com/
Security Studies
The Paris School has an interdisciplinary
perspective that brings scholars together from Key components of this school are internal
different disciplines such as political sociology, law, - external security merges, security agencies, and
praxis over discourse. Merging between internal

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International Security

and external aspects of security means the INTERNATIONAL SECURITY

expansion of internal security dimension beyond FROM A CRITICAL
state boundaries and the extension of the internal
PERSPECTIVE
border to a larger area. This expansion leads to
constructing a web of security institutions. As Since the late 1980s, major IR theories have
the merging of internal and external aspects of been challenged by critical perpectives. Critical
security results from the criminalization of war perspectives vary remarkably. The most prominent
and organized crime culminating in the rise of critical theories in IR are as follows:
global terrorism after 9/11, the school agrees that • Marxism and Neo-Marxism
this situation provides more insecurity. Practices • Critical Theory
of securitization define the importance of security • Poststructuralism/Postmodernism
as superior to sovereignty. In addition, the role • Social constructivism
of technology has reinforced the role of security This section focuses on Marxism and Neo-
professionals. The specialized agencies are situated Marxism and Critical Theory.
between armies and police as the solution to new
threats. The differentiation of internal and external Marxism and Neo-Marxism
realm has enabled to think of intermediary security
professionals (Bigo, 2007). “Marxism challenged realism and liberalism
by focusing primarily on economic analysis and
For the Paris School, the illiberal security is mainly related with exposing capitalism as a
practices of liberal states have also had implications system of class oppression that operates on national
for immigration and asylum-seekers in the post and international levels. This applies to classical
9/11 period. Here, Bigo is inspired by the idea of Marxism and to most forms of Neo-Marxism. The
Foucault’s ‘the other’ and uses it to explain why second tendency places greater emphasis on the
migrants are seen as endangering groups for Europe. ideological and cultural dimension of oppression,
In today’s European Union, the other group is made and has come to embrace a post-positivist, and
up explicitly by migrants. Politicians fear about losing therefore post-Marxist, mode of theorizing. This
their symbolic control over national boundaries applies to what has been called ‘critical theory’,
and national identities in favor of migrants. The as influenced by the ideas of Gramsci and the so-
securitization of migration is used as a mode of called Frankfurt School” (Heywood, 2011:68).
governmentality. With a reference to Foucault’s
(1985:208) panopticism (permanent surveillance Lenin’s general idea still shapes a major
of all), Bigo defines securitization of migration as approach to North-South relations—the idea that
ban-opticon. Ban-opticon offers select surveillance industrialized states exploit poor countries through
according to the society’s need. Therefore, the both formal and informal colonization and buy
technology of surveillance decides who needs to off their own working classes with the profits.
be under surveillance and who is not. By this way, Through this globalization of class relations, world
security means the insecuritization of the other and wealth accumulation concentrates around the
securitization refers to intolerance towards differences richer parts of the world, moving away from the
instead of state survival. This type of analysis of poorer ones. Revolutions, then, would be expected
securitization/ insecuritization of security is new and in poor regions. Many third world revolutionaries
very different from other critical security theories. It sought to break loose from exploitation by the
connects security with politics, and thus, security is European colonizers. After European colonization
seen as political (Bigo, 2002). ended, the United States as the world’s richest
country with large investments in the global South
and a global military presence became the target
of revolutionaries agitating against exploitation
2 in poor countries. In a number of countries,
imperialists were thrown out (often violently,
Discuss the key concepts of sometimes not) and revolutionary nationalists took
Critical Security Studies. power (Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014).

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The world systems theory is an approach to Justin Rosenberg has developed the Neo-
world history and social change. The most prominent Marxism. Rosenberg used the elements of Marx’s
proponent of the world systems theory is Immanuel ideas to criticize the realist approach in IR,
Wallerstein. The world systems theory suggests there arguing that the two core concepts of realism,
is a world economic system in which some countries namely sovereignty and anarchy, are the features
benefit while others are exploited. The world-system of the capitalist era. Sovereignty, which is a tool
consists of interrelationships between the ‘core’, the of capitalism, separates some parts of the world
‘periphery’ and the ‘semi-periphery’. from the production process, while anarchy results
The main characteristics of this theory are: from capitalist relations, which are not necessary
circumstances of international relations (Rosenberg
• The world systems theory is established on
1994). Security and insecurity in the Neo-Marxist
a three-level hierarchy consisting of a core,
approach is the condition that has its roots in the
periphery, and semi-periphery areas.
separation of different areas of the world from the
• The core countries, such as the developed
process of production and the need of the capitalist
North, dominate and exploit the peripheral
system to maintain the separation.
countries for labor and raw materials.
• The peripheral countries such as the less
developed South are dependent on core Critical Theory
countries for capital. ‘Critical theory’ or ‘Frankfurt School critical
• The semi-peripheral countries share theory’ is distinguished from other Marxism-
characteristics of both core and peripheral inspired critical theories. The ideas of Antonio
countries. They are economically Gramsci mostly influenced the critical theory.
subordinate to the core but in turn take Gramsci (1970) argues that the capitalist class
advantage of the periphery, thereby system is upheld not simply by unequal economic
constituting a buffer between the core and and political power, but by what he terms the
the periphery. hegemony of bourgeois ideas and theories.
• This theory emphasizes the social structure Hegemony means leadership or domination and,
of global inequality. in the sense of ideological hegemony, it refers to
As for security, the world-system theory holds that the capacity of bourgeois ideas to displace rival
“the existence of security in the world-system theory views and become, in effect, the ‘common sense’ of
is based on the continuity of relations between the the age (Heywood, 2011).
peripheral areas and the core areas. In other words, a
change in resource distribution is viewed as a threat
to security of the system” (Soltani and Yusoff, 2012).

Figure 2.8 Immanuel Wallerstein Figure 2.9 Antonio Gramsci, Italian political philosopher
Source: www.en.wikipedia.org Source: www.britannica.com/biography/Antonio-Gramsci

52
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International Security

military force, modern neo-Gramscian scholar

argues that hegemony operates with a combination
Hegemony of coercion and consent. They emphasizes the
It is the ascendancy or domination of one interaction between economic, political, military and
element of a system over others; for Marxists, ideological forces as well as the interaction between
hegemony implies ideological domination. states and international organizations. “Robert Cox
thus analyzed the hegemonic power of the USA not
Gramsci’s ideas have influenced modern thought only in terms of its military ascendancy but also in
about global hegemony. Unlike the traditional terms of its ability to generate broad consent for the
view that sees hegemony as domination throught ‘world order’ that it represents” (Heywood, 2011).

Hegemony and USA

“Hegemony (from the Greek hegemonia, meaning ‘leader’) is, in its simplest sense, the leadership or
domination of one element of a system over others. Gramsci used the term to refer to the ideological leadership
of the bourgeoisie over subordinate classes. In global or international politics, a hegemon is a leading state
within a collection of states. Hegemonic status is based on the possession of structural power, particularly the
control of economic and military resources, enabling the hegemon to shape the preferences and actions of
other states, typically by promoting willing consent rather than through the use of force. Following Gramsci,
the term implies that international or global leadership operates, in part, through ideational or ideological
means. Theorists such as Robert Cox interpreted such developments in terms of the USA’s rise to hegemony.
In this view, the USA provided the political framework for the growing world economy, exercising the
‘military-territorial power of an enforcer’ (Cox, 1994). However, during the 1970s and 1980s, it became
fashionable to proclaim the decline of US hegemony. This occurred through the emergence of both internal
and external challenges. Nevertheless, the Reagan administration (1981–89) helped to strengthen American
nationalism, both by preaching a ‘frontier ideology’ based on entrepreneurialism, tax cuts and ‘rolled back’
welfare and by adopting a more assertive and explicitly anti-communist foreign policy. The most significant
event, however, was the collapse of communism and the fall of the Soviet Union in the revolutions of 1989–
91. These provided the USA with a unique opportunity to establish global hegemony in what appeared to be
a unipolar world. The end of the Cold War gave economic globalization a considerable boost as new markets
and new opportunities opened up for western, and often the US, capitalist enterprises. Moreover, the US
model of liberal-democratic governance was quickly and eagerly adopted by many post-communist states
and elsewhere” (Heywood, 2011).

Discuss Gramsci’s concept of hegemony.

POSTSMODERNISM AND SECURITY

Recent years have seen the emergence of post-modernist approaches to international relations which has
produced a somewhat distinctive perspective towards international security. Postmodernists share the view
that ideas matter, but they also see discourse –how people talk about international politics and security-
as an important driving force that shapes the way in which states behave. Poststructuralism emerged
alongside postmodernism and the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably.
“Poststructuralism emphasizes that all ideas and concepts are expressed in language which itself is
enmeshed in complex relations of power. Influenced particularly by the writings of Michel Foucault,
poststructuralists have drawn attention to the link between power and systems of thought using the idea of
discourse, or ‘discourses of power’. In crude terms, this implies that knowledge is power. However, in the
absence of a universal frame of reference or overarching perspective, there exist only a series of competing
perspectives, each of which represents a particular discourse of power. Such a view has sometimes been
53
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Major IR Theories and Security

associated with Jacques Derrida’s ([1967] 1976) For postmodernists, discourses are the vehicles
famous formulation: ‘There is nothing outside to reality. David Campbell defined discourse as
the text.’ Poststructural or postmodern thinking “the representation and constitution of the real”
has exerted growing influence on international (Campbell, 1998, quoted in Dominguez, 2011).
relations theory, especially since the publication This can suggest that the knowledge of reality
of Der Derian and Shapiro’s International/ will depend on how we perceive it and how we
Intertextual (1989). Poststructuralism draws represent reality (Dominguez, 2011). Therefore,
attention to the fact that any political event will truth and knowledge can be perceived as socially
always be susceptible to competing interpretations. constructed depending on the space, time and the
9/11 is an example of this. Not only is there, power relations among the different discourses
for poststructuralists, irreducible debate about of reality (Acharya A. et al 2010, quoted in
whether 9/11 is best conceived as an act of Dominguez, 2011). For example, Nelson Mandela
terrorism, a criminal act, an act of evil, or an act was considered a terrorist by conservative British
of (possibly justified) revenge, but there is also Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and years later
uncertainty about the nature of the ‘act’ itself – was he was considered “one of the greatest men alive”
it the attacks themselves, the process of planning, by conservative British Prime Minister David
the formation of al-Qaeda, the onset of US neo- Cameron (Grice A, 2006). On the one hand, all
colonialism, or whatever? In such circumstances, these different perceptions of the reality may lead
the classic poststructuralist approach to exposing to the interpretation that discourse and language
hidden meanings in particular concepts, theories are everything and there is no real awareness of
and interpretations is a deconstruction. Critics, reality (Campbell, 1998, quoted in Dominguez,
however, accuse postmodernism/Poststructuralism 2011). Postmodernists seek to “deconstruct” such
of relativism, in that they hold that different modes constructions as states, the international system,
of knowing are equally valid and thus reject the and the associated stories and arguments (texts and
idea that even science can distinguish between discourses) with which realists portray the nature
truth and falsehood” (Heywood, 2011:73). of international relations (Campbell, 1993, quoted
For postmodernists like Richard Ashley, realism in Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014).
is one of the central problems of international
insecurity (Ashley, 1984). This is because realism
is a discourse of power and rule which has been 4
dominant in international politics in the past
and which has encouraged security competition Discuss the poststructuralist
between states. approach to power.

Postmodernism is an intellectual tradition

that is based on the belief that truth is always SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
contested and plural; sometimes summed up as AND SECURITY
‘incredulity towards metanarratives’ (Lyotard, Social constructivism focuses on the nature
1984). of norms, identity, and social interactions. The
Discourse is human interaction, especially constructivist approach is based on the belief
communication; discourse may disclose or that there is no objective social or political
illustrate power relations. reality independent of our understanding of it.
Deconstruction is a close reading of Constructivists hold that these state identities are
philosophical or other texts with an eye to their complex and changing, and arise from interactions
various blindspots and/or contradictions. with other states—often through a process of
socialization (Pevehouse and Goldstein, 2014).

54
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International Security

and discourse between individuals and groups. In

general terms, the mainstream social constructivist
approach argues that security is a social construction
that is context-specific. Threats do not simply exist
independently of our knowledge and representations
of them; they are brought into being by processes
(characterizations of the nature of a threat, for
instance, political speeches and media coverage) and
actors (such as state representatives and media outlets).
Furthermore, because threats are socially produced
as such, this perspective challenges the traditional
assumption that security issues must necessarily
center on material factors such as military capability.
Ideational and discursive factors such as ideas, norms,
beliefs, and identities are therefore given much
greater prominence in constructivist approaches
(Katzenstein, 1996). One prominent line examines
how states’ interests and identities are intertwined, as
Figure 2.10 Alexander Wendt, Professor at the Ohio well as how those identities are shaped by interactions
State University with other states. For example, Wendt states that “500
Source: https://polisci.osu.edu/people/wendt.23 British nuclear weapons are less threatening to the
United States than 5 North Korean nuclear weapons,
the British are friends and the North Koreans are not”
Social constructivism was developed by Alexander (quoted in Hurd, 2008:298).
Wendt but the term of constructivism was introduced
in 1989 by Nicholas Onuf. In what regards of the As critical constructivists, Katzenstein and
security, the main idea of social constructivists is that Hopf focus on the role of domestic norms in the
security is not an objective condition, that threats area of national security (Karacasulu and Uzgören,
to security do not represent only an issue of correct 2007). Furthermore, while the mainstream IR
perception of more material forces and that the theories are concerned with “explaining why
object of security is not stable or unchanging (Krause, particular decisions resulting in specific courses of
1996, quoted Laşan, 2012). In other words, social actions are made”, the critical constructivists focus
constructivists do not see security as being something “on how threat perceptions, the object of security,
that exists somewhere and waits to be discovered and are socially constructed” (Karacasulu and Uzgören,
analyzed by analysts and theoreticians but see security 2007). Katzenstein emphasizes the importance of
as being constructed and re-constructed through non-material factors. For example, he emplaces
intersubjective human understandings. his work within a “traditional narrow definition of
security” taking the hard case of national military
Wendt (1992) argues that ‘anarchy is what states security as his ultimate focus (Katzenstein, 1996).
make of it’. The claim is that anarchy is socially On the other hand, critical constructivists such as
constructed and shaped by the beliefs and attitudes Jutta Weldes (1999), David Mutimer (1999), and
of states; it is not an unchanging structure, which Karin Fierke (2007) focus on the constitutive role of
imposes certain constraints on states and compels discourse: that is, the ways in which discourses are
all to participate in an endless struggle for power constitutive not only not only of actors’ identities
and security. Constructivism which has focused but also power of the relations between them.
particularly on the relationship between interests
and identities encompasses several competing
approaches (Burchill and Linklater, 1996).
Wendt (1999) argues that threats to security 5
are not automatically given but produced through How does social constructivism define security?
inter-subjective interaction; that is, through dialogue

55
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Major IR Theories and Security

LO 1 Identify traditional approaches to security in IR

theories

During the Cold War, military threats to national security

dominated all others in the eyes of most security specialists.
Therefore, traditional IR theories such as realism locate the
nation state at the center of security debate. This is an old
military and state–centered view of security. Thus, Security
Studies during the Cold War era were a rather limited and
narrow sub-field of IR, mainly focusing on state security and
Summary

defining threat only in military terms. By the end of the Cold

War period, new schools of thought have emerged in the field
of Security Studies in parallel with the emergence of new kinds
of threats against human well-being and security.

LO 2 Recognize the changing understanding of security

and characterize critical security studies

Critical Security Studies contributes to security studies by

broadening and deepening the concept of security. This provides
to have better and fuller agendas that cover all those issues
that engender security. The broadening camp argued that a
predominantly military definition does not acknowledge that the
important threats to state survival may not be military, but also
environmental, social, political and economic. The deepeners, on
the other hand, asked the question of whose security is being
threatened and supported the construction of a definition of
security that allows for individual or structural referent objects,
as opposed to the state. One of the main idea of critical security
studies is the argument that security is a derivative concept. This
means that the view of security reflects our understanding of the
world and the perception of our threats.

LO 3 Evaluate the theories of international security

from a critical perspective

Since the late 1980s, critical perspectives have challenged

the major IR theories. Although critical perspectives vary
remarkably, the most important critical approaches are
Marxism and Neo-Marxism, critical theory, poststructuralism/
postmodernism, and social constructivism. Critical theories also
criticize the mainstream approaches to security. For example,
the security and insecurity in the Neo-Marxist approach is the
condition that has its roots in the separation of different areas
of the world from the process of production and the need of the
capitalist system to maintain the separation.

56
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International Security

LO 4 Discuss the relationship between postmodernism

and security

Recent years have seen the emergence of post-modernist

approaches to international relations, which has produced a
somewhat distinctive perspective towards international security.
Post modernists share the view that ideas matter, but they also
see discourse –how people talk about international politics and
security-as an important driving force that shapes the way states
behave. Poststructuralism emerged alongside postmodernism

Summary
and the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably.

LO 5 Analyze the relationship between social

constructivism and security

The term of constructivism was introduced in 1989 by Nicholas

Onuf. Social constructivism was developed by Alexander
Wendt. Social constructivism focuses on the nature of norms,
identity, and social interactions. The constructivist approach to
analysis is based on the belief that there is no objective social
or political reality independent of our understanding of it.
Constructivists hold that these state identities are complex and
changing, and arise from interactions with other states- often
through a process of socialization

57
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Major IR Theories and Security

1 The existence of security in the ……… is 6 Which of the following is the epistemology
based on the continuity of relations between the of Critical Security Studies?
peripheral areas and the core areas.
a. Post-positivism
Which of the following options correctly completes
the sentence above? b. Positivism
Test Yourself

c. Empiricism
a. Marxism d. Ontology
b. Critical Theory e. Analogy
c. Gramscianism
d. World System Theory
e. New Marxism 7 To which of the following does the Welsh
School’s main concept of emancipation refer?
2 Which of the following holds that democratic a. Survival
states do not go to war with one another? b. Actor
a. Cooperation c. International System
b. Securitization theory d. Policy
c. Security Complex Theory e. Security
d. Democratic peace theory
e. Collective security 8 Which of the following is not one of the
conceptual contributions of the Copenhagen
3 National security is linked to ………. and School to Security Studies?
considered as……………… a. Security Complex Theory
Which of the following options correctly completes b. Securitization Theory
the sentence above? c. Military Security
a. struggle for power … soft politics d. Sectoral Analysis
b. survival… high politics e. Societal Security
c. intervention … high politics
d. diplomacy… soft politics
e. justice …high politics
9 Which of the following IR theories is also
related to the Copenhagen School Security
Studies?
4 Which of the following approaches argues a. Social Constructivism
that security is a social construction?
b. Liberalism
a. Constructivism c. Critical Theory
b. Feminism d. Neo-Liberalism
c. Critical Theory e. Neo-Realism
d. English School
e. Realism
10 According to the Paris School, the concept of
5
Which of the following is not one of the securitization refers to…
differences between traditional and critical security Which of the following options correctly completes
theories? the sentence above?
a. Referent object
a. Survival
b. Methodology
b. Absent of threats
c. A subfield of international relations.
c. Internal/ External security
d. Threats type
e. The meaning of security d. Intolerance towards differences
e. Emancipation

58
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International Security

1. d If your answer is incorrect, review the 6. a If your answer is incorrect, review the
section on “Marxism and Security” section “Critical Security Studies”

If your answer is incorrect, review the If your answer is incorrect, review the

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. d 7. e
section on “Liberal Institutionalism and section “Welsh School In Critical Security
Security” Studies”

If your answer is incorrect, review the If your answer is incorrect, review the
3. b 8. c
section on “Realisms/Neorealism and section “Copenhagen School in Critical
Security” Security Studies”

If your answer is incorrect, review the

4. a If your answer is incorrect, review the 9. a
section “Copenhagen School in Critical
section on “Constructivism and Security”
Security Studies”

If your answer is incorrect, review the If your answer is incorrect, review the
5. c 10. d
section “Key Dimensions Of Approaches section “Paris School in Critical Security
In Security Studies” Studies”

59
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Major IR Theories and Security

How does liberal institutionalism see security?

Neorealism rejects the significance of international institutions in helping

many to achieve peace and security. Liberal institutionalists accept many
of the assumptions of neorealism such as the continuing importance of
military power in IR but argue that institutions can provide framework for
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

your turn 1 cooperation, which can help to overcome the dangers of security competition
between states. There are also other approaches to contemporary international
security which take realpolitik and power calculations seriously but which
also argue that domestic politics, beliefs and norms must also be included as
important determinants of state behavior. One such approach is associated
with collective security ideas (Baylis, 2001).

Discuss the key concepts of Critical Security Studies.

Critical Security Studies (CSS) is an umbrella term for a range of approaches

which seek to challenge the orthodoxy of ‘traditional’ security studies. Critical
approaches apply post-positivist perspectives such as critical theory and post-
structuralism and change the referent object of security. Today, CSS represents
a large group of scholars, schools, approaches, and understandings. Keith
Krause, Michael Williams, Ken Booth, and Richard Wyn Jones are scholars
associated with the CSS. The Aberystwyth (Welsh) School, Copenhagen
School, and Paris School are the main schools of thought. These European
schools are distinguished by their aims and modes of analysis. They all
made the security agenda broader and deeper by incorporating non-military
your turn 2 threats such as the global economic crisis, the refugee crisis, international
terrorism, and environmental problems into the security agenda. Critical
Security Studies contributes to security studies as broadening and deepening
the concept of security. This provides to have better and fuller agendas that
cover all those issues that engender security. Broadening security means that a
predominantly military definition does not acknowledge that the important
threats to state survival may not be military, but also environmental, social,
political and economic. The deepeners, on the other hand, asked the question
of whose security is being threatened and supported the construction of a
definition of security that allows for individual or structural referent objects,
as opposed to the state. Another main idea of critical security studies is the
argument that security is a derivative concept. It means the view of security
reflects our understanding of the world and the perception of our threats.

Discuss Gramsci’s concept of hegemony.

Gramsci uses hegemony to refer to the ideological leadership of the bourgeoisie

over subordinate classes. In global or international politics, a hegemon is
a leading state within a collection of states. Hegemonic status is based on
the possession of structural power, particularly the control of economic and
your turn 3 military resources, enabling the hegemon to shape the preferences and actions
of other states, typically by promoting willing consent rather than through the
use of force. Following Gramsci, the term implies that international or global
leadership operates, in part, through ideational or ideological means.

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International Security

Discuss the poststructuralist approach to power.

Poststructuralism emphasizes that all ideas and concepts are expressed in

language which itself is enmeshed in complex relations of power. Influenced

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

particularly by the writings of Michel Foucault, poststructuralists have
your turn 4 drawn attention to the link between power and systems of thought using the
idea of discourse, or ‘discourses of power’. In crude terms, this implies that
knowledge is power. However, in the absence of a universal frame of reference
or overarching perspective, there exist only a series of competing perspectives,
each of which represents a particular discourse of power.

How does social constructivism define security?

In general terms, mainstream social constructivist approach argues that

security is a social construction that is context-specific. Threats do not simply
exist independently of our knowledge and representations of them; they are
brought into being by processes (characterizations of the nature of a threat,
for instance, political speeches and media coverage) and actors (such as state
representatives and media outlets). Furthermore, because threats are socially
your turn 5 produced as such, this perspective challenges the traditional assumption that
security issues must necessarily center on material factors such as military
capability. Ideational and discursive factors –ideas, norms, beliefs, and
identities –are therefore given much greater prominence in constructivist
approaches (Katzenstein, 1996).

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63
 Legitimate Use of Force in
Chapter 3 International Relations
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Explain the UN Charter paradigm on the use of Identify Chapter VII of the UN Charter as a
force source of legitimacy for the use of force

3 Describe the UN peacekeeping forces and

their place in world politics today 4 Contextualize the issues of use of force and
legitimacy beyond the UN Charter paradigm

Key Terms
• Use of force
• Legitimacy
Chapter Outline • The United Nations
Introduction • The UN Charter
The UN Charter Paradigm and Legitimate Use • Peacekeeping
Force • UN Peacekeeping Forces
The Use of Force Based on Chapter VII of the UN • Self-defense
Charter • Alliance
The UN Peacekeeping Forces • Humanitarian intervention
The Use of Force and Legitimacy beyond the UN • Protection of citizens abroad
Charter Paradigm • Special tribunals
• Terrorism
• Conventional weapons
• Nuclear weapons
• Nuclear energy

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International Security

INTRODUCTION which legitimizes the use of nuclear energy for

The use of force (the use of power) has always peaceful reasons, bans the non-nuclear-weapon
been a critical issue for political, legal, and ethical states to acquire a nuclear capacity while bringing
reasons in world politics. This is why the society of an obligation on the part of the nuclear weapon
states has resorted to international law in order to states not to transfer nuclear-weapons technology
regulate the use of force. Because power has been to third parties.
used not only between states in “regular wars” but
also between various actors (such as organizations The Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): “This
and groups) in many different occasions and for Treaty, which is unique in the political history
many complicated reasons, we also observe that of the world, is aimed at halting the course of
international rules regulating the use of force this history in a crucial field by fixing once and
have changed over time and widened so as to for all the number of nuclear weapon powers. It
cover some new developments. Moreover, in an defines this type of power, furthermore, as a State
attempt to introduce their actions as legitimate, which manufactured and exploded a nuclear
various actors have differently interpreted these weapon or any other explosive nuclear device
international rules. before 1 January 1967, and therefore covers the
five nuclear powers alone. The Treaty prohibits
What is meant by the use of force or the use of
the signatory nuclear powers from transferring
armed force in this chapter relates to those actions nuclear weapons or other explosive devices or
undertaken by conventional (classical) weapons. control over them to any nation whatsoever. It
The reason is that many multilateral conventions was this clause that put an end to the plan for a
were signed within the context of the United Nations NATO nuclear force. The Treaty also prohibits
that banned the proliferation of nuclear, chemical, the nuclear weapon States from helping any non-
and biological weapons as well as outlawed the nuclear-weapon State (whether party to the Treaty
use of such weapons. In other words, resorting to or not) to manufacture or acquire such weapons
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons is already or devices, or to have control over them. This
considered an illegitimate act in international ban fits in with the political line that had always
relations. For example, the Convention on the been followed, except for a few minor deviations,
Prohibition of the Development, Production and by the members of the most exclusive Club in
Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and the world, and is in effect the Club’s unwritten
law. It does not involve any genuine concessions
Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction (referred
on the part of those belonging to it, but rather
to as the  Biological Weapons Convention – leaves the transfer of technology or weapons
BWC), and the Convention on the Prohibition among the nuclear power themselves completely
of the Development, Production, Stockpiling unrestricted. Conversely, the other States party to
and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their the Treaty i.e. the non-nuclear powers, undertake
Destruction (referred to as the Chemical Weapons not to accept the transfer of or control over such
Convention –CWC) came into force in 1993 and weapons or devices from any nation whatsoever
1997, respectively. and not to manufacture them” (www.iaea.org).
Besides, although the P5 states (the permanent
members of the UN Security Council), namely In the following sections first we will analyze
the United States, Russia, China, France, and the the concept of the use of force within the UN
United Kingdom, are in possession of nuclear system because the UN Charter constitutes the
weapons, there is already consensus reached by the main international treaty that lays down the
international society on the non-proliferation of basic principles on the legitimate use of force.
such weapons. Moreover, the UN Charter regulates the principles
In fact, not only that the Non-Proliferation of individual and collective right of states to self-
Treaty (NPT) came into force in 1970 but also defense as well as the requirements for imposing
that on 11 May 1995 the states parties to the treaty sanctions on aggressors in the system. The chapter,
have extended the NPT indefinitely. The NPT, in consistent with the recent developments in world

65
 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

politics, later explains the emerging principles of defense rather than collective security. Yet the UN
use of force beyond the Charter paradigm while Charter, different from the League Covenant,
surveying such issues as humanitarian intervention, establishes a strong Security Council, where the
defense of nationals (citizens) abroad, and treaty- Permanent 5 members (namely the US, China, the
based intervention. United Kingdom, France, and Russia) have had the
veto power and acted somehow as arbitrators in
the system. Besides the right of self-defense defined
THE UN CHARTER AND THE by the Charter, generally these veto states (the P5)
LEGITIMATE USE OF FORCE decide when (and under which circumstances) the
The UN Charter was signed on June 26, 1945 use of force in the system may be considered as
and it came into force on October 24, 1945. Because legitimate as well as when the very UN members
the UN Charter is an international treaty, it binds can resort to military force.
the signatory states in their relations, including on
the use of force. With regard to any attack on states
in the system and the use of force as a result of a
threat to the international order, the UN Charter
has tried to balance the collective-security approach
of the League of Nations era (1920-1939) with
the distribution of power that emerged after the
Second World War. Therefore, some scholars have
referred to both the UN Charter and its security
understanding as ‘realistic’ (Claude, 1999).
In fact, the Covenant of the League of Nations
defined a collective-security system. Article 10 of
the Covenant states as follows: “The Members of Figure 3.1 Security Council considers the situation in
the League undertake to respect and preserve as Afghanistan, December 17, 2018.
against external aggression the territorial integrity Source: www.unmultimedia.org
and existing political independence of all Members
of the League. In case of any such aggression or
in case of any threat or danger of such aggression In principle, the UN Charter has outlawed
the Council shall advise upon the means by which initiating a war of aggression. In other words, it
this obligation shall be fulfilled.” According to this is against the UN-Charter principles for any state
system, which can be considered as a system of to wage an aggressive war. However, the UN does
“one for all, all for one,” when one member of the not outlaw the use of defensive force. We cannot
League is attacked, all the other members would too much stress the importance of this rule of the
automatically come to the help of this victimized UN Charter; that is, the use of defensive force
member. or waging a defensive war has not been outlawed
by the UN. Therefore, it is one of the critical
However, the invasion of Abyssinia, Manchuria,
questions of international law today that under
and Austria fell on deaf ears in the 1930s; the
which circumstances the use of force by states can
League of Nations did almost nothing to stop those
be considered as defensive rather than offensive.
aggressions. This proved that the member states did
For this reason, below we will first reflect on those
not have the will to employ the collective security
Charter principles that regulate the use of force.
system, defined by Article 10 of the Covenant
(Doğan, 2012: 89-122). Therefore, having learned important
a lesson from this experience, the signatories of the
UN Charter stayed away from defining such an The UN Charter has not outlawed the use of
automatic response to use of force by states. defensive force or waging a defensive war.
The UN Charter, which is the primary source
from which we can discern today’s system of
international security, places an emphasis on self-

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International Security

Article 2/4 of the UN Charter there exists a clear division of opinion whenever
Article 2/4 of the UN Charter is the main rule a state resorts to use of force in the system. For
that regulates the use of force in international example, the US government’s indirect intervention
relations. Accordingly, “All Members shall refrain in Nicaragua through sending aids to the Contra
in their international relations from the threat guerillas was interpreted as an act of individual and
or use of force against the territorial integrity or collective self-defense from the point of the United
political independence of any state, or in any other States; however, from the Nicaraguan perspective,
manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the it was a direct attack on the political independence,
United Nations.” This rule, then, bans a member territorial integrity as well as the economic and
state from using force and from threatening other political system of the country.
states to use force in such a manner that it would
be: a) against the territorial integrity of member Article 2/6 of the UN Charter
states; b) against the political independence of
Article 2/6 of the UN Charter stipulates that
member states; and c) inconsistent with the aims
“the Organization shall ensure that states which
of the UN Charter.
are not Members of the United Nations act in
One can claim that Article 2/4 is clear on the accordance with these Principles so far as may be
use of force in international relations. However, necessary for the maintenance of international
Article 2/4 introduces many uncertainties or, from peace and security.” As such, Article 2/6 emphasizes
a different perspective, it is quite flexible on the that even those states that are not members of the
use of force between states. This creates a debate UN must comply with the Charter’s rules and
and tension between states. “The first point of norms on peace and security as well as it provides a
debate on Article 2/4 is the meaning and scope legal ground for UN members to impose sanctions
of the concept ‘force.’ According to the positivist on these states, if necessary.
approach, which interprets Article 2/4 from a
relatively narrow perspective, the use of force in
international relations refers to the actual use of Article 2/7 of the UN Charter
military force or to threatening a state with using Article 2/7 has been one of the most controversial
military force. From a broader perspective, however, articles of the UN Charter. It is the embodiment of
the concept of use of force in Article 2/4 refers to power struggle among the member states on those
any kind of action that may be undertaken (or any issues that are stipulated in Article 2/4, Article
threat of action) against the territorial integrity 51, and Chapter VII of the Charter. According
and the political independence of a state. From to Article 2/7, “Nothing contained in the present
this perspective, then, even without using military Charter shall authorize the United Nations to
force a state may threaten other states through intervene in matters which are essentially within
ideological, economic, and political means. the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall
Another debate on Article 2/4 is the scope require the Members to submit such matters to
of the principles of territorial integrity and settlement under the present Charter; but this
political independence. According to the principle shall not prejudice the application of
positivist approach, the scope of Article 2/4 is enforcement measures under Chapter VII.”
limited to the threat and the use of force that The legal key term in the wording of Article 2/7
directly has an effect on the territorial integrity and is the domestic jurisdiction of states. This is so
political independence of a state. From a broader because which actions and issues fall under the legal
perspective, however, the scope of Article 2/4 and political domain of state and when the state
extends to any kind of action against the political can exclusively take decisions on these actions and
authority in a state” (Doğan, 2006: 106). issues have always been controversial. Therefore,
These heated legal and political debates, coupled many decisions that states take on issues related to
with the ambiguity of the UN-Charter objectives, use of force, self-defense, aggression, and political
point to the fact that there is no consensus on independence face opposition at international
Article 2/4 among the UN member states and that platforms.

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Article 51 of the UN Charter: The a. However, as it may be predicted, whenever

Right of Self-Defense there is an agenda on the use of force by the states,
The right of self-defense is enshrined in Article the scope of right of self-defense and under which
51 of the UN Charter. Article 51 provides that circumstances and conditions this right can be
“nothing in the present Charter shall impair the used is not clear. According to Article 51, a state
inherent right of individual or collective self-defense must primarily become a target of an “armed
if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the attack.” Nevertheless, even becoming a target of an
United Nations, until the Security Council has armed attack is not that clear and one can note the
taken measures necessary to maintain international following controversial issues:
peace and security. Measures taken by Members First, international law has not so far come
in the exercise of this right of self-defense shall up with one definition of “attack” that would
be immediately reported to the Security Council bind the states in their relations. In other words,
and shall not in any way affect the authority and there is neither a Security Council decision nor a
responsibility of the Security Council under the treaty clause that defines the concept of “attack”
present Charter to take at any time such action as in international relations. The only text that might
it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore be a guide (but which is legally not binding) is the
international peace and security.” “Definition of Attack” adopted by the UN General
As such, the UN Charter acknowledges that, Assembly in its Resolution 3314 (XXIX). As such
in this system of states, each state has the right to the UN General Assembly demands that the
defense either individually or collectively, through Security Council take this decision into account
combining its efforts with those of other states, while debating whether a specific action is an
within an alliance if it is needed. Article 51 also attack or not.
acknowledges that self-defense is a natural right in One may argue that this decision of the General
that in order for the state to exercise this right, the Assembly defines the concept of attack in three
permission or the authorization of any organization stages:
or institution is not needed. First of all, Article I of the decision, in parallel
In fact, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) with Article 2/4 of the UN Charter, defines attack
has not only confirmed the right of self-defense but as the “use of armed force against the sovereignty,
also ruled that this right has become a customary territorial integrity or political independence of a
law by its decision at the case of “Military and nation or in any other manner inconsistent with
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua” the Charter of UN” (UN General Assembly,
(Pazarcı, 2011: 520). The ICJ stated as follows 1974). Secondly, Article II of the Decision, with
(ICJ, 1986, para.176 and 193): regard to the legitimacy of the attack, lays the
burden of proof on that state who first resorted
“Article 51 of the Charter is only meaningful on to force. In other words, “the first use of armed
the basis that there is a ‘natural’ or ‘inherent’ right force by a State in contravention of the Charter
of self-defense, and it is hard to see how this can be shall constitute prima facie evidence of an act of
other than of a customary nature…The Charter aggression.” However, Article II also demands
itself testifies to the existence of the right of that the Security Council consider other “relevant
collective self- defense in customary international circumstances” while debating a specific act and
law. Moreover, just as the wording of certain argues that in order for this act to amount to an
General Assembly declarations adopted by States aggression, either the act or its consequences must
demonstrates their recognition of the principle of
be of “sufficient gravity.”
the prohibition of force as definitely a matter of
customary international law, some of the wording Based on these two articles, the General
in those declarations operates similarly in respect Assembly lists several specific acts in Article III of the
of the right of self-defense (both collective and Resolution and decides that any of these acts “shall,
individual).” subject to and in accordance with the provisions of
article 2, qualify as an act of aggression.” These acts
include (UN General Assembly, 1974):

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• “The invasion or attack by the armed b. Another controversial issue on the natural
forces of a State of the territory of another right of self-defense as stipulated in Article 51
State, or any military occupation, however is whether a state must wait for an actual armed
temporary, resulting from such invasion attack to occur against its territorial integrity or
or attack, or any annexation by the use of political independence in order to use its right of
force of the territory of another State or self-defense. Despite the fact that the UN General
part thereof, Assembly has decided that “the first use of armed
• Bombardment by the armed forces of a force by a State in contravention of the Charter
State against the territory of another State shall constitute prima facie evidence of an act of
or the use of any weapons by a State against aggression,” however, the Assembly also qualified
the territory of another State; the use of armed force by drawing attention to
“other relevant circumstances” and to the gravity
• The blockade of the ports or coasts of a
of such an act as well as to the gravity of the act’s
State by the armed forces of another State;
consequences.
• An attack by the armed forces of a State on
Therefore, the critical legal question here is,
the land, sea or air forces, or marine and air
whether a state when it has reasonable doubt and
fleets of another State;
adequate information that another state’s attack
• The use of armed forces of one State which against itself is imminent can first act and use its
are within the territory of another State right of self-defense. In other words, if the threat
with the agreement of the receiving State, of an attack in imminent, does this justify the state
in contravention of the conditions provided to use force preemptively? This issue, which in
for in the agreement or any extension of the literature of International Relations is known
their presence in such territory beyond the as “preemptive strike” or “preventive strike,” is
termination of the agreement; still controversial (Bellier, 2006); however, the
• The action of a State in allowing its actual law (with the exception of recent grave
territory, which it has placed at the disposal situations such as terrorism) is in conformity with
of another State, to be used by that other the approach that the UN Charter should be
State for perpetrating an act of aggression interpreted rather narrowly.
against a third State; c) Another controversial issue on the right of
• The sending by or on behalf of a State self-defense is whether a third state may exercise
of armed bands, groups, irregulars or this right in the name of another state that has
mercenaries, which carry out acts of armed been subject to an attack. For instance, if the state
force against another State of such gravity X is not in a position to defend itself because of
as to amount to the acts listed above, or its an attack, can the state Y, without a call by the
substantial involvement therein.” state X, use legitimate force against the aggressors
by arguing that X has the right of collective self-
defense under international law?
d) Article 51 entitles the member states to
use the right to self-defense “until the Security
Council has taken measures necessary to maintain
international peace and security.” This wording
creates another confusion and controversy. Because,
even though the right of self-defense is considered
natural and resorting to self-defense does not
require the blessing of the Security Council, it is
not clear, however, which circumstances justify a
state to continue enjoying its right of self-defense
and which specific measures taken by the Council
Figure 3.2 The UN General Assembly Hall make it impossible for the state to continue using
Source: www.un.org legitimate force in the name of self-defense.

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Notwithstanding these debates and regional arrangements or agencies for enforcement

controversies, Article 51 of the UN Charter action under its authority. But no enforcement
submits that a member state that has been the action shall be taken under regional arrangements
target of an armed attack can use the right of self- or by regional agencies without the authorization
defense either individually or collectively. Even of the Security Council.”
if the UN General Assembly Resolution does However, Article 53 is not only unclear on such
not give a legally binding definition of “attack,” concepts as “arrangements” and “regional agencies,”
in international relations one can determine in but also silent on the question of under which
general terms what kind of qualities an act should particular conditions the Security Council should ask
possess for that act to amount to an attack and help from these arrangements and agencies. Moreover,
which circumstances to be expected in deciding on because Article 53 does not clarify what kind of
the legitimacy of that act. The established rules of regional actions can be carried out with or without
international law and the narrow interpretation of the permission of Security Council, the concept of
the UN Charter point to the fact that an act of use “compelling measures” is also unclear. In fact, because
of force by a state in the absence of an actual armed of recent actions of many regional institutions, this
attack against itself in the first instance as well as subject has taken on an added importance. Since the
any activity taken against a state by another state end of the Cold War, organizations such as NATO,
through the use of military or paramilitary forces the European Union, and the Organization for
to achieve certain political or economic objectives Security and Co-Operation in Europe (OSCE) have
cannot be considered as a legitimate use of force undertaken critical missions to implement the UN
within the scope of self-defense. decisions such as contributing to peacebuilding and
The International Court of Justice has upheld peace enforcement in former Yugoslavia, Bosnia,
this interpretation in its decision in the Nicaragua Libya, and Afghanistan.
case. Louis Henkin, a prominent representative
of this relatively narrow (positivist) approach,
argues that “since the conclusion of the UN Treaty
almost every use of force has been condemned by
almost every state. Almost every initiative trying
to indicate use of force as legitimate has been
declined and international society moved to render
the restrictions more apparent and solid” (Henkin,
1991: 1234-1235). However, as we will review
below, especially after September 11, 2001, the
UN Charter has been interpreted from a relatively
wider perspective, especially with regard to such Figure 3.3 A photo of NATO peace-support operation
circumstances as the grave violation of human in Kosovo since June 1999 under the mandate of United
rights, genocide, and international terrorism. Nations Security Council Resolution 1244 (cooperating
Therefore, the use of force by states in some and coordinating with the United Nations, the European
occasions has been considered as legitimate. Union, and other international actors).
Source: www.nato.int
Article 53 of the UN Charter
With regard to the legitimate use of force,
another issue that has occupied a prominent place in
the agenda is the role that regional organizations 1
can play in the international system. According Discuss the concept of war and the nature of
to Article 53 of the UN Charter, “The Security warfare in the 21st century.
Council shall, where appropriate, utilize such

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CHAPTER VII OF THE UN as well as on the independence question between

CHARTER AND THE LEGITIMATE Serbia and Kosovo, some states either unilaterally
USE OF FORCE intervened in these questions or participated in
NATO operations.
Chapter VI of the UN Charter empowers the
Security Council on the issue of “peaceful resolution
of disputes” among states and defines various
political and judicial solutions. Whereas these 2
measures would be inadequate, Chapter VII of the
UN Charter gives the authorization to the Security Discuss what kind of sanctions the Security
Council to take precautions of the implementation Council may invoke under Chapter VII of the
of necessary sanctions and coercive measures, UN Charter.
including the use of force.
Accordingly, as it is defined in Article 41,
the Council can call for “ the suspension of all THE UN PEACEKEEPING FORCES
or part of the economic relations and of rail, Chapter VI of the UN Charter is related to
sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other the Security Council’s authority with regard to
means of communication, and the severance of pacific settlement of disputes, whereas Chapter
diplomatic relations” under the circumstances VII is about the coercive measures, including the
of an international dispute or conflict. However, use of force in case of an attack against a member
according to Article 42 “If the Security Council state. Nevertheless, there is no legal arrangement
considers that measures provided by Article for “peacekeeping” in the UN Charter. In fact,
41 would be inadequate or have proved to be the concept of, and the mission of, peacekeeping
inadequate, it may take what steps are seen as is something invented by the then UN Secretary-
necessary by air, sea, or land forces in order to General Dag Hammarskjöld, because the Security
maintain or restore international peace and Council had become paralyzed and perplexed due
security. Such actions may include demonstrations, to the Cold War and especially to the conflictual
blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land relations between the two superpowers that made
forces of Members of the United Nations.” it impossible for the UN to implement the clauses
Therefore, according to Article 42, the Security of Chapter VII (Ndulo, 2011).
Council can authorize the use of armed force in the
international system. As such, the use of force by
member states to implement a decision of the UN
Security Council is “legitimate” under international
law. In fact, the UN, within the scope of Article
42, decided to use armed force on two occasions
only: first, during the Korean War in 1950 and,
second, through its Resolution 678 (1990) to drive
the Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. Turkey sent troops
to Korea to oppose the North Korean aggression.
Even if Turkey did not actively take part in the Iraq
War (Gulf War I), it implemented the decisions
of the UN against Iraq, including the petroleum
export embargo by closing down the Kirkuk-
Yumurtalık pipeline.
However, we also observe that some states
use force in international relations without Figure 3.4 Dag Hammarskjöld
the authorization of the Security Council. For Source: www.nobelprize.org
example, although the UN was not able to pass a
resolution on the US occupation of Iraq in 2003

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

As a rule, the authority to decide on a decision emerge, the General Assembly can make
peacekeeping mission or a military intervention recommendations and even decide to establish a
rests with the Security Council. As stated in Article peacekeeping mission.
24 of the UN Charter, “in order to ensure prompt
and effective action by the United Nations, its
Members assign the Security Council with the main
responsibility to maintain the international peace
and security.” In fact, the UN Charter has taken
into account the possibility that a conflict of powers
may arise between the various organs of the UN,
especially between the Assembly and the Council.
Therefore, Article 12 states that “While the Security
Council is exercising in respect of any dispute or
situation the functions assigned to it in the present
Charter, the General Assembly shall not make any
recommendation with regard to that dispute or Figure 3.5 a photo of the UN Peacekeeping Force
situation unless the Security Council so requests.” Source: www.peacekeeping.un.org
Through Article 12, the UN reaffirms the scope of
the Council’s authority and responsibilities in such Indeed, upon the Suez crisis, the General
a way not to hurt national interests of the P5 states. Assembly decided to initiate a peacekeeping mission,
However, especially in gray times and in gray the UN Emergency Force (UNEF-I), in November
areas the General Assembly does not hesitate to 1956. The Security Council had established the first
seize opportunities toward exerting and widening peacekeeping mission of the UN (the UN Truce
its authority. In fact, when the Security Council Supervision Organization, UNTSO) in 1948 in an
was not able to act on the issues under its authority attempt to ensure security in Palestine. Therefore,
during the heyday of the Cold War simply because UNEF-I was the second such mission and its
the permanent members failed to reach a consensus primary objective was to observe the withdrawal of
and frequently resorted to their veto power, the French, Israeli, and British forces from Egypt as well
General Assembly passed Resolution 377 (the as to create a buffer zone between Egypt and Israel.
“Uniting for Peace” decision) on November 3, From 1948 onwards the UN has established
1950 (Reicher, 1981). According to this decision, seventy-one peacekeeping missions in various
the General Assembly “resolves that if the Security geographies to address many different problems
Council, because of lack of unanimity of the (UN, 2018a). Out of these seventy-one missions,
permanent members, fails to exercise its primary the following fourteen peacekeeping missions are
responsibility for the maintenance of international still underway:
peace and security in any case where there appears
• United Nations Mission for Justice Support
to be a threat to the peace, breach of the peace,
in Haiti (MINUJUSTH)
or act of aggression, the General Assembly shall
consider the matter immediately with a view • United Nations Mission for the Referendum
to making appropriate recommendations to in Western Sahara (MINURSO)
Members for collective measures” (UN General • United Nations Multidimensional
Assembly, 1950). Moreover, the General Assembly Integrated Stabilization Mission in the
established a Peace Observation Commission, Central African Republic (MINUSCA)
which was composed of 14 members. Therefore, • United Nations Multidimensional
from a legal point of view, one can conclude that Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali
in accordance with the UN Charter principles (MINUSMA)
the Security Council has the authority to decide
• United Nations Organization Stabilization
on a peacekeeping mission; however, once the
Mission in the Democratic Republic of the
conditions stated within the Uniting for Peace
Congo (MONUSCO)

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International Security

• African Union - United Nations Hybrid For example, the following two missions
Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) were the peace enforcement missions where the
• United Nations Disengagement Observer UN troops had to physically fight: 1) The UN
Force (UNDOF) Operation in Congo (UNOC): started on July
14, 1960 with the Security Council Resolution
• United Nations Peacekeeping Force in
143 and continued until June 1964; 2) The UN
Cyprus (UNFICYP)
Operation in Somali (UNOSOM II): started
• United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon on March 26, 1993 with the Security Council
(UNIFIL) Resolution 814 and continued until March 1995
• United Nations Interim Security Force for under the leadership of the USA. Since the UN is a
Abyei (UNISFA) universal political organization, its main objective
• United Nations Interim Administration is not, and should not be, waging wars or engaging
Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) in combat missions, but ensuring global stability
• United Nations Mission in the Republic of and bringing about a lasting peace as an impartial
South Sudan (UNMISS) actor through winning the support and trust of
all states and parties to various conflicts across the
• United Nations Military Observer Group
world. Fighting a war or creating stability in the
in India and Pakistan (UNGOMIP)
system through using force should be the mission
• United Nations Truce Supervision of alliances such as NATO. In short, the UN
Organization (UNTSO). should stay away from any engagement that would
Besides these, the UN also has an ongoing shadow its impartiality and its role as an arbiter in
political mission called the UN Assistance Mission political questions.
in Afghanistan (UN, 2018b). The fundamental objective of the UN in
peacekeeping missions, then, should not be
important fighting but implementing a political and military
observation task in an attempt to ensure regional
For further information on peacekeeping and and global stability. This task may involve observing
the UN peacekeeping missions, please see a referendum or an election in a member state,
Chapter 4. making sure that the security is not threatened in
a given state, monitoring a truce to prevent the
parties from initiating the fighting, or creating
As can be understood from the titles of a buffer zone between the parties. However,
these missions, the primary function of the UN the proliferation of military interventions in
peacekeeping forces is neither using force nor international relations especially after the fall of the
participating in military conflicts. It is widely Berlin Wall, the attempts at transforming the UN
accepted in academia and political circles that two “peacemaking” missions into peace enforcement
criteria must be met for a United Nations mission missions as well as creating new nation states
to be considered as a “peacekeeping mission.” First, in some conflictual geographies have come to
all the parties (whether they are states or political undermine the confidence in the UN.
groups) to the conflict must give their approval to
the deployment of the UN peacekeeping forces.
Second, the peacekeeping forces must not be in
possession of heavy weapons and use force only 3
for self-defense purposes. Therefore, those missions Do some research on UN peacekeepers.
that do not possess these conditions, even though
they are officially named as “peacekeeping,” are
not peacekeeping but, in military (technical
and political terms) are peace enforcement or
peacemaking missions.

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

USE OF FORCE AND LEGITIMACY discussion among the scholars, professional

BEYOND THE UN CHARTER soldiers, and politicians. For example, there is an
PARADIGM ongoing debate why the international society did
not intervene in Rwanda even though there was
So far in this chapter we covered the situations ample evidence that a genocide had been underway
where force is used within the UN paradigm, that in the country by the majority Hutu population
is, within the Charter provisions on the use of force. against the minority Tutsis. Recently the missions
To put it in a nutshell, the UN system makes it in Somali, Sierra Leone, Timor-Leste, Bosnia,
legitimate to use armed force only in two occasions: Afghanistan, Darfur, and Lebanon have been cited
self-defense under Article 51, and interventions as examples of humanitarian intervention. However,
because of a UN Security Council resolution within a typical example is the intervention by NATO
the scope of Article 42. Likewise, we have drawn forces in the Kosovo crisis in 1999 and the bombing
attention to UN peacekeeping missions that were of Serbia without the blessing of the UN Security
established through the Security Council decisions Council. From these examples, it is clear that there
and we have clarified that some of these missions is a tension in the international system with regard
were rather peace enforcement missions. to humanitarian intervention between the norms of
Below we will start reflecting on some “sovereignty and stability” and the norms of “justice
philosophical and political underpinnings or reasons and human rights” (Vesel, 2003-2004: 7).
such as humanitarian intervention, protecting state Moreover, scholars of international law do not
citizens, and terrorism that would help legitimize the have a consensus on such issues that humanitarian
instances of use of force in international relations. intervention is legitimate, or that the UN Charter
These reasons for resorting to force may be classified and other legal documents can be interpreted
as “beyond the UN Charter paradigm” because broadly enough to cover humanitarian intervention
the UN Charter does not cover or directly address or that a rule of customary international law exists
them (Arend and Beck, 1993). on the subject matter.
However, scholars have given various definitions
Humanitarian Intervention of the concept. For example, Rogers believes that
Especially following the end of the Cold War, humanitarian intervention is “protecting another
we have witnessed in the international system such state’s population from serious and enduring
issues as killing the civilians in war zones or conflict human rights violations without the decision of
zones, gross violation of human rights, genocides as the Security Council” (Rogers, 2003-2004: 730).
well as the violation of international humanitarian Ajaj defines humanitarian intervention as the
law. The international society, if we can use “short-term use of force to exclusively re-establish
such a concept at all, decided to intervene or not respect for human rights” (Ajaj, 1992-1993: 216-
to intervene in these grave issues. The political 217). According to Halberstam, humanitarian
literature and academia mainly had this discussion intervention is “the use of force by one state in
with a reference to the concept of humanitarian the territory of another to protect persons who
intervention. That is why we need to devote some are in imminent danger of death or grave injury
time in this chapter and reflect on this rather recent when the state in whose territory they are is
concept. However, humanitarian intervention has unwilling or unable to protect them” (Halberstam,
not only a legal dimension but also philosophical 1995: 1). Similarly, Brenfors and Petersen define
and political dimensions that would help one to humanitarian intervention as “the threat or use of
come up with reasons to legitimize or delegitimize armed force by a State or a group of States, absent
the UN and NATO interventions as well as of formal authorization by the Security Council of
individual interventions by state actors. the United Nations, in order to remedy genocide or
The IR literature has failed to provide concrete crimes against humanity;” and they add that “such
criteria to decide on which situations call for a protection taking place neither as an act of self-
humanitarian intervention. As a result, the concept defense, nor upon permission from the legitimate
of, and the instances of, humanitarian intervention government of the target state” (Brenfors and
has created controversy and fierce philosophical Petersen, 2000: 451).

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International Security

Some interventions that had the approval of the before the military operation (Krylov, 1994-1995:
UN are classified as “humanitarian intervention” in 387-402; Brenfors and Petersen, 2000: 476-484).
the IR literature. However, from a legal perspective, Based on these criteria, scholars give the following
humanitarian intervention is an act of use of force interventions as examples of humanitarian
carried out either unilaterally or multilaterally in intervention: East Pakistan, Uganda, Liberia, Iraq
an attempt to protect people in another state from (1991-92).
severe human-rights violations without getting the The decisions of international courts and
approval of the UN. recent developments in international criminal law
Those who have supported the humanitarian may also act as a source for the above-mentioned
interventions and argued that such interventions criteria for humanitarian intervention. With
should be carried out in the system provide both the establishment of the Nuremberg and Tokyo
legal and ethical reasons for their arguments. Military Tribunals, the international society started
As explained above, however, the UN Charter to prosecute individuals for their gross violations
considers it legitimate to use force only in two of human rights, crimes of war, and crimes against
occasions: for self-defense purposes and through humanity. Moreover, following the end of the
the decision of the UN Security Council, acting Cold War the individual responsibility gained a
under Chapter VII of the Charter. As such, the UN prominent place in international criminal law and
Charter does not address the issues of humanitarian the UN established two specific interim tribunals
intervention and gross human-rights violations. for crimes committed in the former Yugoslavia and
Nevertheless, some legal scholars argue that Rwanda (The International Criminal Tribunal
Article 2/4 bans only the use of force “against for the Former Yugoslavia and the International
the territorial integrity or political independence Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, respectively).
of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent Yet the most critical development in
with the Purposes of the United Nations” and, international criminal law has been the initiation
therefore, that humanitarian intervention does not of the International Criminal Court (ICC) as
violate the UN Charter principles. For example, a permanent international court (Norton, 2010-
according to Kemp, the UN Charter should 2011). Article 5 of the Rome Statute that established
be revised and/or reinterpreted in such a way to the ICC states that the Court has jurisdiction “with
accommodate international human rights norms respect to the following crimes: a) the crime of
and a humanitarian regime in the system (Kemp, genocide; b) crimes against humanity; c) war crimes;
2002: 472). From this legal and ethical perspective, d) the crime of aggression” (ICC, 2014). Therefore,
in situations where the Security Council does not one can argue that criteria that can legitimize an act
act or becomes deadlocked, it is a “legal right of humanitarian intervention have been covered by
and even an ethical duty” for states to initiate a the Rome Statute. Especially the first two crimes
humanitarian intervention (Brenfors and Petersen, listed in Article 5 (namely, the crime of genocide
2000: 499). and crimes against humanity) can play a critical role
Scholars who support this approach also hold in determining, and reaching a consensus on, the
that there must be some objective criteria for criteria for humanitarian intervention. In fact, even
initiating a humanitarian intervention as well as though Serbia had initiated cases at the ICJ (Legality
certain limits on the use of force. Among others, of the Use of Force) against the Britain, Portugal,
the following criteria stand out in the literature: the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, France, Canada,
the actual violation of fundamental human rights Belgium, Spain, and the USA because of the NATO
and especially serious threats to the right to life in intervention in Kosovo, the Court, however, rejected
a country, the necessity, the proportionality, the these cases on the ground that “it has no jurisdiction
exhaustion of peaceful means, the existence of a to entertain the claims made in the Application”
humanitarian intent on the part of the interveners (ICJ, 2004). Those who argue for humanitarian
(the intent must not be political), a collective intervention consider this decision of the ICJ as a
(multilateral) operation rather than a unilateral proof for the merit of their legal approach.
act, and the consultation with the Security Council

75
 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Figure 3.6 Presiding judge Peter Tomka of Slovakia opening the World Court session in The Hague, 2015, Croatia v.
Serbia, genocide case.
Source: The Telegraph, February 4, 2015, www.telegraph.co.uk

However, according to those legal scholars Somali, Rwanda, Haiti, Kosovo, and East Timor,
who argue against humanitarian interventions, concludes that “the international community
the UN system has banned the use of force in increasingly views gross violations of human rights
international relations except in the circumstances as threats to international peace and security
that the Charter has explicitly listed. Moreover, and justifies these violations to circumscribe the
they argue that humanitarian intervention may immunity of sovereign boundaries” (Lodico, 2001:
provide an excuse for those states that may want 1029-1031).
to use force for political reasons and that, in fact, One can observe that “Western” legal scholars and
many interventions so far were carried out not politicians, as opposed to their “Eastern” counterparts,
for humanitarian but for political reasons. For lean toward supporting humanitarian interventions.
example, according to Goodman, the necessity . Compared to France, the UK, and the USA, both
for humanitarian intervention has a high potential China and Russia, in their international relations
to create an excuse for future wars (Goodman, as well as at the UN Security Council, approach
2006: 107). Upcher also underlines the fact that warily to the issue of humanitarian intervention
humanitarian intervention is not a legal doctrine (Bass, 2009). Nevertheless, the Group of 77, which
but a political act and asserts that the “tendency is also known as the “Non-Aligned Movement,” at
to employ international law as an instrument the end of the Havana Summit convened between
for political whim and moral assertion should April 10-14, 2000, declared that they “reject the so-
be resisted, especially when war is framed in called ‘right’ of humanitarian intervention, which
humanitarian rhetoric, as a noble emancipation of has no legal basis in the United Nations Charter or
the powerless undertaken for the sake of humanity” the general principles of international law” (Group
(Upcher, 2004: 276). On the other hand, Lodico of 77, 2000). The Group also voiced its concerns
argues that, taking into account all the interventions with regard to the proliferation of humanitarian
since 1990, the international society has been very interventions and the developments within the UN
selective in carrying out military interventions and on this subject matter.
that in the absence of important strategic interests
It is still a matter of argument whether from the
states have considered humanitarian and ethical
start of the Westphalian system up until the adoption
reasons inadequate for initiating an intervention.
of the UN Charter there was a rule of humanitarian
Lodico, who closely studied the examples of Iraq,
intervention in customary international law.

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International Security

However, it is also a fact that more and more important

scholars and politicians/practitioners support the
idea today that under some specific circumstances
For a discussion on humanitarian intervention
and under the condition of minding the stability of
from the perspective of “responsibility to
the international system, it is possible to initiate a
protect,” please see Chapter 4.
humanitarian intervention (See, Rodley and Çalı,
2007; Wolf, 1988; Dekker, 2001).
In 1999, even though the UN did not
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): NAM is explicitly authorize the member states or regional
an international organization with 120 member arrangements to intervene in the former Yugoslavia
states. During the Cold War, a majority of (Serbia), Turkey collaborated with the NATO
developing countries in Asia and Africa came forces in Kosovo toward fulfilling its responsibilities
together to follow a route outside of the one in the alliance. On the other hand, even though
already laid by the USA and the USSR. The the Greek Cypriots committed gross violations of
Bandung Conference held in 1995(the Asian- human rights against the Turkish community on the
African Conference) is a fundamental concept island, Turkey did not resort to the “humanitarian
for this group. Objectives of the Non-Aligned
intervention” thesis, but it invoked its right to
Movement are: creating an independent way
military intervention based on a guarantee treaty
in world politics which is separate from the
USA and the USSR, refusing to join a military signed among the parties back in 1959. For Turkey,
agreement with the great powers and to a country that does not want wat to tie its hands
participate in a military alliance (www.nti.org). in the Cyprus question, this perspective is both
politically appropriate and legally preferable,
because humanitarian intervention allows for a
As for Turkey’s policies and stance on relatively short-term of intervention and suggests
humanitarian intervention, from the operations it to act within a coalition.
participated so far one can easily infer that Turkey
prefers the authorization of such operations by
a prior UN Security Council resolution. In the Interventions Based on a Treaty
absence of an explicit UN authorization, Turkey The UN Charter is silent on interventions
approaches warily to any act of use of force or based on a treaty. However, given that treaty is
intervention in international relations. For example, one of the primary sources of international law,
whereas Turkey supported the intervention in Iraq one can conclude that an intervention based on
by the coalition forces in 1991 and participated a treaty clause is legitimate. In Article 38 of the
in the UN-led economic sanctions on Iraq, it Statute of the International Court of Justice, which
did not support or contribute to the unilateral is an integral part of the UN Charter, international
intervention of the US in Iraq in 2003. Turkey, a conventions (treaties), the general principles of
country that attaches great importance to acting law as well as international custom are listed as the
together within a coalition and together with the main (primary) sources of international law.
international society, has considered it legitimate Besides, “judicial decisions and the teachings of
to intervene in Bosnia, Somali, and Afghanistan the most highly qualified publicists” are subsidiary
not because of humanitarian reasons but because sources of international law (Pazarcı, 2011: 33-120;
of the UN decisions asking for the member states Bozkurt et al., 2009: 61-93). As such, international
to help stabilize these conflict areas. Even though treaties are one of the primary sources for the
Turkey had raised concerns about the human determination of rules of law.
rights violations that the Turks and Muslims had
important
to go through in Bosnia and voiced these concerns
at various international platforms, it cooperated
with the multilateral force in implementing the For further information on the sources of
UN embargos in the Adriatic Sea as well as in the international law, please see Chapter 2 of the
former Yugoslavia. textbook “Public International Law-I”.

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Examples of an intervention clause in multilateral committee govern the Abkhazia region. Furthermore,
treaties abound. For one, the Cotonou Agreement the warring factions in Somali called for the
authorizes the Observer Group for Economic international society to implement the agreements
Union of West African States (ECOMOG), which reached among themselves through a joint
was established by the Economic Community of international force (Wippman, 1995: 607-608).
West African States-ECOWAS, to use military Besides these examples, what has been more
force, if necessary, against those parties that are in critical for both Turkish foreign policy and the
breach of the agreement. security in the Eastern Mediterranean is the
Besides, Article XIII of the Statement of Treaty of Guarantee signed on August 16, 1960
Principles of the International Conference on the among Turkey, Greece, and the United Kingdom.
Former Yugoslavia that convened in 1992 refers According to Article II of the Treaty “Greece, the
to the “need for international guarantees” in United Kingdom and Turkey, undertake to prohibit,
order to implement the agreements reached at the as far as lies within their power, all activity having
Conference. Furthermore, Article 6 and Article 1 the object of promoting directly or indirectly either
of Annex I of “the Agreement on a Comprehensive the union of the Republic of Cyprus with any
Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict,” other State or partition of the Island.” Article IV of
signed on October 23, 1991 in Paris Conference, the Treaty, in fact, authorizes each party, including
has delegated all the authority to the UN and an Turkey, to take action unilaterally, if necessary; it
organ it established, namely UNTAC, in order states that “in so far as common or concerted action
to ensure the implementation of the Agreement. may not prove possible, each the three guaranteeing
The Cambodia Agreement was accepted and Powers reserves the right to take action with the sole
announced by the UN (documents S/23177 and aim of re-establishing the state of affairs created by
A/46/608). the present Treaty.” Based on these clauses of the
The president of Georgia suggested the UN Treaty of Guarantee, Turkey initiated the Cyprus
Security Council in 1994 that an international Peace Operation on July 20, 1974.

Figure 3.7 A photo of the Cyprus Peace Operation

Source: www.dailysabah.com

There are two main approaches in the IR literature with regard to military interventions or use of
force based on a treaty. According to the first approach that supports such interventions, making a treaty
is a matter within the exclusive jurisdiction of states. In other words, states, which is entitled to political
sovereignty, can voluntarily sign a binding international treaty that may have a clause on how they should
use or limit their sovereign rights in the future. Just as a state can create a new political institution in
cooperation with another state or a group of states, in the same way it can agree to a clause that a military

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International Security

intervention may initiate against itself, if it does Arend and Beck define the act of protecting
not implement the treaty. the state citizens abroad as follows: under such
The second approach to military interventions circumstances when the lives of a state’s citizens
or use of force based on a treaty takes into account are actually in danger in another state or when
the concept of “peremptory norm” (jus cogens) the citizens are under an imminent threat, it is to
and holds that a treaty that would eliminate the evacuate these citizens from the area controlled
political sovereignty, territorial integrity, and by the state in question (such as from its territory,
political independence of states cannot be duly ship, or aircraft) (Arend and Beck, 1993: 94).
signed in international relations. Simply because Examples of such acts abound in international
the political sovereignty, territorial integrity, and relations (Wingfield, 1999-2000: 444-460):
political independence are the basic premises of • The threats of British intervention in Iran
being a state, any treaty clause that would eliminate (1946, 1951);
them would go against the peremptory norms of • The rescue plan of the British nationals
international law (and of the Westphalian state during the Cairo Riots (1952);
system) (Wippman, 1995: 610-611).
• The British and French joint intervention
Beyond this theoretical discussion, the examples in Egypt- the Suez crisis (1956);
given above demonstrate that both the United
• The Belgium intervention in the Congo
Nations through its documents and decisions
(1960);
and the very states through the international
treaties have agreed and accepted that a third party • The United States interventions in the
(whether it is a state or an international institution) Dominican Republic (1965), Grenada
may forcefully intervene in the domestic affairs of (1983), Panama (1989), and Liberia
a sovereign state. (1990);
• The rescue of the United States the
American merchant ship “Mayaguez” from
Protection of State Citizens Abroad the Kampuchean control (1975);
Another critical recent issue with regard to the • The evacuation of the US citizens from
use of force in international relations is whether Lebanon (1976) and the US attempt to free
it is legitimate for a state to protect its nationals the American hostages in Iran (1980);
or citizens living in other states by using force, if
• The Israeli attack on the Entebbe airport in
necessary, without such an authorization by the
Uganda (1976);
UN Security Council.
• The threat of French intervention in the
In fact, this issue has been debated in reference
Western Sahara (1978);
to the right of “self-defense.” This right of states
emanates from two basic sources: Article 51 of • The Egyptian raid on an aircraft at the
the UN Charter and customary international law. Larnaka International Airport (1978).
We have already discussed the norms that Article Two main approaches have tackled the legitimacy
51 evokes and what these norms may suggest for issue of state interventions or threats of intervention
the use of force in world politics. International to protect the nationals. According to the rather
customary law, on the other hand, requires for narrow approach, such interventions are basically
resorting to force such legal principles as the under the UN authority and the UN should decide
urgency, the necessity, the proportionality as well as on the use of force in a specific case except the use of
the bond of citizenship between the individuals to force for self defense purposes, when an armed attack
be protected and the state. Taken these principles occurs against the territorial integrity of a member
together, one may conclude that if a state resorts to state. Besides, this approach holds that agreeing to
force to protect its citizens living in another state such use of force by states would initiate a process that
in such a way that would conflict with Article 51 would encourage them to legitimize interventions in
and/or international customary law, then, this use world politics. Those who argue against this rather
of force would be illegal and illegitimate. narrow approach claim that customary international
law allows such interventions.

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Accordingly, an attack on a state’s citizens that Russia did not use proportional force against
may be considered as an attack on that state and Georgia, did not exhaust all diplomatic options,
would invoke the right of self-defense, as defined and the situation in Georgia was not that grave,
in Article 51 of UN Charter. Moreover, from this the Russian occupation of Georgian territory can
perspective, acts done out of respect for human be considered neither a legitimate act nor an act
rights should be allowed in international relations, of self defense under Article 51 of the UN Charter
even if they are carried out for protecting state (Chatham, 2011: 90-102).
nationals abroad (Wingfield, 1999-2000: 460- As discussed above, Turkey carried out its
466). Recently such acts have been debated with Peace Operation on Cyprus in 1974, based on
reference to international terrorism; therefore, the intervention clause of the Treaty of Guarantee
states have resorted to either multilateral treaties signed in 1960 among Turkey, Greece, and the
signed under the auspices of the UN or the right UK. Although Turkey has not voiced the thesis
to self defense against terrorism to legitimize of protecting the nationals abroad, it would be
their operations to protect its nationals abroad. legitimate for Turkey to argue that it intervened
Especially the Israeli attack on the Entebbe airport in the “Cyprus Republic” in 1974 to protect its
and the Egyptian raid at the Larnaka Airport can nationals living on the island of Cyprus and that
be given as examples of such legitimization of the it reserves this right for future political or military
use of force in world politics. developments on the island. However, compared
Protection of citizens abroad and the criteria to the absolute and unlimited right conferred to
for intervention recently came to the forefront in Turkey by the Treaty of Guarantee, this reasoning
international relations because of a conflict between would provide Turkey with relatively circumscribed
Russia and Georgia. Russia started a military rights to protect its nationals on the island.
operation against Georgia on August 8, 2008, and
almost occupied all of Georgian territory. Russia
withdrew from Georgia two months later. During
Use of Force against International
this operation, Russia claimed that it was using and Terrorism
protecting the right of self defense of its citizens Another issue that has become prominent
living in Georgia, and particularly in South Ossetia especially with the attacks on the Twin Towers and
(Chatham, 2011: 76). Georgia, on the other hand, the Pentagon building in the US on September 11,
declared that it was fighting the Russian forces to 2001 and that has provided the target states with
sustain its political independence and protect its the legitimacy for resorting to force beyond the UN
territorial integrity. When armistice was signed Charter paradigm is the fight against international
on August 12, 2008, Russia was controlling terrorism. Because not only Turkey has been the
all South Ossetian territory and asserted at the target of such attacks but also most regions in the
diplomatic talks that Georgia was not able to fulfil world have witnessed many acts of terrorism, the
its responsibility to protect the Russian nationals. issue of what kind of means are available to states
However, as explained above, in order for the in their fight against terrorism, including the use
use of force of a state in an incident to be legitimate, of military force, has been critical. Below we will
that act of use of force should conform the right of first give a definition of terrorism and then review
self defense, as laid down in Article 51 of the UN the measures taken by the international society and
Charter. Even if one assumes that Georgia failed to the legal texts accepted within the UN system, and
fulfil its responsibility, Russia did not have the right finally touch on the issue of self defense in case of
to resort to reprisal. Moreover, the principle of a terrorist attack.
protection in international law and politics is based
not on the kin relations but on citizenship. Given

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International Security

Although acts of violence committed for religious

or ethnic reasons are considered to be acts done
for political objectives, robberies or kidnappings
for ransom fall into the category of ordinary
crimes (offences) committed for personal/private
objectives and , as such, the they are not considered
as terror acts.
In general, non-state actors carry out
international terror attacks. However, one can also
observe that a state launches terror attacks against
another state by establishing and using some
certain non-state actors or groups. International
terror attacks are carried out in two basic ways:
either terror groups carry out terror acts in the
country of a state through coming from another
state’s territory or they target a state’s independence,
security, citizens, or assets from abroad (Schachter,
1988-1989: 309-310).
Recently the UN actively participates in the
international efforts to end terrorism. The UN
Security Council convened the day after the terror
attacks on the US and passed Resolution 1368
Figure 3.8 The Guardian’s front page, September 12, that condemned both September 11 attacks and
2001. international terrorism. The UN Resolution 1368
Source: www.theguardian.com
called for the member states to collaborate on
terrorism and stated that the organization “is ready
to take the necessary steps to combat all types of
The international society is yet to make the terrorism” (UN Security Council, 2001a).
ultimate definition of international terrorism that Moreover, the Security Council, through its
would be binding for all states in their relations. Resolution 1373, adopted some measures to
Moreover, the UN organs also failed to make combat the financing of terrorism and established
a multilateral treaty (convention) that could the Counter-Terrorism Committee in an
offer a definition of international terrorism. attempt to coordinate the member states’ activities
However, one cannot also say that there is not a against terrorism (UN Security Council, 2001b).
general understanding on the basic attributes Furthermore, the Council passed Resolution 1540
(characteristics) of international terrorism. As where it adopted that “all States shall refrain from
Oscar Schachter stated, the absence of a binding providing any form of support to non-State actors
definition “does not mean that international that attempt to develop, acquire, manufacture,
terrorism is not identifiable. It has a core meaning possess, transport, transfer or use nuclear, chemical
that all definitions recognize” (Schachter, 1988- or biological weapons and their means of delivery.”
1989: 309). Accordingly, international terrorism The Council discussed and passed this Resolution
is the threat of violence or the use of violence under Chapter VII of the UN Charter; therefore,
to create fear in a target group toward achieving Resolution 1540 binds all member states in their
certain political objectives. relations with one another and with non-state
Therefore, an act of terror involves some sort actors. The Council has also established a separate
of violence, has political objectives, and targets a committee, the 1540 Committee, for monitoring
certain group (Beck and Arend, 1993-1994: 162). the subject matter (UN Security Council, 2004).

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Figure 3.9 A photo of The UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres with the Under-Secretary-General of the UN
Counter-Terrorism Office, Mr Vladimir Voronkov (left).
Source: www.un.org
The Council condemned all international “legal instruments” (conventions and protocols)
terrorist actions carried out after 2001, including toward combating international terrorism:
the attacks in Istanbul in 2003. Moreover, the • Convention on Offences and Certain Other
Council passed Resolution 1386 that authorized Acts Committed on Board Aircraft (1963),
the establishment of an international force toward
• Convention for the Suppression of
preventing further terror acts in Afghanistan.
Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (1970),
More specifically, through this resolution the
Council established the International Security • Convention for the Suppression of
Assistance Force (ISAF) that would assist “the Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil
Afghan Interim Authority in the maintenance of Aviation (1971),
security in Kabul and its surrounding areas, so • Convention on the Prevention
that the Afghan Interim Authority as well as the and Punishment of Crimes against
personnel of the United Nations can operate in Internationally Protected Persons (1973),
a secure environment.” The Council also called • International Convention against the
upon all UN members to “contribute personnel, Taking of Hostages (1979),
equipment, and other resources” to ISAF (UN • Convention on the Physical Protection of
Security Council, 2001c). Besides the Security Nuclear Material (1980),
Council’s initiatives, the General Assembly adopted
• Convention for the Suppression of
the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy in 2006
Unlawful Acts against the Safety of
and prepared a comprehensive “Plan of Action.”
Maritime Navigation (1988),
Through the adoption of the Global Counter-
Terrorism Strategy, all UN members have agreed • Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful
to “a common strategic and operational approach Acts of Violence at Airports Serving
to fight terrorism, not only sending a clear message International Civil Aviation, supplementary
that terrorism is unacceptable in all its forms and to the Convention for the Suppression of
manifestation but also resolving to take practical Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil
steps individually and collectively to prevent and Aviation (1988),
combat it” (UN General Assembly, 2006). • Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful
Within the framework of the United Nations, Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms
states have adopted the following major multilateral Located on the Continental Shelf (1988),

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International Security

• Convention on the Marking of Plastic whether a state or a terrorist organization carries out
Explosives for the Purpose of Detection the armed attack makes no difference when it comes
(1991), to using the right to self-defense under Article 51
• International Convention for the of the UN Charter. It seems that the fathers of the
Suppression of Terrorist Bombings (1997), UN Charter did not define the concept of “armed
attack” on purpose. As such, they made it possible
• International Convention for the
for the UN organs to interpret each act of attack
Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism
on its own merits and decide whether that act is
(1999),
an act of self-defense as well as that they opted for
• International Convention for the Suppression formulating Article 51 not that rigid to allow the
of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism (2005), states to take legitimate measures against certain
• Convention on the Suppression of acts of non-state actors (Stahn, 2003: 35-36).
Unlawful Acts Relating to International The terrorist attacks on the US on September
Civil Aviation (2010). 11, 2001 has had such a profound effect on
As it is clear from the titles of these legal texts, international scholars and the states that they
the international society so far has been able to changed their approach to the use of force
create binding legal rules especially for promoting beyond national borders. In the aftermath of the
the safety of civil aviation and maritime navigation. 9/11 attacks, the UN Security Council, through
It has also been instrumental in the signing of legal Resolution 1368, not only condemned the attacks
texts toward suppressing both terrorist bombings but also reaffirmed the right to self-defense in
and financing of terrorism that are relatively responding to terrorism. Moreover, NATO referred
more critical for some members’ national security. to the 9/11 attacks as a direct attack on the United
However, it is also a fact that the international States and invoked Article 5 of the Washington
society has failed to conclude a comprehensive Treaty (the casus feoderis clause) for the first time in
international treaty against terrorism. its history that paved the way for the deployment
Operations conducted outside of a state’s borders of its assets in support of the US. Therefore, a
due to an act of terror should be considered as an critical change that the 9/11 attacks have defined
act of “self-defense” under Article 51. Although in international relations and international law is
the UN Charter makes it legitimate to use force that acts carried out by a state or a group of states
in self-defense against an “armed attack,” it does against terrorism may be considered as self-defense
not qualify the nature of the perpetrator of such within the scope of Article 51 of the UN Charter
an attack (Schachter, 1988-1989: 311). Therefore, (Stahn, 2003: 37).

Figure 3.10 ISAF’s mission in Afghanistan

Source: www.nato.int

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

A state’s use of its natural right of self-defense In the post-9/11 world, the state that has been
though dispatching troops to another state in an the target of international terrorism does not have
attempt to defeat terrorism constitutes an exception to prove a direct relationship between the state
to the basic principle enshrined in Article 2/4 of the protecting the terrorists (the host state) and the
Charter that “members shall refrain from the threat terrorist groups to launch cross-border military
or use of force against the territorial integrity or operations. For example, although it was not
political independence of any state.” In fact, in its Afghanistan that carried out 9/11 acts against the
Corfu Channel opinion of 1949, the International United States, the coalition forces held Afghanistan
Court of Justice “stated that every state is under an responsible and started a military mission against
obligation ‘not to allow knowingly its territory to the country because they concluded that it was
be used for acts in a manner contrary to the rights Afghanistan through its Taliban regime who
of other states’” (Kittrich, 2009: 135). One can provided Al Qaeda with a safe heaven.
observe the application of this rule in the aftermath
of the 9/11 attacks. Now the legal interpretation
and the state practice have changed in such a way
that states not only expect that other states must 4
keep the terrorists in their territory under effective Do some research on the jurisdiction of the
control but also consider it legitimate to undertake International Criminal Court.
a military mission if certain states provide terrorists
with a safe heaven or an indirect support because of
their reluctance or inability to prevent terrorist acts
(Michael, 2009: 159).

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International Security

Explain the UN Charter Paradigm

LO 1 on the use of force.

The UN Charter, which is the primary source from which we can discern today’s system of international
security, places an emphasis on self-defense rather than collective security. Yet the UN Charter, different
from the League Covenant, establishes a strong Security Council, where the Permanent 5 have had the
veto power and acted somehow as arbitrators in the system. Besides the right of self-defense defined by the
Charter, generally these veto states (the P5) decide when (and under which circumstances) the use of force

Summary
in the system may be considered as legitimate as well as when the very UN members can resort to military
force. In principle, the UN Charter has outlawed initiating a war of aggression. In other words, it is against
the UN-Charter principles for any state to wage an aggressive war. However, the UN does not outlaw the
use of defensive force. We cannot too much stress the importance of this rule of the UN Charter; that
is, the use of defensive force or waging a defensive war has not been outlawed by the UN. Therefore, it is
one of the critical questions of international law today that under which circumstances the use of force by
states can be considered as defensive rather than offensive. Article 2/4 of the UN Charter is the main rule
that regulates the use of force in international relations. One can claim that Article 2/4 is clear on the use
of force in international relations. However, Article 2/4 introduces many uncertainties or, from a different
perspective, it is quite flexible on the use of force between states. This creates a debate and tension between
states. Article 2/6 emphasizes that even those states that are not members of the UN must comply with
the Charter’s rules and norms on peace and security as well as it provides a legal ground for UN members
to impose sanctions on these states, if necessary. Article 2/7 has been one of the most controversial articles
of the UN Charter. It is the embodiment of power struggle among the member states on those issues
that are stipulated in Article 2/4, Article 51, and Chapter VII of the Charter. The right of self-defense is
enshrined in Article 51 of the UN Charter. The UN Charter acknowledges that, in this system of states,
each state has the right to defense either individually or collectively, through combining its efforts with
those of other states, within an alliance if it is needed. Article 51 also acknowledges that self-defense is
a natural right in that in order for the state to exercise this right, the permission or the authorization of
any organization or institution is not needed. With regard to the legitimate use of force, another issue
that has occupied a prominent place in the agenda is the role that regional organizations can play in the
international system. However, Article 53 is not only unclear on such concepts as “arrangements” and
“regional agencies,” but also silent on the question of under which particular conditions the Security
Council should ask help from these arrangements and agencies.

Identify Chapter VII of the UN Charter as a

LO 2 source of legitimacy for the use of force.

Chapter VI of the UN Charter empowers the Security Council on the issue of “peaceful resolution of
disputes” among states and defines various political and judicial solutions. Whereas these measures would
be inadequate, Chapter VII of the UN Charter gives the authorization to the Security Council to take
precautions of the implementation of necessary sanctions and coercive measures, including the use of
force. According to Article 42, the Security Council is able to take the decision of use of armed force in
the international system. As such, the use of force by member states to implement a decision of the UN
Security Council is “legitimate” under international law. In fact, the UN, within the scope of Article 42,
decided to use armed force on two occasions only: first, during the Korean War in 1950 and, second,
through its Resolution 678 (1990) to drive the Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. However, we also observe that
some states use force in international relations without the authorization of the Security Council. For
example, although the UN was not able to pass a resolution on the US occupation of Iraq in 2003 as well
as on the independence question between Serbia and Kosovo, some states either unilaterally intervened in
these questions or participated in NATO operations.

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Describe the UN Peacekeeping Forces

LO 3 and their place in world politics today

Chapter VI of the UN Charter is related to the Security Council’s authority with regard to pacific
settlement of disputes, whereas Chapter VII is about the coercive measures, including the use of force in
case of an attack against a member state. Nevertheless, there is no legal arrangement for “peacekeeping”
in the UN Charter. In fact, the concept of, and the mission of, peacekeeping is something invented by
the UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld, because the Security Council had become paralyzed and
perplexed due to the Cold War and especially to the conflictual relations between the two superpowers
Summary

that made it impossible for the UN to implement the clauses of Chapter VII. As a rule, the authority to
decide on a peacekeeping mission or a military intervention rests with the Security Council. However,
especially in gray times and in gray areas the General Assembly does not hesitate to seize opportunities
toward exerting and widening its authority. In fact, when the Security Council was not able to act on the
issues under its authority during the heyday of the Cold War simply because the permanent members
failed to reach a consensus and frequently resorted to their veto power, the General Assembly passed
Resolution 377 (the “Uniting for Peace” decision) on November 3, 1950. The fundamental objective
of the UN in peacekeeping missions, then, should not be fighting but implementing a political and
military observation task in an attempt to ensure regional and global stability. However, the proliferation
of military interventions in international relations especially after the fall of the Berlin Wall, the attempts
at transforming the UN “peacemaking” missions into peace enforcement missions as well as creating new
nation states in some conflictual geographies have come to undermine the confidence in the UN.

Clarify the issues of use of force and

LO 4 legitimacy beyond the UN Charter paradigm.

The UN system makes it legitimate to use armed force only in two occasions: self-defense under Article
51, and interventions because of a UN Security Council resolution within the scope of Article 42.
However, there are also some philosophical and political underpinnings or reasons such as humanitarian
intervention, protecting state citizens, and terrorism that would help legitimize the instances of use of
force in international relations. These reasons for resorting to force may be classified as “beyond the UN
Charter paradigm” because the UN Charter does not cover or directly address them. First of all, especially
following the end of the Cold War we have witnessed in the international system such issues as killing the
civilians in war zones or conflict zones, gross violation of human rights, genocides as well as the violation
of international humanitarian law. The international society decided to intervene or not to intervene in
these grave issues. The political literature and academia mainly had this discussion with a reference to
the concept of humanitarian intervention. It is still a matter of argument whether from the start of the
Westphalian system up until the adoption of the UN Charter there was a rule of humanitarian intervention
in customary international law. However, it is also a fact that more and more scholars and politicians/
practitioners support the idea today that under some specific circumstances and under the condition of
minding the stability of the international system, it is possible to initiate a humanitarian intervention.
Second, the UN Charter is silent on interventions based on a treaty. However, given that treaty is one of
the primary sources of international law, one can conclude that an intervention based on a treaty clause is
legitimate. Third, another critical recent issue with regard to the use of force in international relations has
been whether it is legitimate for a state to protect its nationals or citizens living in other states by using
force, if necessary, without such an authorization by the UN Security Council. This issue has been debated
in reference to the right of self-defense. Finally, another issue that has become prominent especially with
the attacks on the Twin Towers and the Pentagon building in the US on September 11, 2001 and that
has provided the target states with the legitimacy for resorting to force beyond the UN Charter paradigm
is the fight against international terrorism. The terrorist attacks on the US on September 11, 2001 has
had such a profound effect on international scholars and the states that they changed their approach to
the use of force beyond national borders. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, the UN Security Council,
through Resolution 1368, not only condemned the attacks but also reaffirmed the right to self-defense in
responding to terrorism. Moreover, NATO referred to the 9/11 attacks as a direct attack on the United
States and invoked Article 5 of the Washington Treaty.

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International Security

1 Which of the following UN secretaries- 5 Which of the following is not a part of the
general invented the concept of peacekeeping? definition of terrorism?
a. Kofi Annan a. Violence
b. Antonio Guterres b. The existence of a target group

Test Yourself
c. Dag Hammarskjöld c. A political objective
d. Ban Ki-moon d. Fear
e. Kurt Waldheim e. Robbery

2 Which of the following is not one of the P5

6 Which of the following legal texts is not
directly related to the fight against international
states?
terrorism?
a. Russia
a. The Convention on the Prevention and
b. China Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally
c. The United States Protected Persons
d. Germany b. The UN Convention on the Law of Sea
e. France c. The Convention on the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil
3 The grave violation of basic human rights may Aviation
lead to an intervention by the international society d. The Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful
that may not be authorized by the UN Security Acts Against the Safety of Fixed Platforms
Council. This kind of intervention is known as… Located on the Continental Shelf
e. The Convention of the Physical Protection of
Which of the following correctly completes the Nuclear Material
sentence above?
a. Humanitarian intervention
7 Which of the following sub-organs was
b. Counter terrorism established by the UN to prevent any terror act
c. Intervention under Chapter VII of the UN that may involve the use of nuclear, biological, or
Charter chemical weapons?
d. Self defense
a. The Counter-Terrorism Committee
e. Collective defense
b. The 1540 Committee
c. The Trusteeship Council
4 Which of the following incidents in world d. The Human Rights Committee
politics shaped the approach of scholars and e. The International Law Committee
politicians to the war on terror in the 21st century?
a. The Cyprus Peace Operation
8 Which of the following is not a true statement
b. The terrorist attacks in Istanbul in 2003 about the collective security system?
c. The 9/11 attacks on the United States
d. The US War in Afghanistan a. It was first established by the League of Nations.
e. The Operation Iraqi Freedom b. The UN did not create a collective security
system.
c. The Charter emphasizes the right of self-
defense rather than collective security.
d. It was articulated in Article 10 of the League of
Nations Covenant.
e. It is enshrined in Article 51 of the UN Charter.

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

9 Which of the following acts may not be 10 Which of the following Articles of the UN
considered as an act of attack in the scope of Charter lays down the basic principles of the use
Resolution 3314 of the UN General Assembly? of force in international relations?
a. Invasion a. Article 2/4
b. Occupation b. Article 2/6
c. Blockade c. Article 2/7
Test Yourself

d. Bombardment d. Article 51
e. Economic sanctions e. Article 53

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International Security

If your answer is not correct, please review the If your answer is not correct, please review
1. c 6. b
“The UN Charter Paradigm and Legitimate the “The Use of Force and Legitimacy
Use Force” section. beyond the UN Charter Paradigm” section.

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

If your answer is not correct, please review
2. d If your answer is not correct, please review 7. b
the “The Use of Force and Legitimacy
the “The UN Peacekeeping Forces” section.
beyond the UN Charter Paradigm” section.

If your answer is not correct, please review If your answer is not correct, please review
3. a 8. e
the “The Use of Force and Legitimacy the “The Use of Force Based on Chapter VII
beyond the UN Charter Paradigm” section. of the UN Charter” section.

If your answer is not correct, please review If your answer is not correct, please review the
4. c 9. e
the “The Use of Force and Legitimacy “The UN Charter Paradigm and Legitimate
beyond the UN Charter Paradigm”section. Use Force” section.

If your answer is not correct, please review If your answer is not correct, please review the
5. e the “The Use of Force and Legitimacy
10. d
“The UN Charter Paradigm and Legitimate
beyond the UN Charter Paradigm” section. Use Force” section.

Discuss the concept of war and the nature of

war in the 21st century.

War is a “mutually recognized, hostile exchange of actions among two or more

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

parties (such as between or within nation-states) conducted by conventional
military forces, paramilitary forces, or guerrillas to achieve respective policy
objectives. Warfare assumes a degree of continuity until such objectives are
accomplished or a party concedes or is defeated. A state of war normally carries
legal parameters governed by internationally recognized rules of engagement
and conduct. For example, the initiation of war customarily requires some form
of official or unofficial declaration, and conclusions to war are usually facilitated
by formal agreements among the belligerents. Such declarations enable war to be
‘officially’ under way even when no military maneuvers have been undertaken. In
an effort to afford some minimum principles of humanity in relation to war, the
Geneva Conventions, adopted in 1949 and augmented by the Geneva Protocol
in 1977, outline conditions on the treatment of combatants, prisoners of war,
your turn 1 and civilians; protection of medical and religious facilities and practitioners; and
restrictions of certain types of weapons. Encounters in war may assume a range
of forms and employ various types of weapons, depending on the capacities of
the parties to the hostilities. Examples include the use of nuclear, chemical, and
conventional arsenals, among many others. Explanations and justifications for
war have led to numerous categorizations and terms, for example ‘total war’,
‘civil war’, ‘ethnic war’, ‘proxy way’, and ‘wars of self-determination’. Historical
trends in warfare are changing: human, environmental, and economic costs
are rising along with the number of civilian casualties. The geographic areas
involved in actual battles are widening, and the number of battles per year is
increasing. On average, however, wars are becoming shorter. The absolute size
of armies is increasing, as well as their size relative to their respective general
populations. Lower proportions of combatants are injured, with a concurrent
rise in the casualties of civilians. Also, wars now spread to additional belligerents
more swiftly than in the past. Since World War II, the frequency of ‘low-
intensity’ conflicts, revolutions, counter-revolutions, and proxy wars has risen”
(Miller, 2005: 79).

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Discuss what kind of sanctions the Security

Council may invoke under Chapter VII of the UN
Charter.
Suggested answers for “Your turn”

“The Charter does not provide an exhaustive list of sanctions that the Security
Council may invoke, but it mentions two types: sanctions not involving the
use of armed forces, and military sanctions. Sanctions not involving the use
of armed forces may be of two kinds. One is the severance of diplomatic
relations with one or more of the belligerent states. The other is economic
sanctions, including partial or complete interruption of economic relations
and communications, such as rail, sea, and air traffic, postal and telegraphic
services, and radio. The purpose is to isolate the country or countries against
which they are directed, physically, economically, and morally. For example, a
would-be aggressor that is denied certain strategic materials may be compelled
to cease hostilities. If successful, such measures have great advantages over
your turn 2 military sanctions. They impose fewer burdens on the participating countries
and fewer hardships on the population of the areas of conflict. They also
avoid the danger that once military action on behalf of the UN has been
taken, war may spread. Military sanctions, the Charter stipulates, may include
demonstrations by air, sea, or land forces; blockade; or “other operations by
air, sea, and land forces,” the latter including actual military action against
the off ending country or countries. Once the Security Council has decided
on specific sanctions, all members of the UN are under legal obligation to
carry them out. The council may, however, at its discretion, decide that only
certain member states shall take an active part, or it may demand that even
nonmember states participate in economic sanctions to make them effective”
(Gall and Hobby, 2007: 34-35).

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International Security

Do some research on UN Peacekeepers.

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

“UN peacekeepers come from all walks of life, with diverse cultural
backgrounds and from an ever-growing number of Member States. When
they serve under the United Nations, they are united by a commitment to
maintain or restore world peace and security. They share a common purpose
to protect the most vulnerable and provide support to countries in transition
from conflict to peace. Peacekeepers are civilian, military and police personnel
all working together. The roles and responsibilities of peacekeepers are evolving
as peacekeeping mandates become more complex and multidimensional.
Peacekeeping operations have developed from simply monitoring ceasefires
to protecting civilians, disarming ex-combatants, protecting human rights,
promoting the rule of law, supporting free and fair elections, minimizing the
risk of land-mines and much more. Tragically over 3,500 peacekeepers have
lost their lives in the cause of peace. In 2016 alone 117 peacekeepers paid
the ultimate price. They included military, police, international civil servants,
UN Volunteers and national staff from 43 countries. Their sacrifice on behalf
of the international community is one of the most concrete expressions of
your turn 3 the UN Charter’s determination “to save succeeding generations from the
scourge of war.” While women have always had a role in peacekeeping, the
Secretary-General has committed to ensuring that women play a far more
active role in peace operations. Secretary-General António Guterres is
committed to building the number of women peacekeepers. As stated in his
2017 Gender Parity Strategy, “Peacekeeping is the most visible face of the
United Nations…The fact that only 3% of UN peacekeepers and 10% of
police are women hampers our protection reach and operational effectiveness
and sends the wrong message about who the UN serves and represents”. A
top priority for UN Peacekeeping is to increase the number of female military
personnel in peacekeeping operations, including increasing women staff
officers and military observers to 15 per cent by the end of 2018; currently
11 per cent of staff officers and military observers in peacekeeping operations
are female. At UN Headquarters, 18 per cent of military staff are women,
exceeding the target of 15 per cent for 2018” (https://peacekeeping.un.org/
en/our-peacekeepers).

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 Legitimate Use of Force in International Relations

Do some research on the jurisdiction of the

International Criminal Court.
Suggested answers for “Your turn”

“The Court may exercise jurisdiction in a situation where genocide, crimes against
humanity or war crimes were committed on or after 1 July 2002 and the crimes
were committed by a State Party national, or in the territory of a State Party, or in
a State that has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court; or the crimes were referred
to the ICC Prosecutor by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) pursuant
to a resolution adopted under chapter VII of the UN charter.
As of 17 July 2018, a situation in which an act of aggression would appear to
have occurred could be referred to the Court by the Security Council, acting
under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, irrespective as to whether it
involves States Parties or non-States Parties. In the absence of a UNSC referral
of an act of aggression, the Prosecutor may initiate an investigation on her own
your turn 4
initiative or upon request from a State Party. The Prosecutor shall first ascertain
whether the Security Council has made a determination of an act of aggression
committed by the State concerned. Where no such determination has been made
within six months after the date of notification to the UNSC by the Prosecutor
of the situation, the Prosecutor may nonetheless proceed with the investigation,
provided that the Pre-Trial Division has authorized the commencement of the
investigation. Also, under these circumstances, the Court shall not exercise its
jurisdiction regarding a crime of aggression when committed by a national or on
the territory of a State Party that has not ratified or accepted these amendments”
(https://www.icc-cpi.int/about/how-the-court-works).

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Kemp, Gerhard (2002). “Mission Impossible?
Chatham, Robert P. (2011). “Defense of Nationals Humanitarian Intervention and the New Paradigm
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Kittrich, Jan (2009). “Can Self-Defense Serve as an
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Doğan, Nejat (2012). Pragmatic Liberal Approach to of Self defense,” Australian International Law
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Ndulo, Muna (2011). “United Nations Peacekeeping UN Peacekeeping (2019). United Nations
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Pazarcı, Hüseyin (2011). Uluslararası Hukuk, Ankara: un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/
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Reicher, Harry (1981). “The Uniting for Peace UN Security Council (2001c). http://daccess-dds-ny.
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Rogers, A.P.V. (2003-2004). “Humanitarian
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Intervention and International Law,” Harvard
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pp.725-736. International Law and the Dilemmas of
Humanitarian Intervention,” Deakin Law Review,
Schachter, Oscar (1988-1989). “The Extraterritorial
No. 9, pp. 261-276.
Use of Force Against Terrorist Bases,” Houston
Journal of Law, No.11, pp. 309-316. Vesel, David (2003-2004). “The Lonely Pragmatist:
Humanitarian Intervention in an Imperfect
Stahn, Carsten (2003). “Terrorist Acts as Armed
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Attack: The Right to Self-Defense, Article 51 ½
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Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, No. 27/2, pp. 35- Wingfield, Thomas C. (1999-2000). “Forcible
54. Protection of Nationals Abroad,” Dickinson Law
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UN General Assembly, 1950. A/RES/5/377. http://
www.un-documents.net/a5r377.htm Wippman, David (1995). “Treaty-Based Intervention:
Who can Say No?” University of Chicago Law
UN General Assembly (1974). http://daccess-
Review, No. 62, pp.607-687.
d d s - n y. u n . o r g / d o c / R E S O L U T I O N /
GEN/NR0/739/16/IMG/NR073916. Wippman, David (2001-2002). “Kosovo and
pdf?OpenElement the Limits of International Law,” Fordham
International Law Journal, No. 25, ss. 129-150.
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N0550488.pdf?OpenElement Michigan YBI Legal Studies, No. 9, ss. 333-366.

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magazines/bulletin/bull22-3/223_403587380. aligned-movement-nam/Aaaa
pdf

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 Chapter 4 Intervention
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Define the concept of intervention and explain Assess in what ways interventions affect the
its theoretical background. state sovereignty.

3 4
Comprehend the role of international
Analyze the new forms of state intervention organizations in peace operations, including
and evaluate humanitarian intervention. peacekeeping and peacebuilding.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction • Self-determination
The Concept of Intervention • Sovereignty
• Responsibility to Protect
Intervention and State Sovereignty
• Intervention
States and Intervention: New Forms of • Humanitarian Intervention
Intervention • Peace Operations
International Organizations and Intervention: • NATO
Peacekeeping and Peacebuilding Missions • The UN Charter
• Peacekeeping
• Peacebuilding
• Use of Force
• International Law

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INTRODUCTION of the United Nations (maturity). The first phase

Intervention is a rather complex and difficult could begin with the Crusades and end before
term to define since there are many similar the establishment of the League of Nations. The
words to emphasize the types and/or methods following phase covers the period of League of
of conflict resolution in the field of practice and Nations. The third phase starts with the founding
literature on International Relations. Instant and of United Nations, and still continues. The last
expanded communication, transportation, an phase covers four successive generations such as
ever-developing global economy with advancing traditional peacekeeping, civilian tasks, peace
technologies and weapons of proliferation have enforcement, and peacebuilding.
made intervention much more complicated than
before. THE CONCEPT OF
This chapter will, first of all, reflect on the INTERVENTION
concept of intervention. Then, it will evaluate how Intervention is an act of involvement, whether
interventions may affect state sovereignty as well intentionally or not, in a difficult conflict situation
as the legal discussions surrounding interventions. to improve or prevent something getting worse.
The chapter will also debate the new forms of Intervention requires a comprehensive program
intervention, especially humanitarian intervention. with its new types of economics, commerce,
Finally, it will explain the role of organizations in military and politics fields. A central bank may
interventions with a focus on peacekeeping and buy large quantities of a certain currency to keep
peacebuilding in detail. the national currency price up. If a given product
The UN enumerates peace operations as conflict value drops to a certain unwanted value in the
prevention, peacemaking, peacekeeping, peace European Union (EU), then, the EU would buy
enforcement, and peacebuilding. The first one is the surplus produce to keep the value. Accordingly,
an activity taking place before the conflict while intervention can take place in our daily life in
the other four are carried out after the eruption many different forms and circumstances, which
of armed fighting. Conflict prevention comprises are regarded as peace operations, i.e. peacekeeping,
the employment of structural or diplomatic peace-making, peace enforcement, peace building,
measures to prevent disputes from escalating into through the official documents of United Nations.
violent conflict. The second one, peacemaking, There are three differing kinds of peace
includes measures to address ongoing conflicts operations: traditional peace keeping (Cold War),
and usually comprises diplomatic action and humanitarian military intervention (1990s), and
mediation to bring hostile parties to a negotiated new generation peace operations (2000s) (Cottey,
agreement. The peacekeeping, albeit sometimes 2008: 429, 432). After the end of the Cold War
used as an umbrella term covering all aspects of and some futile peace operations in the 1990s,
peace operations, comprises the basic principles humanitarian military intervention emerged as
which are impartiality; consent of the parties; a new form of peace operations in international
non-use of force except in self-defense and defense politics.
of the mandate. Peace enforcement involves the
International intervention, particularly,
application of a range of coercive measures with the
humanitarian one, is the focus of international
authorization of the UN Security Council. The last
debate across a variety of international bodies and
one, peacebuilding, comprises a range of measures
academic fields. International relations, political
targeted to reduce the risk of resuming the conflict
science, international and national comparative
by strengthening indigenous capacities to provide a
law, and political philosophy are the main fields
basis for sustainable peace and development.
which discuss the humanitarian intervention.
The evolution of peace operations can be
Humanitarian intervention is an action
divided into three main phases as the period
undertaken by an organization/international entity
before the League of Nations (antecedents), the
usually by a single state and/or a coalition of states.
League of Nations phase (novice attempts), and
Presumably their aim is to lessen extensive human
the current period beginning after the foundation
suffering within the borders of a sovereign state.

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Intervention

Such humanitarian crises might be the result of particularity that raises the issue of intervention
a governing body’s instigating, facilitating and/ (Phillips, 1996: 5). Lives of men are not that
or ignoring the abuse of groups falling within its different than states’ in many respects. Freedom
jurisdiction. Such misuse can take places in the of self-determination and sovereignty distinguish
form of deliberate and systematic violations of men among themselves. This subject is a hot debate
basic human rights by either certain governing in various cultures and civilizational perspectives in
body, institutions and/or because of no effective the field of theological, philosophical and ethical
government or civil order. If there is breach of matters. Circumstances and natural inheritance
universally recognized civil rights in a sovereign as well as choices lead to the various degrees of
state over its citizens, then, that state could face freedom for man. Human beings might not know
with consequences of humanitarian intervention. what is good for themselves as is the case with
There are debates about whether humanitarian freedom issue. Respected integrity of basic human
intervention is a breach of state sovereignty; wellbeing is a fundamental issue as is life, and the
its legality, necessity, limits and practices were/ object of man’s choices, knowledge and friendship.
are persistently being debated. As philosophers, Evil, on the other hand, is the pursuit of one good
theologians, statesman and lawyers have discussed it by means of the suppression of another. It is rather
in the previous centuries, the topic will still likely to difficult to have objective moral order. Intervention
be in the core of incessant debates in future. There requires a maturity of judgement, an ability to
were also several controversial military actions which maintain the essential dignity of the other while
have taken place under the name of humanitarian providing a self-effacing help.
intervention in the past. Examples may be given as The purpose of the state, as well as the UN, is
follows: India intervened during the Bangladesh the preservation of a just order among mankind. If
War in 1971 (Lyon, 2008: 166). Vietnam removed there are basic human goods and if participation
Khmer Rouge regime from power in Cambodia in in these is the condition of human fulfillment,
1978 (Morris, 1999: 103-107). Tanzania ousted then, the role of the state/the UN is to foster these
dictator Idi Amin from the power in Uganda in goods and the opportunities for such participation.
1979 (Avirgan and Honey, 1982). One needs to recognize that a state is the member
Victorious powers of the Second World War of a larger world community whose good is
created the post-war international system under intimately linked to a common good. No matter
the name of the UN. New countries emerged how imperfectly such a world is realized in history,
because of decolonization period from 1945 to the there is no choice but to direct the state/the UN
1970s. Nevertheless, the emerging countries have toward this common ideal. The state has duties of
had difficulties to cope with being a proper state commutative and distributive justice, not only to
and establishing a functioning democracy. During its members but also to all whom form the human
these transition phases to democratically stable community of the world. The capacity of the state/
state periods, autocratic leaders have emerged. Such the UN to undertake this task will depend upon
leaders used brutal methods to establish their way its vitality and that will depend upon a reasonable
of governing system in their respected countries. self-regard. As with any community, leadership will
Some hid their intentions and practices behind the have an obligation first to its members’.
shield of “state sovereignty”, which is recognized The doctrine and understanding of
by the UN charters. Nevertheless, the international “humanitarian” intervention, perhaps rightly so, has
community have an obligation to intervene to stop been widely criticized. Many argued that such notion
the widespread abuse of human rights wherever it represents a coercive mode of liberal imperialism
takes place. of Western ideas and ideals. Western norms and
The purpose of any intervention must be to help understanding of international system and cultural
people to help themselves in almost universally rights were/are imposed onto other cultures of
accepted cultural norms. All human beings must regions. In this way “humanitarian” associated ideas
be treated justly because they share a common and arguments were used simply a rhetorical cover
human nature ordained to a set of specific goods. up for their implementation and practical use of
It is the violation of this universal order by some traditional geopolitical understandings.

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International Security

Imperial and previous colonial powers, and humanitarian crises as it became obvious once
alongside with able states, used intervention again in recent years in Syria. Rwanda was a show-
issue for their own interests from time to time. case of a catastrophic failure and a spur for human
During the 1990s, intervention took places in rights abuse and intervention issue.
“no-fly zones” in Iraq, Somalia, Bosnia, Sierra There were/are a number of debates going on
Leone, East Timor and Kosovo. Even the United about theoretical and practical aspects of legitimacy
States, led so-called coalition, created a war in Iraq of humanitarian intervention and its consequences.
(2003-2011) under the name of “humanitarian” Its legal and moral aspects need to be scrutinized.
intervention. As there were no obvious economic One of the main problems with intervention is
and/or political interests at stake, none of the who the authority will be and who is going to
Western country intervened in the 1994 genocide decide whether intervention is legitimate or on
in Rwanda. Rwanda case was a demonstration of what grounds intervention is necessary.
Western hypocrisy on a real abuse of human rights

Figure 4.1 Famine in Africa, Dadaab Refugee Camp, Kenya, 2011.

There is no consensus about whether interventions actually work, delay or exacerbate the problems that
were aimed to be resolved as required. Interveners’ real intention of motivation might be also problematic
to the parties. Was the intervention ever really possible to act solely for humanitarian, or any other
political, economic, social, and/or cultural reasons? Moreover, should humanitarian intervention require a
motivation? In fact, such arguments depend on whether an ethical system or legal issue is employed or not.
Thus, it is simply a matter of consequences of an intervention conducted purely in the name of national
self-interest that resulted in a “humanitarian” outcome could be classified as a “humanitarian intervention”
(Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 2015).
An intervention might be conducted out of concern for human rights. Nevertheless, if it fails in its
primary objective, then, there is a possibility that it could not be classified as humanitarian intervention.
Such issues continue to drive the debates in the field of IR and International Law on what is “legitimate”
and “necessary” for the humanitarian intervention.
Although the term used in this chapter corresponds to the second phase of peace operations mentioned
before, traditional and new generation peacekeeping operations have also been discussed. The main aim
of this chapter is to elaborate the evolution of peace operations in practice, find out the approach of

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Intervention

the UN Charter, and reveal the role of regional of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent
organizations to undertake this kind of operations. with the Purposes of the United Nations” (UN
The chapter pursues with following three headers: Charter, 1945: 3). Another exception is self-
Beyond the UN Charter Paradigm; States and defense articulated in Article 51 as “Nothing in
Intervention: Humanitarian Intervention/ the present Charter shall impair the inherent right
New forms of Intervention; Organizations and of individual or collective self- defense if an armed
Intervention: Peacekeeping and peacebuilding attack occurs against a Member of the United
missions. Nations…” (UN Charter, 1945: 10).
Potential interventions carried out by a member
(or a coalition of members) of the UN against
the interests and/or governing body of another
1 member would create problems on legality of such
interventions. The UN Charter grants the Security
Do some research on the UN Council powers to take whatever measures it regards
General Assembly’s “Declaration on as necessary to reestablish international peace and
the Inadmissibility of Intervention security. If there is an act which is believed to
in the Domestic Affairs of States threaten peace, security and order, then, the UN
and the Protection of Their can empower directly and through their action in
Independence and Sovereignty.” the appropriate international agencies of which
they are members to rectify such an act.
However, the intervention could be interpreted
INTERVENTION AND STATE as an attack against the sovereignty of a nation
SOVEREIGNTY which is mostly agreed as a bedrock rule of an
The approaches on resolution of disputes independent state. So, it engenders sovereignty
or conflict rely on two consecutive Chapters versus intervention dilemma.
of UN Charter. One of them, Chapter VI,
suggests pacifist settlements of disputes involving Legality of Intervention within the
negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, Sovereignty Concept
arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional
Sovereignty means a central governing
agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means
authority within a specified geographical territory,
of their own choice. Secondly, Chapter VII
combined with the recognition of its status by
examines the situations which yield threats to the
other states conferring on the state sovereignty.
peace, breaches of the peace, and acts of aggression.
The recognition of a central authority, whether
Article 41 in Chapter VII outlines the measures of
domestic or international, does not imply approval
the interruption of economic relations and of rail,
of that particular government and its system. An
sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means
unpopular and oppressive totalitarian government
of communication, and the severance of diplomatic
is no less sovereign than a popularly elected and
relations with these states threatening the security.
democratic republic. Sovereignty flows from the
However, the following article recommends that
recognition of the legitimacy of some central
acts by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary
governing power. ‘Internal’ affairs can be described
to maintain or restore international peace and
and include as the form of government, the structure
security if the measures underlined by Article 41
of the constitution with its due apportionment
are failed or proved to be inadequate (UN Charter,
of rights and duties, the economic system, the
1945: 9).
definition and implementation of distributive
It is one of the exceptions to the restriction on justice and the social relations among members
the use of force mandated by Article 2 which states of the community. In short, sovereignty covers all
“All Members shall refrain in their international relations between citizens and government, and
relations from the threat or use of force against among citizens as specified by law and custom
the territorial integrity or political independence (Phillips, 1996: 15-16).

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The sovereignty of a state is embodied by The concept of sovereignty has been in the
Westphalia Agreement, and it is reiterated and process of newly emerged stances with alleged
strengthened by Articles 2.1, 2.7, and 51 of the globalization of economic, cultural and social
UN Charter. The sovereign entity should possess activities. There is a growing debate on quasi-
the following elements as stated in Article 2 (1-7) of states and failed states. It is assumed that advanced
the UN Charter: (1) every state is legally equal; (2) industrialized states’ effective sovereignty is being
every state enjoys the rights and benefits inherent eroded. Contrary to this, the poorer states are
in full sovereignty; (3) every state is obligated to enjoying effective forms of sovereignty. Sovereignty
respect the fact of the legal entity and sovereignty is classified into, negative and positive forms.
of other states; (4) the territorial integrity and Negative sovereignty which refers to the legal right
political independence of a state are inviolable; (5) to demand that other states refrain from interfering
each state has the right to freely choose and develop in the state’s internal affairs. This sovereignty is
its own political, social, economic, and cultural given by the international community rather than
systems; (6-7) each state is obligated to carry out its achieving it achieving it on its own. In contrast
international obligations fully and conscientiously to this, positive sovereignty refers to the ability of
and to live in peace with other states within the the state to exercise effective control in the arena
UN system. of its formal jurisdiction. This requires capability
Nonetheless, sovereignty is not entirely on enabling government on their own as like
absolute. States have domestic/international the Great Powers of the 19th and 20th centuries
obligations when they enter into international (Mutaqin, 2017: 44-61).
treaties and agreements. They are free to enter and/ Sovereignty should be re-examined in a
or not to enter into agreements. Once they do, they normative sense. If sovereign states systematically
relinquish a certain measure of their sovereignty abuse the human rights of their citizens, “should
to the international community which creates they continue to enjoy those privileges of
International Law. sovereignty or not?” is the growing question in
The modern understanding of (Western) International Law. This issue is at the heart of the
political ideas was transplanted to various parts debates over the past decades. It will continue to be
of the world. European imperialist/colonialist a debate in the upcoming years as well; however,
powers imposed their worldview through their whether the humanitarian intervention will ever
military might upon militarily underdeveloped play a greater role in the International Law or not
nations around the world. With utmost care and remains to be unclear yet.
detail, European powers drew lines upon maps Scholars and states explore variations in
in accordance to their interests, thus delineating different dimensions of sovereignty over time
nations where none had existed before, or dividing and space, and its applicability and limits of full
nations as if they had never existed, like in the sovereignty. Accordingly, hard colonization in the
Southwestern Asian Countries (the Middle East) past has taken the shape of soft colonization in the
and Africa. present. The idea in the mind of the Western world
The claim of sovereignty within a bordered that said “the world outside my border is totally
territory brought a powerful legitimizing factor with wrong and that land is an object that has to be
it for an incumbent ruling elite. Established entity conquered.” was problematic in IR.
of the elites might impose cultural, religious and Just intervention involves the use of force and
political understandings using the state apparatus this is a problematical issue in IR as well. The
in a more systematic and efficient manner. As use of force to achieve justice and peace may be
may be named under the notion of ‘nationalism’ necessary as a means to achieve earthly justice as
becomes the claim that political power should envisaged by the theological teachings. Any kind
reflect cultural homogeneity in every corner of the of domination of one by another is a substitute or
sovereign territory. Thus, nationalism extends and a shadow of natural born right, which can be called
deepens the scope of sovereignty to require certain Divine justice. Those undertaking to affect justice
kinds of cultural, religious and social conformity as the and peace by force should do so in a spirit
and citizenship. of service to others animated by a lively sense of

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humility. The use of force in interventions must be of “peoples” is fatally vague, failing to specify a
undertaken with a sense of moral duty. It requires workable definition of a “people” or what size a
a willingness to ask a series of defining questions self-determining population has to be. Why such
for its legalization. These defining questions are groups have an overriding right to sovereignty is
known as the tradition of the Just War. In the not argued. Interventions on behalf of such groups
context of intervention where sovereignty is being are, therefore, morally problematic. Perhaps it
breached, it is very important that serious efforts would be better off to adopt a strategy of protecting
be made to find peaceful solutions to the problem minority groups and their integrity within the
before using force. Nonetheless, seeking legitimacy larger sovereignty in which they find themselves
and justification for every war has become part of (Phillips, 1996: 13). Nevertheless, the issue is one
the war itself. of the most misused principles in International Law
by the Great Powers for their own benefit. This is
clearly evidenced by choices of the names for their
invasion under the name of intervention as in the
following examples: “Operation Just Cause” for
Panama Invasion in December 1989, “Operation
Restore Hope” in Somalia Intervention in 1993,
“Operation Enduring Freedom” in Afghanistan
between 2001 and 2014, and “Operation Iraqi
Freedom” Invasion of Iraq beginning in 2003.

The Blurring Lines of Sovereignty

People may have certain rights to exercise freely.
Most importantly, they require a place to exercise
such rights. So, sovereignty should provide rights
and a protected space/territory for people to enjoy
the freedom of self-determination. In this sense,
sovereignty is an instrumental good, deserving the
very strongest presumption of inviolability. Twhe
newly invented legal barriers to intervention cannot
be absolute. Boundaries are not fixed by nature
and political communities, which are not always
perfectly homogeneous. There was and always
will be a suspicion regarding the motives of the
Figure 4.2 The body of a child Syrian refugee was
intervener. Here, the question “Can communities
found on the beach after his family perished while
would be better off if they are free to make their
trying to reach Europe.
own self-determining choices?” arises. A number of
Source: http://en.kiosko.net/uk/2015-09-03/np/the_ theorists, jurists and statesmen stipulated about the
times.html just intervention in throughout the history. One of
the thinker, Walzer, classifies intervention into three
The development of International Law and cases as ‘(a) the breakup of a sovereign state caused
conventions regulating war continued the tradition by the secession of one faction from the rest; (b)
of Hugo Grotius and seventeenth century jurists. where a country has already been invaded and third
In present time, these efforts issued in The parties face the question of counter-intervention;
Hague and Geneva Conventions as well as the (c) when the violation of human rights within a
League of Nations and the UN. The theory of set of boundaries is so terrible that it makes talk
national self-determination is “peoples” have a of community or self-determination or arduous
right to determine the shape of their association, struggle seem cynical and irrelevant, that is, in cases
including the political association. The principle of enslavement or massacre’ (Walzer, 1977: 90).

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There are also other views that rule out the shall not prejudice the application of enforcement
substitution of foreign intervention for the internal measures under Chapter .” in cases of self-defense,
struggle. It is opposed to intervention that the where this is understood or defined as the violation
internal freedom of a political community should of recognized international borders (UN Charter,
be won only by the members of that community. 1945: 3). The use of force only can be legalized
As individuals, political communities must seek by self-defense, overwhelming humanitarian
their own freedom to cultivate their own virtue. catastrophe or if it is authorized by the Security
These self-determination/virtue and liberty Council under Chapter VII of the UN Charter.
cannot be achieved by any external force/state. The theory of self-determination reached
On the other hand, where people are under such its peak in the 1960s. The principle of self-
massive oppression and/or are being massacred, determination reinforces absolute sovereignty in
international community/the UN is required to which non-intervention is a precondition of the full
intervene due to severity of the situation. exercise of self-determination. The newly emerged
There is certain behavior of a state that understanding of intervention has changed the
oppresses its people to the point that they are traditional understanding of self-determination
unable to resist, then, such a state gives forfeits and sovereignty. In the New World Disorder, the
their title to sovereignty. Even though legally the boundaries between domestic and international
title remains in International Law, morally there is affairs became more blurred. The observance
a duty of charity to the international community to of fundamental human rights recognizes no
intervene. People who partake in massacre of others national boundaries. Therefore, there was a
lose their right to participate in the normal process shift in international public opinion in favor of
of domestic self-determination. Their military/ intervention particularly on humanitarian grounds.
power capability defeat is morally/legally necessary This was exemplified as a stronger commitment
(Phillips, 1996: 15-16). This idea can suggest that to protection of human rights in Northern Iraq,
the cause of war and international strife was/is the Somalia, Liberia and in former Yugoslavia. UN
tendency of states to meddle in each other’s affairs. Resolution 688 envisaged distressed people to
In the last century, absolute sovereignty has have the right to access to humanitarian assistance
been continuously written into various Law of (UNSCR 688, 1991). Similarly, Resolution
Nations as in the followings: The Covenant of the 43/131 urged the relevant countries to facilitate
League of Nations in 1920, The Convention on the variety of humanitarian assistances to the distressed
Duties and Rights of States in the Event of Civil areas in 1988. The other emergency humanitarian
Strife in 1928, and the Montevideo Convention assistances can be seen in the recent Resolutions
on the Rights and Duties of States in 1933. The 68/102 regarding the situation of human rights in
catastrophic conflicts of the last century within the Syrian Arab Republic in 2013 (UNGA, 1988;
Europe and worldwide colonies followed many UNGA, 2013). The Security Council has asserted
breaches of national sovereignty. These former the right of humanitarian access in Bosnia, Iraq and
imperialist/colonialist powers’ breaches were Somalia. These humanitarian related accesses were
frequently disguised as interventions in aid of some given without permission of the concerning state.
beleaguered party. Therefore, in order to prevent Such practices indicated that humanitarian issues
such breaches, the UN Charter was framed with a could not be interpreted as intervention in the
vision that engraves absolute sovereignty into the affairs of states sovereignty and self-determination.
law. Article 2, Section 7 in Chapter I specifically The new principles of natural justice supersede the
forbids intervention by one state into the affairs Hobbesian/Machiavellian imperative to seek peace
of another as “Nothing contained in the present at all costs. The continuing emergence of a global
Charter shall authorize the United Nations to community deteriorated absolute sovereignty. This
intervene in matters which are essentially within the means a weakening of political boundaries of the
domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require states. With the collapse of the Cold War order, the
the Members to submit such matters to settlement sharp lines between domestic and foreign realms
under the present Charter…” Nevertheless, have changed. Traditional International Law in
exceptions were attached “… but this principle support of absolute sovereignty has dramatically

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declined. Those changes in jus gentium brought slides into total anarchy and is unable to protect
closer accord with traditional theories of bellum the lives, security, and wellbeing of its people.
justum and with theories of natural justice. A conclusive moral assessment of humanitarian
Nevertheless, one can say that the weakening of intervention is problematic due to the continuing
sovereignty itself is threat to peace. The Security evolution of its theory and practice. In the General
Council in 1992 observed, “non-military sources Assembly and membership of the UN, equal
of instability in the economic, humanitarian and sovereignty is clearly seen while the legalized
ecological fields have become threats to peace hegemony of the Great Powers institutionalized
and security” (https://www.securitycouncilreport. in the veto rights of the Security Council. This
org). Thus, the danger to world peace might be is a synthesis from the previous stage of colonial
constituted within the developments in recent and imperial history. Clearly, there is a shift
decades. The global village concept has changed the taking place in international law and in the
traditional understanding of international affairs practice of nations regarding the various kinds
into more inclusive of commerce and advanced of interventions. Nevertheless, public opinion
communication. Consequently, the traditional about the implementation of the newly developed
reasons for non-interventions are diminished while interventions is not clearly defined ad legalized
the failure of just intervention where there is a in the UN. Intervention requires all institutions
cause of war might lead to new wars. of civil order to have been broken down anarchy
Humanitarian intervention is justifiable reigns, and the inhabitants suffer loss of rights
whenever/wherever for lack of an effective and life due to the absence of civil society order.
government, a country slides from order into In such cases, restoration of civil order is morally/
anarchy, thus jeopardizing seriously first and legally required as intervention’s goal to some
foremost the lives of its citizens’ security and extent. People should be rescued from starvation
well-being. Governments, non-governmental and disease rather than simply to abandon them to
organizations (NGOs) and the public, as well as the a state of nature or to the form of government that
international community, should intervene in the led them into anarchy.
case of an authority abusing its powers to subject
its citizens to chaotic and inhumane circumstances.
As in Somalia and in Liberia in the past, in Syria
at present peoples are killed indiscriminately and/ 2
or to be subjected massive and systematic human In what ways do interventions
rights abuses by their governments. violate the sovereignty of states?
If there is a serious humanitarian crisis emerged
in a state, it is not a question of whether the
international community has the right to intervene
or whether it should intervene. It is a question STATES AND INTERVENTION:
of how and in what way it should be carried NEW FORMS OF
out. The issue is no longer considered as whether INTERVENTION
humanitarian aid is an intervention or not. If The need to feel secure is a core human value.
a state refuses to allow to those people access to Security is one of the key issues of present IR
humanitarian assistance, contrary to their basic discipline. The most important actors in the
sovereign obligation to do so, force can be used international system are states, whose primary
toward that state on humanitarian grounds. Under objective and motive is to protect their sovereignty
specific circumstances, international community is (Sönmezoğlu, 2005: 17-33). A state might attack
morally/legally required to ignore sovereignty when its neighbor for a number of different reasons.
lives and rights are denied. There are also other The reasons might be related to enhance its
views contrary above stance of intervention. The power position and/or improve easy access to vital
mere abrogation of these basic rights is insufficient resources. States endemically feel insecure in an
to trigger humanitarian intervention. Rather, it is anarchical world. Such feelings lead them to get
argued, intervention only occurs when a country more premiums on military power which also

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requires wealth and geopolitical advantage. It is Kurds, the Tibetans, and the Tamils. Such stances
believed that the more militarily powerful a state create violence and political struggles between the
is, the more secure it is likely to be. dominant values of the co-existing community
and that particular individual group. So, self-
determination involves/creates conflict between
Security and Self-determination two competing selves. Which one is the true self
with Relation to Intervention became a hot subject matter for international
The traditional state-centric understanding community to decide.
of security has changed to a broader meaning of One of the UN’s main purposes is to promote
perception among scholars and policymakers after the of the principle of self-determination. The UN
Cold War period. Regional security arrangements, Charter however mentions this only twice (in
such as the ones taken place in Asia and in Europe, Article 1 (2) and 55) in the whole document
shifted the security discussions from one perspective by affirming a ‘respect for the principle of equal
to another. The new understanding of security rights and self-determination of peoples’ in order
embraced all relevant issues of humanity, natural to promote development of friendly relations and
and vital environmental resources, rather than being strengthen universal peace. In the formal sense,
exclusive to states. Although, interstate war is still after the UN Charter and the Universal Declaration
possible, nevertheless, the bloodiest violent conflicts of Human Rights in 1948 marked the end of
have taken places mostly within states. Group imperialism (Universal Declaration of Human
identity, cultural differences and/or political stances Rights, 2015). Formerly colonized Afro-Asian
may be used for creation of conflicts. The capacity of world began to find some sort of voice in the UN.
the state to provide security for its citizens has been The Declaration on the Granting of Independence
tested particularly by a range of non-military threats. to Colonial Countries and Peoples in 1960 (The
These were/are environmental issues, rapid expansion United Nations and Decolonization, 1960) and
of population, diseases, influx of asylum seekers, the Declaration on Friendly Relations in 1970
regulated and/or undocumented migrants, and explicitly link self-determination to decolonization
growing scarcity of vital resources. Governing bodies (UNGA, 1970). Nevertheless, these declarations
of states concerned mainly on its citizens’ welfare and did not recognize any right to internal self-
wellbeing to be safe from hunger, disease, repression, determination and alter their territorial frontiers
and events likely to undermine the normal pattern of the inhabitants. Variety of understanding and
of everyday existence, and redistribution of wealth practice of self-determination paved the way for
adequately among them. Some states, like Canada, various inter-communal and interstate conflicts.
articulated the idea of human security is the most Such conflicts required international intervention
important state objective, which will be tested in due to exploitation of self-determination within
the near future. The debate is still ongoing whether the newly created states on their inhabitants’ basic
security is only meaningful in terms of interstate human rights.
behavior or in terms of universally originated new
The former imperial powers unwillingly
global threats such as varieties of terrorism. All these
permitted colonized world to have their self-
security issues, particularly newly emerged terrorism
determination, which lacks lots of principles in
related interstate and global threats create concerns
both definition and applicability (http://legal.
on international community to intervene wherever
un.org/avl/ha/dicc/dicc.html). The newly emerged
it is necessary.
decolonized world’s autonomy, democracy, human
There are correlations between intervention and rights, and the proper right to self-determination
self-determination issues. In self-determination require the adoption of a more liberal and expansive
processes ‘the self ’ is a problematic matter to solve. interpretation of the meaning of self-determination.
How should that ‘self ’ be governed and identified It should be noted that self-determination does
and who will decide its cultural and territorial not include irredentism, secession, and the violent
borders, and on what grounds? A number of renegotiation of territorial frontiers. It is rather
groups are seeking to proclaim self-determination, the promotion of minority rights, devolution,
as the Québécois, the Basques, the Palestinians, the federalism, and greater acknowledgment of the

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legitimacy of cultural self-expression of individual 4. External agent should carry out humanitarian
groups. Practical misuse of self-determination intervention.
creates an atmosphere for intervention. 5. Humanitarian intervention must have a
humanitarian intention.
6. The Security Council authorization is
Humanitarian Intervention from required.
the Perspective of Responsibility The report and its supplementary published by
to Protect International Commission on Intervention and
There is a plethora of definitions on State Sovereignty (ICISS) are among the first studies
humanitarian intervention considering the fact on humanitarian intervention, and the concept of
that the study field intersects with many disciplines responsibility to protect is based on this report. One
such as international law, politics, history, IR and of the essential suggestions the commission agreed
questions national sovereignty. In 1921, one of these is that international actors have the ‘responsibility
definitions defined humanitarian intervention as to protect’ people who live in dire conditions
“the reliance upon force for the justifiable purpose even in the situation of host government’s dissent.
of protecting the inhabitants of another state from It approaches the question as “a duty to react to
the treatment which is so arbitrary and persistently situations in which there is a compelling need for
abusive as to exceed the limits of that authority humanitarian protection”. So, ‘responsibility to
within which the sovereign is presumed to act with protect’ not only means ‘responsibility to react’
reason and justice (Stowell, 1921: 53). but also means ‘responsibility to prevent’ and
One of the most cited definition, Adam Roberts ‘responsibility to rebuild’ as well (The Responsibility
(1993, p.429) points out that humanitarian to Protect, 2001: 17).
intervention is “coercive action by one or more The concept of responsibility to protect have
states involving the use of armed force in another been bolstered by other works. In a report of the
state without the consent of its authorities, UN High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges
and with the purpose of preventing widespread and Change in 2004, A More Secure World, it is
suffering or death among the inhabitants”. In argued that “there is a growing recognition that the
another description, it is called as the uninvited issue is not the ‘right to intervene’ of any State,
interference by a state, states, or international but the ‘responsibility to protect’ of every State”
organizations in the domestic affairs of another and it recognized the notion as an emerging norm
state to prevent and/or end human rights abuses (UNGA, 2004: 57). In Larger Freedom (UNGA,
(Shimko, 2010). Further, Pattison (2010: 28) puts 2005: 35), the report presented by then Secretary-
forth a comprehensive definition that intervention General to the UN, Kofi Annan acknowledges
is “forcible military action by an external agent the aforementioned works and emphasizes that
in the relevant political community with the “we must move towards embracing and acting on
predominant purpose of preventing, reducing, or the ‘responsibility to protect’ potential or actual
halting an ongoing or impending grievous suffering victims of massive atrocities.”
or loss of life.” This responsibility lies, first and foremost,
Although there are minor differences in with each individual State, whose primary raison
arguments among definitions, some common points d’être and duty is to protect its population. But
could be derived from these conceptualization if national authorities are unable or unwilling to
efforts on humanitarian intervention (Weiss, 2002; protect their citizens, then the responsibility shifts
Pattison, 2010: 25-27; Shimko, 2010): to the international community to use diplomatic,
1. It comprises use of force, particularly military humanitarian and other methods to help protect
elements. the human rights and well-being of civilian
2. Humanitarian intervention must lack the populations.
consent of the government of the target So, it was a strong statement by Secretary-General
state. that the protection of people should be performed
3. It takes place where there is actual or by international actors if national authorities are
impending grievous suffering or loss of life. reluctant to do so. Later at the 2005 UN World

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Summit, one of the largest gatherings of Heads of

State and Government, it was agreed that there exists a
universal responsibility to protect populations. They 3
indicated their preparedness to undertake action
“should peaceful means be inadequate” and when What are the basic criticisms
“national authorities are manifestly failing to protect levelled against intervention?
their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing and crimes against humanity” (Pattison,
2010: 3,14). The implementation of responsibility
to protect was outlined through three pillars in 2009 INTERNATIONAL
(UNGA, 2009). ORGANIZATIONS
• The State carries the primary responsibility AND INTERVENTION:
for protecting populations from genocide, PEACEKEEPING AND
war crimes, crimes against humanity and PEACEBUILDING MISSIONS
ethnic cleansing, and their incitement; Although there are various classification
• The international community has a initiatives of peace operations, the UN capstone
responsibility to encourage and assist States document, “Peacekeeping Operations: Principle
in fulfilling this responsibility; and Guidelines”, divides peace operations into
• The international community has five elements as conflict prevention, peacemaking,
a responsibility to use appropriate peacekeeping, peace enforcement, and peacebuilding.
diplomatic, humanitarian and other means The first one, conflict prevention, also known as
to protect populations from these crimes. preventive diplomacy, is the endeavor taking place
If a State is manifestly failing to protect its before the conflict while the other four activities are
populations, the international community carried out after the eruption of armed fighting. It
must be prepared to take collective action involves the utilization of structural or diplomatic
to protect populations, in accordance with measures to prevent intra-state or inter-state tensions
the UN Charter. and disputes from escalating into violent conflict
Three trends can be observed. Responsibility (UN Peacekeeping Operations, 2008: 17).
to protect doctrine was endorsed at the 2005
World Summit whose final document declared
that “the international community, through the The Spectrum of Peace Activities
United Nations, also has the responsibility to use Peacemaking includes measures to address
the appropriate diplomatic, humanitarian and ongoing conflicts and usually comprises diplomatic
other peaceful means… to protect populations action and mediation to bring hostile parties
from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and to a negotiated agreement (UN Peacekeeping
crimes against humanity”. Secondly, the new Operations, 2008, p.17). Yet, if the conflicting
type of peacekeeping operations undertaken sides agreed, there might even be employed limited
since the 1990s blurred the boundary between use of force to bring the armistice. The basic goals
peacekeeping and humanitarian intervention. of peacemaking are to help ending armed conflict
Thirdly, the regionalization of peace operations and organizing the conditions in the aftermath for
emerged in the 1990s are continuing to operate the reconciliation of warring parties. It involves ‘the
in the grey area between traditional peacekeeping, stationing of neutral, lightly armed troops with the
humanitarian intervention and nation-building permission of the host state(s) as an interposition
(Cottey, 2008: 431). force following a cease-fire to separate combatants
So, “responsibility to protect” means “a duty to and promote an environment suitable for conflict
react to situations in which there is a compelling resolution’ (Diehl, 2008: 15).
need for humanitarian protection”. The desire was The peacekeeping, as a more used term in
to change “the discretionary ‘right to intervene’ practical field and literature, comprises the basic
into a more muscular ‘responsibility to protect’” principles which are impartiality; consent of the
(Shimko, 2010: 249; Pattison, 2010: 13). parties; non-use of force except in self-defense and

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Intervention

defense of the mandate (Principles of Peacekeeping, of peace-building operations is to prevent the

2018). These traditional principles are also recurrence of conflict, there are two somewhat
supplemented with the authorization and mandate overlapping approaches in achieving this end:
delivered by the UN to the missions (Goulding, minimalist and maximalist. The former view
1993: 455). invokes ‘negative peace’ while the latter emphasizes
Peacekeeping is sometimes used as an umbrella ‘positive peace’.
term covering all aspects of peace operations. It According to minimalist view, peace-building
commences generally with a peace agreement, activities are the efforts undertaken at the end of
and is devised to keep the peace by implementing conflict to halt overt violence, lessen its counter
arrangements achieved by peacemakers. Over effects and prevent the recurrence of disturbances.
the years, peacekeeping has evolved from However, the advocates of maximalist perspective
predominantly military model of observing cease- criticize this approach by arguing that peace-
fires and separation of forces after inter-state wars, building activities do not solely comprise the efforts
to incorporate a complex model of many elements after the eruption of conflict, but also encompass
–military, police and civilian– working together to the social, economic, and political initiatives
help lay the foundations for sustainable peace (UN implementing in conflict-ridden countries because
Peacekeeping Operations, 2008:18). the permanent peace can only be brought about by
Peace enforcement comprises the application the measures addressing the root causes of struggle
of a range of coercive measures with the (Diehl, 2008: 9).
authorization of the UN Security Council. Although there are some conceptual and
Peace enforcement activities include carrying practical differences, there is neither definite
out international sanctions against the opposing boundary nor a sequence among these peace
sides; isolating the conflict zones and preventing activities. Hence, the aforementioned activities
penetration of armed groups into these areas; among the conflict spectrum are usually called as
delivering air or missile strikes against the groups ‘peace operations’ as an encompassing term. The
refusing the agreement; disarming and eradicating elements of peace operations mentioned above are
armed formations which refuse to end armed integral parts of a peace program.
fighting. However, it is contended that these kind
of activities could not easily be classified under the
rubric of peace operations but mostly resemble
Descriptive Figures on Peace
collective security operations since armed forces Operations
are tasked with combat roles (Diehl, 2008:14; The peace operations are examined in two
Bellamy et al., 2010: 8). categories as peacekeeping and political missions as
The last element of peace operations is called stated in UN documents. As integrated concepts
as peacebuilding which was coined by Boutros of contemporary peace environment, peacekeepers
Ghali in his “An Agenda for Peace” report released and peace builders could be seen as inseparable
in 1992 (An Agenda for Peace, 1992). It comprises partners in complex operations as stated in
a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of the ‘Brahimi Report’ (2000): “while the peace
resuming the conflict by strengthening indigenous builders may not be able to function without the
capacities to provide a basis for sustainable peace peacekeepers’ support, the peacekeepers have no
and development. Although the essential goal exit without the peace builders’ work.”

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International Security

Figure 4.3 Current Peacekeeping Operations (as of October 31, 2018).

Source: https://peacekeeping.un.org

Though peacekeeping operations commenced with the UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO)
in May 1948, 71 peacekeeping operations have been conducted by the authorization or mandate of the UN
since then. With 57 of the peacekeeping operations having concluded, 14 of them are currently continuing
in Africa (7), Middle East (3), Europe (2), Americas (1) and Asia (1) (UN Peacekeeping Operations,
2018). The increasing trend in peacekeeping operations after the end of the Cold War, particularly since
1991, can be seen clearly in the figure below, with each lasting almost a decade. There were also five new
peacekeeping operations on average which begin in each year during this period.

18

16

14

12

10

0
48 952 956 960 964 968 972 976 980 984 988 992 996 000 004 008 012 016
19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
Start Date End Date Total

Figure 4.4 The UN Peacekeeping Operations by the Time (as of August 24, 2018)
Source: www.un.org

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Intervention

There are also political missions engaged in conflict prevention, peacemaking and post-conflict
peacebuilding managed by the Department of Political Affairs (DPA). It monitors and assesses global
political developments to detect potential crises and develop effective responses. According to the UN data
provided, there were 29 past operations established in Africa (16), Americas (6), Asia and Pacific (7) while
there are 13 ongoing political and peace building missions deployed in Africa (7), Middle East (3), Asia
(2), South America (1) as seen in Figure-2 (UN Department of Political Affairs, 2018). The majority of
these political missions were founded in the last decade.
Considering the figures provided by the UN over the peace operations, the conclusion that peacebuilding
operations or special political missions have been gaining momentum while peacekeeping operations have been
decreasing relatively during the last decade could be drawn. It is also remarkable that the operations in Africa
take the lead, and they are followed by the Middle East region regarding the figures of current operations.

Figure 4.5 The Map of UN Special Political Missions

Source: https://dpa.un.org/sites/default/files/dpa_ousg_4561_r5_jun18.pdf

Evolution of Peace Operations However, the wars have occurred between

The evolution of peace operations can be the armies of the states after the Westphalian
divided into three basic phases as the period before Agreement and the formation of states. Further,
the League of Nations (antecedents), the League of the French Revolution had a considerable effect
Nations phase (novice attempts), and the current over the evolution of national wars because it
period beginning after the founding of the United engendered the notion of serving the army of
Nations (maturity). state as a vital duty of citizenship. The aftermath
of Napoleonic Wars instigated developing
another collective international action such as the
Antecedents: Before the League of Concert of Europe (1815) which brought almost
Nations an age of peace to Europe (Diehl, 2008, p.28).
Beginning by the 1st phase, one of the Meanwhile, the Rhine and Danube Commission,
earliest evidences of collective military action which is recognized as one of the predecessors of
at the international level might be found at the international organizations, was institutionalized
Crusades which dated back to the medieval period. to organize the river navigation (Schmidl, 1999:7).
Although there were various types and purposes of There were collective military actions organized
the Crusades, at the outset, they were a series of against the Ottoman State at the 19th century as in
religious wars aiming at recovering the Holy Land the previous centuries by the European Imperialist
for the Christians from the Muslim rule. powers. They had directed and coordinated armed

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attacks to Turks during the Greek Uprising/ (between France and Germany) and the Greek-
Greek War of Independence. Further, in the Bulgarian crisis (Schmidl, 1999: 9).
Crete problem, an international mission was The common characteristic of activities over
undertaken by European countries such as Great this period is that the League of Nations sought to
Britain, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy and achieve peace through dialogues and consultation
Russia. One can argue that the mission organized or referral bodies. However, it desperately needed
judicial, police and administration issues across the the recognized enforcement body to provide order
island that might be interpreted as an ancestor of and security.
‘wider peacekeeping’ or ‘peace building’ operations
(Schmidl, 1999: 8).
The Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 is
Maturity: The United Nations
another example to give for the ancestors of peace Although these are among the first initiatives
operations before the League of Nations. An allied of international military actions, contemporary
force of several nations was composed to rescue the peace operations have been carried out since the
foreign legations in Beijing (Diehl, 2008, p.29). founding of the UN. The UN period, that is the
It is argued as a first international ‘enforcement 3rd phase of peace operations, could be elaborated
operation’ of its time (Schmidl, 1999, p.8), through four generations such as traditional
although one could criticize the operation had peacekeeping, civilian tasks, peace enforcement,
been conducted to pursue Western powers’ own and peace-building (Kenkel, 2013).
interests. The peacekeeping operations began by the
These examples before the establishment mission called as UNTSO in the Middle East
of the League of Nations share some common in May 1948, and it was followed by the UN
characteristics. Firstly, they operated on an ad Monitoring and Observation Group in India and
hoc basis which is the similar feature of modern Pakistan, active in Kashmir in 1949. So, the 1st
peace operations. Second, these military actions generation of peace operations within the UN
were performed under no specific procedures period, traditional peacekeeping, has just begun.
coordinated before the deployments. Finally, The operations over this period commenced
related to the second one, there was not any after a cease-fire achieved between fighting sides
authoritative and institutionalized international and the resolution of the UN Security Council
organization orchestrating or managing the peace in accordance to Chapter VI of the UN Charter.
activities (Diehl, 2008: 29). The operations in this phase especially focused
on preventing overt violence between states
and protecting the Westphalian international
Novice Attempts: The Period of League system (Richmond, 2004: 86). They aimed at
of Nations creating a relatively conducive environment for
The League of Nations was founded in 1920 peaceful conflict resolution efforts. Deploying an
as a result of the Paris Peace Conference ending interposition body between the frontlines of the
the First Great War. It was the first international enemy forces, monitoring borders and verifying
organization established by the goal of achieving demilitarized zones are among the typical peace
international peace. As stated in its agreement activities of this generation.
act, the organization aimed to resolve the disputes However, the operation in Suez in 1956
through negotiation and arbitration. However, would beget first challenge over the execution of
the League of Nations has not been successful traditional peacekeeping operations. Although the
to prevent aggression and proved its own UN Emergency Force (UNEF) in Suez retained the
incompetency with the eruption of the 2nd World basic principles of peacekeeping, the UN deployed
War. Despite its failures, in fact, there were some 6,000 armed troops into the conflict for the first
achievements including the territorial disputes time to enable the intervention forces to withdraw
of Åland Islands (between Sweden and Finland), and patrol the armistice line (Kenkel, 2013: 126). It
Upper Silesia (between Poland and Germany), was the outcome of recognition of the ineffectiveness
Vilnius (between Poland and Lithuania), Saar

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of small units to tackle this kind of problem in the in 1992 to coordinate activities effectively. The
field. The UN soldiers put on blue head gears and ascending trend could be attributable to various
blue badges as distinctive insignia firstly through factors such as the collapse of the bi-polar world,
this operation which in turn called by the familiar the expansion of civil conflicts and raising numbers
term, “blue berets” (Schmidl, 1999: 10). of failed or collapsed states (Diehl, 2008: 53).
On the other hand, the United Nations Although the peace operations were easier to
Operation in Congo (ONUC), taking place deploy, they were more dangerous and complex
between 1960 and 1964, had bequeathed some to execute than before since the range of duties
features to the later operations as well. The primary carried out in these missions were multiplied
task of ONUC was to restore order and ease the (Hillen, 1998: 141). Indeed, the peace operations
withdrawal of Belgian troops. Yet, its mandate was in this phase were conducted not only to halt the
revised after the escalation of civil war, and the conflicts but also help the transition from conflict
UN authorized ONUC taking all necessary steps to peace. So, the civilian tasks required for political
to provide security in Katanga, the capital city of transition from conflict had gained importance
Congo (Diehl, 2008: 45-46). So, the UN forces (Kenkel, 2013: 128). The firstly introduced term
have been firstly engaged to execute peacekeeping, was “wider peacekeeping” through the British
peacebuilding and peace enforcement activities at Army Field Manual in 1995 to encompass the tasks
the same operation in a conflict-ridden country. of conflict prevention, demobilization operations,
The meaning of traditional peacekeeping military assistance, humanitarian relief, guarantee
has been changing gradually from observing and denial of movement (Wider Peacekeeping,
and monitoring missions to wielding necessary 1996, p.46). The peace missions conducted over
minimum force in order to enforce peace. So, this generation had traditional and transitional
traditional peacekeeping operations appear to fall tasks in hostile environments by adhering to
between the Chapters VI and VII since former the basic principles of traditional peacekeeping
suggests peaceful settlements of conflicts while later (Bellamy et al., 2010:193).
implies military intervention by the authorization This was evident in the case of Somalia
of Security Council. Hence, it is referred as Chapter where the United Nations Operation in Somalia
“six and a half ” by then Secretary-General of the (UNOSOM) commenced in 1992 to tackle the
UN, Dag Hammarskjöld, to reflect the distinctive problem of public order and humanitarian issues
character of operations at that time. However, concurrently. UNOSOM has some distinctive
it should be kept in mind that peace operations features comparing to other peace operations. First,
were still consistent with the essential principles of the Somalia crisis was purely an internal dispute,
peacekeeping (Kenkel, 2013: 125-126). but not an inter-state as seen almost exclusively
The number of peacekeeping operations had before; secondly, the operation was motivated by
increased with time to adapt their composition and humanitarian concerns; thirdly, there was a lack
duties to meet field’s necessities. Indeed, the period of consent of the host country since Somalia had
from 1956 (UNEF I) until 1978 (United Nations no government then; and lastly, UNOSOM had
Interim Force in Lebanon/UNIFIL) is popularly assumed intrusive peacebuilding activities such as
known as the first “golden age” of peacekeeping. emergency relief, establishment of law and order
In these two decades, the UN deployed 10 new (Diehl, 2008: 51). So, it is clearly seen that the peace
peacekeeping or observation missions to different operations in the field have compelled to change the
regions of the world. However, the following limits of the traditional principles of peacekeeping.
decade (1979-88) was quiet and called as the “lost Hence, the term of ‘peacebuilding’ was coined
decade” since no new operations were deployed by the UN report, An Agenda for Peace, at that
during this time (Diehl, 2008: 43-44, 47). time. It was a result of desire to deal with structural
problems and improve the conditions underlying
The second generation of peace operations has
conflict (Richmond, 2004: 89). However, Somalia
begun with another “golden age” of peace keeping.
ended with relatively heavy losses, and the UN
The growing numbers entailed the establishment of
missions in Rwanda and Srebrenica could not
the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations
prevent the massacres occurring in front of peace

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forces. It is argued that the instruments in the hand of peacekeepers did not correspond well to the
assigned tasks for these missions (Thakur and Thayer, 1995). These three humiliating failures in Somalia,
Rwanda, and Srebrenica led the questioning of the UN system and paradigm on peacekeeping and paved
the way for the next generation.
Third generation of peace operations was characterized by the use of force expressed through Chapter
VII of the UN Charter, protection of human rights even against their own government and rising of
regional organizations’ intervention. The UN has not deployed any new mission during the late 1990s,
since there was an ongoing discussion to solve ineffectiveness in peace operations and ambivalence in UN
paradigm.
As one of the earlier efforts, then Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed the “Panel on United
Nations Peace Operations” to assess the shortcomings of the existing peace operations system and to
make specific and realistic recommendations for change. The panel consisting of individuals experienced
in conflict prevention, peacekeeping and peacebuilding published a study called as “Brahimi Report”
because of his chairman Lakhdar Brahimi.

Figure 4.6 The Genocide Memorial near Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

This report is an essential document to Further, Annan called on member states to

understand the evolution of the UN peace operations investigate the issue of ‘humanitarian intervention’,
since it recognizes ongoing ineffectiveness of and the Canadian government led to compose a
peacekeeping operations, criticizes and makes body, International Commission on Intervention
reasonable proposals. It states that the UN military and State Sovereignty (ICISS), to achieve a
units must be capable of defending themselves, consensus on humanitarian intervention and state
other mission components and the mission’s sovereignty. The commission published its report in
mandate. It also suggests that peacekeepers should 2001 and declared that a state has the responsibility
protect the civilians if they are faced with violence to uphold its citizen’s human rights. If it’s unable
attacks (Brahimi Report, 2000: x). This approach or unwilling to fulfil this responsibility, such as in
has widened somewhat the interpretation on the cases of mass killing, its sovereignty is temporarily
use of force by third-party state(s) or organizations suspended. In such cases, the responsibility to
protect these citizens transfers to the international
by emphasizing humanitarian concerns.
community (Pattison, 2010: 3, 14).

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Intervention

It was the most significant challenge to national combination of states and non-state actors. Hybrid
sovereignty after the Westphalian Order. The threats aim to achieve synergistic effects in the
international actors seem confident to protect physical, psychological dimensions of the conflict
humans at the expense of national sovereignty even and cognitive environment in pursuit of their
without the consent of the host government. These objectives. The threats faced today blur the lines
developments are also serious questioning of basic between crime and law enforcement as well as
principles of peacekeeping. Indeed, the NATO between the war and peace.
military action against Yugoslavia in Kosovo in Thus, this type of conflict environment requires
1999 illustrates this point clearly. Following these multidimensional response. It is generally called
developments, the first international mandate as “robust peacebuilding” to imply intrusive
by the Security Council has given to Australian- operations challenging national authority along
led intervention in East Timor to prevent human with peacebuilding activities (Bellamy et al., 2010:
suffering. Australia provided the necessary 231). Such operations involve larger number of
troops for successful intervention and halted the troops than previous ones, and those troops have
immediate crisis substantially (Pattison, 2010: 5). greater military capability, with weaponry well
International Force in East Timor (INTERFET) beyond the traditional rifle or side arms carried by
completed its task on 23 February 2000 and traditional peacekeepers. Rules of engagement are
transformed command and control responsibility also more permissive, allowing soldiers to initiate
to the UN peacekeeping force. the use of force if necessary to carry out their duties.
The fourth generation of operations has Another essential characteristic over the
been conducted under the new circumstances operations of this era is the increasing deployment
of conflict environment. It is mainly affected of international civilian police units (CIVPOL)
from globalization and advanced information integrated to the missions because of ongoing civil
technology, called as the 4th Industrial Revolution disturbances while the peace operation continues.
(The Industry 4.0). The new era is characterized Beginning in Kosovo, CIVPOL’s mandate was
by a fusion of technologies that is blurring the expanded to allow units full authority to make
lines between the physical, digital and biological arrests and use deadly force if necessary (Diehl,
spheres. Interconnectedness has spread and the 2008: 55-56). Additionally, not only civilian police
physical as well as cultural borders have become but also military forces with some judicial authority
hazier thanks to the social media and developed and gendarmeries, aka law enforcement forces with
transport systems. military status (LEFMS), have been increasingly
The characteristics of armed conflicts have taking place in these kinds of operations.
changed in parallel with the factors mentioned Notwithstanding the “robust” (or muscular)
above. Being called as the 4th generation of warfare, nature, missions of this generation also aim to
it has such distinctive features as follows: (Lind et resolve conflicts by addressing the causes rooted
al., 1989; Kaldor, 2012): actors are generally non- in politics, economics and socio-cultural life.
state but state sponsored armed organizations and This endeavor highly requires multi-disciplinary
terrorist groups; their objectives are transnational approach as the contribution of all related civilian
and ideological; socio-cultural structures have and governmental bodies, facilitation of local
generally been on the target; the exploitation of reconciliation initiatives, and the coordination
high technological media assets is widespread; with Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
psychological operations have been wielded as well. Since political institutionalization and
alongside armed attacks; the violence is protracted nation building were among the main topics of this
and committed by nontraditional means; generation, transitional administrations were also
organizations have network typed structures. attempted through some cases as in quintessential
The changing environment also transforms models of UN Interim Administration Mission
the threats. As firstly called by Hoffman (2009), in Kosovo (UNMIK), UN Transitional
hybrid threats are the activities that comprise a Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) and
tailored mix of conventional, irregular, terrorism Mission des Nations Unies pour la Stabilization en
and criminal means and perpetrated by a Haiti (MINUSTAH) (Kenkel, 2013: 133).

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International Security

On the other hand, there are military of American States (OAS), NATO and the World
interventions to achieve humanitarian ends during Bank are among the main contributors of peace
this generation that nurture the discussion over the operations.
justification of operations and the role of the UN. The rising role of regional organizations in peace
For example, the Iraq operation (2003) has never operations could be attributed to several factors.
been acknowledged as a multinational operation First, they are very eager to take parts in this kind of
based on humanitarian concerns, nor justified by operations to pursue their own interests. Secondly,
international law. The characteristics of the 4th their intervention is required because of suffering
generation of peace operations in the UN period from high intensity of violence by varied actors
could be emphasized concisely through three and contagious transnational effects. Third, it is a
statements (Cottey, 2008: 429-432): “intervention response of the UN with a variety of related (sub)
takes place often without the consent of the host organizations by acknowledging local differences.
state’s government; the centrality of humanitarian Fourth, powerful donors have been needed in order
objectives; use of military force aggressively to to pursue peace operations effectively (Cottey,
achieve aims.” Indeed, the peace operations begin 2008: 440).
to depart themselves from sticking to the basic
As one of the most powerful military
traditional principles of peacekeeping.
organizations of contemporary security
environment, NATO underwent a transformation
The Role of International after the end of Cold War. It firstly operated on
Organizations in Interventions and its own across the old territories of Yugoslavia by
Peace Operations carrying out air and ground operations in Bosnia
in 1995 and Kosovo in 1999. These military
Peace operations during the Cold War were far
attacks were followed by elements of peacekeeping
more likely to be assumed by a single state whether
and nation-building activities (Cottey, 2008: 440)
directly or by proxy, but after the 1990s they tended
to be multilateral (The Responsibility, 2001:
18). Beginning by the second, but intensifying
through the third generation, the peace operations
have undertaken by regional organizations and
multinational actors alongside with the UN. As
Diehl (2008: 66) states, the peace operations have
commonly been performed by the UN (54%), but
the regional organizations and multinational actors’
share in peace operations have been increasing,
which are 27% and 19% respectively.
Current peace missions comprise various
organizations which handle different aspects of
peace activities. These could be composed in
Figure 4.7 The NATO’s mission in Afghanistan.
three configurations: certain actors may provide
financing, logistics, etc. while others supply troops
on the ground; one peace mission can perform NATO expanded its operational field by
certain duties in advance of different peacekeeping Afghanistan in 2003 as well. It took over the
missions; joint mission might be carried out operational responsibility of the International
between international institutions (Diehl, 2008: Security Assistance Force (ISAF) mission, called as
75-76). European Union (EU), Organization for Resolute Support (RS) in January 1st 2015. Freed
Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), mostly from its combative role through RS, NATO
African Union (AU), Organization of American intends to train, advice and assist the Afghan
States, Organization for Security and Cooperation National Defense and Security Forces (ANDSF).
in Europe (OSCE), Economic Community of The mission in Afghanistan currently involves
West African States (ECOWAS), the Organization around 16,000 personnel from 41 NATO allies

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Intervention

and partners (Resolute Support, 2018). The last Force for the elimination of the Lord’s Resistance
military intervention of NATO began on March Army (LRA)” to reinforce the operational capacity
19th 2011 in response to the resolution of The of the LRA-affected countries, create conditions
Security Council. The operation comprised war- conducive for the stabilization of the affected
fighter elements from 19 countries and concluded areas, and facilitate the delivery of humanitarian
on 31 October 2011. assistance to the affected populations (African
The EU has been taking role in peace keeping Union Peace and Security, 2018).
activities and conflict prevention in accordance The inner composition of peace forces has been
with Common Defense and Security Policy shifting as well. Although there are three traditional
(CDSP) to help strengthen international security. types of security organizations as military, police
The organization began its peace activities by taking and gendarmeries; particularly after the first phase
over the small peacekeeping mission responsibility of intervention, the deployment of CIVPOL and
from NATO in Macedonia, and launching policing Law Enforcement Forces with Military Status
mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2003. And (LEFMS), aka gendarmeries, have been increasing
it took over operational responsibility from NATO while the number of troops contributing peace
in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Operation ALTHEA) operations has been decreasing by the time (UN
by the authorization of Security Council resolution Peacekeeping Operations Fact Sheet, 2017). The
in 2004 and the mission is still continuing. Since police forces multiplied almost 11 times compared
then, the EU has extended its capability by to the year of 1995, while the number of troops
undertaking 34 operations across three continents: increased just about 1.4 times (UNPOL, 1995-
Europe, Africa, and Asia. There are six ongoing 2004; UNPOL, 2005-2017). Besides of CIVPOL,
military and ten civilian missions undertaken by the LEFMS has also been gaining importance. They
the EU, and 18 completed missions and operations have been employed under the composed body
(EU External Action, 2018). of Formed Police Units (FPUs) or Multinational
The EU also constituted European Specialized Units (MSUs) by the UN. The MSUs in
Gendarmerie Force (EUROGENDFOR) in 2004 particular, were constituted exclusively by LEFMS
as a Multinational Law Enforcement Force to units from the respected countries (Hansen, 2002:
participate in the stabilization of crisis and conflict 71-72).
areas outside the EU. It currently operates in five There is also a trend of employing private
countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Haiti, military companies (PMCs) in the interventions or
Mali, Afghanistan, and Central African Republic peace operations. They provide a variety of services
(European Gendarmerie Force, 2018). including combat support; logistics; advice;
The African Union began its peacekeeping training; operational support; intelligence support;
operations in the 2000s. It draws the authority humanitarian assist; communication; security
from the article four of its charter, Constitutive Act services (Bures, 2005: 536-537). It is beyond of
of the African Union, which states as “the right of this study to delve into the employment of PMCs
the Union to intervene in a Member State pursuant in peace operations, but it should be kept in mind
to a decision of the Assembly in respect of grave that “private peacekeeping” serves generally as a
circumstances, namely: war crimes, genocide and supplement rather than a replacement to peace
crimes against humanity”. The organization has operations (Diehl, 2008: 77).
the sub-structure of Peace and Security Council As a response to a range of security challenges
(PSC) whose duties are somewhat like Security in peacekeeping missions, the NGOs also carry
Council of the UN. Currently, the operational out some crucial duties. Although NGOs have
responsibility of African mission in Somalia been around for some time, the International
(AMISOM) has been carried out by the AU. It Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) was founded
has been executing coordinated operations with in 1863, the last few decades have seen a sharp
the UN in Darfur (UN–AU Hybrid Operation increase in their numbers. The rise of NGOs could
in Darfur/UNAMID). The African Union also be attributable to the augmented recognition of
leads the “The African Union-Led Regional Task human rights and acceptance of humanitarian

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intervention. As of 2,000 there were almost 40,000 conflicts in 2016 occurred within states (SIPRI
such organizations, and they continue to proliferate Yearbook, 2017: 2). So, peace operations have
at a rapid pace. It is argued that there are well over been increasingly conducted to address intra-state
3,000 NGOs focused on the issue of human rights problems despite the risks concerning the breach of
alone (Shimko, 2010: 245). national sovereignty.
The peace missions could be carried out by National sovereignty has been acknowledged
different organizations as stated above. Each one has as a sacred value for a long time, and it’s been
its own advantages and disadvantages. Beginning affirmed through the founding charters of
by the benefits of regional organizations, these various international organizations, agreements
missions have similar political outlooks emanated and norms. Yet, violations of human rights and
from their common culture, politics, economic massacres occurring in civil wars particularly
roots and problems. Hence, regional organizations since the late 1990s made the international public
might have more respect from the community question the inviolability of national sovereignty.
they served, and they could be accepted as an Thus, it is commonly believed that international
honest broker. Multinational organizations with actors have the ‘responsibility to protect’ people
different areas of interest could find a plausible living in dire conditions even in the situation of
way to contribute the reconstruction efforts of host government’s dissent (The Responsibility,
post-conflict countries. So, organizations may 2001: 17). Although humanitarian intervention
help improve the peacekeeping capacity of the UN vs. national sovereignty keeps becoming a hot
(Bellamy and Williams, 2004: 195). topic, three traditional characteristics of a state
However, intervention by regional organizations (territory, authority, and population) have been
has some drawbacks. Regional organizations seek complemented by a fourth, respect for human
to establish large coalitions since they depend on rights (Chandler, 2004: 65).
resources. The regional organizations may have The actors participating in peace operations
inability to take concerted action against their have been also multiplied since the contemporary
powerful members (Diehl, 2008: 79-82). The security problems, mostly emanated from several
inclusion of various parties and governments in causes such as desperate living conditions, lack of
operations has entailed accumulation of critiques civil rights, terrorism and transnational organized
arguing the clash of interests of related sides. The crime, need multi-dimensional and robust
students of this argument contend that actors responses. Regional organizations and NGOs
pursue their own interests through the operations with the support of local actors and international
rather than taking account of host nation’s donors have been increasingly taking part in peace
needs. Although there are many achievements by operations to manage the process and resolve the
multinational organizations, there are also some root causes of conflict.
failures such as ECOWAS’ intervention in Liberia The peace building operations aim to reform
in 1990 and French-led intervention in Côte the conditions underlining unsecure environment.
d’Ivoire (Pattison, 2010: 6). These missions include many related activities
from helping to build sustainable institutions of
The Future of Peace Operations governance to human rights monitoring; security
sector reform; disarmament, demobilization and
The peacekeeping and peacebuilding operations
reintegration of former combatants. So, the peace
have evolved considerably because of various
programs should not only aim to suppress violence,
factors such as the changing nature of threats
but also exert efforts to eliminate or relieve the
and conflicts, transformation in the international
underlining conditions. The foundation of this
system and emerging new actors, developing
idea is rooted through the seminal works of Johan
humanitarian worries, and experiencing a number
Galtung (1967) as negative vs. positive peace.
of organizational ineffectiveness. For example,
civil conflicts have been occupying the world’s Although peace operations call for secure
security agenda particularly after the end of Cold environment to operate, contemporary peace
War. According to a report, 47 out of 49 active operations have been undertaking while the

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Intervention

armed conflict continues. According to a report increasingly structural armed conflicts comprising
published by the UN, “casualties have spiked since indirect, structural violence and seek to maintain
2013, and 195 personnel in UN peacekeeping state, economic, identity and social inequality.
missions have been killed by acts of violence, more Secondly, it entails questioning of composition
than during any other 5-year period in history” of the organization during peace operations. As
(Improving Security of UN Peacekeepers, 2017). mentioned before, the countries in conflict are
Hence, it is required to have more robust response exposed to hybrid and severe threats from a variety
before peacekeeping or peace building operations of actors as never experienced before. However, the
and capable law enforcement forces during these host countries do not have related capabilities to
operations taking place. encounter these risks. It is called as “indigenous
policing gap”: Failing to provide safe and secure
environment for public security and the rule of law
(NATO Standard AJP- 3.22, 2017). Hybrid threats
require hybrid responses or hybrid institutions as
Diehl (2008: 76) argued. The need to combine
and integrate distinctive advantages of various
organizations and actors would most probably be
accelerated.
There is a surplus of factors undermining
estimated prospect for future peace operations,
because both the tangible and intangible issues
Figure 4.8 UN Peacekeepers
have been changing. The actors providing security
Source: https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/service-and- have been deepening as international system, state,
sacrifice social groups, individuals; while the issues, as well,
have been widening to comprise political, military,
First, it caused widening of interpretation of environmental, social, and economic aspects.
the UN Charter, particularly Chapter VI and VII, The question of “security for whom” has already
over the legitimacy of peace operations. While been replied by the transformation from merely
traditional consent-based missions are sometimes ‘the security of states’ to the ‘security of human
called as “chapter six-and-a-half ”, more robust beings’ and comprehensive security. So, the peace
missions have been dubbed “chapter six-and- operations need to adapt and renovate itself to
three-quarters” (Fortna, 2004: 270). Merging effectively response in a multidimensional and
with humanitarian concerns, it paves the way for multileveled way.
intervention.
However, intervention and suppression of
armed fighting at the early stages of the conflict 4
does not easily lead to permanent peace, because
contemporary security environment is more What are the main features of
complex than before. As Richmond (2014: 510) peace activities specified by the
argues, new wars in the twenty-first century are United Nations?

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International Security

Define the concept of intervention and

LO 1 explain its theoretical background.

The use of force in intervention requires a deep moral honesty to ask

a series of defining questions for its legalization, which are known
as the tradition of the Just War in International Law. Intervention
might breach the sovereignty if not serious efforts have been made
to find peaceful solutions to the problem before using the force.
Nonetheless, seeking a legitimacy and justification for every war

Summary
has become part of the war of neo-colonization itself. The theory of
the national self-determination/sovereignty argues that states have a
right to determine the shape of their association and institutions.
Interventions on behalf of a very specific group are morally/legally
problematic. The intervention issue is one of the most misused
principles in International Law by the Great Powers. Internal
freedom of a political community should be won by the members of
that particular community for the achievement of self-development
and sovereignty. Political communities must seek their own freedom
and cultivate their own virtues. External forces cannot, perhaps
should not, achieve self-determination, sovereignty, and liberty of a
community for the community. The principles of self-determination
reinforce absolute sovereignty in which non-intervention is a
precondition of the full exercise of self-determination.

Assess in what ways interventions

LO 2 affect the state sovereignty.

Intervention is an act of involvement intentionally to improve or

prevent something getting worse with a program in economics,
commerce, military and political fields by an organization/
international entity or state. The doctrine and understanding of
intervention has been criticized because of such notion represents
a coercive mode of liberal imperialism of Western ideas and ideals.
Western norms of international system was/is imposed to other
civilizational understandings and regions. Humanitarian ideas and
arguments became a rhetorical cover up for invasion of geopolitical
and strategic locations for the benefit of intervener. If there are no
obvious economic/political interests at stake, none of the Western
countries would intervene in the humanitarian issue as 1994
genocide in Rwanda and in the conflict in Syria clearly demonstrates.
So, in western mind, real intervention requires real self-interests.
Nevertheless, there are certain points needs to be intervened as a
result of various internal and interstate conflicts.

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Analyze the new forms of state intervention

LO 3 and evaluate humanitarian intervention.

The peacekeeping and peacebuilding operations have evolved

considerably because of various factors such as the changing nature
of threats, transformation in the international system and emerging
new actors, development of humanitarian issues, and experiencing a
number of organizational ineffectiveness. The actors taking place in
peace operations have been multiplied as well. Regional organizations,
Summary

NGOs with the support of local actors and international donors

have been increasingly taking part in peace operations to manage the
process and resolve the root causes of conflict. The use of force by the
disguise of humanitarian concerns has also been gaining momentum.
The aforementioned developments in security and evolution of peace
operations purport that forthcoming period in peace activities would
include multiple dimensions, but particularly military intervention,
to address the necessities of operational field. This evolvement would
inevitably flourish the debates over the legality of peace operations
on the international law perspective.

Comprehend the role of international

LO 4 organizations in peace operations, including
peacekeeping and peacebuilding.

Peace operations during the Cold War were more likely to be carried
out by a single state whether directly or by proxy, but after the 1990s
they tended to be multilateral. The peace operations have been carried
out by regional organizations and multinational actors alongside
with the UN. The inner composition of peace forces has been
shifting as well. Although there are three traditional types of security
organizations as military, police and gendarmeries; particularly after
the first phase of intervention, the deployment of Civilian Police
(CIVPOL) and Law Enforcement Forces with Military Status
(LEFMS), as known as gendarmeries, have been increasing while the
number of troops contributing peace operations has been decreasing
by the time. There is also a trend of employing private military
companies (PMCs) which provide a variety of services including
combat support; logistics; advice; training; operational support;
intelligence support; humanitarian assist; communication; security
services.

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1 In which of the following countries did the 5 Which of the following criteria does not
Western powers not intervene because of the lack apply to humanitarian intervention?
of immediate political and economic interests?
a. It should be undertaken by the UN, or
a. Rwanda on its mandate and under its authority
b. Liberia and coordination, and/or by the regional

Test Yourself
c. Somalia organization to which the state belongs.
d. Sierra Leone b. When carried out by a regional organization
e. Iraq concerned, it should be preceded by
consultations with the Security Council.
c. It should be undertaken immediately whenever
2 The most recently emerged security threat to there is a total lack of governmental institutions
the international community is ……..
and the seriousness of the gravity of the
Which of the following options correctly completes humanitarian situation is such that the lives
the sentence above? and wellbeing of the population as a whole is
threatened.
a. the anarchical international system.
d. It should not be limited in time and space.
b. vulnerable life in underdeveloped/developing
countries. e. It should be proportionate in the sense that it
should not cause more damage and harm than
c. universally originated global terrorism.
that caused by the situation it intends to correct.
d. the possibility of a nuclear exchange.
e. acquiring new offensive weapons.
6 Which of the following is not a peace activity
that has been proposed by the UN?
3 According to the UN Charter’s description of
sovereignty, which of the following is not true? a. Peace enforcement
b. Peace building
a. Every state is legally equal.
c. Peace operation
b. Every state is not obligated to respect the fact of
d. Peace keeping
the legal entity and sovereignty of other states.
e. Conflict prevention
c. Every state enjoys the rights and benefits
inherent in full sovereignty.
d. The territorial integrity and political 7 Which of the following is not one of the
independence of a state are inviolable. principles of conducting peacekeeping operations?
e. Each state has the right to freely choose and a. Impartiality
develop its own political, social, economic and
b. Consent of the conflicted parties
cultural system.
c. Non-use of force except in self-defense and
defense of mandate
4 Which of the following covenants or d. Authorization and mandate delivered by the
agreements is not directly related to the issues of UN
state sovereignty? e. The importance of humanitarian concerns
a. The Covenant of the League of Nations in 1920. above the national sovereignty.
b. The Convention on the Duties and Rights of
States in the Event of Civil Strife in 1928.
c. The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and
Duties of States in 1933.
d. The United Nations Charter in 1945.
e. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
1948.

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Intervention

8 Which of the following is the first UN 10 Which of the following is an important

peacekeeping operation? advantage of employing regional organizations in
a. United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon peace operations?
(UNIFIL) a. The employment of regional organizations in
b. United Nations Operation in Congo (ONUC)
Test Yourself

conflict zones eases the work of the UN Security

c. UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) Council.
in the Middle East b. Regional organizations could establish an alli-
d. United Nations Operation in Somalia ance against the great powers.
(UNOSOM) c. The constituting actors do not pursue their own
e. United Nations Emergency Force in Suez interests because of taking part of organization.
(UNEF) d. Regional organizations pay respect to humani-
tarian needs more than any other multinational
9 The regional organizations through 4th organization.
generation of peace operations have been gaining e. These organizations have similar political out-
momentum. Which of the following is the looks emanated from their common culture,
underlying reason for this development? politics, economic roots and problems.

a. The governments do not allow other organizati-

ons to interfere in their internal politics.
b. Regional organizations have robust and power-
ful organization structures.
c. It is stated in the UN Charter that the first res-
ponsibility belongs to regional organizations in
conflict situations.
d. It is the result of acknowledging the local diffe-
rences.
e. The United Nations Security Council assigns
peace missions solely to regional organizations.

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International Security

If your answer is not correct, review If your answer is not correct, review
1. a 6. c
“States and Intervention: New Forms of “International Organizations and
Intervention.” Intervention.”

If your answer is not correct, review If your answer is not correct, review

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. c 7. e
“States and Intervention: New Forms of “International Organizations and
Intervention.” Intervention.”

If your answer is not correct, review If your answer is not correct, review
3. b 8. c
“States and Intervention: New Forms of “International Organizations and
Intervention.” Intervention.”

If your answer is not correct, review

4. e If your answer is not correct, review 9. d
“International Organizations and
“Intervention and State Sovereignty.”
Intervention.”

If your answer is not correct, review

5. d If your answer is not correct, review 10. e
“International Organizations and
“Intervention and State Sovereignty.”
Intervention.”

Do some research on the UN General Assembly’s “Declaration on

the Inadmissibility of Intervention in the Domestic Affairs of States
and the Protection of Their Independence and Sovereignty.”

In its Resolution A/RES/20/2131 the UN General Assembly declared that:

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

“1. No State has the right to intervene, directly or indirectly, for any reason whatever, in
the internal or external affairs of any other State. Consequently, armed intervention
and all other forms of interference or attempted threats against the personality of the
State or against its political, economic and cultural elements, are condemned.
2. No State may use or encourage the use of economic, political or any other type
of measures to coerce another State in order to obtain from it the subordination
of the exercise of its sovereign rights or to secure from it advantages of any kind.
Also, no State shall organize, assist, foment, Finance, incite or tolerate subversive,
terrorist or armed activities directed towards the violent overthrow of the regime
of another State, or interfere in civil strife in another State.
3. The use of force to deprive peoples of their national identity constitutes a violation
of their inalienable rights and of the principle of non-intervention.
4. The strict observance of these obligations is an essential condition to ensure that nations
your turn 1 live together in peace with one another, since the practice of any form of intervention
not only violates the spirit and letter of the Charter of the United Nations but also
leads to the creation of situations which threaten international peace and security.
5. Every State has an inalienable right to choose its political, economic, social and
cultural systems, without interference in any form by another State.
6. All States shall respect the right of self-determination and independence of peoples
and nations, to be freely exercised without any foreign pressure, and with absolute
respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Consequently, all States shall
contribute to the complete elimination of racial discrimination and colonialism in
all its forms and manifestations.
7. For the purpose of the present Declaration, the term “State” covers both individual
States and groups of States.
8. Nothing in this Declaration shall be construed as affecting in any manner the
relevant provisions of the Charter of the United Nations relating to the maintenance
of international peace and security, in particular those contained in  Chapters
VI, VII and VIII” (http://www.un-documents.net/a20r2131.htm).

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Intervention

In what ways do interventions violate the sovereignty of

states?

The use of force in intervention requires a deep moral honesty to ask a series
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

of defining questions for its legalization, which are known as the tradition
of the Just War. Intervention might breach the sovereignty if not serious
efforts have been made to find peaceful solutions to the problem before using
the force. Nonetheless, seeking a legitimacy and justification for every war
has become part of the war itself. The theory of national self-determination
and sovereignty is peoples/states have a right to determine the shape of their
association and institutions. Interventions on behalf of a very specific group
your turn 2 are morally problematic. The intervention issue is one of the most misused
principles in International Law by the Great Powers for their own benefit.
Internal freedom of a political community should be won by the members
of that particular community for the achievement of self-development and
sovereignty. Political communities must seek their own freedom and cultivate
their own virtue. External forces cannot, perhaps should not, achieve self-
determination, sovereignty and liberty of a community for the community.
The principles of self-determination reinforce absolute sovereignty in which
non-intervention is a precondition of the full exercise of self-determination.

What are the basic criticisms levelled against intervention?

The doctrine and understanding of intervention has been criticized because of

such notion represents a coercive mode of liberal imperialism of Western ideas
and ideals. Western norms and understanding of international system and
cultural rights were/are imposed onto other cultures of regions. “Humanitarian”
associated ideas and arguments became a rhetorical cover up for their
implementation and practical use of traditional geopolitical understandings.
The true intentions and aims were to realization of their economic and political
interests of Imperial/colonial and able states used intervention for their own
your turn 3
benefits into targeted areas. If there are no obvious economic and/or political
interests at stake none of the Western countries would intervene just as 1994
genocide in Rwanda demonstrates. Rwanda case was a demonstration of
western hypocrisy on a real abuse of human rights and humanitarian crises
as it became obvious once again in recent years in Syria. As Western practices
showed and proved that ‘if there is no clear cut economic and/or political gains,
there will be no direct intervention to real humanitarian crises. So, in western
mind, real intervention requires real self-interests.

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International Security

What are the main features of peace activities specified by

the United Nations?

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

The peace activities identified by the UN are conflict prevention,
peacemaking, peacekeeping, peace enforcement, and peace building. Conflict
prevention seeks to resolve disputes before the eruption of violence. It
comprises the employment of structural or diplomatic measures to prevent
intra-state or inter-state tensions and disputes from escalating into violent
conflict. Peacemaking includes measures to address ongoing conflicts and
usually comprises diplomatic action and mediation to bring hostile parties
to a negotiated agreement. Peacekeeping, as an encompassing term, covers
your turn 4
from observing cease-fires and separation of forces after inter-state wars,
to incorporate a complex model of many elements –military, police and
civilian– working together to help lay the foundations for sustainable peace.
Peace enforcement comprises the application of a range of coercive measures
with the authorization of the UN Security Council. Peace building includes
a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of resuming the conflict by
strengthening indigenous capacities to provide a basis for sustainable peace
and development.

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Disarm%20S24111.pdf

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 Alliances and Military-Security
Chapter 5 Cooperation
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Define alliances, evaluate their characteristics

and functions, and distinguish between Differentiate between the main theories that
typologies. explain alliance formation.

3 Evaluate the historical background and survey

the examples of alliances. 4 Explain North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO).

5 Describe NATO principles and structure.

6 Examine NATO’s tasks and operations.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction • Alignment • Collective Security
The Definition, Characteristics, Functions, and • Alliance • Defense Pact
Typologies of Alliances
• Balance of Power • Entente
Theories of Alliances and Security Cooperation
• Balance of Threat • Neutrality Treaty
Historical Background and Examples
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) • Balance of Interests • Non-Aggression
The NATO Principles and the Main • Balancing • NATO
Organizational Structure • Bandwagoning • The North Atlantic
NATO’s Tasks and Operations • Coalition Treaty
• Collective Defense • The Warsaw Pact

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International Security

INTRODUCTION dynamics leading to the formation of alliances,

As Kenneth Waltz has put it, states use several three of which are balance of power, balance of
means to further their security interests in an threat, and balance of interest.
anarchical international-security environment, In this chapter, the concept and theories of
which can be divided into two broad categories: alliances are examined with a specific emphasis
internal efforts and external efforts (Waltz, 1979: on historical background. After surveying the
118). Alliances are one of the most valuable tools literature on alliances, the chapter then reviews
in external efforts that enhance a state’s security the case of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
against threats emanating from its rivals. They, (NATO) in two historical periods.
however, are often regarded as valuable and formed
in the face of internal threats. Although all states THE DEFINITION,
with different power capabilities employ alliances
CHARACTERISTICS,
as a means of achieving their ends, smaller states/
minor powers with limited resources rely on,
FUNCTIONS, AND TYPOLOGIES
and enter into alliances, to keep relatively more OF ALLIANCES
powerful rivals under check and benefit from the In the first place, it is the anarchic structure of
benefits that alliances provide. the international system that causes the formation
Alliances are said to be typically associated with of alliances. Anarchy refers to the absence of a
the Westphalian state system and the European central government or higher authority above the
balance of power. However, many examples date states that could enforce the rules in the system
back as early as to the 5th century BC, when two and prevent or stop the hostilities between states.
alliances were formed during the Peloponnesian It is sometimes, but not necessarily, associated with
War: the League of Delian led by Athens, and the instability and chaos (Heywood, 2011, 8). Security
Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. dilemma is another key feature of the competitive
international system. Security dilemma refers to
a condition in which actions taken by one actor
to improve its national security are interpreted
as aggressive/offensive by other actors, thereby
provoking military counter-moves (Griffiths,
O’Callaghan, and Roach, 2008: 295; Heywood,
2011: 19).
In international politics, balance of power
refers to a condition in which no one state
predominates over others, tending to create general
equilibrium and curb the hegemonic ambitions
of all states. States may balance in several ways.
When states attempt to balance threats by an
increase of their national capabilities, this is called
internal balancing. Alternatively, when they
try to balance against a prevailing threat by the
establishment of informal or formal alliances with
Figure 5.1 The Peloponnesian War other states, this is known as external balancing
(Grieco, 1997: 160).
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_
Peloponnesian_War_431_BC-en.svg
Through internal and external efforts, a state
can either increase its own capacity or impair that
of its rival. While the former is called positive
There is not one type of alliances. Alliances balancing, the latter is negative balancing (Steff
considerably vary in size, function, durability, costs, and Khoo, 2014: 2227-228). One can make
and benefits. Several theories aim at exploring the another distinction between hard balancing and

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soft balancing. States use mainly their military independence (Schroeder, 1994; Vasquez and
and economic capacities in hard balancing, whereas Elman, 2003; Walt, 1987: 21; Mearsheimer,
soft balancing suggests the use of diplomatic and 2001). In fact one can differentiate between two
cultural means, which are the soft power resources types of bandwagoning: defensive and offensive.
(Fortmann, Paul and Wirtz, 2004: 362-365; Paul, In defensive bandwagoning, which is a form of
2004: 3; Pape, 2005: 9-10). appeasement, a state aligns with a threatening power
Balancing can also appear in the form of to avoid being attacked. Offensive bandwagoning
onshore balancing and offshore balancing. In is alignment with a dominant state for the payoffs.
onshore balancing, a great power deploys some of Balancing and bandwagoning are not the only
its capacity forward in selected regions of the world means through which a state reacts to the external
to contain a rival. Offshore balancing, on the other world. Yet another strategy is to hide from threats.
hand, describes a strategy in which a great power This could take various forms, including simply
keeps all of its national capabilities, particularly ignoring the threat, declaring neutrality in a general
military capabilities, at home and uses regional crisis, trying to withdraw into isolation, assuming
powers and/or proxies to balance the threatening a purely defensive position, or seeking protection
actors (Brown, Cote, Lynn-Jones and Miller, 2000: from some other powers without acting as an ally
166). Omni-balancing is a more suitable strategy or committing itself to any use of force (Dwivedi,
to explain the balancing behavior of the leaders of 2012: 226). Another strategy is transcending,
the third world states. This concept suggests that which is defined as an attempt by states to deal
omnibalancing explains Third World alignments with the dangers of concentration of power and
as a consequence of leaders seeking to counter of concrete threats by taking the problem to a
internal and external threats to their rule. leaders of higher level, establishing norms of a legal, religious,
the Third World countries seek alliances to counter moral, or procedural nature to govern international
both internal and external threats to their rule practice (Vasquez, Elman, 2003: 119). Finally,
(David, 1991: 235). buck-passing refers to the behavior of a state
The following three patterns of balancing when it refuses to balance against a rising state,
behavior come into prominence: alliance, hoping that another threatened state will furnish
alignment, and coalition (Ward, 1982: 14). the necessary blood and treasure (Christensen and
Although they are used interchangeably and bear a Snyder, 2003: 73).
number of common properties, there are also some
important differences. An alignment is considered
as any general commitment between states in order Defining the Concept of Alliance
to achieve mutual security goals. Its objectives are An alliance is “a formal agreement that pledges
cooperation and collaboration that are broad and states to co-operate in using their military resources
vague rather than narrow and explicit (Krause and against a specific state or states and usually obligates
Singer, 2001: 16; Snyder, 1990: 105). A coalition one or more of the signatories to use force, or
is characterized by the commitment of two or more to consider (unilaterally or in consultation with
states to coordinate their behavior and policies in allies) the use of force in specified circumstances”
order to perform particular functions or pursue (Osgood, 1968: 17). It is normally a written and
specific goals. It is often formed during a war mostly voluntary agreement, treaty, or convention
(Snyder, 1990: 106). Members of coalitions tend among states pledging to coordinate their behavior
to be acting in concert at x time regarding one to n and policies in the contingency of military conflict.
issues (Fedder, 1968: 80). If the states perceive a vital threat, the bonds among
Within the balance of power politics, the members of an alliance get tougher. Alliances
there is another strategy employed by states; are established to deal with mainly military security
bandwagoning. Bandwagoning refers to aligning affairs. Therefore, the principal goal of alliances is
with or joining the powerful actor toward to ensure political sovereignty, territorial integrity,
protecting itself from fear and attack, even if this and national security on the basis of collective
means insecurity and a certain sacrifice from its military defense (Krause and Singer, 2001: 16).

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Basic Characteristics of Alliances Casus Foederis: although alliances may be

Bergsmann gives some constituting elements informal, they are typically formalized by a
of an alliance (Bergsmann, 2001: 35-36). treaty of alliance, the most critical clauses of
Accordingly, alliances are arrangements between which are those that define the casus foederis,
states and, in some cases, independent authorities or the circumstances under which the treaty
other than states. In fact, it does not matter whether obligates an ally to aid a fellow member (www.
britannica.com).
a state is formally recognized in the international
community. If an independent authority has
the power to rule over a certain population and Alliances contribute to the national security of
territory as well as it can mobilize and employ states. Alliances provide states an air of seriousness
capacity, then, it can enter into an alliance with the that clearly distinguishes them from agreements
recognized states. in other areas of foreign policy, such as finance or
Alliances are explicit agreements. Nevertheless, commerce.
explicitness of an alliance agreement does not For an alliance to be operative and be able
necessarily mean that the agreement is made by to coordinate the general policies and concrete
a formal treaty and declared to other states and measures of its members, the members must agree
registered with the United Nations. Rather, parties not only on general objectives of the alliance but
to the alliance themselves must be definitely sure also on policies and measures. Many alliances
about the existence of the agreement as well as its remain scraps of paper, because the community
assurances and benefits. of interests do not extend beyond the general
General commitments such as the League of objectives so as to embrace concrete policies and
Nations, the United Nations, or their affiliated measures. The Franco-Russian alliances of 1935
specialized agencies and the Organization for and 1944 as well as the Anglo-Russian alliance of
Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) 1942 are the examples of such weak alliances.
are not considered formal military alliances. The On the other hand, there exists a correlation
agreements or conventions establishing general between the permanency of an alliance and the
rules on specific issues such as the Geneva limited character of the interests it serves. Parties
Conventions and the Hague Conventions do not respect the alliance terms and conditions for
meet the criteria to be considered as alliances. relatively long time when they define specific
The arrangements for mutual security and general and limited mutual interests (Morgenthau and
defense cooperation like the US-Turkey Defense Thompson, 1985: 203-206).
and Economic Cooperation, which deals exclusively
with bases, military aid, financial aid, and training
A Typology of Alliances
programs, are not considered as alliances (Krause
and Singer, 2001). Alliances may be distinguished by function,
behavior, degree of integration, or another criterion.
Although most alliances also comprise some
For example, Hans J. Morgenthau distinguishes
activities that take place while the treaty is in force
alliances based on how strong the alliance serves
such as the coordination of doctrines or joint
identical, complementary, and ideological interests
exercises, the backbone of an alliance is certain
and policies. He further classifies them as mutual
specific behaviors that shall be followed in case of
and one-sided, general and limited, temporary and
a certain situation. This is sometimes referred to
permanent, operative and inoperative alliances
as casus foederis. This element distinguishes the
(Morgenthau and Thompson, 1985: 203).
alliances from mere security cooperation or non-
aggression pacts.

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Wartime alliances are, in fact, generally There are three basic types of formal military
established in peacetime to prevent, or prevail in, alliances; defense pact, nonaggression/neutrality,
a possible future war. These alliances continue to and entente (Singer and Small, 1968).
operate under wartime conditions. “States augment A defense pact requires its signatories to
their joint planning, consultation and sometimes intervene with military force on behalf of any
integrate their forces as their plans for war are alliance partner(s) engaged in armed hostilities.
unfolding and being implemented. Member states The signatories to the defense pact determine the
usually expect the alliance will endure beyond threats in the treaty and concretely prepare to
any specific war or crisis” (Weitsman, 2010: 115; respond to it together. The North Atlantic Treaty
Russett, 1971: 264). Organization (NATO) is the most frequently cited
Peacetime alliances are just formal or informal example of a defense pact. The Warsaw Pact was also
agreements between two or more states intended a defense pact between the Soviet Union and seven
to further the national security of the participating other communist states during the Cold War. After
states, operating when the signatories are not at war. it was dissolved in 1991, the Collective Security
If war begins and the alliance does not dissolve, Treaty Organization (CSTO) was established in
it turns into a wartime alliance. If the alliance 1992 as a defense pact among Russia, Armenia,
endures beyond the war, it reverts to a peacetime Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.
alliance (Weitsman, 2010: 115). On the other A Nonaggression pact is an alliance whose
hand, peacetime alliances tend to be limited to a signatories pledge not to resort to military action
fraction of the total interests and the objectives of against other pact signatories. An example of a
the signatories. A nation will conclude a multitude non-aggression treaty is the Molotov–Ribbentrop
of alliances with different nations which may Pact of 1939 between the Soviet Union and Nazi
overlap and contradict each other on specific points Germany during World War II. A neutrality pact
(Morgenthau and Thompson, 1985: 203-206). includes a promise to avoid supporting another
The pure type of an ideological alliance is country, which may act against the interests of any
presented by the Treaty of the Holy Alliance of of the pact signatories (Leeds, Ritter, Mitchell and
1815 and the Atlantic Charter of 1941. Both Long, 2002). The Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact
documents laid down general moral principles to of 1941 is an example.
which the signatories pledged their adherence and In an entente, the signatories merely agree to
general objectives whose realization they pledged consult one another in the event of a security-
themselves to seek. military threat. An example of an entente is the
British-French Entente Cordiale of 1904. No firm
commitment exists between the partners. Entente
agreements are relatively flexible associations, and
they make sense only if they serve the common
interests of the partners. Secrecy, ideological issues
etc. are well delineated in alliance treaties but not
in ententes (Kann, 1976).
There are some types of relationships that are
often confused with alliances and coalitions such as
strategic partnership and security community.
The concept of strategic partnership has been
widely used to describe the security alignments,
among others, between Japan-Australia, the USA-
India, the USA-Turkey, and NATO-the EU.
The strategic partnership is neither an alliance
nor a coalition, rather a structured collaboration
between states to take joint advantage of
Figure 5.2 The Atlantic Charter of 1941. economic opportunities or to respond to security
challenges more effectively. The concept of
Source: www.harropianbooks.com
security community, on the other hand, refers

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to the creation of a peaceful community of Furthermore, alliances enhance the military

states through gradual confidence building and power of its members. The military strength of
integration. While alliances and coalitions are an alliance naturally enhances the national power
clearly collective defense/offence institutions, the in terms of personnel, military equipment, defense
security community is a collective security system spending, high technology, intelligence sharing,
(Deutsch, Burrell, Kann, and Lee Jr., 1957: 5-6). and financial resources. However, the gains of
A security community can only be created if the being within an alliance may vary from member to
attainment of a sense of community with robust member. Small or minor powers may seek forming
institutions, good practices, and expectations of an alliance in order to increase their security on the
peaceful change are settled within a territory (Adler basis of major power guarantees and to protect their
and Barnett, 1998). territories and populations from possible military
threats. However, major or great powers may be
interested in forming an alliance with minor powers
Main Functions of Alliances not to protect their territories and populations
An alliance carries out several functions for its but rather to expand their military influence and
members (Murphy, 2017: 25-26). First of all, an diplomatic influence over other states or deny such
alliance contributes to the balance of power in a influence to potential rivals (Krause and Singer, 2001:
given setting. Defensive alliances deter aggressive 18-21). For example, the US has built several bases
states from using military force. Many examples in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and East Asia
of such alliances may be given that prevented full- through forming bilateral and multilateral alliances.
scale wars between major actors. For example, From these bases, the US can exert influence and
NATO and the Warsaw Pact as the Cold War power where and when it needs to do so.
alliances deterred the rivals from resorting to
Finally, alliances provide the members with
military force after World War II. However, rather
cost-effective options in pursuing national security
than using military force, the adversaries may resort
interests through pooling the military capabilities
to other means of international politics such as
and sharing the financial burdens. Otherwise, the
diplomatic negotiations, economic sanctions, trade
members would be forced to extensively increase
restrictions, financial measures, cyber-attacks, and
their defense spending and conscript many people
proxy wars.
that may ultimately strain the workforce. For minor
A formal military alliance such as NATO powers, alliances have increasingly become a means
usually has the purpose of collective defense, not only to acquire essential military benefits but
where its members pool their capabilities and also to achieve various nonmilitary objectives
launch a collective effort to protect one another such as diplomatic support, technology transfer,
against a potential outside aggressor (Krause and economic aid, and trade privileges. After the end
Singer, 2001: 17). On the other hand, parties of the Cold War, the former communist states such
to a collective security arrangement protect one as Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia,
another against possible military aggression by any and Slovakia wanted membership in NATO to
potential adversary within the same alliance. strengthen their newly democratic regimes and
Moreover, alliances help contain potential to increase their trade volume with the North
rivals. For example, the US has benefited from the American and West European countries. The
alliances to contain the Soviet Union (later Russia), NATO membership for these countries became
China, Iran, and other states that are perceived to the first step toward joining the European Union
be threatening the American political, military, as full members (Krause and Singer, 2001: 19).
and economic interests. Alliances also provide the
means to keep the allies under control through
restricting their interaction with potential rivals. 1
Otherwise, a considerable risk is likely to emerge
for the alliance if and when a weaker ally deserts Discuss whether alliances are more valuable
the alliance, providing potential rivals with certain for minor (small) powers compared to
opportunities. great (major) powers.

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THEORIES OF ALLIANCES AND armaments, and alliances. He regards an alliance as

SECURITY COOPERATION a means to the end of maintaining equilibrium.
Several factors have substantial impact on The neorealist scholar Kenneth N. Waltz has
forming alliances and security cooperation. These advanced the balance of power concept in his oft-
factors include, but are not limited to, the historical cited book, Theory of International Politics. He
conditions under which they are founded, the argues that the balance of power politics occurs
type of commitment, the scope of cooperation, when the following two requirements are present:
the ideology and the regime type of members, an anarchic international structure and the
presence of states struggling for survival (Waltz,
the number of members, and the geographical
1979: 121). Waltz suggests that states behave
proximity among member states. Scholars, taking
in such a way that results in forming a balance.
such factors into consideration, have attempted at
This tendency, in fact, owes much to the security
developing various theories toward explaining the
dilemma. For Waltz, security is the most essential
alliance formation, the nature of alliances, and the
goal for states; however, increasing the national
performance of alliances. Below we will discuss
power, paradoxically, may not achieve this goal. It is
three such theories.
basically a zero-sum game, the gain of one country
is the loss of another. The division of gains may
Balance of Power and Alliances favor certain countries even in winning coalitions
The classical realist theory of alliance formation and, therefore, pose security challenges for other
is known as the balance of power theory. Among countries (Abbas, Schneider, 2015: 3).
others, the most known ardent supporters of this George Liska, an advocate of the balance of
theory are Hans J. Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz, power theory, uses historical cases to demonstrate
and George Liska. the significance of this theory (Liska, 1962: 32-
Morgenthau and Thompson (1985) argue 33). To him, international relations and alliances
that the balance of power is a universal concept. are two indispensable concepts, and they always
exist together.
The concept of equilibrium is the synonym
for “balance,” and it is used in both natural and The balance of power theory, however, is not
social sciences such as physics, biology, economics, exempt from criticism. Some scholars argue that the
sociology, and political science. Whenever the balance of power theory may have an explanatory
existing balance is disturbed by an outside force or power under certain historical conditions (Healy
by a sudden change, the system tries to turn to its and Stein, 1973, 59). A number of scholars
original status or re-establish a new equilibrium. question the validity of balance of power, since it
ignores the perceptions of actors in balancing and
Hans Morgenthau, for example, applies this
forming alliances (Christensen, 1997: 81). For
general equilibrium concept to the domestic
example, Stephen Walt questions the theory of
politics of the USA. He employs “the multiparty
balance of power on the grounds that the threat a
system” for testing the concept of equilibrium. He
state perceives is the most important driving factor
argues that when two opposing parties represent a for the balancing behavior. In other words, Walt
minority in the legislative body, the formation of a suggest that states balance against threat, rather
majority depends upon the support of a third group. than against power. As such, Walt presents another
The third group will tend to join the potentially or theory of alliance: the balance of threat.
actually weaker of the two, thus imposing a check
upon the relatively strong party (Morgenthau and
Thompson, 1985: 190-192). For Morgenthau, Balance of Threat and Alliances
domestic balancing in one nation shares some Stephen Walt does not completely reject
similarities with the balancing behavior in the the theory of balance of power, but modifies
international system, from which it follows that the it by claiming that states do not balance against
theory can be applied to international politics. He power but rather against threats. His balance of
lists four principal balancing strategies that may be threat theory takes into account factors such as
employed by states: divide and rule, compensations, geographic proximity, offensive capabilities, and

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perceived intentions in forming alliances (Walt, where also unthreatened states formed alliances.
1987: 5). According to Walt, pragmatic interests Randall Schweller has pointed to this behavior
and security needs of states are more important for of states and come up with the theory of balance
alliance formation than ideological considerations of interests. Contrary to the balancing behavior
(Walt, 1987: 33). He argues that it is not claimed by realist theorists, Schweller argues that
necessarily a strong neighbor that can be a threat, states tend to bandwagon for profit (Schweller,
but also a relatively weak nation can pose a threat. 1994: 99). To Schweller, alliances are responses
This depends on the threat perception of the state not only to threats but also to opportunities. He
in question. Then, the perception of intent plays a regards an alliance as a tool to make gains as well
crucial role in alliance formation. as to avoid losses. While the theories of balance of
threat and balance of power explain the alliance
formation only in high-insecurity environments,
when survival is at stake, the balance of interests
theory takes into account both security and non-
security interests rather than threats alone. Thus,
it provides a relatively complete explanation for
alliance formation (Sweeney and Fritz, 2004: 436).

Compare and contrast the balance of

power theory and the balance of threat
theory. What are the main similarities and
differences between the two theories?

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Figure 5.3 Stephen M. Walt’s prominent book on AND EXAMPLES
alliances, The Origins of Alliances, 1987.
Alliances date back to as early as the 5th century
Source: www.goodreads.com BC. For example, the League of Delian led by
Athens and the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta
Walt tested his theory by examining the pattern were formed during the Peloponnesian War, which
of alliance formation in the Middle East from 1955 lasted between 431-404 BC (Shewey, 2004).
to 1979. He showed that it is a general tendency of During the Crusades to Jerusalem, a variety
states to balance against, rather than bandwagon of alliances were formed among the Christian
with, the most threatening state or the coalition. powers, including France, England, the Holy
Because states perceive that they can lose their Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and
freedom of action when they bandwagon with the Republic of Venice. The Thirty Years’ War of
the powerful state or the coalition. Nevertheless, 1618–1648 marked the start of alliances in the
balancing against threats is not universal; rather it early modern period. While Bavaria and other
is more common than bandwagoning. Catholic German states came together under the
alliance of Catholic League, a number of small
Protestant German states formed the alliance of
Balance of Interests Protestant Union. In this period several alliances
The theories of balance of power and balance of were formed in Europe as a result of the French
threat mainly focus on the behavior of threatened Revolution. Some of them were limited in time
states, ignoring the behavior of unthreatened and scope. They were primarily wartime alliances,
states. However, one may give several examples, and they dissolved as soon as the war ended.

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During the last quarter of the 19th century, the Following the end of the Cold War and the
balance of power in Europe was disrupted by several disappearance of the Soviet Union from the
developments such as the weakness of France due world map, the unipolarity of the international
to the Napoleonic wars, the retreat of the Ottoman system caused the alliances to relatively lose their
Empire from Europe, and the rise of both Germany importance. However, gradually coalitions or
and Italy. Consequently, several alliances were formed coalitions of willing came into existence. The first
which re-established the equilibrium in Europe. such example was the Coalition of Willing against
These include but are not limited to the following: Iraq that was formed after Iraq had invaded Kuwait
• The League of the Three Emperors in 1990. This coalition consisted of the US and
was created among the Russian Empire, other 33 countries. During the crises in the former
Austria-Hungary, and the German Empire Yugoslavia, several coalitions were formed to
in 1873. After Russia withdrew from the intervene in the conflicts in Bosnia-Herzegovina,
League in 1878, Germany and Austria- Croatia, Kosovo, and Macedonia from 1992 to
Hungary established the Dual Alliance in early 2000s.
1879 against Russia. In the twenty-first century, the 9/11 terrorist
• The Triple Alliance of 1881 was formed attack on the US and the “global war on terror”
by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. had considerable impact on the formation of
They pledged mutual support in case of an alliances and coalitions. Allies came together under
attack by France as well as of a war with two the Operations Enduring Freedom and later the
or more European nations. Italy, however, International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)
signed a deal with France and left the Triple in Afghanistan consisted of the USA, the UK,
Alliance. Australia, and the Northern Alliance of Afghan
The 20th century also witnessed the formation factions. This coalition later expanded to include
of several alliances. During the First World War, about forty nations and formed the NATO mission
the Central Powers included Germany, Austria- of Resolute Support in 2015.
Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. They
fought against the Entente Powers of the Russian
Empire, the British Empire, France, Italy, Serbia,
Romania, and Portugal. During the Second World 3
War, while the Axis Powers included Germany, Discuss in which ways the alliances have
Japan, Italy, Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria, the changed after the fall of the Soviet Union
Allies consisted of the United States, the United
and the end of the Cold War.
Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, Poland,
France, and Yugoslavia. The Cold War was also
characterized by military-political alliances. In fact The North Atlantic Treaty
NATO and the Warsaw Pact were ideologically- Organization (NATO)
based alliances of the twentieth century.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) is an alliance that provides security for
its members. NATO is an intergovernmental
organization, where each member maintains its
political sovereignty. All NATO decisions are taken
jointly based on the agreement of each member
country (Bayer, 2013, 33). In other words, NATO
takes its decisions unanimously. Its members
are states parties to the founding North Atlantic
Treaty, which is also referred to as the Washington
Treaty. It was founded in 1949, and it has been the
most influential security organization in the world
since then.
Figure 5.4 Logo of the Warsaw Pact
Source: istockID: 838962512

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Founding the Alliance

Soon after the Second World War had
ended, several disagreements emerged among
the allied powers of the war, namely the United
States of America, the United Kingdom, and the
Soviet Union. Especially, they failed to reach an
agreement on the post-war international order. The
Soviet Union started to dominate Eastern Europe
by imposing socialist ideology on the regional
Figure 5.5 Logo of NATO powers and expanded its sphere of influence. This
Source: www.nato.int was opposed, however, by the Western powers,
including the US. As a result, the US decided to
form an alliance to minimize the Soviet influence
The Cold War is assumed to have begun with
in Europe and get prepared for a possible attack
the famous Iron Curtain speech by Winston
by the socialist/communist states. The Cold War,
Churchill on March 5, 1946. Churchill said
therefore, was a form of warfare where both sides
that “From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the
not only increased their readiness for waging a
Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across
classical war but also involved a psychological and
the continent.” The Cold War lasted more than
ideological struggle to maintain and promote their
four decades and ended with the fall of the Berlin
respective economic and social structures.
Wall in November 1989 (Kolasi, 2013: 153). The
most distinctive feature of the Cold War was the As a normal consequence of the war, the
ideological struggle between the liberal Western European states followed a policy of reducing both
Alliance and the socialist Eastern Alliance. The the military expenditures and the size of the armed
Western-Alliance nations came together under forces. Establishing an alliance or bandwagoning
the NATO umbrella, whereas the Eastern Alliance were the two choices open to the Europeans. In
formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955. Although 1948, the UK voiced the need for a grouping of
the Warsaw Pact dissolved in 1991, NATO still states. As a result of diplomatic talks, Belgium,
survives and performs critical security functions. France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and the
United Kingdom signed the Brussels Treaty on
Through The Washington Treaty, each member
March 17, 1948, which ultimately provided the
promised to share the risks, responsibilities, and
basis for the Washington Treaty.
benefits of a collective defense organization. In
the beginning, the primary aim of the alliance was The talks on what would become the
to create a pact of mutual assistance among the Washington Treaty took place between the powers
members in an attempt to counter possible threats of the Brussels Treaty, on the one hand, and the
by the communist/socialist states. Gradually other United States and Canada, on the other. During
objectives emerged within the alliance such as the formal public treaty negotiations that began
keeping the German power under control and on December 10, 1948, Denmark, Iceland, Italy,
promoting the transatlantic relations- the relations Norway, and Portugal were invited to participate
between the USA and the European nations. in the final phase of the negotiations.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization The idea of collective defense and how to
(NATO) provides a platform that help the alliance implement such a cooperation was discussed in
members reach their common goals. From 1949 relation to Article 5 of the draft treaty. After long
to this day, these goals have not fundamentally discussion and debate, the North Atlantic Treaty
changed nor has the treaty been revised. However, was signed on April 4, 1949. The Treaty would
from the initial 12 members, NATO enlarged be valid for a 10-year period, after which it could
so as to accommodate 29 member countries and be reviewed (Article 12); and only after the Treaty
it altered its strategies and concepts many times had been in force for 20 years could a member
to adapt to the changing security environment withdraw from the Organization (Article 13). To
(NATO Member Countries, 2018). this date, these two provisions have never been

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invoked. In other words, the Treaty has never been The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and
revised nor has a member state withdrawn from the Soviet deployment of SS-20 Saber ballistic
the organization, except the fact that Greece and missiles in Europe led to the end of détente. To
France left NATO’s integrated military command counter the Soviet deployment, Allies made the
(the military wing of NATO) for some time, but “dual track” decision, which called for deploying
they rejoined the command in 1980 and 2009, nuclear-capable cruise missiles in Western Europe
respectively. while continuing negotiations with the Soviets.
The 1980s also saw the accession of NATO’s first
new member since 1955; in 1982, Spain joined the
The Rivalry between the Two transatlantic alliance.
Alliances and the Dissolution of
The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9,
the Warsaw Pact 1989 and later the collapse of the Soviet Union
After the foundation of the alliance in 1949, brought new uncertainties for NATO. Scholars
new allies joined NATO. Greece and Turkey and politicians alike started discussing whether
became full members in 1952, and West Germany there was any need for the Atlantic Alliance in the
followed suit in 1955. In reaction to West international system. Who/what was the threat that
Germany’s becoming a NATO member, the Soviet would legitimize keeping NATO alive? Ultimately,
Union and its East European allies formed the NATO endured because while the Soviet Union
Warsaw Pact in 1955. was no more, the Alliance’s two other original, if
NATO was based on a realistic approach to unspoken, mandates remain: To deter the rise of
world politics. Therefore, it had to undergo several militant nationalism and to provide a collective
transformations during the Cold War so as to security environment that would encourage
adapt itself to the changing securing environment further democratization and political integration in
(Çaman, 2006: 52). During the heyday of the Europe. It is also suggested that NATO is a means
Cold War (roughly between 1949 and 1962), to keep the United States and the US military
NATO followed the strategic doctrine of Massive power in Europe.
Retaliation. According to which, if a power (read
it as the Soviet Union) launches an attack on the
alliance members, NATO would respond with
NATO’s Transformation in the
nuclear weapons, no matter what the nature of Post-Cold War Era
the first attack was. Scholars and NATO officials In 1989, with the end of the Cold War, we
claimed that the strategy of Massive Retaliation witnessed a paradigm shift in the theories of
allowed the members of the alliance to focus international relations. For example, Francis
their energies on economic growth rather than on Fukuyama considered the end of the Cold War as
maintaining large conventional armies. the end of history and the end of ideologies, except
In the 1960s NATO changed its security liberalism (Fukuyama, 2010, 7). Globalization
policy and military strategies. The focus of the emerged not only as an economic movement but
allies shifted away from deterrence and defense also as a political ideology, which filled the gap left
to détente, which referred to the relaxation of by the end of the Cold War. According to Beck
tensions between the Western and Eastern blocs (1999: 14-22), the nation-state political structure
driven by an acceptance of the status quo. Détente has begun to collapse, country boundaries have
had many faces. The strategy of Flexible Response become blurred, and new risk societies have
replaced the Massive Retaliation as the main emerged. Under this complex political, social,
strategy of NATO. This strategy made it possible economic, and security environment, NATO
for the alliance members to consider in which decided not to dissolve but rather to change its
ways and means they would counter and defeat a strategic doctrine.
future attack, thus allowing the use of conventional NATO decided to transform old rivals into new
weapons besides nuclear weapons. friends. “In December 1991, the Allies established

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the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, NATO Allies – militarily intervened in Afghanistan
renamed the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council in the fall of 2001. The UN Security Council
in 1997. This forum brought the allies together with Resolution 1386 authorized the deployment of
their Central European, Eastern European, and the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF),
Central Asian neighbors for joint consultations. a multilateral force in and around Kabul to help
Cooperation also extended southward. In 1994, stabilize the country and create the conditions of a
the Alliance founded the Mediterranean Dialogue self-sustaining peace. In August 2003, NATO took
with six non-member Mediterranean countries: over the command and coordination of ISAF.”
Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco, and “Meanwhile, NATO continued to accept new
Tunisia; with Algeria also joining in 2000.” The members and to build new partnerships. In 2004,
Dialogue seeks to contribute to security and the Alliance launched the Istanbul Cooperation
stability in the Mediterranean through better Initiative as a way of offering practical bilateral
mutual understanding.” security cooperation to countries of the broader
“The allies created the Partnership for Peace Middle East region. Finally, subsequent rounds
program (PfP) in 1994. The Partnership for Peace of enlargement brought more Allies into the fold
allowed non-NATO countries, or “partners,” – Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Latvia,
to share information with NATO Allies and to Estonia and Lithuania in 2004, and Croatia and
modernize their militaries in line with modern Albania in 2009” (www.nato.int).
democratic standards. Partners were encouraged
to choose their own level of involvement with the A New Approach to Peacekeeping
Alliance. The path to full membership would remain
open to those who decided to pursue it. Three “In Afghanistan, as in Bosnia and Kosovo,
former Partners – Poland, the Czech Republic, and Allies have found that military power is no longer
Hungary – took their seats as full Alliance members enough to ensure peace and stability. Peacekeeping
in 1999, following their completion of a political has become at least as difficult as peacemaking. For
instance, much of the world’s attention in 2011 was
and military reform program.”
focused on the crisis in Libya where NATO played
NATO’s experiences in Bosnia and Kosovo a crucial role in helping to protect civilians. In the
demonstrated that NATO had been a static new Strategic Concept agreed in 2010, the Alliance
organization whose mere existence was enough committed itself to dealing with “all stages of a
to deter the Soviet Union. “Balkan intervention crisis – before, during and after” - an all-embracing
began the Alliance’s transformation into a more principle that implies a greater role for cooperative
dynamic and responsive organization. Accordingly, security. Accordingly, the Alliance is not only
the Alliance adopted a new Strategic Concept developing security partnerships with countries
describing the Alliance’s purpose and priorities. In across the Mediterranean, the Gulf region, and
1991, the Alliance had issued, for the first time, even the Pacific area, but it is also reaching out to
an unclassified Concept in the wake of the Soviet other fellow international organizations and non-
Union’s decline. The Concept that followed in governmental organizations that have mandates
1999, stated that since the end of the Cold War, the in such areas as institution-building, governance,
world had come to face complex new risks to Euro- development, and judiciary reform.
Atlantic peace and security, including oppression,
The 21st century will not be all about
ethnic conflict, economic distress, the collapse of
peacebuilding, however. Russia’s illegal annexation
political order, and the proliferation of weapons of
of Crimea in 2014 and its aggressive actions
mass destruction.”
against Ukraine has been a sobering reminder of
“The 11 September 2001 (9/11) terrorist attacks the importance of NATO’s core task: collective
on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon defense. This, coupled with the Syrian conflict, the
demonstrated to the Allies that political disorder rise of ISIL (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant)
in distant parts of the globe could have terrible and terrorism (and often home-bred terrorism) has
consequences at home. In the aftermath of the 9/11 become a brutal reality across many continents.
attacks, a coalition of countries – including many Meanwhile, tensions rise as migrants seek refuge

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from conflict in countries that are struggling with the NATO’s door remains open to any European
weight of ethnic and religious strife, demographic country in a position to undertake the
pressures and economic underperformance. commitments and obligations of the membership.
Cyberattacks are becoming ever more frequent NATO’s “open door policy” is based upon Article
and ever more destructive. And through social 10 of the Washington Treaty, which states that
media and other means, the opponents of liberal membership is open to any “European State in a
open societies are spreading disinformation and position to further the principles of this Treaty and
propaganda that seek to undermine the values that to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic
NATO has always sought to protect and promote. area”. As of 2018, four partner countries have
Since its founding in 1949, the transatlantic declared their aspirations to NATO membership:
Alliance’s flexibility, embedded in its original Treaty, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Macedonia, and
has allowed it to suit the different requirements of Ukraine (NATO Enlargement, 2018).
different times. In the 1950s, the Alliance was a During the NATO Summit on 11 July
purely defensive organization. In the 1960s, NATO 2018, NATO leaders invited the government in
became a political instrument for détente. In the Skopje-Macedonia to start accession talks. Once
1990s, the Alliance was a tool for the stabilization all national procedures have been completed
of Eastern Europe and Central Asia through the to finalize the agreement, the country will join
incorporation of new Partners and Allies. In the NATO as the thirtieth member (Press Conference,
first half of the 21st century, NATO faces an ever- 11 July 2018).
growing number of new threats” (www.nato.int).
Therefore, NATO proved itself as the primary
institution that can provide peace and freedom in a
Partners and Partnership
wider area to meet the new challenges. Initiatives
“Over more than 25 years, the Alliance has
developed a network of partnerships with non-
NATO Member Countries member countries from the Euro-Atlantic area,
NATO is an Alliance that consists of 29 the Mediterranean and the Gulf region, and other
independent member countries. Member states partners across the globe. NATO pursues dialogue
are the states that party to the NATO Treaty. and practical cooperation with these nations on a
The Twelve original members of the Alliance that wide range of political and security-related issues”
found the organization in 1949 are as follows: (www.mod.gov.lv). NATO cooperates with a range
Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, of international organizations and countries in
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, different structures.
the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The other member countries that later joined
the alliance are as follows: Greece and Turkey Turkey -NATO Relations
(1952), Germany (1955), Spain (1982), the Czech After the Second World War, Turkey wanted to
Republic, Hungary and Poland (1999), Bulgaria, act with the Western nations. This was basically due
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia and to policies of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Foreign
Slovenia (2004), Albania and Croatia (2009), and Minister Molotov had invited Turkey’s Moscow
Montenegro (2017). ambassador to the ministry on June 7, 1945 and
communicated the Soviet demands, including
the cession of Kars and Ardahan to the USSR,
providing the USSR with a base that would ensure
internet
the common defense of the Straits, and revising
the Montreux Convention (Aydın, 2001: 475). In
For further detail on the NATO member
the face of the Soviet threat, Turkey wanted to act
states, please visit the web page https://www.
within an alliance with the Western powers and,
nato.int/cps/en/natohq/nato_countries.htm
therefore, sought to join NATO.

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Turkey’s applications for membership in NATO On two occasions in 2012, Turkey requested
had been turned down before 1950. In June 1950, a NAC meeting under Article 4: On June 22,
however, Turkey became one of the few countries 2012, when one of its fighter jets was shot down
that sent troops to Korea. By this move, Turkey by the Syrian air defense forces, and on October
sought to neutralize the opposition of some Western 3, 2012, when five Turkish civilians were killed by
countries to Turkey’s entry to NATO (Zürcher, Syrian shells hitting the border town of Akcakale.
2008: 342). In fact, NATO was also willing to Following these incidents, on November 21, Turkey
keep both Turkey and Greece in the Western requested the deployment of Patriot missiles on
Pact. Finally, in an attempt to accept them as full Turkish territory. NATO agreed to this defensive
members NATO signed a protocol with Turkey and measure to help Turkey defend its population and
Greece on October 17, 1951 (Tezcan, 1994: 58). territory as well as to help de-escalate the crisis
Turkey together with Greece joined NATO along the border (NATO Press Release 148, 2012).
in 1952. According to Smith (2000, 94), Turkey
had been accepted to NATO due to its potential
support to the alliance, its proximity to both air
bases in the Middle East and oil resources of the
region, and its capability to strain the Soviets. For
Turkey and Greece to join the alliance, Article 6
of the NATO Treaty was modified. As a result, the
NATO area of responsibility expanded to include
the territory of the Republic of Turkey (Protocol
to the North Atlantic Treaty on the Accession of
Greece and Turkey, 1951).
During the Cold War, Turkey was a “wing
country” under NATO’s strategic framework. By Figure 5.6 The Patriot missiles deployment in
allocating its forces to NATO, providing command Gaziantep.
and control facilities as well as bases in Turkey, and Source: www.nato.int
allowing NATO to possess deterrent weapons on
the Turkish territory, Turkey contributed to NATO
to prevail against the Soviet Union. Following On 26 July 2015, Turkey requested that the
the United States, Turkey has the second-largest NAC convene under Article 4 in view of the
number of troops in the alliance (NATO Support seriousness of the situation following a terrorist
to Turkey, 1952-2018). attack and wanted to inform Allies of the measures
it was taking (NATO Press Release 108, 2015).
Article 4 of the NATO Treaty states that “The
Parties will consult together whenever, in the Although the above-mentioned developments
opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, are some examples of support that NATO
political independence or security of any of the provided, it is a fact that NATO and some leading
Parties is threatened.” In fact, Turkey has invoked NATO countries also failed to provide Turkey with
Article 4 several times. support especially on such issues as combatting
terrorism, developing the military infrastructure,
On one occasion, on February 10, 2003, Turkey and giving military supplies.
formally invoked Article 4, asking for consultations
in the North Atlantic Council (NAC) on defensive
assistance from NATO in the event of a threat
to its population or territory resulting from the
4
armed conflict in neighboring Iraq. NATO agreed
on a package of defensive measures and conducted Do some research on the NATO’s role in
Operation Display Deterrence from the end of countering terrorism.
February to early May 2003 (NATO and the 2003
campaign against Iraq, 2015).

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THE NATO PRINCIPLES AND THE MAIN ORGANIZATIONAL

STRUCTURE

Political and Military Objectives of NATO

NATO aims at guaranteeing the freedom and security of its members through political and military
means. The rationale of NATO is to provide security for its members. Moreover, NATO works to promote
democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defense and security-related issues
to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict. NATO is committed to the peaceful
resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military power to undertake crisis-management
operations. These are carried out under the collective defense clause of NATO’s founding treaty - Article
5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United-Nations mandate, alone or in cooperation with other
countries and international organizations.

Collective Defense
NATO is committed to the principle that an attack against one or several of its members is considered
as an attack against all. This is the principle of collective defense, which is enshrined in Article 5 of the
Washington Treaty. So far, Article 5 has been invoked once - in response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the
United States in 2001 (NATO Press Conference, 2001).

Decisions and Consultations

Every day, member countries consult and take decisions on security issues at all levels and in a variety
of fields. A “NATO decision” is the expression of the collective will of all 29 member countries since all
decisions are taken by consensus.
All NATO members have their permanent representatives in NATO Headquarters to make discussion
and coordination on relevant issues.
All NATO decisions are made by consensus, after discussion and consultation among member countries.
Consultation between member states is therefore at the heart of NATO, since allies are able to exchange views
and information, and discuss issues prior to reaching agreement and taking action.
Consultation reinforces NATO’s political dimension by giving members the opportunity to voice
opinions and official positions. It also gives NATO an active role in preventive diplomacy by providing
the means to help avoid military conflict. In Article 4 of NATO’s founding treaty, members can bring any
issue of concern, especially related to the security of a member country, to the table for discussion within
the North Atlantic Council.

The Organizational Structure of NATO

The NATO delegations consist of civilian officials working at the main NATO Headquarters in
Brussels, whereas military representatives mainly include military officials.

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International Security

Figure 5.7 The organizational structure of NATO.

Source: www.nato.int

NATO Delegations
“Each member country has a permanent delegation at NATO’s political headquarters in Brussels. Each
delegation is headed by an “ambassador,” who represents his/her government in the Alliance’s consultation
and decision-making process.”

The North Atlantic Council (NAC)

“The North Atlantic Council (NAC) is the principal political decision-making body at NATO. Each
member country has a seat at the NAC. The Council meets at least once a week or whenever the need arises,
at different levels. Meetings are chaired by the Secretary General who helps members reach agreement
on key issues.” The Council also meets from time to time at the level of Heads of State and Heads of
Government or Ministers of Foreign Affairs and Ministers of Defense.

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forces on a voluntary basis. These forces then return

to their countries once the mission is completed.”
• The Allied Command Operations (ACO)
“ACO is responsible for the planning and
execution of all Alliance operations. Supreme
Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) assumes
the overall command of operations at the strategic
level and stationed in Mons, Belgium: Supreme
Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, more
commonly known as SHAPE” (https://www.nato.
int/nato-welcome/index.html).
Figure 5.8 NATO Summit Meeting on July 11, 2018 at
NATO’s New Headquarters in Brussels.
• The Allied Command Transformation
(ACT)
Source: www.nato.int ACT is headed by the Supreme Allied
Commander Transformation (SACT), who
The Nuclear Planning Group (NPG) exercises his responsibilities from headquarters in
Norfolk, Virginia, the United States. It contributes
“The Nuclear Planning Group has the same
to allowing the NATO Command Structure
authority as the North Atlantic Council with
(NCS) to efficiently command, control, and
regard to nuclear policy issues.”
support current and future operations and provide
a secure and stable transition to crisis and conflict,
Subordinate Committees if required. ACT is the only NATO command in
“NATO has a network of committees to deal North America.
with all subjects on its agenda, from political
to more technical issues. They bring national NATO Immediate Response
representatives and experts from all NATO Capability
member countries together on a regular basis.”
Naval Striking and Support Forces NATO
(STRIKFORNATO), NATO Airborne Early
The Secretary General Warning and Control Force (NAEW&CF), and
The Secretary General is the Alliance’s top Alliance Ground Surveillance (AGS) are part of
international civil servant. He/she is responsible for the NATO Immediate Response Capability. They
steering the process of consultation and decision- are multinational structures that are not part of
making within the Alliance and ensuring that the Command Structure but are assets that are
decisions are implemented. available for the Alliance.

The Military Organizational NATO Crisis Management

Structure of NATO Capability
“When the implementation of political Crisis Management is one of NATO’s
decisions has military implications, the key actors fundamental security tasks. Lessons learned
involved are: The Military Committee, composed from previous operations make it clear that a
of the Chiefs of Defense of NATO member comprehensive political, civilian and military
countries; the International Military Staff, the approach is necessary for effective crisis
Military Committee’s executive body; and the management because the military alone cannot
military command structure, composed of Allied resolve a crisis or conflict. Therefore, it can involve
Command Operations and Allied Command military and non-military measures to address
Transformation. the full spectrum of crises – before, during and
after conflicts – as outlined in the NATO’s 2010
NATO has very few permanent forces of its
Strategic Concept. Allies decide whether to engage
own. When the North Atlantic Council agrees to
in a crisis management operation on a case-by-case
launch an operation, members contribute military
basis and by consensus.

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Core Tasks According to the

Strategic Concept
5 “The Strategic Concept highlights the
Discuss the main objectives of NATO. Organization’s core tasks. The Alliance must and
will continue fulfilling effectively three essential
core tasks, all of which contribute to safeguarding
Alliance members, and are always executed in
NATO’S TASKS AND accordance with international law” (https://www.
OPERATIONS nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_56626.htm):

NATO’s Current Strategic Concept Collective Defense

“New and emerging security threats, especially NATO members will always assist each other
since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, NATO’s crisis against attack, in accordance with Article 5 of the
management experience in the Balkans and Washington Treaty. That commitment remains
Afghanistan, and the value and importance of firm and binding. The 2010 Strategic Concept
working with partners from across the globe all states that collective defense is the Alliance’s
drove NATO to reassess and review its strategic greatest responsibility and “deterrence, based on
posture. The 2010 Strategic Concept, Active an appropriate mix of nuclear and conventional
Engagement, Modern Defense, is a very clear capabilities, remains a core element” of NATO’s
and resolute statement on NATO’s core tasks overall strategy. The Alliance aims to maintain and
and principles, its values, the evolving security develop to counter existing and emerging threats.
environment and the Alliance’s strategic objectives These threats include the proliferation of nuclear
for the next decade. After having described NATO weapons, ballistic missiles and other weapons
as “a unique community of values committed to the of mass destruction and their means of delivery;
principles of individual liberty, democracy, human terrorism, cyber-attacks and key environmental
rights and the rule of law,” it presents NATO’s and resource constraints.
three essential core tasks: collective defense, crisis
management and cooperative security. It also Crisis Management
emphasizes alliance solidarity, the importance of
transatlantic consultation, and the need to engage NATO has a unique and robust set of political
in a continuous process of reform. and military capabilities to address the full spectrum
of crises – before, during and after conflicts. NATO
The Strategic Concept document then will engage, where possible and when necessary, to
describes the current security environment and prevent crises, manage crises, stabilize post-conflict
identifies the capabilities and policies it will put situations and support reconstruction.
into place to ensure that NATO’s defense and
deterrence, as well as crisis management abilities,
are sufficiently well-equipped to face today’s Cooperative Security
threats. These threats include the proliferation of “The Alliance is affected by, and can affect,
ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons, terrorism, political and security developments beyond its
cyber-attacks, and fundamental environmental borders. The final part of the 2010 Strategic
problems. The Strategic Concept also affirms how Concept focuses on promoting international
NATO aims to promote international security security through cooperation. The Alliance will
through cooperation. It will do this by reinforcing engage actively to enhance international security,
arms control, disarmament and non-proliferation through partnership with relevant countries and
efforts, emphasizing NATO’s open-door policy for other international organizations; by contributing
all European countries, and significantly enhancing actively to arms control, non-proliferation
its partnerships in the broad sense of the term. and disarmament; and by keeping the door of
Additionally, it affirms that NATO will continue membership in the Alliance open to all European
its reform and transformation process.” (https:// democracies that meet NATO’s standards.”
www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_56626.htm).

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NATO Operations and Missions of future arms control agreements” (https://www.

“NATO is an active and leading contributor nato.int/cps/en/natolive/topics_48896.htm).
to peace and security on the international stage.
It promotes democratic values and is committed NATO Policy on Combating
to the peaceful resolution of disputes. However, if Trafficking in Human Beings
diplomatic efforts fail, it has the military capacity
“The Alliance initiated a zero-tolerance policy on
needed to undertake crisis management operations,
human trafficking, which was endorsed at Istanbul
alone or in cooperation with other countries and
Summit in June 2004. The policy commits NATO
international organizations.
member countries and other troop-contributing
As of 2018, Approximately 20,000 military nations participating in NATO-led operations to
personnel are engaged in NATO missions reinforce efforts to prevent and combat such activity.
around the world. NATO is leading operations The policy was also opened to the Mediterranean
in Afghanistan, Kosovo, and the Mediterranean. Dialogue and Istanbul Cooperation Initiative
NATO is also supporting the African Union and countries, as well as four partners across the globe
conducting air policing missions on the request (Australia, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the New
of its Allies. Furthermore, NATO is assisting with Zealand) and remaining operational partners
the response to the refugee and migrant crisis in (Colombia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Singapore,
Europe and has Patriot missiles and AWACS aircraft Tonga) in January 2011” (https://www.nato.int/
deployed in Turkey. It also carries out disaster relief cps/en/natohq/topics_50315.htm).
operations and missions to protect populations
against natural, technological or humanitarian
disasters” (https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/ Science for Peace and Security
topics_52060.htm). Programme
“The Science for Peace and Security (SPS)
Programme promotes dialogue and practical
cooperation between NATO member states
and partner nations based on scientific research,
technological innovation and knowledge exchange.
The SPS offers funding, expert advice and support
to tailor-made, security-relevant activities that
respond to NATO’s strategic objectives” (https://
www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/78209.htm).

Countering Terrorism
Terrorism in all its forms poses a direct threat
Figure 5.9: The NATO operation in Afghanistan.
to the security of the citizens of NATO countries,
Source: www.nato.int and to international stability and prosperity. It is
a persistent global threat that knows no border,
NATO’s Role in Conventional nationality or religion and is a challenge that the
Arms Control international community must tackle together.
NATO’s work on counter-terrorism focuses on
“NATO attaches great importance to
improving awareness of the threat, developing
conventional arms control and provides an
capabilities to prepare and respond, and enhancing
essential consultative and decision-making forum
engagement with partner countries and other
for its members on all aspects of arms control and
international actors. NATO invoked its collective
disarmament. NATO’s 2010 Strategic Concept
defense clause (Article 5) for the first and only time
highlights the continued importance of harmonizing
in response to the terrorist attacks of 11 September
defense and arms control policies and objectives,
2001 on the United States (https://www.nato.int/
and the Alliance’s commitment to the development
cps/en/natohq/topics_77646.htm).

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Prevention of Weapons of Mass NATO’s Role in Energy Security

Destruction “The disruption of energy supply could affect
“The proliferation of nuclear weapons and the security of their societies and have an impact
other weapons of mass destruction (WMD), and on NATO’s military operations. NATO seeks
their delivery systems, could have incalculable to enhance its strategic awareness of energy
consequences for national, regional and global developments with security implications; develop
security. The potential effects of WMD proliferation its competence in supporting the protection of
on NATO Allies are one of the greatest threats critical energy infrastructure; and work towards
NATO faces. NATO Allies seek to prevent the significantly improving the energy efficiency of the
proliferation of WMD through an active political military” (https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/
agenda of arms control, disarmament and non- topics_49208.htm).
proliferation. NATO is strengthening its capabilities
to defend against chemical, biological, radiological
Protection of the Environment
or nuclear (CBRN) attacks, including terrorism
and warfare. NATO conducts training and exercises “NATO recognizes that it faces many
designed to test interoperability and prepare forces environmental challenges. In particular, the Alliance
to operate in a CBRN environment” (https://www. is working to reduce the environmental effects
nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_50325.htm). of military activities and to respond to security
challenges emanating from the environment.
NATO’s current activities related to the natural
Ballistic Missile Defense environment include: 
“Proliferation of ballistic missiles poses an • Protecting the environment from damaging
increasing threat to NATO populations, territory effects of military operations;
and forces. Many countries have ballistic missiles • Promoting environmentally friendly
or are trying to develop or acquire them. NATO management practices in training areas and
ballistic missile defense (BMD) is part of the during operations;
Alliance’s response against the increasing threat • Adapting military assets to a hostile physical
and of its core task of collective defense. NATO environment;
has the responsibility to protect its European • Preparing for and responding to natural
populations, territory and forces in light of the and man-made disasters;
increasing proliferation of ballistic missiles and • Addressing the impact of climate change;
against threats emanating from outside the Euro- • Educating NATO’s officers on all aspects of
Atlantic area” (https://www.nato.int/cps/en/ environmental challenges;
natohq/topics_49635.htm). • Supporting partner countries in building
local capabilities;
Cyber Defense • Enhancing energy efficiency and fossil fuel
independence; and
“Cyber threats and attacks are becoming
• Building environmentally friendly
more common, sophisticated and damaging.
infrastructures” (https://www.nato.int/cps/
The Alliance is faced with an evolving complex
en/natohq/topics_91048.htm).
threat environment. NATO needs to be prepared
to defend its networks and operations against
the growing sophistication of the cyber threats Women, Peace and Security Issues
and attacks it faces. NATO’s main focus in cyber “NATO and its partners are committed to
defense is to protect its own networks (including removing barriers for women’s participation in
operations and missions) and enhance resilience the prevention, management and resolution of
across the Alliance. NATO Cyber Rapid Reaction conflicts and in peace-building, and to reducing
teams are on standby to assist Allies, 24 hours a the risk of conflict-related and gender-based
day, if requested and approved” (https://www.nato. violence. Gender is an important focus of NATO’s
int/cps/en/natohq/topics_78170.htm). cooperation with other international organizations

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– in particular the United Nations – and civil steps, as part of the wider international community,
society. NATO is also taking action within its own to confront this issue. NATO has also produced
organization and structures to promote gender an e-learning module on child protection aimed at
equality and the participation of women” (www. deployed troops. When participating in NATO-
europeanwesternbalkans.com). led operations or missions, military leadership and
personnel are trained to recognize and respond to
possible violations identified by the UN Secretary-
Protection of Civilians General. When training local forces, NATO
“NATO and its partners are contributing to ensures that the protection of children affected
the protection of civilians by integrating related by armed conflict is given the right attention;
measures in the planning and conduct of NATO- NATO also promotes adequate reporting and
led operations and missions. It also includes efforts monitoring mechanisms focusing on the serious
to protect children from the effects of armed violations” (https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/
conflict and to prevent conflict-related sexual and topics_156399.htm).
gender-based violence” (https://www.nato.int/cps/
en/natohq/topics_135998.htm).

Protection of Children in Armed

Conflict 6

“The nature of contemporary warfare has Discuss the meaning of collective

created significant threats against children, who are defense, which is one of the main tasks
frequently the victims of indiscriminate attacks and of NATO.
are subjected to sexual violence. NATO is taking

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International Security

Define alliances, evaluate their

LO 1 characteristics and functions, and
distinguish between typologies.

An alliance is a formal agreement in which states pledge to co-operate in using their military resources
against a specific state or states and usually obligates one or more of the signatories to use force, or to
consider, unilaterally or in consultation with allies, the use of force in specified circumstances. Alliances
fall into the realm of national security. This gives alliances a quality of seriousness that clearly distinguishes
them from agreements in other areas of foreign policy, such as finance or commerce. There are three basic
types of formal military alliances; defense pact, nonaggression/neutrality and entente. Alliances can also

Summary
be differentiated as offensive and defensive; serving identical, complementary, and ideological interest
and policies; mutual and one sided; general and limited; temporary and permanent, and operative and
inoperative. Alliances perform several functions such as prevention of war among major actors, providing
collective defense and collective security, containment of rivals, control of allies, fostering military power
of each member, cost-effectiveness for defense and security, and opportunities for minor powers to achieve
various nonmilitary objectives.

Differentiate between the main

LO 2 theories that explain alliance
formation.

The balance of power concept is based on the widely used phenomenon of “equilibrium” in which the ba-
lance of power and policies aiming at its preservation are inevitable and an essential stabilizing factor in the
international system. The theory suggests that states in the anarchical international system behave in ways
that result in balances forming. Whenever the balance is disrupted by one state’s or a group of states’ incre-
ased power, other states will increase their powers with internal and external efforts (alliances) and balance
will be restored again. Stephen Walt does not completely reject the theory of balance of power but modifies
it by claiming that states do not balance against power but rather against threats. His balance of threat theory
takes into account the factors such as geographic proximity, offensive capabilities, and perceived intentions
on alliance formation. While the balance of threat theory, and balance of power theory, explain alliance
formation only in high-insecurity environments when survival is at stake and the balance of interest theory
takes into account both security and non-security interests rather than threat alone.

Evaluate the historical

LO 3 background and survey the
examples of alliances.

Alliances are said to be typically associated with Westphalian state systems and the European balance of po-
wer, but many examples go back as early as the fifth century BC. Two alliances which were formed during
the Peloponnesian War in 431–404 BC: League of Delian led by Athens; and Peloponnesian League led
by Sparta. The Thirty Years’ War of 1618–1648 marked the start of alliances in the early modern period.
During the last quarter of the 19th Century, the balance of power in Europe was disrupted by several
developments such as the weakness of France after Napoleonic wars, the retreat of Ottoman Empire from
Europe and the rise of Germany and Italy. Consequently, several alliances were formed which re-established
the equilibrium in Europe. After the WWII, the Cold War was characterized by military-political alliances.
Two best known examples are the NATO and the Warsaw Pact. These two alliances are typical examples of
ideology-based alliances in the twentieth century. Following the demise of Soviet Union and end of Cold
War, the unipolarity of the international system caused the alliances to relatively lose their importance, but
later give rise to coalitions or coalitions of willing the first example of which was the coalition of willing
against Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait in 1990, composing the US and other 33 countries worldwide.

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Explain the North Atlantic Treaty

LO 4 Organization (NATO).

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an international organization providing security for its mem-
bers. Its members are states parties to the founding NATO Treaty. It was founded after the Second World
War in 1949 and has been the most influential security organization all over the world. The Treaty com-
mitted each member to share the risk, responsibilities and benefits of collective defense. From the initial 12
members, Today, NATO enlarged in number to the 29 independent member countries and has altered its
strategies and concepts many times based on the changing environment. In the 1950s, the Alliance was a
purely defensive organization. In the 1960s, NATO became a political instrument for détente. In the 1990s,
Summary

the Alliance was a tool for the stabilization of Eastern Europe and Central Asia through the incorporation
of new partners and allies. In the first half of the 21st century, NATO faces an ever-growing number of new
threats. In this situation, NATO proved itself as the primary institution to provide peace and freedom in a
wider area to meet those challenges. Today, NATO cooperates with a range of international organizations
and partner countries. Turkey has been in the NATO as a member state since 1952.

Describe the NATO principles and

LO 5 structure.

NATO’s aim is to guarantee the freedom and security of its members through political and military
means. The reason for the existence of NATO is to provide security for its members. NATO promotes
democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defense and security-related issues
to solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict. NATO is committed to the principle
that an attack against one or several of its members is considered as an attack against all. All NATO deci-
sions are made by consensus, after discussion and consultation among member countries. Each member
country has a permanent delegation at NATO’s political headquarters in Brussels. Delegations are compo-
sed of civilian and military officials. The North Atlantic Council (NAC) is political decision-making body
composed of civilian representatives of states. The Secretary General is the Alliance’s top international
civil servant. He/she is responsible for steering the process of consultation and decision-making within
the Alliance and ensuring that decisions are implemented. NATO has very few permanent military forces
of its own. When the North Atlantic Council agrees to launch an operation, members contribute military
forces on a voluntary basis. These forces then return to their countries once the mission is completed.

Examine NATO’s tasks and

LO 6 operations.

The 2010 Strategic Concept “Active Engagement, Modern Defense” is a very clear and resolute statement
on NATO’s core tasks. The 2010 Strategic Concept states that collective defense is the Alliance’s greatest
responsibility and “deterrence, based on an appropriate mix of nuclear and conventional capabilities, re-
mains a core element” of NATO’s overall strategy. NATO will engage, where possible and when necessary,
to prevent crises, manage crises, stabilize post-conflict situations and support reconstruction. The Alliance
will engage actively to enhance international security, through partnership with relevant countries and
other international organizations; by contributing actively to arms control, non-proliferation and disar-
mament. NATO is an active and leading contributor to peace and security on the international stage.
NATO promotes democratic values and is committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. However, if
diplomatic efforts fail, NATO has the military capacity needed to undertake crisis management operati-
ons, alone or in cooperation with other countries and international organizations.

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1 States’ attempt to balance threats by establis- 4 Which of the following is one of the basic
hing informal or formal alliances is called--- characteristics of a wartime alliance?
Which of the following options correctly comple- A. It is exclusively established in wartime.
tes the sentence above? B. It operates when the signatories are not at war.
A. internal balancing C. It is established for promoting international or-

Test Yourself
B. hard balancing der at the expense of national interests.
C. external balancing D. It is usually established in peacetime, but conti-
D. off-shore balancing nues to operate under wartime conditions.
E. omni-balancing E. It is formed by only two states.

2 Which of the following statements is true? 5 Which of the following caused the alliances
to relatively lose their importance after the end of
A. Alliances fall into the realm of national security. Cold War?
B. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) is most frequently cited example of an A. The unipolarity of the international system
entente. B. The enforcement of International rules
C. Bandwagoning is alignment with, and joining, C. The creation of international regimes
the weaker side. D. The establishment of the UN system
D. Participation in alliances may increase minor E. The rise of international terrorism
powers’ diplomatic flexibility to deal with fore-
ign policy crises they face. 6 Which of the following is a correct state-
E. Strategic partnership and security community ment?
are contemporary examples of alliances.
A. Turkey is a founding member of NATO.
B. NATO was established in 1949.
3 What is the basic difference between the ba- C. NATO is a non-governmental organization.
lance of power theory and the balance of threat
D. The Eastern Alliance formed NATO in 1955.
theory?
E. West Germany joined NATO in 1950.
A. The notion of perception is vital to the balance
of power.
B. The balance of threat theory suggests that states 7 Which of the following developments
do not balance against power but rather against symbolizes the end of the Cold War?
threats. A. The Soviet Invasion in Afghanistan.
C. The balance of threat theory regards the geog- B. The establishment of NATO.
raphical proximity as a fundamental factor. C. The Serbian War in 1993.
D. The balance of threat lists four principal balan- D. The 9/11 terrorist attacks on the US.
cing strategies employed by states: divide and E. The disintegration of the Warsaw Pact.
rule, compensations, armaments, and alliances.
E. The balance of threat suggests that bandwago-
ning is more common than balancing.

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8 The NATO’s “open door policy” with regard 10 The 2010 NATO Strategic Concept high-
to the enlargement of the alliance is based upon lights the Organization’s current core tasks. Which
Article 10 of the Washington Treaty. According of the following describes today’s core tasks of
to Article 10, which states are eligible for NATO NATO?
membership?
A. Collective Defense, Crisis Management, Coo-
Test Yourself

A. Any Latin American state perative Security.

B. Any European state B. Deterrence, Retaliation, Cooperative Response.
C. Any communist state C. Conventional War, Maritime Assault, Air War-
D. Any United Nations member fare.
E. Any European-Union member state D. Defense, Consulting, Cooperation.
E. Peacekeeping, Aircraft Safety Regulations, Eco-
9 The main reason for the existence (the ratio- nomic Advice.
nale) of NATO is to provide its members with---
Which of the following options correctly comple-
tes the sentence above?
A. security
B. yustice
C. economic wealth
D. energy resources
E. technological infrastructure

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If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
1. C 6. B
“he Definition, Characteristics, Functions, “The North Atlantic Treaty Organization.”
and Typologies of Alliances.” section. section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
2. A 7. E

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

“The Definition, Characteristics, Func- “The North Atlantic Treaty Organization.”
tions, and Typologies of Alliances.” section. section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
3. B 8. B
“Theories of Alliances and Security Coop- “The North Atlantic Treaty Organization.”
eration. ” section. section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the If your answer is wrong, please review the
4. D 9. A
“The Definition, Characteristics, Func- “The NATO Principles and the Main Or-
tions, and Typologies of Alliances.” section. ganizational Structure.” section.

If your answer is wrong, please review the

5. A “Historical Background and Examples.”
10. A If your answer is wrong, please review the
“NATO’s Tasks and Operations.” section.
section.

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Discuss whether alliances are more valuable for minor

(small) powers compared to great (major) powers.

Small/minor powers lack adequate internal capacity to balance against a thre-

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

atened state. Therefore, they may seek alliances in order to increase their
security on the basis of major power guarantees to protect their territories and
populations against military aggression. For minor powers, alliances have inc-
reasingly become means not only to acquire essential military benefits but also
to achieve various nonmilitary objectives such as diplomatic support, techno-
your turn 1 logy transfer, economic aid, trade privileges. After the end of the Cold War,
the former Communist states such as Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary,
Slovenia, Slovakia and several others aimed membership in NATO to streng-
then their newly democratic regimes and to increase their trade with states in
North America and Western Europe. NATO membership for these countries
became a first step towards admission to the European Union (Krause and
Singer, 2001, 19).

Compare and contrast the balance of power theory

and the balance of threat theory. What are the main
similarities and differences between the two theories?

Both theories share similar perspectives on features of the international system;

such as anarchy, security system, prominence of states as actors. Stephen Walt does
not completely reject the balance of power theory, but modifies it by claiming
that states do not balance against power but rather against threats. His balance of
threat theory takes into account the factors such as geographic proximity, offen-
sive capabilities, and perceived intentions on alliance formation (Walt, 1987, 5).
According to Walt, pragmatic interests and security needs of states are more im-
your turn 2 portant for alliance formation than ideological considerations (Walt, 1987, 33).
The notion of perception is an important factor in the balance of threat theory. It
suggests that it is not necessarily the strongest neighbor who can be a threat; the
weaker nation can also pose a threat by underlining the importance of threat per-
ception since the perceptions of intent play a crucial role in alliance choices. Walt
also suggests that economic ties can create or reinforce strong alliance relations,
particularly when one partner is heavily dependent on the other.

Discuss in which ways the alliances have

changed after the fall of the Soviet Union and
the end of the Cold War.

Following the demise of Soviet Union and the end of Cold War, the unipolarity
of the international system caused the alliances to relatively lose their importance,
but later give rise to coalitions or coalitions of willing the first example of which
was the coalition of willing against Iraq after its invasion of Kuwait in 1990, com-
posing the US and other 33 countries worldwide. During the crises and conflicts
after the dissolution of Yugoslavia, several coalitions were formed to intervene in
your turn 3 such as Bosnia Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo and Macedonia in 1992-2000. In
the twenty-first century, 9/11 attacks in the USA and following war on terror had
a considerable impact on the formations of alliances and coalitions. The recent
Global Coalition to Counter the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant is one of the
most crowded coalitions in history by comprising almost 70 states and internatio-
nal organizations (Operation Inherent Resolve-Coalition-2018).

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International Security

Do some research on the NATO’s role in

countering terrorism.

• “NATO invoked its collective defense clause (Article 5) for the first and

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

only time in response to the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 on the
United States.
• NATO’s Counter-Terrorism Policy Guidelines focus Alliance efforts on
three main areas: awareness, capabilities and engagement.
• NATO has a Terrorism Intelligence Cell at NATO Headquarters and a
Coordinator oversees NATO’s efforts in the fight against terrorism.
• A regional Hub for the South, based at NATO’s Joint Force Command
your turn 4 in Naples helps the Alliance anticipate and respond to crises arising in its
southern neighborhood.
• NATO is a member of the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS and supports
it through AWACS intelligence flights.
• NATO develops new capabilities and technologies to tackle the terrorist
threat and to manage the consequences of a terrorist attack.
• NATO cooperates with partners and international organizations to leverage
the full potential of each stakeholder engaged in the global counter-terro-
rism effort” (https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_77646.htm).

Discuss the main objectives of NATO.

NATO’s aim is to guarantee the freedom and security of its members through
political and military means. NATO promotes democratic values and enables
members to consult and cooperate on defense and security-related issues to
solve problems, build trust and, in the long run, prevent conflict. NATO is
your turn 5 committed to the peaceful resolution of disputes. If diplomatic efforts fail, it
has the military power to undertake crisis-management operations. These are
carried out under the collective defense clause of NATO’s founding treaty -
Article 5 of the Washington Treaty or under a United Nations mandate, alone
or in cooperation with other countries and international organizations.

Discuss the meaning of collective defense,

which is one of the main tasks of NATO.

NATO is committed to the principle that an attack against one or several

of its members is considered as an attack against all. This is the principle of
collective defense. Collective defense implies that NATO members will always
assist each other against attack, in accordance with Article 5 of the Washing-
ton Treaty. That commitment remains firm and binding. The 2010 Strategic
Concept states that collective defense is the Alliance’s greatest responsibility
your turn 6 and “deterrence, based on an appropriate mix of nuclear and conventional
capabilities, remains a core element” of NATO’s overall strategy. The Alliance
aims to maintain and develop to counter existing and emerging threats. The-
se threats include the proliferation of nuclear weapons, ballistic missiles and
other weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery; terrorism,
cyber-attacks and key environmental and resource constraints. 

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Alliances and Military-Security Cooperation

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 Chapter 6
Terrorism
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Define terrorism and give a typology of

terrorism. Comprehend the reasons of terrorism.

3 Explain the new means of war in the 21st

century. 4 Debate cyber terrorism.

5 Discuss various methods of countering

terrorism.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

• Terrorism
Introduction • Typology
Defining Terrorism and Giving a Typology • The Inquisition
Reasons of Terrorism • The French Revolution
Terrorism as a New Means of War in the 21st • Modernity
Century • Terrorist
• Freedom Warrior
Cyber Terrorism: A New Form of Terrorism • Ethic Codes
Countering Terrorism • Extremism
• Relative Deprivation Theory
• Subjective Reasons
• Objective Reasons
• 21st Century
• Proxy War
• International Terrorism
• Cyber Terrorism
• Cyber War
• Cyber Crime
• E-Government
• Countering Terrorism

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INTRODUCTION DEFINING TERRORISM AND

Terrorism is not a new concept. However, GIVING A TYPOLOGY
terrorism is a relatively new academic discipline; The concept of terror dates back to the
terrorism studies began in the 1960s in the West. antiquity. It refers to a situation of panic and
In Turkey, the study of terrorism dates back to fear of the Roman people caused by the nearing
early twenty-first century. The Turkish Military Cimbri killers in 105 B.C. (The Cimbri was one of
Academy first opened a Master’s degree program the forerunner German tribes such as the Teutons,
in 2002 and a PhD program in 2006 (Avcı and and it echoes in the proverb “terror cimbricus”
Demir, 2017: 5-18). (Sage, 2018). However, the concept of terrorism is
Terrorism, which is nowadays a critical security essentially a product of the Modernity.
threat, is not only a problem for any national state,
but also a problem for the whole international society. Modernity is a period dating back to the
The database of the University of Maryland from 17th and 18th centuries and extending to the
the early 1900s to March 2016 has recorded 856 mid-20th century (Kırılmaz and Ayparçası,
terrorist organizations worldwide (START, 2015). 2016: 33). It is a historical era that refers to
Even though terrorism is very critical for world concepts such as the nation state, nationalism,
order and security, one of the serious handicaps in industrialization, proletariat, nuclear family,
discussing terrorism is the difficulty in defining secularism, urbanization, democracy, bureaucracy,
what terrorism really is. This makes it harder for the bourgeoisie, the rule of law (Terzi, 2016: 105).
international society and national states to discuss,
and take precautions against, terrorism.
One may say that the examples of terror before
Another critical issue in discussing terrorism is the Modernity occurred essentially in the context
the lack of cooperation at the national level and, in of religion. In the first century A.D., the Zealots
particular, at the international level. While political and its fanatic group the Sicarii, a Jewish sect, had
violence refers to terrorist activities for one state, it undertaken terrorist acts- they are known as the first
may become a tool for a proxy war for other states. terrorist groups in history. Their fighting movement
What is more, some states may even consider these Zelaotry, which means conservatism and bigotry,
activities as a struggle for liberating certain nations is used to define any member (Zealot) and the
or groups. movement itself of an ancient Jewish sect which
Another critical issue is how to fight terrorism. aimed to struggle for Jewish world of theocracy and
This brings into discussion the reasons of terrorism resistance to the Romans until 70 A.D. (English
as well as the means to be used in defeating Oxford Living Dictionary, 2018). During the
terrorism. Sometimes it may be necessary to use period of the Great Revolt, the first Jewish-Roman
armed force (military power) against terror acts; war broke out due to the onslaught against Roman
however, there may be cases where social, political, citizens which started initially as anti-tax protests
and economic means should be employed toward and followed by religious tension between Greeks
defetaing terrorism. and Jewry from 66 A.C. to 73 A.C. During this
time, the Sicarii, a part of the revolting group,
Toward these objectives, this chapter aims at
targeted their own people with terrorist methods.
defening terrorism and providing a typology of
They carried small daggers called sicae concealed in
terrorism. In addition, the chapter will debate the
their cloaks, which their name is derived from, and
reasons of terrorism. Furthermore, new forms of they often attacked and killed Roman sympathizers
terrorism and the characteristics of terrorism in the in crowds and blend in with the crowd after the act
21st century will be discussed with a reference to to escape. They employed other methods such as
proxy wars and cyber terrorism. destroying food supply of Jerusalem to force their
Finally, the chapter mentions the methods of own people to fight against the Romans, besieging
fighting terrorism, including economic, political, the city instead of negotiating for peace as well as
and social means to be employed, the role of the raiding local Jewish villages, and kidnapping rich
army, international cooperation against terrorism, Jews for ransom (Hudson, 1999: 12; World Heritage
and the fight against financing terrorism. Encyclopedia, 2018).

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Another group, the Assassins, was established by Hassan-i Sabbah in 1090 (Öz, 1997: 418). It is argued
that they had connection to the Batiniyya cult of the Ismaili sect. The Assassins attracted attention due to
the assassinations against the front-benchers of enemy states. Its militants were called as Fedayeen, who
were castrated to eliminate the possibility of failure because they might fall in love, marry, or have children.
Fedayeen, who were held captive, would either commit suicide by swallowing the opium that they had
carried or get killed by the fellow Fedayeen not to confess the secrets of the group. Fedayeen wielded
wedge-daggers for assassination (Amir, 2008, 44-168). Compared to the present-day terrorist organizations,
the Assassins followed a different path in terms of its target group. They selected the targets from upper-
class administrators such as Nizam al-Mulk, the vizier of the Seljuk Empire, and Abbasid and Fatimid
caliphs, kadi -Muslim judges, and supreme commanders. Among others, they also assassinated Conrad of
Montferrat (the King of Jerusalem) and Raymond II (the Count of Tripoli) (Öz, 1997: 418-419).
The inquisition was institutionalized in the 13th century and it reigned until the 19th century. However,
it even dates back to the11th century (Eroğlu, 2004: 93-100). Through the inquistion, those who were
believed to have acted contrary to the doctrines of the Catholic Church were condemned as misbelievers.
Then, they were first excommunicated and later transferred to the courts to ‘leave the world’. The method
for ‘leaving the world’ included various forms of torture such as auto-da-fe and drownings. The inquisition
was revived and reinvented in the fight against the Protestants in the 16th century. The Spanish Inquisition
also tested the sincerity of Christian converts (Oxford Living Dictionaries, 2018). As a result, thousands
of Jews and Muslims were burned to death (Eroğlu, 2004:98).

Inquisition, a judicial procedure and later an institution that was established by the papacy and, sometimes,
by secular governments to combat heresy. Derived from the Latin verb inquiro (“inquire into”), the name
was applied to commissions in the 13th century and subsequently to similar structures in early modern
Europe (www.britannica.com).

In the secular context, terrorism

dates back to the end of the 18th
century and the early 19th century. In
terms of etymology, terrorism was used
for the first time in the dictionary of
French Academy in 1789 to explain
the Reign of Terror, the period of the
French Revolution from September 5,
1793, to July 27, 1794. However, the
definition of terrorism had a posivite
connotation at that time (Alpkaya and
Kavas, 1993). It referred to the large-
scale violence campaign supported by
France against the Jacobins who were
on the frontline (Sage, 2018). “Terror”
remained on the agenda in France until
Figure 6.1 The rack torture, one of the practices of the Inquisition the end of the Reign of Terror (Alpkaya
and Kavas, 1993: 33-44).

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Defining Terrorism For Aydın (2005: 10), terrorism refers to all

It would be useful to review various definitions acts involving violence that may be committed to
of terrorism in the literature before going into overthrow a government, change the authority and
detail on the characteristics of terrorism. order of the state, or achieve certain political goals.
According to Thornton (1964:73), terrorism For Özcan (2012), terrorism is far more than
is a symbolic action that is designed to influence the damage to the target person or the property;
political behavior through the use of non-normal it communicates certain messages to the society
means of violence or threats. and the state. Terrorism cannot survive without
propaganda. Terror does not only aim at creating
According to Marighella (1969: 97), bombed
violence but also an oppressive environment, which
assassinations need to be considered as terrorism.
would help find new supporters for the political
These operations would not involve anyone other
cause. In most cases, the main target of violence
than those with technical knowledge of making and oppression is the security forces and the state
explosives and cold-blooded persons. Occasionally, establishment. However, any living creature,
terrorist actions include the acts to end the human including animals and crops, may fall victim to the
life and the burning of settlements of North violence.
Americans or some major agricultural businesses.
For Schmid (2004: 403-404), terrorism refers
If the plundering of foodstuffs is planned, it should
to 1) the enthusiastic use of violence against
be considered for the public to take advantage of it,
humans, 2) the conditional threat of more
especially where and when the hunger and the cost
violence, 3) the deliberate fear production against
of living are at stake.
the target group, 4) targeting the civilians, non-
For Jenkins (1975:13-15), murder, soldiers, and innocent people, 5) the intimidation,
assassination, sabotage, demolition, destruction coercion, or propaganda, 6) the method or
of public records, spread of rumors, the closure of strategy of conflict waging, 7) the transmission
churches, confiscation of property, corruption of of violence, 8) the illegal, criminal, and non-
judicial jurisdiction, and corruption of courts each moral nature of violent demonstrations, 9) the
include an act of of terror, because they contribute dominant political character of the movement,
to the common purpose of creating fear. and 10) using psychological warfare as a means
For Crenshaw (1981:300), terrorism is mainly to mobilize the public sector or to prevent them
thought in relation to the rise of nationalism, from taking action.
anarchism, and revolutionary socialism. The If we search through the official papers of
phenomenon of terrorism as a struggle against the international organizations or policies of specific
state authority has emerged from the difficulties countries, it is possible to give more definitions
experienced by the revolutionaries in trying of terrorism. For example, The United Nations
to replicate the popular revolt of the French High-Level Panel on Threats, Challenges and
Revolution. Terrorism was used to describe the Change states that “any action constitutes
systematic fear heightened to manage and control terrorism if it is intended to cause death or serious
the civilian population. bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants,
For O’Connor (2011), terrorism is the use with the purpose of intimidating a population
of unlawful power or violence against persons or or compelling a Government or an international
property to intimidate or force a government, organization to do or abstain from doing any act”
civilian population, or any segment of the society (United Nations, 2005). The United Kingdom
for political or social purposes. Security Service (MI5) states that terrorist groups

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use violence and threats of violence to publicize their causes as means to achieve their goals. They
often aim to influence or exert pressure on governments and government policies but reject democratic
processes, or even democracy itself (MI5, 2018).
In defining terrorism, it may be helpful to employ some parameters. For example, Başeren (2006)
examines the definition of terrorism through such parameters as motive, instrument, goal, and intent.
Motive is the reason for the act that the perpetrator has, works to satify, and operates from. Instrument is
the terror act itself. The goal of terrorism refers to achieving a result such as killing and death. Intent refers
to creating certain impact. Motive is something political and requires violent action. The threat of violence
may suffice if perpetrators have already caused fear in the society through previous acts of violence.
As a result, according to Başeren (2006), terrorism in the context of Criminal Law is a violent act with
political content that affects the behavior of millions and that aims at reaching certain results such as death
or keeping people under control through fear.

Table 6.1 A Table to Illustrate Başeren’s Approach for Defining Terrorism

Parameters Explanation
Motive The reason that the perpetrator has and operates from
Instrument The act itself
Goal A result such as death
Intent To create impact
The Definition of Terrorism is a violent act with political content that affects the behavior of
terrorism based on these millions and that aims at reaching certain results such as death or keeping
parameters people under control through fear.

Giving a Typology of Terrorism

Table 6.2 illustrates one of the most comprehensive typology in the literature. This typology classifies
terrorism and terrorists into five distinctive subgroups: by location, by personality trait, by purpose, by
target, and by issue.

Table 6.2 O’Connor’s Typology of Terrorism (O’Connor, 2011)

By Location By Personality By Purpose By Target By Issue
Domestic Crazies Political Mass Terror Revolutionary
International Crusaders Non-political Dynastic Terror Political
Non-State Criminals Quasi-terrorism Random Terror Nationalist
State-sponsored Limited Political Focused Random Terror Cause Based
Internecine Official or State Tactical Terror Environmental
State-sponsored
Nuclear
Genocide

The following Table explains the concepts used in Table 6.2:

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Table 6.3 The Concepts in O’Conner’s Typology of Terrorism (O’Connor, 2011).

Concept Explanation
Domestic by residents of a country within that country
International by representatives of a country against another country
Non-state extremism and revolution for its own sake
by a government against its own people or in support of international
State-sponsored
terrorism against another government
Internecine conflict that spills over into another country or fought on foreign soil
strong survival attitude, but not based on reality; self-centered; goals clear
Crazies
only to perpetrator; irrational and unpredictable; strikes at random
sacrificial, death attitude; blends politics and religion; seldom willing to
Crusaders negotiate; task-oriented and indifferent to risk; seeks publicity and largest
group possible
strong self-preservation attitude; selfish; seeks gain and is task-oriented;
Criminals
avoids high risk; predictably targets small groups
Political for ideological and political purposes
Nonpolitical for private purposes or gain
Quasi-terrorism skyjacking and hostage taking
Limited Political ideological but not revolutionary
Official or State used by nation against nation or people
Mass Terror targets general population
Dynastic Terror selective targeting of individuals or groups
Random Terror targets anybody in wrong place at wrong time
Focused Random Terror targets specific public places frequented by opposition
Tactical Terror attacks government or politically attractive targets
aims to replace the existing government by drawing out repressive
Revolutionary responses which can be exposed as inhumane (Red Army Faction, PLO,
Hezbollah)
heavily armed groups tending to be focused around supremacy,
Political government intrusion, or religious revisionism (Aryan Nation, Posse
Comitatus, Freemen)
promotes the interests of a minority or religious group that has been
Nationalist
persecuted under majority rule (Sikh radicals, Muslim fundamentalism)
groups devoted to a social or religious cause using violence to address their
Cause Based
grievances (Islamic Holy War, Abortion clinic bombings)
groups dedicated to slowing down developments that are harming animals
Environmental
(Animal Liberation Front, Earth 1st)
when a repressive regime forces its citizens into total obedience (Brazil,
State-sponsored
Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras, Peru, Iraq, Sudan, Haiti)
Nuclear outlaw states possessing nuclear threats (North Korea)
Genocide when a government seeks to wipe out a minority group in its territory

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Although O’Conner’s typology of terrorism is one of

the most comprehensive typology in the literature, it has
some flaws. For example, cyber terrorism does not exist 1
in the list. Therefore, one can conclude that O’Conner’s What are the most important features that
typology is very helpful to better understand and analyze distinguish terrorism from other violent acts?
terrorism but it is also open to improvement.

REASONS OF TERRORISM

The Roots of Terrorism

Terzi (2016:162-172) classifies the reasons (causes) of terrorism into two main categories: subjective
reasons and objective reasons. Subjective reasons include cultural and social-psychological reasons whereas
objective reasons refer to misgovernment, loose democracy, poverty, wealth inequality, ignorance, intellectual
awakening, and intellectual stimulation. Nonetheless, it is worth keeping in mind that objective-subjective
classification is not absolute because one group’s objective parameters may act as subjective parameters for
another group. Table 6.4 illustrates Terzi’s model on the causes of terrorism.

Table 6.4 Reasons of Terrorism (Terzi, 2016:162-172)

Subjective Reasons Objective Reasons

Cultural Reasons Misgovernment
Loose Democracy
Poverty
Wealth Inequality
Social-Psychological
Ignorance
Reasons
Intellectual Awakening or Intellectual Stimulation
Other Reasons (joining a terrorist organization for adventure, personality
predisposition, financial motives, mercenary militancy etc.)

Subjective Reasons
Cultural and social psychological reasons constitute the subjective reasons. Cultural reasons refer to
the material practice and spiritual practice of a society. A culture that values violence or war may be given
as an example for cultural reasons of terrorism.
Social-psychological reasons also help explain political violence. Among these reasons, “intent
detection and anger” and “expectation of revenge” stand out. Academic studies show that “intent
detection” increases the anger and the aggression has the potential to cause further aggression as long as
the anticipation of revenge keeps the negative thoughts in the consciousness (Taylor et al., 2007: 412-
453). Therefore, one can conclude that giving voice to “malevolence” may create a potential enemy. Iran’s
labeling the US as “the Great Satan” and Israel as the “Little Satan” is an example of “intent detection and
anger.” On the other hand, the US list of rogue states is another example of “intent detection and anger.”
Moreover, the violence that continues over a long time may provide future generations with cultural and
social-psychological reasons for the continuation of a conflict, as we have observed in the case of the
Palestine-Israeli conflict. As such, both “intent detection and anger” and “expectation of revenge” increase
violence. In other words, violence causes violence.

The US list of rouge states: Iraq, Iran, Syria, Libya, Cuba, North Korea, and Sudan are the rouge states
from the perspective of the American government (see CIA, 2003).

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Objective Reasons 16 organizations in Syria, 32 organizations

Objective reasons include misgovernment, loose in Pakistan, and 56 organizations in India
democracy, poverty, wealth inequality, ignorance (START, 2015). This shows that poverty
intellectual awakening or intellectual stimulation, is one of the main causes of terrorism. Yet,
and other reasons such as adventure, personality poverty is also connected with “intellectual
predisposition, financial incentives, and mercenary awakening” or “intellectual stimulation” (For
militancy. the World Bank’s country list by income, see
World Bank, 2018).
1. Misgovernment: According to the the
4. Wealth inequality: Wealth inequality is
United Nations, the basic features of good
governance are political participation, rule another name for the unjust distribution
of law, transparency, accountability, equality of wealth. This factor is also essentially
and inclusion, responsibility, effectiveness connected with “intellectual awakening” or
and efficiency, and consensus-orientedness “intellectual stimulation.”
(UNESCAP, 2018). Therefore, one may 5. Ignorance: Ignorance alone does not seem
regard misgovernment as the opposite of to be closely related to terrorism. It is not
“good governance.” Misgovernment, then, even as significant as intellectual stimulation.
refers to an arbitrary and autocratic rule- For example, approximately 80 per cent of
not a constitutional state but a law state the members of the Baader Meinhof Gang in
that is divorced from merit, accountability, Germany were well-educated and belonged
and transparency. to the middle and upper classes of society.
2. Loose Democracy: Loose democracy Except members of the large scale terrorist
refers to a type of “democracy,” where organizations such as the Revolutionary
demagogy, the vote concern, and practice Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the
and attitude with the related rhetoric come Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE),
into prominence by pushing the principle and radical fundamentalist organizations,
of constitutional state into the background. most terrorists are relatively well-educated
One of the grave handicaps that the loose and come from middle-class families
democracy brings about for a society is (Hudson, 1999: 76-77). Nonetheless,
that it blesses those who aim to commit a ignorance is important because it has a
politically-motivated attack. While someone multiplier effect when combined with other
is referred to as an ordinary criminal under factors such as poverty. Ignorance presents
normal circumstances, he/she may earn a itself more in the form of instigating a person
reputation in the society where he/she finds to commit a crime (for example, forcing girls
a shelter due to his/her terrorist identity. into prostitution).
Loose democracy is peculiar to Western 6. Intellectual awakening/intellectual
democracies because the West has an stimulation: One of the main theoretical
established history of democracy compared to approaches to political violence is the relative
other regions. This also explains why terrorist deprivation theory. According to this theory,
organizations station in such countries as the the feeling of deprivation develops as a
US, France, Italy, and Greece. According consequence of the consciousness of the gap
to the database created by the University of between the expectations and possibilities
Maryland, there are 68 (active or passive) of a person. Expectations symbolize the
terrorist organizations stationed in the US, idea that a person has the same right (with
51 in France, 34 in Italy, and 86 in Greece other persons) to acquire goods and become
(START, 2015). Democracy, then, refers to a wealthy. However, the society may not
constitutional state where human beings can provide he or she with the necessary means
live up to their potential rather than a state to achieve certain living standards. The
of law that imposes legal rules. dissatisfaction created by this deprivation is a
3. Poverty: There are 16 organizations stationed universal warning for terrorist acts (Ted Gurr,
in Afghanistan, 74 organizations in Iraq, cited in Keleş and Ünsal, 1982: 16-17).

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7. Other reasons: There are other approaches that tackle violence either at the individual level or
at the group level. While some approaches put an emphasis on the individual’s psychology and
argue that, in the last analysis, an individual adds his or her nuance to violence, others stress
the importance of group dynamism (Hogg and Vaughan, 2007). These approaches hold differing
views on why a person may want to join a terrorist organization – such reasons as personal hatred,
adventure, personality predisposition, financial incentives, and mercenary militancy.
To conclude, one of the reasons listed above may not be enough alone to make someone a terrorist.
Otherwise, everyone who is poor or miserable would be a terrorist. At least two of the reasons listed above
(for example, poverty and poor management, or injustice in the distribution of wealth and intellectual
awakening) should come together so as to create a grave condition for the person to initiate an act of
violence for political reasons. Terrorism is a specific but extreme form of violence. To be driven by political
motives, it must be systematic rather than temporary. A victim does not turn into a terrorist overnight;
but when the victimization becomes systematic, the individual reacts against this systematic victimization.
This in turn can motivate the individual for joining a terrorist organization.

The Changing Facets of Terrorism

Modern terrorism largely occurred after the Second World War with the rise of nationalist movements
in some colonies of the European powers. These anti-colonial movements became aware of the potential
of terrorism to generate publicity for their political objectives and influence world politics (Roser, Nagdy
and Ritchie, 2018).
The progress in technology has also provided terrorists with new capabilities and targets. Terrorists
know that their actions may now receive immediate worldwide coverage (Jenkins, 1975: 28). Not only
in terms of technology but also in terms of geographical scope, terrorism has become globalized (Kartal,
2018:39). As the September 11 attacks as well as the terror attacks in Norway
and New Zealand demonstrated, terrorism may occur anywhere in the world,
and without any warning at all. 2
Figure 6.2 shows the number of fatalities from terrorist attacks. One can
observe that the number of fatalities reached a peak in the mid 2010s with more Discuss the reasons
than 40.000 people killed. of terrorism.

Figure 6.2 The Number of Terrorist Attacks Worldwide by Year

Source: Global Terrorism Database (2018), https://ourworldindata.org/terrorism

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TERRORISM AS A NEW MEANS of directly fighting with each other- which is called
OF WAR IN THE 21ST CENTURY “proxy wars.” Proxy war may be defined as “conflicts
in which a third party intervenes indirectly in order
Throughout history, individuals, states, or
to influence the strategic outcome in favor of its
political groups have tried to achieve their goals
preferred faction” (Mumford, 2013:40). Another
by resorting to violence and war (Mark, 2009).
source defines proxy war as “an armed conflict
Sometimes the aim was to dominate a region,
between two states or non-state actors which act on
sometimes to struggle for power, and sometimes to
the instigation or on behalf of other parties that are
colonize a region. not directly involved in the hostilities” (Wikipedia
The Prussian military analyst Carl Von Free Encyclopedia, 2018).
Clausewitz, for example, defines war as “the The use of irregulars or proxy actors in the
continuation of politics carried on by other means.” context of guerrilla warfare is a phenomenon
Contending armies have historically settled that may be observed throughout world history
political disputes on the battlefield even though, in (Marshall, 2016: 83). The US President Dwight
time, these armies changed in formation and size D. Eisenhower once mentioned proxy wars as ‘the
(Mark, 2009). International law covers different cheapest insurance in the world,’ while former
cases involving the use of force by states. The use Pakistani President Zia-ul-Haq deemed them
of force is regulated by the UN Charter and the necessary to ‘keep the pot boiling’ in existing
decisions (resolutions) of the Security Council conflict zones.
today (Council of Europe, 2017).
Although it seems like a new occasion in which
War and terrorism are both forms of violence conflicts take place through proxy actors, some
that aim at defeating an opponent (University of authors suggest that this is an ongoing process. For
Minnesota, 2018). War and terrorism are very example, the two major superpowers of the 20th
similar in many ways. Both involve extreme violent century (the United States and the Soviet Union)
acts, both motivated by political, ideological used proxy actors in many situations (Marshall,
or strategic goals, and both are inflicted by one 2016:185). In fact, the Cold War is full of many
group of individuals against another (Council of examples of proxy war. Vietnam and Afghanistan,
Europe, 2017). for instance, are the examples of proxy wars between
In the 21st century, terrorism continues to the US and the Soviet Union. While the Soviet
be a vital threat to national and global security. Union and the People’s Republic of China supported
Modern terrorist attacks include kidnapping of North Vietnam, South Vietnam was supported by
businesspeople, assassination of political leaders, the US between 1955 and 1975 (Sputnik Türkiye,
bombing of embassies, and hijacking of aircrafts. 2015). Similarly, the US supported Afghanistan,
Terrrorism has also introduced new types of which fought against the Soviet Union from 1979
violence in terms of technology, victimization, to 1989 (Tarihi Olaylar İnternet Sitesi, 2018). In
threats, and responses (Alexander, 2002:1). other words, the Soviet Union and the US ran proxy
wars in Vietnam and Afghanistan in order to achieve
their hegemonic goals.
Proxy Wars
Yet, nowadays proxy wars are waged through
As technology has developed, wars have
terrorist organizations. Not only major powers
become more severe and the loss of lives has
but also relatively small states such as Iran and
increased. Today, with a single bomb hundreds of Israel wage proxy wars against each other through
thousands of people may die or may be exposed terrorist organizations.
to severe suffering. Throughout history, wars have
been carried out in many forms, and the countries
and groups waged wars against each other through International Terrorism: The
many different methods to achieve their goals in. Globalization of Terror
Today, groups or states employ yet another Globalization can be defined as the integration
method to realize their political objectives: using of markets, politics, values, and environmental
some other states, groups or organizations instead concerns across the globe. Globalization has

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become a powerful concept in most aspects of our

lives (Nassar, 2005:2). Globalization may also be
referred to as an international system that took 3
the place of the Cold War system. It has its own
rules and logic that might directly or indirectly Discuss whether proxy wars continue
influence politics, the environment, geopolitics, to be an important tool in the powerful
and economy at a global scale (Ştibli, 2010:1). states’ foreign policy toolkits.
Globalization is not a new phenomenon.
However, technological development (and
especially advances in the information technology)
has dramatically transformed, and provided an CYBER TERRORISM: A NEW
enormous boost to, the globalization process (Haq, FORM OF TERRORISM
2010:7). Globalization has its own technological Cyber terrorism enters the scene as a new
tools such as computerization, miniaturization, kind of terrorism. It means much more than the
digitization, satellite communication, optic fiber, propaganda spread by terrorist organizations
and the internet (Ştibli, 2010:1). through the internet. Spreading propaganda has
This process of globalization also contributed to been one of the basic means of traditional terrorism.
the spread of violence around the world. According Cyber terrorism, on the other hand, makes use
to Neack (2006:50), terrorists can be “homegrown” of (or abuse) information and communication
with strictly local motivations and goals but these technologies (ICTs).
are increasingly having international connections.
Domestic terrorism is homegrown when the area,
target, and perpetrators are all from the same country. Defining Cyber Terrorism
However, through its victims, targets, supporters, The Federal Emergency Management Agency
or factions, transnational terrorism concerns more (FEMA) defines cyber terrorism as “unlawful
than a single country. If the victims of a terrorist act attacks and threats of attack against computers,
have different nationalities, then, this act can also networks, and the information stored therein
be characterized as an international terrorist attack when done to intimidate or coerce a government
(Enders, Sandler and Gaibulloev, 2011:321). or its people in furtherance of political or social
The terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 and objectives” (Wilson, 2008: 4). However, this
other terror incidents around the world have revealed definition does not give enough information
that the problem of terrorism is now transnational to understand the destructive results of cyber-
and that detailed investigations, analyses, and terrorism such as economic damages.
studies are needed to determine the reasons of such The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines
incidents and attacks (Nassar, 2005:1). cyber terrorism as “the premeditated, politically
One of the fundamental problems in addressing motivated attack against information, computer
the phenomenon of international terrorism is systems, computer programs, and data which result
that there is still no consensus on a definition of in violence against noncombatant targets by sub-
“international terrorism.” The existing definitions national groups or clandestine agents” (Elmusharaf,
tend to fall into two broad categories: academic 2004). This definition, however, is problematic
and political.  For example, while the British because it reduces cyber terrorism only to violence.
Intelligence Service defines international terrorism Brenner (2007: 386) states that “cyber terrorism
as “the terrorism that goes beyond national consists of using computer technology to engage
boundaries in terms of the methods used, the in terrorist activity.” This definition is problematic
people that are targeted or the places from which because it does not point out that cyber terrorism
the terrorists operate” (MI5, 2018), Brian Jenkins also has some ontological differences.
defines international terrorism as “acts of violence A rather successful definition can be found in
or campaigns of violence waged outside the the works of Sofaer and his colleagues (2000:2
accepted rules and procedures of international 6); according to which, cyber terrorism is the
diplomacy and war”( Jenkins, 1975: 20). “intentional use or threat of use, without legally

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recognized authority, of violence, disruption or interference against cyber systems, when it is likely that
such use would result in death or injury of a person or persons, substantial damage to physical property,
civil disorder, or significant economic harm.”
As the above definitions of cyber-terrorism have not proved helpful in measuring the effects of cyber
terrorism, Terzi has defined cyber-terrorism in such a way to operationalize Başeren’s concepts and
parameters. According to Terzi (2015: 194), cyber terrorism is politically motivated, and its instrument is
the terror act itself; that is, it aims at influencing the behavior of millions of people. Its intent is to create
impact; it aims at intervening in our daily lives as a result of the prevention of performance. Prevention of
performance results from a motion that harbors corrupting the cyber systems and hurting or threatening
people in the cyber space through using the global infrastructure. As implied by this definition, the death/
injury or the threat of death/injury is not a necessary component of cyber terrorism. But the death or the
injury can also be one of the potential or willful consequences of cyber terrorism.

Table 6.5 Terzi’s Approach to define cyber terrorism (Terzi, 2015:194).

Parameters Explanation
Motive Politically motivated
Instrument The act itself
Goal The prevention of performance
Intent To create impact
Cyber terrorism is politically motivated, and its instrument is the terror act itself;
that is, it aims at influencing the behavior of millions of people. Its intent is to
Definition based create impact; it aims at intervening in our daily lives as a result of the prevention
on parameters of performance. Prevention of performance results from a motion that harbors
corrupting the cyber systems and hurting or threatening people in the cyber space
through using the global infrastructure.

Some Facts and Possible Scenarios about Cyber Terrorism

Terrorist organizations’ propaganda via internet is an ordinary example of cyber terrorism. Among
others, the Brochure on the Countering Cyber Terrorism Course ( held by the Centre of Excellence
Defence against Terrorism in Turkey in 2006) lists the following incidents of cyber terrorism:
• A hacker disabled the computer system of the airport control tower at Worcester/ Massachusetts
in 1997.
• A hacker from Sweden jammed the 991 emergency telephone system in the west-central Florida
in 1997.
• Someone hacked into Maroochy Shire, which is the Australian waste management control system,
and released millions of gallons of raw sewage on the town in 2000.
• A hacker was able to control the computer system that governs the flow of natural gas through the
pipelines (Centre of Excellence Defence against Terrorism, 2006: 35).
Moreover, in 1982 the CIA caused serious damage to Russia by using the computer technology. The
US exploded the Siberian gas pipeline without using a missile or bomb. In this method known as “logic
bomb,” a code was added to the computer system, and this confused the computer that was commanding
and controlling the system (Hürriyet Gazetesi, 2011).
Iran was subjected to cyber attacks in June 2010 and its nuclear facility in Natanz was infected by
Stuxnet, a cyber worm. Yet, no country took the responsibility of this attack. The worm damaged Tehran’s
1000 nuclear centrifuges and pushed back the country’s atomic program by at least two years, also spreading
beyond the plant and infecting over 60,000 computers. The Iranian government has accused the United
States, Israel, and the Arab Gulf countries for the Stuxnet warm (Balkhi, 2014).

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In addition to the examples given above, one may give the following possible scenarios in an attempt
to better define and explain cyber terrorism:
• Blocking emergency communications or cutting off electricity or water in the wake of a conventional
bombing or a biological, chemical, or radiation attack,
• Destroying the actual machinery of the information infrastructure,
• Disrupting the information technology underlying the internet, government computer networks,
or critical civilian systems such as financial networks or mass media,
• Using computer networks to take over machines that control traffic lights, power plants, or dams
in order to cause collateral damage,
• Stealing classified information, altering the content of web pages, disseminating false information,
sabotaging operations, erasing data etc. in cyber milieu,
• Disrupting financial markets or media broadcasts, an attack could undermine confidence or cause
panic such as breaching dams, colliding airplanes, shutting down the power grid etc., via remote
control systems (Nardia, 2013).

Potential Solutions to Cyber Terrorism

At the national level, it is needed to create specialized staff to combat cyber threats and to increase the
capacity of institutions to improve their infrastructures on information and communication technologies.
The National Judicial Network Project of Turkey (UYAP) is a good example of this, because it has a special
department for the security of the system (Uysal, 2016:80).

The National Judicial Network Project (UYAP) is a management information system which fully
automates the judiciary and judicial support units, using all the necessary modern technological
improvements. UYAP, developed in a way compatible with the electronic signature infrastructure, has
created a central information system, and this system insures complete functional integration between the
judiciary and judicial support units (For further information, see Havelsan, 2017).

At the individual level, it is unlikely that everyone will become

a computer expert, but the individual states have important tasks
in order to ensure the security of the national cyber border. Turkey,
for example, needs technology companies that are specialized in
domestic anti-virus software such as Kaspersky, AVG, and McAfee.
In other words, Turkey has to have its own anti-virus software.
Therefore, financial support and encouragement of the government
are of great importance.
Studies should be carried out on how to develop an ethics
code in order to make sure that information and communication
technologies cannot harm humans. The ethics code awareness is
very important because robots may either act like a surgeon that
would help us out in performing certain operatoions or degenerate
into killers just like the robots as in the movie “The Terminator”
(Terzi, 2018: 96).
Promoting the industry-university-government collaboration
is also important in developing an ethics code (Terzi, 2018: 74).
Otherwise, the means of information technology can be abused
for purposes of corruption or associating innocent people with
Figure 6.3 Killer Robot from the movie terrorist organizations through some special software such as the
Terminator.
Purple Brain.

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This section will examine different approaches

to countering terrorism.
4

Discuss the measures taken toward Economic and Social Solutions

combating cyber terrorism. In formulating the counter-terrorism strategies
and tactics, it is obviously necessary to reflect on
various historical examples. The historical analysis
shows that the global terror threat is not new, but
COUNTERING TERRORISM rather it presents itself in new forms. Governments
Psychological and physical terrorism both from have responded terrorism in different ways (Forest,
“above the state level” and “below the state level” 2007b:7), and working on socio-economic
employed by various actors adds major challenges solutions is one of them.
to global security (Alexander, 2016:1).Terrorism Some terrorist organizations have built their
is an international phenomenon that affects every ideologies around social injustice and economic
quarter of the society, and terror acts in a democratic inequalities. They also pick new militants from the
society cannot be tolerated whatever the purpose families in respective regions who suffer from social
might be (George and Watson, 2002:189). and economic problems. The continuation of this
Governments have been countering the situation helps the terrorist oganizations to keep
threat of terrorism since the establishment of the their ideology alive as well as to receive political
Westphalian system of nation states. However, the support. Socio-economic development policies
rapid development in technology has created new may contribute to defeating terrorism through
forms of terror acts (Forest, 2007a:ix). Terrorism fighting social injustice and reducing economic
in all its forms poses a direct threat to the security inequalities (Cragin and Chalk, 2003).
of all countries as well as to the international Hoever, Wilkinson, who studied the causes
stability and global economic prosperity. It is a of terrorism in liberal states, emphasized that the
constant global threat that knows no borders, efforts to justify the emergence of political terrorism
nationality or religion, and a challenge that the on the basis of specific socio-economic conditions
international community must struggle together or psychopathology are doomed to failure. Because,
(NATO, 2018). while political terrorism is an act of certain minority
In countering terrorism, the general guide to groups, a significant fraction of terrorists are wealthy
success is not only to neutralize the attackers but or spoiled persons (Wilkinson, 1977:93).
also to stop the enlisting of new members to terrorist Therefore, expectations for socio-economic
organizations. In a democracy, this requires both development strategies and community-based
the effort of the government and the wide public programs should be realistic. Although effective
support. For a democratic government, prior to and well-implemented social and economic
crafting an appropriate counter-terror policy, it development can prevent terrorism, it cannot
is important to properly identify the threat and eliminate it (Jasparro, 2007:444). This point of
analyze the terror acts. The other priorities of view shows that terrorism cannot be eliminated
counter terrorism include: only by improving socio-economic conditions.
• Minimizing the support for terrorist Defining socio-economic solutions, however, may
groups, weaken the ideology of terrorism and contribute to
• Understand the motivation of the groups the effort to stop the enlistment of new members.
and relevant recruitment factors, However, such social and economic measures may
• Understand the strategic importance of not be enough. Countering terrorism is a long-
labeling of a group (terrorist, guerilla or term fight that can be carried out by employing
revolutionaries etc.) (Holmes, 2007:93-94). many tools in a coordinated manner.

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The Role of the Military the terrorists can slip into our societies,
Military forces may use force both at home and and exploit our openness to inflict massive
abroad, in both war and peace time. For this reason, attacks that have consequences that only
it is not surprising that there is a comprehensive the military can manage. We should use
literature available on this subject (Alexander, every capability at our disposal to deal with
2016:3). In a democratic state, internal security this new threat.
missions are normally carried out by the police • It will sometimes be impossible to protect
whereas the armed forces protect the country and populations against terrorist attacks by
the citizens against foreign attacks. Sometimes the using only defensive measures. To prevent
army is called to help the government to defeat a a clearly impending attack, or to respond
serious threat to internal security. This is known to a successful attack, sometimes it may
as the “Military Aid to Civilian Power” (MACP) be necessary to deploy military assets
(Sen, 1991:58). offensively against terrorist networks.
According to Wilkinson (1977:147), “the Military action is sometimes the appropriate
police should carry the main responsibility for response to terrorist acts. However, a large military
dealing with terrorist attacks and the army also may not be able to prevent terrorist attacks for the
has an important ‘firefighting’ and backup role, following basic reasons:
and MACP is useful in the event of any threat • terrorists are not traditional enemies that
to security which the police force is inadequately may be deterred by traditional military
equipped to deal with.” force;
Making use of the armed forces in combating • terrorism is not a traditional warfare;
terrorism or insurgency has taken place in different • terrorists choose the time and the place of
countries at different times. For example, since their attacks, and their targets are not on
1969 a large number of British troops have been military battlefields;
deployed in Northern Ireland for containing the • terrorists do not wear uniforms to
activities of the IRA (the Irish Republican Army) distinguish themselves from their enemies;
and other terrorist groups. Also in May 1980, • terrorists are the antithesis of the type of the
a team from the British Special Air Services enemy that armed forces are designed and
was deployed against terrorists who took some trained to fight (Pena, 2001).
diplomats as hostages at the American Embassy in Finally, the army has three main roles in
Iran (Sen, 1991:58). combating terrorism (Robertson, 2002):
It is clear that only if other remedies are • anti terrorism: defense measures to reduce
insufficient, the unique ability of the armed vulnerability of populations, territories,
forces to protect the security of, and freedoms in, and infrastructure, information and
a democratic state must be used with great care communication systems.
(Alexander, 2016:6). For example, Robertson • counter terrorism: offensive measures to
(2002) gives the following reasons for the track down, prevent, deter, and interdict
continuation of the role of the military in the fight terrorist activities.
against terrorism: • result management: measures to limit the
• The clear distinction between terrorism consequences of terrorist attacks, and to
and war is disappearing. Today’s terrorists stabilize the situation in the aftermath of
are seeking to cause mass casualties and are such attacks with the support of civilian
increasingly likely to have access to weapons authorities.
of mass destruction. As a result, terrorist The military’s role in countering terrorism
groups are operating at a higher level of is important. However, military solutions alone
violence, resulting in a large number of are often not enough. Holistic, comprehensive,
casualties and greater economic damage. and long-term plans will be more successful
• The distinction between internal and by incorporating military means with social,
external security is disappearing. Today, economic, and political means.

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International Cooperation against The fight againts terrorism has benefited from
Terrorism the urgency of multilateral cooperation following
the terror attacks on the United States and then on
With the advance of technology, the methods of
Europe, Russia as well as on some African, Middle
attack by terrorist organizations have also changed
Eastern, and Asian countries. The international
and multiplied as well as the damage caused by these
community has developed many instruments and
attacks has increased. Especially, the September
created new initiatives in fighting international
11 attacks have generated some interest in jointly
terrorism (CFR, 2011).
combating international terrorism. This has led to
the intensification of international-cooperation International cooperation is the only way to
efforts against terrorism. effectively tackle the threat of terrorism, and this
threat cannot be dealt with at the national level only.
With the increase in the number of the terrorist
In this regard, major international organizations
attacks, international security has been seriously
should consider it one of their main tasks to counter
endangered and international terrorism has become
international terrorism (Exterios, 2018).
a common enemy of the international society.
International cooperation, because of ever increasing Some examples of international efforts in the
challenges of international terrorism, has become fight against terrorism are given below:
the common desire of all nations (Gang, 2006:1). The United Nations General Assembly
​
However, cooperating on such issues as policing adopted the Global Anti-Terrorism Strategy.
and intelligence may not be enough without also This is “a unique global instrument to develop
trying to ameliorate the conditions that foster national, regional, and international efforts to
extremism. The cooperation of European nations combat terrorism. Those practical steps include a
against terrorism, in fact, began in the late 19th wide range of measures ranging from strengthening
century when assassinations committed against state capacity to counter terrorist threats to better
the heads of states and other government officials. coordinating United Nations system’s counter-
European nations in 1898 convened a conference terrorism activities” (UN, 2018a).
to discuss the need to work together on policing. The Counter-Terrorism Implementation
From this effort, a number of measures emerged Task Force (CTITF) was “established by the
(Keiber, 2016). Moreover, with the terrorist attack Secretary-General in 2005 and endorsed by the
on September 11, 2001, a new era for international General Assembly through the United Nations
cooperation against terrorism has begun. Especially Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, which was
the law enforcement and intelligence agencies adopted by consensus in 2006. The Task Force
around the world have increased their efforts consists of 38 international entities which by virtue
to cooperate and shared information after each of their work have a stake in multilateral counter-
significant terrorist attack. terrorism efforts. The primary goal of CTITF is to
Different definitions of terrorism may lead to maximize each entity‘s comparative advantage by
double standards in countering terrorism. Some delivering as one to help Member States implement
states may even make use of terrorists and terror the four pillars of the Global Strategy.  These four
organizations to achieve their own objectives. Due pillars are:
to different perceptions of terrorism, the terrorists • Measures to address the conditions causative
may even be perceived as “freedom fighters” or to the spread of terrorism;
“national heroes” by some countries and people. • Measures to prevent and fight terrorism;
The differences in the definition of terrorism may • Measures to build states’ capacity to prevent
give rise to mutual suspicions and thus weaken the and fight terrorism and to strengthen the
efforts for further cooperation (Gang, 2006:4). role of the United Nations system in that
Therefore, coming up with a common definition regard;
of terrorism, determining who acts as a terrorist • Measures to provide respect for human
and which acts will be regarded as terror acts would rights for all and the rule of law as the
help eliminate the differences of opinion and raise fundamental basis for the fight against
the possibility of international cooperation. terrorism” (UN, 2018b).

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“In addition to the Global Strategy, the United pursuant to the principles of the OAS Charter and of
Nations has established institutional counter- the Inter-American Counter-Terrorism Convention
terrorism architecture within the framework of the (Exterios, 2018).
Security Council (SC), particularly through the International anti-terrorism initiatives continue
Counter-Terrorism Committee” (Exterios, 2018). to suffer from three major weaknesses: First, the
The Global Counterterrorism Forum (GCTF) lack of a universal definition of terrorism weakens
is an “international forum of 29 countries and the the efforts to formulate a harmonized global
European Union with a mission of reducing the response. Second, multilateral action suffers from
vulnerability of people worldwide to terrorism by inadequate adaptation and implementation of
preventing, combating, and prosecuting terrorist existing instruments. Third, although counter-
acts, and countering incitement and recruitment to radicalization and de-radicalization attempts have
terrorism. The forum brings together experts and attracted some attention, no progress has been
practitioners from countries and regions around made especially in states with limited resources and
the world to share experiences and expertise, and expertise (CFR, 2011).
develops tools and strategies on how to encounter
the evolving terrorist threat” (GCTF, 2018). important
A number of regional organizations such as
the European Union (EU), the African Union, and International anti-terrorism initiatives
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations have continue to suffer from three major
presented formal declarations summarizing their weaknesses: 1) the problem of how to
joint commitments on countering terrorism. define terrorism, 2) inadequate efforts,
While the European Union follows a strong 3) the limited resources and expertise.
statement on the fight against terrorism, it is
aggressively lacking capacity, finance and political
will, bringing together law enforcement and judicial
The Struggle Against Financing
apparatus such as the EU judicial co-operation
unit, EUROJUST and other police agencies such
Terrorism
as the EU police organization and EUROPOL Terrorist acts take place in many different ways.
to follow the strategies of combating terrorism. For this reason, the forms of financing terrorism
In addition, these organizations frequently work vary accordingly. The financing of terrorism not
separately from the UN programs (CFR, 2011). only involves financing terrorist acts, but also
In 2005, the EU approved its Counter-Terrorism includes any support to the criminal network.
Strategy, based on four main pillars: prevent, Terrorist organizations require significant funding
protect, pursue, and respond. The EU also has both for dealing with de facto terrorist acts and for
a strategy to combat both radicalization and the other matters such as maintaining the functioning
recruitment of terrorists, which focuses on the of the organization, providing basic technical
pillar of prevention (Exterios, 2018). needs, and disseminating the costs associated with
spreading relevant ideologies (COE, 2018).
Organization for Security and Co-operation
in Europe (OSCE) has a comprehensive approach Financing terrorism can be defined simply as
to security that encompasses politico-military, “the process of raising, storing, and moving funds,
economic and environmental, and human aspects, obtained through legal or illegal means, for the
purpose of terrorist acts or sustaining the logistical
and it has also had a counter-terrorism unit since
structure of a terrorist organization” (Stringer,
2003 (OSCE, 2018).
2011:102).
Inter-American Counter-Terrorism Committee
Terrorist organizations need to generate
(ICTC) was established under the Organization of
substantial income to survive and continue their
American States (OAS). The main aim of the ICTC is
operational capabilities and daily activities.
to promote and develop cooperation among Member
Unlike states, terrorist organizations do not have
States to prevent, combat and eradicate terrorism,
the authority to legally levy taxes on citizens, but

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groups like the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam Many institutions and regulations are fully
in Sri Lanka and the Taliban in Afghanistan have committed to fight the financing of terrorism.
taxed civilians to gain profits. In Iraq and Syria, ISIS For example, in the United States, one of the
collected the taxes and tariffs of the population in main reasons for the US Patriot Act to enter into
the land by imitating the acts of a real nation-state, force was to cut funding for terrorist organizations
and by operating state-owned businesses and trade (Complyadvantage, 2018).
institutions, including oil trading while extorting Moreover, The Financial Action Task
individuals, ethnic groups, private companies, Force (FATF), which currently consists of 38
local businesses, and the Iraqi government (Clark, nations, agreed, in addition to the initial 40
2018:2-3). The terrorist organizations constantly recommendations to combat money laundering,
adapt to how and where they carry their funds to on 9 special recommendations to prevent the
overcome the measures the countries have taken. financing of terrorism. The FATF draws up reports
They will use products such as new technology or and makes evaluations on compliance with the
social media payments to attract and move their recommendations in force, and establishes a system
money (FATF, 2018). of sanctions. It also provides technical assistance
Money laundering is used to loosely describe the for the creation of Financial Intelligence Units to
«turning of dirty money into clean money».  The act enable these recommendations to be applied in
by which illicit funds are made to appear legitimate each jurisdiction (Exterios, 2018).
is defined in key international instruments-most The countering-terrorism financing (CTF)
notably in the UN Convention against Illicit Traffic agenda has been a priority for the FATF since 2001.
in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances In December 2015, the FATF settled that more
and the UN Convention against Transnational urgent action was needed to strengthen global anti-
Organized Crime. The latter  defines money terrorism financing regimes in order to combat
laundering as (APGML, 2018): the financing of these serious terrorist threats
and to contribute to strengthening the financial
“The conversion or transfer of property, and economic system and security (FATF, 2018).
knowing that such property is the proceeds
of crime, for the purpose of concealing or
disguising the illicit origin of the property The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an
or of helping any person who is involved in inter-governmental body established in 1989
the commission of the predicate offence to by the Ministers of its Member jurisdictions.
evade the legal consequences of his or her The objectives of the FATF are to set standards
action; or the concealment or disguise of the and promote effective implementation of legal,
true nature, source, location, disposition, regulatory and operational measures for combating
movement or ownership of or rights with money laundering, terrorist financing and other
respect to property, knowing that such related threats to the integrity of the international
property is the proceeds of crime” (Article financial system. The FATF is therefore a “policy-
6, UN Convention against Transnational making body” which works to generate the
Organized Crime). necessary political will to bring about national
legislative and regulatory reforms in these areas
At the first look, many actions to send money (http://www.fatf-gafi.org/about/whoweare/).
to terrorist organizations seem to be small and
harmless. Because terrorist financiers do not
send large amounts of money not to be noticed The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
by governments and financial institutions. the World Bank work also toward monitoring
Additionally, individuals financing terrorism and supporting the implementation of FATF
also use commercial laundering schemes to recommendations. They issued country reports
get their money across borders. This becomes on compliance with international anti-terrorism
much more common and difficult to follow financing regimes and implemented CTF
(Complyadvantage, 2018). workshops (CFR, 2011).

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The OSCE, which operates a counter- monitoring and implementation of commitments

terrorism unit since 2003, has contributed to remain a problem, as some countries, especially
countering this threat through a broad range of when dealing with non-state actors, lack political
activities in such areas as border control, the fight will or the management capacity. Moreover,
against extremism on the internet, the protection terrorists resort to unofficial financial support
of critical infrastructures against terrorist attacks, methods, which are increasingly difficult to restrict
and the fight against the financing of terrorism (CFR, 2011).
(Exterios, 2018).
The international community responded
with broad cooperation to monitor and cut 5
funds against terrorism. Various CTF initiatives
Discuss some examples of international
have come to the forefront in order to seriously
cooperation for countering terrorism.
intimidate terrorist groups by restricting the access
to legitimate financial channels. However, the

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LO 1 Define terrorism and give a

typology of terrorism.

The concept of “terror” dates back to ancient times in terms

of its content. It is originally the situation of panic and fear of
Roman people that was caused by the nearing of Cimbri killers
in B.C. 105 –one of the forerunner of German tribes such as
Toton, and it echoes in the proverb “terror cimbricus.” However,
the concept of terrorism is essentially a product of the modern

Summary
times. Terrorism is a violent act with political content, affecting
the behavior of the millions with results such as death, and
controlling them through fear. A typology of terrorism classifies
terrorism and terrorists into five distinctive subgroups: by
location, by personality trait, by purpose, by target, and by issue.

LO 2 Comprehend the reasons of

terrorism.

Terzi (2016:162-172) classifies the reasons of terrorism into

two main categories. These are objective and subjective reasons
respectively. Subjective reasons include cultural and social
psychological reasons while objective reasons comprise of
misgovernment, loose democracy, poverty, wealth inequality,
ignorance, intellectual awakening or intellectual stimulation,
and the others (joining the terrorist organization in order to
receive personal hatred, adventure, personality predisposition,
guaranteeing the financial future, mercenary militancy, charm
created by asymmetric effect etc.). Nonetheless, it may be
worth keeping in mind that objective-subjective classification
is not absolute because objective parameters for one group can
be subjective parameters for another.

LO 3 Explain the new means of war in

the 21st century.

Throughout history, individuals, states, or political groups have

tried to achieve their goals by using war. Sometimes this aim
was to dominate a region, sometimes to struggle for power,
and sometimes to colonize a region. War and terrorism are very
similar in many ways. Both involve extreme violent acts, both
are motivated by political, ideological or strategic goals, and
both are inflicted by one group of individuals against another.
Modern terrorist attacks include kidnapping of businesspeople,
assassination of political leaders, bombing of embassies and
hijacking of aircrafts, and have introduced a new breed of warfare
in terms of technology, victimization, threats, and responses.
Terrorism, today, is also an important instrument of proxy wars,
and has been evolved to become a global threat.

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Terrorism

LO 4 Debate cyber terrorism.

Cyber terrorism, which is politically motivated, is to influence

the behavior of millions of people and to break the cycle of
everyday life as a result of an action that aims to corrupt or
threaten to corrupt the cyber systems including people in cyber
space with reference to global infrastructure based on ICTs
(Information and Communication Technologies). As implied
Summary

through this definition, death/injury or the threat of death/

injury is not obligatory in cyber terrorism. But the death or the
injury can also be one of the potential or willful consequences
of cyber terrorism.

LO 5 Discuss various methods of

countering terrorism.

Governments have been countering the threat of terrorism

since the establishment of the Westphalian system of nation
states. Terrorism in all its forms poses a direct threat to the
security of the citizens of all countries and to international
stability and prosperity. When formulating counterterrorism
strategy and tactics it is obviously necessary to reflect on
historical examples. When we look at the history of terrorism,
we recognize that the global threat is not new, but rather,
presents itself in new and different forms. Governments have
responded to terrorism in different ways. Working on socio-
economic solutions is one of them. The second one is using
the military in countering terrorism. Military solutions are
often not enough alone. By incorporating other factors along
with military solutions, holistic, comprehensive and long-
term solutions will be more successful. With the increase of
the terrorist attacks, international security has been seriously
dangered, and international terrorism is a common enemy
of the whole world. International cooperation on the ever
increasing challenges of international terrorism has become
a common desire of all nations. Terrorist organizations need
substantial income to survive and continue their operations as
well as daily activities. Many institutions and regulations are
fully committed to fighting the financing of terrorism.

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International Security

1 In which of the following periods did 5 Which of the following is a subjective reason
terrorism have a positive connotation? of terrorism?
a. World War I a. Misgovernment
b. World War II b. Poverty
c. The French Revolution c. Intellectual awakening

Test Yourself
d. The American Revolution d. Loose democracy
e. The Arabian Spring e. Intent detection

2 Which of the following statements is true 6 According to which of the following

about terrorism? theories, the feeling of deprivation develops as
a. Terrorism is a product of the 21st century. a consequence of the consciousness of the gap
between the expectations and possibilities of a
b. Terrorism is a product of the 20th century.
person?
c. Terrorism has recently emerged in world politics.
d. Terrorism dates back to ancient times. a. Stultification
e. Terrorism is a phenomenon of the French b. Fascism
Revolution. c. Relative deprivation
d. Poverty
3 Which of the following cannot be shown as e. Terrorism
an example of the asymmetrical effect of terrorism?
a. Three people missed a plane for political 7 An armed conflict between two states or
purposes and thus disturbed the whole world. non-state actors which act on the instigation or
on behalf of other parties that are not directly
b. A total of seven people, five men and two
involved in the hostilities is called---
women, burned a village to spread propaganda
of a terrorist organization and scared the entire Which of the following options correctly completes
town. the sentence above?
c. A dozen terrorists attacked the military and a. war
showed up in the media as a result.
b. conflict
d. A mental patient fleeing from the hospital
c. terrorism
attacked a person on the street. Those who saw
the attacker were very frightened. d. proxy war
e. As a result of the terrorist attack, the presidents e. humanitarian intervention
of some countries ended the peace negotiations.
8 Which of the following is a wrong statement
4 Which of the following is not one of the about cyber terrorism?
parameters (concepts) that Başeren employs to a. Cyber terrorism means only propaganda actions
define terrorism? via the internet.
a. Motive b. Cyber terrorism is a new kind of terrorism in
b. Instrument the 21st century, which means much more than
propaganda.
c. Goal
c. Cyber terrorism is something politically
d. Purpose
motivated.
e. Benefit
d. Cyber terrorism utilizes the same infrastructure
with that of e-government.
e. National software and individual awareness
in combating cyber terrorism are of critical
importance.

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9 AaaWhich of the following international 10 AaaWhich of the following is a wrong

organizations does not have a function of statement about terrorism and terrorists?
countering terrorism?
a. Terrorists are not traditional adversaries that
a. The United Nations may be deterred by only traditional military
b. The International Monetary Fund force.
Test Yourself

c. The European Union b. Terrorism is a traditional type of warfare.

d. The Organization of American States c. Terrorists pick and choose the time and place of
e. The Central American Common Market their attacks.
d. Terrorists do not wear uniforms that would help
distinguish themselves from their adversaries.
e. Terrorists are the antithesis of the kind of enemy
that armed services are designed and trained to
fight against.

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International Security

If your answer is not correct, review the

1. c 6. c If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “Defining Terrorism and Giving
section on “Reasons of Terrorism.”
a Typology.”

Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

If your answer is not correct, review the If your answer is not correct, review the
2. d 7. d
section on “Defining Terrorism and Giving section on “Terrorism as a New Means of
a Typology.” War in the 21st Century.”

If your answer is not correct, review the If your answer is not correct, review the
3. d 8. a
section on “Defining Terrorism and Giving section on “Cyber Terrorism: A New Form
a Typology.” of Terrorism.”

4. e If your answer is not correct, review the 9. e If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “Reasons of Terrorism.” section on “Countering Terrorism.”

5. e If your answer is not correct, review the 10. b If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “Reasons of Terrorism.” section on “Countering Terrorism.”

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

What are the most important features that distinguish terrorism from
other violent acts?

While generating typology with regard to terrorism, it is possible that the

created typologies may be diluted. For example, just imagine a mentally ill
person terrorizing the shopping center on holidays by shouting profanities
and attacking bystanders. In that case, is it possible to say that there is a
terrorist attack? Of course, not. Then, it is necessary to remember that there
are some features that distinguish terrorism from other violent facts. These
are;
your turn 1 • being politically motivated,
• influencing the behavior of the civilians in large quantities through selected
targets owing to asymmetric effect,
• including violence or violence threat not only to human body but also to
goods and property,
• ignoring moral boundaries,
• extremism.

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Discuss the reasons of terrorism.

Terzi (2016:162-172) classifies the reasons of terrorism into two main

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

categories. These are objective and subjective reasons, respectively. Subjective

reasons include cultural and social psychological reasons while objective
reasons comprise of misgovernment, loose democracy, poverty, wealth
inequality, ignorance, intellectual awakening or intellectual stimulation,
your turn 2 and the others such as joining the terrorist organization in order to receive
personal hatred, adventure, personality predisposition, guaranteeing the
financial future, mercenary militancy, and charm created by asymmetric
effect, etc. Nonetheless, it may be worth keeping in mind that objective-
subjective classification is not absolute because objective parameters for one
group can be subjective parameters for another.

Discuss whether proxy wars continue to be an important tool in the

powerful states’ foreign policy toolkits.

It is possible to say that it is correct to some extent. As traditional wars

are more expensive and devastating, and also problematic in terms of
international law and humanitarian law, strong states today prefer proxy war
via weak states or non-state actors against the others. The most prominent
examples are the USA and the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, these
your turn 3 two superpowers sponsored weak states or non-state organizations in a fight
for their hegemonic purposes. Proxy wars are run via terrorist organization in
particular, and are not peculiar to the USA and Russia. Even the smaller states
can run proxy war against each other through terrorist organizations as in the
cases of Iran and Israel.

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International Security

Discuss the measures taken toward combating cyber terrorism.

Individual awareness is also important. Nonetheless, at the national level,

Suggested answers for “Your turn”

it is needed to create specialized staff teams to combat cyber threats and
to increase the capacity of institutions to improve their infrastructures on
information and communication technologies. At the individual level, it is
your turn 4 unlikely that everyone will become a computer expert, but the individual
states have important tasks in order to ensure their security in cyber space.
Studies should be carried out on how to create code of ethics in cyber space
in order to prevent the ways in which information and communication
technologies can harm humanity. Code of ethics is very important, on the
one hand, there are robots that are operating like a surgeon, on the other
side there is a process that can evolve to create killer robots as in the film
of “Terminator”. Cooperation with universities is important in creating
the code of ethics because it is not yet known by the institutions (private
or official) how to create these ethical codes. Finally, taking the “cyber risk
insurance” approach into the consideration to remedy the losses is also one of
the solutions for post-loss financial compensation.

Discuss some examples of international cooperation for countering

terrorism.

The Global Anti-Terrorism Strategy, The Counter-Terrorism Implementation

Task Force (CTITF), and The Global Counterterrorism Forum (GCTF) are
your turn 5 the important examples of international cooperation activities for countering
terrorism.

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 Chapter 7 Energy Security
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:

1 2
Learning Outcomes

Recount important institutions for energy

Explain the concept of energy security.
security.

3 Analyze the current energy issues through

regional and global regimes. 4 Describe and evaluate the threats to energy
security.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction • G7 • Energy Security
• G20 • Threats
The Concept of Energy Security
• World Energy • Availability
International Institutions and Managing the Council • Accessibility
Energy Security • OPEC • Affordability
An Overview of Energy Issues through Global • IEA • Acceptability
and Regional Regimes • IEF
• Accountability
• IRENA
Threats to Energy Security • Sustainability
• International Energy
Charter • Reliability

• Energy Community • Sufficiency

• NATO • Supplies
• OSCE • Interruptions
• IAEA • Regional/Global
Regimes
• UN-Energy
• Energy Overview
• UNECE
• ESCAP

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INTRODUCTION
During the Cold War and before, there had been only military oriented security (border-oriented
security) approach. However, after the Cold War this approach left its place to a multidimensional approach
that includes even social and environmental threats to security.
Based upon the rapid increase in the demand for energy, which is an indicator of wealth and power,
the security risks and threats have emerged in all processes, from the availability of energy to the final
consumption. Hence, energy security also plays a crucial role in the changing security concept. Within this
framework; oil, natural gas reserves, pipelines, energy transportation lines, sea lines of communications
(SLOCS), and choke points are geopolitically important in the power struggles of states.

Figure 7.1 Map of Middle-Eastern Countries

Rivalry for the access to the energy resources in order to control many geographical areas through
power and energy-transportation lines has been creating conflict in international relations and making
these areas unstable. This situation not only threatens the security of the nations but also raises many
global security issues.
Energy, which is one of the basic needs for the survival of human beings, has also become an important
strategic commodity- an indicator of the welfare and power of states. Coal, which is an important energy
source for industrial activities, has been effective in accelerating the industrialization process. Coal had
been a strategic energy source until the beginning of the 20th century; however, it lost its importance to oil
and natural gas, the two energy sources widely used by both the industry and the military.
The energy resources, which strategically demonstrate the relative power of nations, are concentrated
in certain regions of the world- they are unevenly distributed. Therefore, global and regional conflicts may
rise for also controlling these resources. Two-thirds of the world’s oil and natural gas reserves are located
in the Middle East, a region located at the crossroads of key commercial maritime routes and straits.
Therefore, the hegemon that aims to dominate the energy sources and transport routes has had to face the
opposition of other states and this rivalry has resulted in political and economic instability in the region.
These instabilities and conflicts in the hydrocarbon-rich regions pose a risk for the access to the energy
reserves and, as such, threatens the world energy security. Therefore, the Middle East and Latin America
(the proven oil reserves in Venezuela are recognized as the largest in the world) are the regions that we

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should highly take into consideration with regard by several international theories such as Marxism,
to energy security issues (BP, 2018). liberalism, constructivism and the Copenhagen
With the increasing dependence on energy school. These theories have treated security from a
resources, the energy security has become one of the relatively global perspective and taken into account
most critical national security concerns of states. recent threats and risks such as world oil shocks,
Energy demand is rising almost hourly because environmental disasters, nuclear disasters, global
of the increase in global economic activities, warming, hunger, poverty, immigration, excessive
population, urbanization, and the advance in population growth, terrorism, and organized
technologies. The limited availability of resources crime in their approach to international relations
coupled with the increasing demand has resulted (Brauch, 2008: 27-43).
in the rise of security threats. Therefore, the At the top of these threats comes the exhaustion
establishment of a global energy security regime of all non-renewable energy resources. This has
requires the cooperation of nation states and been supported by reports and research conducted
a mutual effort for peace and stability in energy by several international research institutions.
resource-rich regions of the world. Their findings yielded that unfortunately our
world faces the threat that energy sources will be
exhausted one day.
THE CONCEPT OF ENERGY
The concept of risk may be defined as the severity
SECURITY
of a possible incident, the threat to the resources, or
Although the concept of security in international the potential loss of the personnel. The concept of
relations varies according to different conditions threat consists of events or phenomena that have the
in different periods, the nature of security threats potential negative consequences for the existence of
within the concept also changes. It can be said values of a state, society, or individual. According to
that energy has an important role in shaping the Arnold Wolfers, security is the objective situation
concept of security in socio-economic and political in which the threat to values ​​disappears. In the
fields. That is to say, states have been in constant subjective sense, to be secure is to be free from fear
struggle and conflict on resources that show wealth (Wolfers, 1952: 484, 485). According to Brauch,
and power in the historical process. security as a social value refers to a situation that is
These conflicts over resources and the free from danger, risk, disorder, and fear. Security
implausible use of resources are the leading causes also refers to a situation with relative protection,
of increasing security risks and threats in recent certainty, reliability, trust, confidence, and
years in the political, economic, geographic and predictability (Brauch, 2008: 65-98).
environmental dimensions that cross borders. Security, which is derived from the Latin
Risks and threats arising within the scope of word se-curus, is a state of lack of anxiety, risk,
these dimensions can be listed as follows; global or concern. Incidents of insecurity include the
economic and political crises, environmental exposure to violence, deprivation, and poverty. The
disasters, terrorism, organized crime, regional possibility of insecurity raises the risks, and risks
conflicts, hunger, poverty, refugee problem etc. in turn create anxiety and fear. The dose of this
(Renner, 2006: 11). anxiety and concern depends on the proximity of
The fact that security risks have crossed the their realization- the more immediate the danger,
national borders and that a single state can no the greater the anxiety is (Mesjasz, 2004: 4).
longer manage these risks has made it necessary In addition, the answer to the question of what
to discuss, re-conceptualize, and expand security and whom should be secured does also matter. For
within the framework of international relations example, military measures and national territorial
theories. In the Cold War era, security-oriented integrity were the priorities of states until the
approach to government-based military power mid-20th century. However, recently, states have
was effectively used by IR scholars, especially by the been fighting many new issues such as terrorism,
Realist school (Buzan, 2008: 553-560) The analyses environmental disasters, cyber terrorism, refugee
of the Realist school, however, were re-evaluated problem, organized crime that have emerged as

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new threats to national and international security of national security. However, we can say for
due to rapid globalization (Buzan, 2008: 553-560). sure that most definitions refer to protecting the
Common policies of states in the struggle territorial integrity of the state against any threat
against these threats come into question. During and defending the national interests in the face
the Cold War, states followed a security strategy of competition from other states. This, in fact, is
that prioritized the military and the power- the treatment of security by the traditional (the
oriented realist security policies as well as national realist) approach.
security. In other words, states made military and From a wider perspective, national security is
security policies a priority and, as such, followed the absence of internal and external threats to the
high politics. However, in parallel with the new integrity and stability of a state. However, in the
global trend, new security risks and threats have international system, any measure to protect the
emerged (Shaw, 1996: 39-40). national interests of the state is considered an asset
to the national security, while any act that may harm
the security of that state would be perceived as a
threat (Crawford and Lipschutz, 1997: 149, 150).
This brings us to the discussion of the concept
of security dilemma. This concept refers to the
situation where one nation’s efforts to enhance
its security creates security concerns for another
nation with any prior intention. For example, in
the Cold War era, developing nuclear weapons
cause a security dilemma, which had almost
resulted in a new world war in the early 1960s.
This dilemma has been further manifested in
the international arena with increasing military
technologies, arms races, and deterrent national
policies. In an attempt to solve this dilemma,
nations resorted to such policies as arms control,
disarmament, reduction or elimination of certain
weapons as well as diplomatic efforts to reach a
Figure 7.2 East Side Gallery, Berlin. consensus on international security issues (Buzan,
2008: 553-560).
Economic, social, environmental risks and
threats are second-order policy issues. Recently,
not only scholars and politicians discuss low The Importance of Energy Security
political issues but the very low political issues Since the dawn of humankind, energy is a
impinge on world politics and national security vital necessity. Today, both homes and workplaces
policies. These issues include environmental need energy. This need is increasing day by day
disasters, immigration, refugee problems, social due to the increase in population and the advance
injustice, hunger, poverty, epidemics, biodiversity of technologies. However, energy sources are
loss, erosion, acid rain, desertification, and global concentrated in certain regions of the world. In
warming. Any approach to security, therefore, the international system, states’ access to the energy
should take into account these new threats and resources has implications for both national and
risks in making suggestions for a more orderly and international security policies. Moreover, the
secure world. energy use in economies, military complexes, and
While discussing security, we should mention social areas is the most significant indicator for
its two critical dimensions: national security the development level of states. Therefore, there is
and international security. It should not come as overwhelming competition for energy resources and
a surprise for international relations students to conflict about energy policies. However, competition
hear that there are many definitions of the concept on resources brings with it some risks and threats

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Energy Security

such as terrorism, organized crime, migration, and

refugee problem (Ullman, 1983: 133-140, 141).
On the one hand, these risks and threats may
prevent states from accessing to energy, on the other
hand the unconscious practices in the processes such
as energy extraction, production consumption, and
the politics pursued may lead to global economic,
political, and environmental problems. For this
reason, in order to ensure safe access to energy, it
is necessary to make sustainable and consensual
policies without causing these problems. However,
since the antiquity, the energy sources have been the
Figure 7.3 Icebreaker Research Vessel
crucial component of socio-economic development
and a point of constant struggle between states One may conclude that if the states that
(Cherp and Jewell, 2011: 202-212). dominate the energy resources also dominate
Developments in the way of economic the world politics. Therefore, energy and energy
production made the Industrial Revolution a policies have an important place in national and
reality at the beginning of the 19th century. Coal international security policies. Many academic
was the main source of energy in the process studies emphasize that security concerns and threats
leading up to the Industrial Revolution. After the arise because of the disagreement in managing or
invention of steam engines, coal as the crucial sharing the energy resources.
source of energy was replaced by oil. In fact, for the Moreover, the issue of energy security in
British Navy oil was a strategic commodity during critical regions has become the most important
World War I. From the early twentieth century subject of recent international summit meetings. In
on, energy sources such as oil and natural gas have this context, leaders and politicians have discussed
played a major role in the formulation of foreign the importance of policies in such areas as having
policies, especially for the major world powers access to energy, global policies on energy, the
(Yergin, 1991: 24, 25). production and distribution of energy, and critical
The issue of energy security has emerged geographies of energy (Scott, 1994: 43-44).
in the 1970s when some nations’ access to oil For example, the International Energy Agency
was blocked. This was the era of oil shocks that works for the energy security in the world. The
emerged for two basic reasons: the Arab states’ organization defines energy security as the access to
policies for the nationalization of oil supplies and uninterrupted energy sources at affordable prices
oil industry, and the Arab-Israeli wars that started (IEA, 2018a). In a similar way, Baumann describes
with the UN decision on Palestine and occurred energy security as the energy at a reasonable price
in 1948, 1956, 1967, and 1973. As a result, the with reliable energy supply. Therefore, energy
importance of energy resources has increased in the security encompasses all economic, political, and
domestic and foreign policy formulation of states. environmental processes from the production
Energy has become one of the primary indicators of energy to the distribution of energy to final
of national power (Yergin, 2006: 69-82). consumers (Baumann, 2008: 4).
The Middle East, Latin America, the Arctic Although the globalization of security threats
and the Pacific are critical geographical areas not requires states to cooperate in international relations,
only because they have almost four-fifths of fossil the states prefer to act in line with their national
energy resources but also control the flow of interests. The distance to, and the lack of, natural
energy, world trade routes, strategic straits, and resources as well as the effort for reaching these
resources and keeping them under control cause new
maritime routes. Therefore, all the developments in
global problems. Experience shows that, under these
these geographical areas affect the energy policies
conditions, states will more likely produce weapons
of nation states and energy markets in the world
and defense mechanisms rather than pursue policies
(Cherb and Jewell, 2011: 202-212).
to reach a global consensus on energy issues.

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The search for energy resources and the national means. As for the concept of affordability, while a
policies to achieve certain interests cause conflicts competitive energy market with an energy supply-
with regard to energy sources, and this process demand equilibrium is significant, it is also critical
changes the threat perception of many states to provide energy at low cost and affordable prices.
within the new security context. Especially the It is important to make sure that the marginal
advance of new technologies, the rapid growth in utility of the energy to be produced by investments
world population, the urbanization, the surge in be higher than its marginal cost. Sustainability
economic activities, the struggle for dominance means that the requested energy can be supplied
over the energy resources, and the ineffective without any disruption as long as the energy is
resource management have not only raised security needed (APERC, 2017).
concerns but also increased the risk of exhausting Energy security can be further studied from
world resources (Rose, 1999: 235-236). three perspectives: the security of the energy
There is not one single definition of energy supply, the energy demand security, and the
security. However, energy security is closely energy transfer safety. The security of the energy
related to products such as electricity, gas, fuel oil supply refers to the reasonable supply of the
are that affect the economic well-being of states, energy resources to countries until these resources
national and foreign policies as well as the welfare are exhausted. The energy demand security
of the individual. Therefore, energy security, ensures that energy-suppliers sell their resources
including economic, political, geographical and at the highest price possible in the most suitable
environmental security should be evaluated from markets. The energy transfer safety involves the
many angles (Baumann, 2008: 4, 5). majority of the risks and threats associated with
One such angle is the already conflict-ridden the energy security today. Because it involves high
regions. For example, the political instability in costs and affects the national security of major
the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Middle East and powers and the stability of many regions. One
Africa has considerably changed the security/threat may observe that these regions with rich energy
perceptions due to the increasing demand for reserves are exposed to terror attacks as well as
energy and, at the same time, the desire of major negative economic shocks due to international
powers to continue controlling the oil/natural gas/ political reasons (Winzer, 2011: 9-12).
mineral reserves. Because of regional and ethnic
conflicts, such problems are on the rise: the
unequal distribution of resources, organized crime,
1
drug smuggling, arms smuggling, international
terrorism, and mass immigration. Discuss the dimensions of energy security.
Although the continuity of energy services
falls in the scope of energy security, the Asia
Pacific Energy Research Center (APERC) INTERNATIONAL
has made an effective attempt to determine the INSTITUTIONS AND MANAGING
components of energy security. In a 2007 study, THE ENERGY SECURITY
it listed these components as follows: energy As Wheeler stated, “energy security has
efficiency, availability, accessibility, affordability, been a hot topic of discussion in global capitals
and sustainability. There has been some discussion and amongst many influential international/
on these components; however, the APERC’s intergovernmental organizations for at least
approach has been widely accepted in academic a decade. However, despite these extensive
circles (Cherp and Jewell, 2014: 420). discussions, there does not seem to be a consensus
The concept of availability refers to the presence for a common understanding of energy security.
of energy resources and sustaining the “demand and Adding to the complicated nature of the issue,
supply equilibrium” of the world energy resources. many international and intergovernmental
Accessibility is important for ensuring the organizations have very different approaches in
continuous flow of energy within the technological their treatment of the energy security topic; each of

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these organizations has its own goals in relation to Ensuring open, transparent, and secure global
the energy issue” (Wheeler, 2014). Below we will markets for energy resources and technologies
review some of the international institutions that remains a top priority for the G7 countries. The
help manage the energy security. Heads of Delegation reaffirmed at the Halifax
meeting, held on September 21, 2018, the
importance of mutual cooperation and continued
The Group of Seven (G7) commitment to diversification, including diverse
The Group of Seven (G-7) is a forum of the energy mix, routes and sources of supply, as core
world’s seven most industrialized economies. G-6 elements for energy security and improving the
was formed in 1975 by France, Germany, Italy, resilience of the energy systems.
Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom.
While underlining the strategic role of the
Canada was invited to join this group in 1976 that
existing transit routes for gas deliveries to Europe,
eventually created the Group of Seven. In 1998,
the G7 countries agreed to continue to promote
the Russian Federation (RF) was accepted by the
gas security through the diversification of sources
G-7 countries as a full member, transforming G-7
and routes of supply. G-7 is planning the opening
into the Group of Eight (G-8). However, in 2014,
of new pipeline interconnections, new gas supply
Russia was suspended from G-8 after it had annexed
corridors, and the start of new and future LNG
Crimea and created tensions with Ukraine.
exports, with the aim of increasing market liquidity
“The G-7’s major role is to discuss and resolve and diversity, and the management of disruption and
global problems. The seven nations represent emergencies. G-7 is also discussing the important
approximately 50 percent of the global economy. role of storage as a component of a secure gas
The G-7 has been particularly vocal about the need system. G-7 countries “reaffirmed the importance
to prevent the overall global economy from entering of greater flexibility of commercial clauses in LNG
a recession. The group has discussed financial crises, contracts, including relaxing destination clauses,
monetary systems and major world crises such as and similar restrictive mechanisms. To this end, G7
oil shortages” (www.investopedia.com). In the is fully encouraging the sharing of information, on
context of the crisis between Russia and Ukraine, a voluntary basis, of private sector and regulatory
G-7 members reiterated that energy should not best practices” (G7, Energy Security, 2017).
be used as a means of political coercion nor as a
threat to security and that energy disputes should
important
be solved through dialogue based on reciprocity,
transparency, and continued cooperation (www.
g7.utoronto.ca/energy/150512-hamburg.html). “LNG (liquefied natural gas) is a clear,
G-7 has recognized the key role of the energy colorless, and non-toxic liquid that forms
transition through the development of new when natural gas is cooled down to -162ºC
markets for clean energy and through non-market- (-260ºF). The cooling process shrinks the
distortive support measures. The enhancement volume of the gas 600 times, making it easier
of research and development of innovative and safer to store and ship. In its liquid state,
technologies are crucial for the future, recognizing LNG will not ignite” (Shell, 2018).
that both economic growth and environmental
protection could be achieved. The Group of Discussions on cybersecurity threats in
Seven has also continued investing in the energy electricity and other energy sectors and on different
sector, particularly in promoting the quality of concepts of cybersecurity strategies in the energy
energy infrastructure, upstream development, low sector are still ongoing, and G7 has made protecting
emissions, and low carbon technologies. Energy the energy networks one of its top priorities.
efficiency remains critically important for ensuring
future energy security and mitigating the risks to
the sustainable growth of global economy (G7,
Energy Security, 2017).

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The Group of 20 (G-20) transparent, competitive, and reliable markets for

G-20 “started out in 1999 as a meeting of energy commodities and technologies.” Members
finance ministers and central bank governors. In also “stress the importance of diversification of
2008, amidst the global financial crisis, it evolved energy sources, suppliers and routes, and the need
into what it is today: a major forum for dialogue to facilitate the proper conditions for continued
and decision-making attended by world leaders and increasing investments to ensure sustainable,
from vital economies. Together, the G20 members affordable, reliable, resilient and cleaner energy
represent 85% of global GDP, two-thirds of the systems. Investment in infrastructure is essential,
world’s population, and 75% of international but a persistent financial gap remains.” The Group
trade” (USCRS, 2018, 1). also encourages increased contributions from both
public and private financial resources (G20, 2018).
G20 acknowledges “the crucial role of energy
in shaping the future, within different national
circumstances as well as the need for persistent The World Energy Council
actions to address global challenges, including The World Energy Council is “the oldest energy-
climate change and energy security.” The Group related global organization and principal impartial
also recognizes that energy transitions are essential network of leaders and practitioners promoting an
for the development of long-term strategies that affordable, stable and environmentally sensitive
combine economic growth and the reduction of energy system for the greatest benefit of all.
greenhouse gases (G20, 2018). Formed in 1923, the Council is the UN-accredited
G20 also acknowledges “the importance of global energy body, representing the entire
energy transitions to achieve emissions reductions energy spectrum, with more than 3000-member
and for those countries that are determined to organizations located in over 90 countries and
implement the Paris Agreement; and notes the drawn from governments, private and state
linkage between country-driven energy transitions corporations, academia, NGOs and energy-related
that provide affordable and reliable energy and the stakeholders. The World Energy Council informs
important role of energy markets and innovation global, regional and national energy strategies by
in providing energy security, economic growth, hosting high-level events, publishing authoritative
and a cleaner environment” (G20, 2018). studies, and working through its extensive member
The G20 member countries recognize network to facilitate the world’s energy policy
that they have different possible pathways to dialogue” (World Energy Council, 2018a).
achieve cleaner energy systems, while promoting “The World Energy Council’s definition of
sustainability, resilience, and energy security. Each energy sustainability is based on three core
member country, in accordance with its stage of dimensions: energy security, energy equity,
development, has a unique and diverse energy and environmental sustainability. These three
system as a starting point, with different energy goals constitute a ‘trilemma’, entailing complex
resources, demand dynamics, technologies, stock interwoven links between public and private
of capital, geographies, and cultures. actors, governments and regulators, economic and
Moreover, “energy efficiency has been prioritized social factors, national resources, environmental
by G20 members and has also become one of concerns, and individual behaviors. Delivering
the pillars of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable policies that simultaneously address energy security,
Development, due to its contribution to energy universal access to affordable energy services, and
security, industrial competitiveness, emissions environmentally sensitive production and use of
reduction, economic growth, job creation and energy is one of the most formidable challenges
others social benefits when introduced in a cost- facing government and industry. The ‘Energy
effective manner” (G20, 2018). Trilemma’ provides a clear framework to deliver
the energy transformation and make sustainable
G20 acknowledges that energy security is one
energy systems a reality” (www.worldenergy.org).
of the guiding principles for the transformation
of their systems, and the Group will “continue to “The Council’s definition of a robust (i.e.
promote policy options that facilitate open, flexible, timely, well managed and global) energy transition

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reflects the challenge of balancing: energy security, The Organization of the Petroleum
energy equity, and environmental sustainability. Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Balancing these three goals constitutes a ‘policy
OPEC is a permanent intergovernmental
trilemma’ and it is the basis for the long-term
organization that was formed at the Baghdad
prosperity and competitiveness of individual
Conference, held on September 10-14, 1960, by
countries. Dimension of the Trilemma is energy
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.
security, where Market Design is seen with greater
Today, with 14 Member Countries, “OPEC’s
uncertainty than clean energy-related issues. This
objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum
is shaping an energy security environment that
policies among Member Countries, in order
is mostly impacted by the urgency of adaptation
to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum
to the rapid changes brought by the integration
producers; an efficient, economic and regular
of new energy technologies. Regarding extreme
supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and
weather risks, in energy matters, leaders must focus
a fair return on capital to those investing in the
their efforts on ensuring resiliency to guarantee
industry” (OPEC, 2018).
affordability and energy security after natural
disasters occur” (World Energy Council, 2018b).
Members of OPEC (as of March 2019): Iran,
Political instability hinders the advancement
Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Libya
of the necessary economic and social reforms,
(1962), the United Arab Emirates (1967),
including the regulation policies in the area of
Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973),
energy. Energy security will be strengthened by
Gabon (1975), Angola (2007), Equatorial
increasing the production of oil and natural gas,
Guinea (2017), Congo (2018).
reducing dependence on imports gas and oil
products. As such, the energy supply will be more
diversified with increased generation of renewable In the last 60 years, the oil market has
sources such as solar, wind, and biomass (World remained adequately supplied thanks to OPEC.
Energy Council, 2018b). The organization has responded, in the interests
of a stable, secure and well-managed oil industry,
to market developments and unforeseen shocks.
OPEC has become an established member of the
global energy community, and today it cooperates
with other stakeholders in the energy sector.
“OPEC rose to international prominence during
the 1970s, as its Member Countries took control of
their domestic petroleum industries and acquired
a major say in the pricing of crude oil on world
markets” (www.gnpoc.com). On two occasions, oil
prices rose steeply in a volatile market, triggered by
the Arab oil embargo in 1973 and the outbreak of
the Iranian Revolution in 1979.
The global economy posed a major risk to
the oil market in the early 2010s, “as global
macroeconomic uncertainties and heightened risks
surrounding the international financial system
weighed on economies. Escalating social unrest
Figure 7.4 2016 World Energy Congress in Istanbul, in many parts of the world affected both supply
Turkey.
and demand throughout the first half of the
decade, although the market remained relatively
Source: https://www.worldenergy.org/news-and-
balanced. Prices were stable between 2011 and
media/2016-world-energy-congress-in-pictures/
mid-2014, before a combination of speculation
and oversupply caused them to fall in 2014. Trade

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patterns continued to shift, with demand growing security of supply, long-term policy, information
further in Asian countries and generally shrinking “transparency”, energy and the environment,
in the OECD. The world’s focus on multilateral research and development and international energy
environmental matters began to sharpen, with relations (IEA, 2018a).
expectations for a new UN-led climate change The IEA has evolved and expanded over the
agreement. OPEC continued to seek stability decades. “Today, the IEA is at the heart of global
in the market, and looked to further enhance its dialogue on energy, providing authoritative
dialogue and cooperation with consumers and analysis through a wide range of publications,
non-OPEC producers” (OPEC, 2018). including the flagship World Energy Outlook and
the IEA Market Reports; data and statistics, such as
The International Energy Agency Key World Energy Statistics and the Monthly Oil
Data Service; and a series of training and capacity
(IEA)
building workshops, presentations, and resources”
The IEA “works to ensure reliable, affordable (IEA, 2018b).
and clean energy for its 30 member countries and
beyond. Its mission is guided by four main areas
of focus: energy security, economic development,
environmental awareness and engagement
worldwide. The history of the IEA began with
the 1973-1974 Middle East War crisis and
its immediate aftermath. While oil producing
countries appeared relatively well organized to
utilize their new oil based economic and political
power, many OECD countries found themselves
inadequately equipped with the information and
organization necessary to meet the corresponding
challenges” (IEA, 2018b).
“For the most part, these countries permitted
excessive and even wasteful and inefficient use of
energy - and of oil in particular. Energy conservation
measures were woefully underdeveloped and oil
production potential was not fully realized, nor was
sufficient investment devoted to the development
of alternative energy sources. They had also yet to
devise a workable system for responding to serious
disruptions in oil supply and their organizational
arrangements for co-operation could not enable Figure 7.5 IEA Report Series: Gas 2018
them to cope effectively with the institutional Source: https://webstore.iea.org/market-report-series-
implications of those situations ” (IEA, 2018d). gas-2018
“The policy and institutional lessons of
the crisis led swiftly in November 1974 to the The International Energy Forum
establishment of the IEA with a broad mandate
(IEF)
on energy security and other questions of energy
policy co-operation among Member countries. The The IEF “aims to foster greater mutual
main policy decisions and the Agency framework understanding and awareness of common energy
were firmly anchored in the IEA treaty called the interests among its members. The 72 member
“Agreement on an International Energy Program”, countries of the Forum are signatories to the
and the new Agency was to be hosted at the OECD IEF Charter, which outlines the framework of
in Paris.” The Agency would become the focal the global energy dialogue through this inter-
point for energy co-operation on such issues as: governmental arrangement. Covering all six

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continents and accounting for around 90% of • “the growing weight of developing countries
global supply and demand for oil and gas, the IEF for global energy security,
is unique in that it comprises not only consuming • the “trilemma” between energy security,
and producing countries of the IEA and OPEC, economic development and environmental
but also Transit States and major players outside of protection,
their memberships “(IEF, 2016). • the role of enhanced energy trade for
“The IEF is the neutral facilitator of informal, sustainable development,
open, informed and continuing global energy • the need to promote access to modern
dialogue. Recognizing their interdependence in energy services, energy poverty reduction,
the field of energy, the member countries of the clean technology and capacity building,
IEF co-operate under the neutral framework of the • the need for diversification of energy
Forum to foster greater mutual understanding and sources and routes,
awareness of common energy interests in order to • the role of regional integration of energy
ensure global energy security” (www.ief.org). markets” (International Energy Charter,
2016).

The International Renewable

The Energy Community
Energy Agency (IRENA)
The Energy Community is an “international
IRENA is an “intergovernmental organization
organization which brings together the European
that supports countries in their transition to a
Union and its neighbors to create an integrated
sustainable energy future, and serves as the principal
pan-European energy market. The key objective
platform for international cooperation, a center of
of the Energy Community is to extend the EU
excellence, and a repository of policy, technology,
internal energy market rules and principles to
resource and financial knowledge on renewable
countries in South East Europe, the Black Sea
energy. IRENA promotes the widespread adoption
region and beyond on the basis of a legally binding
and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy,
framework. Specific goals of the Community
including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower,
include:
ocean, solar and wind energy in the pursuit of
sustainable development, energy access, energy • creating an integrated energy market
security and low-carbon economic growth and allowing for cross-border energy trade and
prosperity. With a mandate from countries around integration with the EU market;
the world, IRENA encourages governments to • enhancing the security of supply to ensure
adopt enabling policies for renewable energy stable and continuous energy supply that
investments, provides practical tools and policy is essential for economic development and
advice to accelerate renewable energy deployment, social stability;
and facilitates knowledge sharing and technology • improving the environmental situation in
transfer to provide clean, sustainable energy for the relation with energy supply in the region
world’s growing population” (IRENA, 2018). and foster the use of renewable energy and
energy efficiency” (Energy Community,
2017).
The International Energy Charter
The International Energy Charter is a “declaration The North Atlantic Treaty
of political intention aiming at strengthening energy Organization (NATO)
cooperation between the signatory states;” however,
“The disruption of energy supply could affect
the Charter “does not bear any legally binding
the security of their societies and have an impact
obligation or financial commitment. It maps out
on NATO’s military operations. While these
common principles for international cooperation in
issues are primarily the responsibility of national
the field of energy. The International Energy Charter
governments, NATO continues to consult on
reflects some of the most topical energy challenges of
energy security and further develops the capacity
the 21st century, in particular:
to contribute to energy security, concentrating on

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areas where it can add value. To this end, NATO The Organization for Security and
seeks to enhance its strategic awareness of energy Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
developments with security implications; develop
“Economic and environmental activities
its competence in supporting the protection of
incorporate energy security, including the promotion
critical energy infrastructure; and work towards
of renewable energy and energy efficiency. As a pan-
significantly improving the energy efficiency of the
European and trans-Atlantic platform, the OSCE
military” (NATO, 2018).
supports an energy security dialogue among its
“NATO’s role in energy security was first defined participating States and other international bodies
in 2008 at the Bucharest Summit, and since then that deal with energy issues” (www.osce.org). “Energy
this role has been strengthened. Energy security is security requires well-functioning international
a vital element of resilience and has become more energy markets, stable consumer producer relations,
important in the past years due to the new security sustainable production and resilient critical energy
context. Energy efficiency is important not only for networks. The OSCE as the world’s largest regional
logistics and cost-saving in theatres of operation, security organization unites some of the world’s most
but also for the environment” (NATO, 2016). important energy producer, consumer and transit
In the future NATO will seek to further countries” (OSCE, 2018).
enhance the strategic dialogue, both among Allies The OSCE provides “analysis, capacity
and with partner countries, offer more education building, trainings and regional workshops and
and training opportunities, and deepen its ties conferences. It focuses on the protection of critical
with other international organizations (such as energy networks, the promotion of energy security
the International Energy Agency), academia, and dialogue, good governance and transparency in
the private sector. NATO will work to enhance the energy sector, sustainable energy and energy
the resilience of energy infrastructure, notably diplomacy. The OSCE offers national and regional
in hybrid scenarios. With increased awareness of technical assistance seminars for participating
energy risks, enhanced competence to support States on topics related to energy security, such as
infrastructure protection, and enhanced energy energy diplomacy and risk mitigation, protecting
efficiency in the military, NATO will be better energy networks from natural and man-made
prepared to respond to the emerging security disasters, enabling conditions and technology
challenges of the 21st century (NATO, 2018). transfer for renewable energy and energy scenario
planning exercises” (OSCE, 2018).

The International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA)
IAEA is “the world’s central intergovernmental
forum for scientific and technical co-operation in
the nuclear field. It works for the safe, secure and
peaceful uses of nuclear science and technology,
contributing to international peace and security
and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development
Goals” (www.iaea.org)
The mission of the International Atomic Energy
Agency may be summarized as follows:
Figure 7.6 NATO Summit • “assists its Member States, in the context of
social and economic goals, in planning for
Source: https://www.nato.int/docu/review/2014/
and using nuclear science and technology
nato-energy-security-running-on-empty/nato-energy-
for various peaceful purposes, including the
security-agenda/en/index.htm
generation of electricity, and facilitates the
transfer of such technology and knowledge

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in a sustainable manner to developing

Member States;
• develops nuclear safety standards and,
based on these standards, it promotes the
achievement and maintenance of high levels
of safety in applications of nuclear energy,
as well as the protection of human health and
the environment against ionizing radiation;
• verifies through its inspection system that Figure 7.7 UN Sustainable Development Goal 7: To
States comply with their commitments, provide access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and
under the Non-Proliferation Treaty and modern energy for all.
other non-proliferation agreements, to Source: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/
use nuclear material and facilities only for energy/#iLightbox[gallery]/0
peaceful purposes” (www.iaea.org).
The Agency also seeks to “accelerate and enlarge
the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health The United Nations Economic
and prosperity throughout the world. It shall Commission for Europe (UNECE)
ensure, so far as it is able, that assistance provided UNECE was set up in 1947 by ECOSOC.
by it or at its request or under its supervision or UNECE is “one of five regional commissions of the
control is not used in such a way as to further any United Nations. UNECE’s major aim is to promote
military purpose” (IAEA, 2018). pan-European economic integration” (www.unece.
org). UNECE’s work on sustainable energy is
UN-Energy designed to improve access to affordable and clean
energy for all and help reduce greenhouse gas
UN-Energy is the United Nations’ mechanism emissions and the carbon footprint of the energy
for inter-agency collaboration in the field of sector in the region.
energy. UN-Energy was established in 2004
to “help ensure coherence in the UN system’s UNECE promotes international policy
multidisciplinary response to the World Summit dialogue and cooperation among governments,
on Sustainable Development (WSSD), and to energy industries, and other stakeholders. “The
ensure the effective engagement of non-UN focus is on energy efficiency, cleaner electricity
stakeholders in implementing WSSD energy- production from fossil fuels, renewable energy, coal
related decisions” (www.unsystem.org). The main mine methane, natural gas, classification of energy
mission of UN-Energy is “to be the primary and mineral reserves and resources, and energy
agent within the UN for promoting system-wide security” (UNECE, 2018).
collaboration in the area of energy, since there is no
single entity in the United Nations system that has The United Nations Economic and
dedicated responsibility for energy.” Toward this Social Commission for Asia and
main mission, UN-Energy: the Pacific (ESCAP)
• promotes coherence in the UN system’s ESCAP is “the regional development arm of
multi-disciplinary response to WSSD; the United Nations for the Asia-Pacific region.
• promotes interaction with other ESCAP works to overcome some of the region’s
stakeholders; greatest challenges by providing results-oriented
• focuses on substance and collaborative projects, technical assistance and capacity
actions both in regard to policy development building to member States in the following areas:
in the energy area and its implementation as Macroeconomic Policy, Poverty Reduction and
well as in maintaining an overview of major Financing for Development; Trade, Investment
ongoing initiatives within the system based and Innovation; Transport; Environment and
on the UN-Energy work programme at Development; Information and Communications;
global, regional sub-regional and national Technology and Disaster; Risk Reduction; Social
levels” (UN-Energy, 2017).

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Development; Statistics; Sub regional activities for ongoing electrification of the world economy and
development; Energy.” supported by strong investment and renewable
ESCAP promotes and develops a number of power in the networks (S&P Global Platts, 2018).
programs and projects aimed at advancing energy The falling costs continue to affect investment
access, renewable energy, and energy efficiency. trends, prices, and fuel competition in various parts
“Furthermore, ESCAP fosters the transition to of the energy sector. The advance in technologies
a sustainable energy system through regional and the plans made by governments facilitate the
cooperation and supports member States in economies of scale of new projects in some energy
identifying energy challenges and generating markets.
sound policy response measures by providing a “Project economics in the oil and gas sector
platform for dialogue and knowledge exchange” are complex, but costs for conventional oil and
(ESCAP, 2018). gas developments have not followed the trend of
higher oil prices since mid-2016, thanks to cost
Other Energy Related discipline by operators and excess capacity in the
services industry. In the United States shale sector,
Organizations
however, an upswing in activity led to an almost
There are some other organizations that 10% increase in costs in 2017, and a similar rise
deal with the management of energy issues and is expected in 2018. New digital technologies are
contribute to managing energy security. Among increasingly keeping costs under control across the
others, the following organizations stand out: entire energy sector, including in upstream oil and
the United Nations Industrial Development gas” (IEA, 2018c: 11).
Organization (UNIDO), the United Nations
China conquered one-fifth of the global energy
Development Program (UNDP), the United
sum and continued to be the biggest target of the
Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the World
energy inventory. In addition, the US strengthened
Bank Group, the Global Environment Facility
its position as the second largest investor in the oil
(GEF), and the OPEC Fund for International
and natural gas sector, thanks to a sharp rebound
Development (OFID).
in gas-fired plants and electricity networks (USGS,
2018).
Europe’s share in global energy investment was
2 around 15%, and there was a modest increase in
renewable energy investments, with an increase
Make some research on the purposes of in spending on energy efficiency and decreases in
the International Atomic Energy Agency thermal production (EUP2G, 2018).
(IAEA). Investments in new coal-fired power plants fell
by 55% in 2017. As an indication of this, low-carbon
AN OVERVIEW OF ENERGY electricity supply, networks, and energy efficiency
increasingly drive China’s energy investment. In
ISSUES THROUGH GLOBAL India, however, renewable energy investment for
AND REGIONAL REGIMES the first time in 2017 peaked in the production of
In the third year in a row, global energy fossil fuel-based energy (ARB, 2017).
investment decreased, falling to 1.8 trillion US “There was a pause in the shift of investments
Dollars in 2017 – a 2% decline in real terms from towards cleaner sources of energy supply. The share
the previous year. Energy efficiency and investment of fossil fuels, including thermal power generation,
increased in some industries in 2017, including in energy supply investment rose slightly to 59%
upstream oil and natural gas. Nevertheless, capital as spending in upstream oil and gas increased
expenditure in fossil fuel supply remained at two- modestly. The International Energy Agency (IEA)
thirds of 2014 (IEA, 2017). Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS) sees the
The electricity sector was the biggest buyer share of fossil fuels in energy supply investment
in the global energy investment, reflecting the falling to 40% by 2030” (IEA, 2018c: 12).

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Clean energy supply investment in the energy sector

is rapidly increasing. In 2017, clean energy sources
in production investments (renewable and nuclear)
account for over 70%. This rate is less than 50%
compared to ten years ago, but it is driven by coal-fired
power (IEA, 2018c).
“Investments in transport and heating electrification
continued to show an exponential increase in 2017,
but investments in direct use of renewable energy in
transportation and heating remained weak. Most of the
market is dedicated to fossil fuel-burning technologies.
Investments in solar thermal heating installations, at
USD 18 billion, declined for the fourth consecutive
Figure 7.8 Solar Thermal Power Plant
year.” (IEA, 2018c) These trends do not have a
significant impact on the allocation of capital to oil and natural gas supply projects (Shell, 2018).
Efforts to expand energy networks are also increasing due to more energy efficiency. The lower share
of capital in the intensive thermal production has generally decreased over time. “Although it declined
by 7%, investment in renewable power, at nearly USD 300 billion, accounted for two-thirds of power
generation spending in 2017. Investment was supported by record spending for solar PV, of which nearly
45% was in China” (IEA, 2018c).

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that converts sunlight (solar radiation) into direct current
electricity by using semiconductors. When the sun hits the semiconductor within the PV cell, electrons
are freed and form an electric current. Solar PV technology is generally employed on a panel (hence solar
panels). PV cells are typically found connected to each other and mounted on a frame called a module.
Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array, which can be scaled up or down to produce
the amount of power needed (www.studentenergy.org/topics/solar-pv).

The offshore wind energy investment has also reached record levels with the introduction of
approximately 4 gigawatts, mostly in Europe. On the other hand, the investment of the US, China,
Europe, and Brazil in the wind energy has decreased by about 15%. However, one third of this decline was
due to the falling investment costs. Moreover, hydropower investment has declined to its lowest level in
China, Brazil, and South Asia in ten years (ICF, 2016).
The US continued to be the largest market for energy grid investment after China. Toward increasing
the flexibility of energy systems and supporting the integration of renewable resources, investments have
been increased in technologies (IEA, 2016).
“Investments in fossil fuel supply remained stable around USD 790 billion in 2017” (IEA, 2018c).
The decreasing expenditures on coal supply and liquefied natural gas (LNG) compensated for a reasonable
increase in upstream oil and natural gas. Investments in the conventional oil and natural gas sector
continue to decline and the share of greenfield projects in total upstream investment is expected to fall to
about one-third in 2018, to the lowest level in a few years (Şeker, 2017).

The terms upstream and downstream oil and gas production refer to an oil or gas company’s location in the
supply chain. Upstream oil and gas production is conducted by companies who identify, extract, or produce
raw materials. Downstream oil and gas production companies are closer to the end user or consumer and are
often called exploration and production companies. Upstream oil and gas production and operations identify
deposits and drill wells, and recover raw materials from underground. They are also often called exploration
and production companies. This sector also includes related services such as rig operations, feasibility studies,
machinery rental, and extraction of chemical supply (www.investopedia.com).

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International Security

“Despite the more-than-doubling of thermal

coal prices since early 2016, investment in coal
supply declined by 13% in 2017 to just below 3
USD 80 billion, mainly due to reduced spending
in China. The threat of tougher policy action to Discuss the renewable and non-renewable
address climate change and air pollution and energy resources.
enhanced competition from renewables continue
to discourage investment in coal (IEA, 2018c),
2018). THREATS TO ENERGY
In 2018, global investments both in shale gas SECURITY
and LNG are expected to reach almost a quarter of During the second half of the 20th century,
total upstream costs. At the same time, oil and gas the structure of the international system went
companies are increasing their investments outside through significant changes. The most influential
the upstream sector. For the first time in recent ones in terms of geopolitics can be listed as follows:
years, the United States has been the country that the emergence of the “energy security” concept
invested the most in petrochemicals (Wang, 2018). in 1970s, the disappearance of the Soviet Union
from the international arena in 1991, and finally,
Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped the advancement of globalization at a very quick
within shale formations. Shales are fine-grained pace. All these have created a direct impact on
sedimentary rocks that can be rich sources of the classical concepts of power, politics, security,
petroleum and natural gas (Wang, 2018: 60). economics, and even ways/methods to use military
force. It is a self-explanatory fact that technological
“Following a very turbulent 2015-16 period, capabilities have significantly advanced in recent
the (shale gas) sector appears to be benefiting from years and, therefore, it is now possible to extract oil
huge technological and operational advances, as and gas reserves, which were previously thought to
well as higher prices and a more cautious approach be unreachable (Koivumaa, 2013, 1).
to investment” (EIA, 2018). Despite the decline,
the profits of US shale gas companies remain high.
Energy Security and Global Power
“While corporations continue to provide the
Energy is one of the most pressing needs of
bulk of primary finance for energy investments,
the modern and heavily industrialized world.
there are signs of diversification of financing options
Although there are many definitions of energy, it
in some sectors. In the power sector, the perceived
is not possible to communicate the importance of
maturity and reliability of renewable technologies
this concept in a few sentences, because energy is
and better risk management of renewables projects
directly related to the multi-dimensional concept
has facilitated the expansion of off-balance sheet
of power. Power has many dimensions such as
structures outside of the United States and Europe,
economic power, military power, and political
with project finance rising in Asia, Latin America
power (Viotti, and Kauppi, 1999, 64).
and Africa” (IEA, 2018c).
Therefore, energy has also implications for one
Electric batteries are expanding into the energy
state’s economy, domestic politics, technology,
sector, but their impact will depend on cost trends
and security policies. One may elaborate on the
that are largely affected by investments outside the
effect of energy on national power from a Realist
energy sector. The investment in lithium mining
perspective. Realism, in IR, has four major
has increased almost ten times since 2012, and
principles. According to the first principle, the
the investment in battery production capacity has
state is the most important actor in international
increased more than five times (ANL, 2018). In
relations. Therefore, realists focus on the state and
2017, a record number of investment decisions
interstate relations in their analyses of international
were made to build electrolysers to utilize hydrogen
relations (Viotti, and Kauppi, 1999, 55). Second,
as part of another clean energy application (Buttler
realists assume that the state is both a “unitary
and Spliethoff, 2018).
and rational” actor. Third, realists hold that the

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Energy Security

state as a rational actor seeks to maximize its own important

interests or national objectives in foreign policy.
International politics, from this perspective, is a
Imperialism has always been at the center
struggle for power. What the ultimate aims of a
of debates in International Relations since
state in international politics might be, national
the late 19th century. Imperialism signifies
power is always the intermediate aim or a means for
an asymmetrical relationship between the
that state to achieve its national interests (Viotti,
materially advanced societies and relatively
and Kauppi, 1999, 10). Finally, the international
“backward” societies. Energy imperialism,
system is considered to be anarchic; because
as a concept in IR, is mostly used for the
there is no a higher authority above the states for
situations where the natural resources are used
preventing conflicts and becoming an arbiter in
by a state as a leverage to attain its political and
interstate conflicts.
military objectives (Harshe, 2005, 2071)
Therefore, national-security issues dominate
the top of the agenda for realists (and eventually
for governments around the world) (Morgenthau, International Relations theories attempt at
1966, 25). Given the rivalry in the energy sector, one explaining the interactions among various actors
cannot disregard the fact that the above-mentioned such as nation-states, international organizations
principles of realism have an explanatory power and multinational corporations. The main concerns
with regard to energy issues. In fact, energy security of these actors (such as power, security, economic,
has emerged as an important factor in international military, social, political interests) shape and shove
politics, national economies and global economy as the international system. For example, Realism
well as thee military issues. Hence, the increasing holds that self-interested states compete constantly
concern about energy security is the key driving for power to secure their survival in the system. On
force for both national energy policies and energy the other hand, Liberals stress the importance of
strategies (Cherp et al., 2012, 327). economic prosperity; in this case, the concern for
power is overridden by economic considerations.
Geopolitics refers to the interaction among Constructivism, as a relatively new approach in
states and empires in a particular geographical IR, emphasizes social behavior that is shaped by
setting that the geography of a state (its position elite beliefs, collective norms, and social identities
in a geographical region and in the world as (Walt, 1998, 10). IR scholars have also employed
whole) presents opportunities to, and imposes various methods and models of the game theory,
limitations on, the state (Sempa, 2009, 5). which analyzes the relationships and strategic
interactions between two or more actors (Correa,
It is also important to mention that there 2001, 187).
are different approaches to energy security. For Realism was the dominant theory throughout
example, Russia is focusing on reviving the energy the Cold War years and it provided comprehensive
geopolitics, whereas the USA concentrates on explanation for conflict and war in the system,
energy imperialism. As we have touched on power struggle, obstacles to cooperation as well
the concept above, the contemporary definition as the American-Soviet rivalry. Realism has many
of energy security includes the notions of variations (Walt, 1998, 31). Among others, the
availability, accessibility, affordability, acceptability, following versions of realism stand out: classical
accountability, sustainability, reliability, sufficiency, realism, neo-realism (structural realims), offensive
supplies and interruptions (Cherp et al., 2012, 330). realism, and defensive realism (Burchill, 2005, 30).

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International Security

For example, classical realists such as Hans Morgenthau and Reinhold Niebuhr believed that states,
just like human beings, have an innate desire to dominate the “others” that has made conflicts and wars
inevitable in the international system. On the other hand, for neo-realists, (structural realists), the human
nature has little to do with states’ longing for power. Not the human nature but the very anarchical structure
of the international system is responsible for states’ searching for power and dominance (Mearsheimer,
2010, 78). This has implications for energy security. Because it is whether the human nature or the
structure of the international system, there have been forces that create conflictual relationships between
states, especially to reach affordable energy resources.

The Impact of Global Threats on Energy Security

During the Cold War era, the superpowers competition determined the overall direction of global
affairs. In the aftermath of World War II, the US and the Soviet Union formed a bipolar order that had
worldwide repercussions. Throughout the Cold War, the world witnessed many regional conflicts, from the
Horn of Africa to Cuba and from Czechoslovakia
to Vietnam (Nijman, 1992, 681). The spheres
of influence for both opponents expanded
worldwide; there was an “ideological struggle
between two antithetical political systems, each
of which is intolerant of the values, objectives
and policies of the other” (Williams, 1989, 274).
In this struggle, a series of energy crises arose
such as the one related to the Yom-Kippur war
in 1973, the Iranian Revolution in 1979, and
the sharp increase of oil-prices during the Iran-
Iraq war (1980-1988). These crises proved that
oil prices may be used as a powerful weapon in
Figure 7.9 Solar Thermal Power Plant
international relations.
The issue of energy security emerged during and shortly after the oil crises in the 1970s. Since then,
the concept of energy security has begun to gain more and more importance. In fact, the 1980 Carter
Doctrine has underlined the importance of oil for both national economic welfare and the global economy.
Therefore, the Doctrine paved the way for justifying the use of force toward ensuring the availability and
security of energy resources. Energy has become not only a strategic issue but also it has had a direct effect
on the economic, security, military, and environmental issues. While in the 1970s the concept of energy
security included the security of supply in terms of accessibility, affordability and adequacy; today it is
impossible to discuss energy security without considering economic developments, geopolitical changes,
environmental concerns, terrorism as well as potential threats to the energy supply structures (Verrastro
and Ladislaw, 2007, 95-96).
For example, prior to 1973 energy policy was not a major concern for the US government or American
citizens thanks to the abundant and inexpensive energy supplies (Thompson, 1983, 97). However, this
situation changed after the supply shortages and price shocks of 1973. Although the US import of crude oil
was about 6 % in 1973, the energy crisis increased the government involvement in areas where governments
had rarely involved before. Many states even provided their governors with specific emergency powers
regarding energy matters during the oil-crises of the 1970s (Light, 1976, 82-86). It is also interesting to note
that the USSR became an essential energy supplier during the 1970s. According to Gustafson, “in addition
to the 1.22 million barrels a day delivered to the West in 1979, the Soviets sold 1.55 million barrels a day to
Eastern Europe and 0.35 million to other four communist allies” (Gustafson, 1981, 67).
Certainly, political risks and the negative economic consequences of reliance on foreign energy sources
were obvious at that time. With the end of the Cold War, the US emerged as the only superpower- the only
power that was capable of creating a new world order. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian

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Energy Security

economy faced serious problems and depressions countries (and especially former Soviet influence
during the 1990s. For example, the 1998 economic countries) are concerned that by controlling the
crisis that started in Asia negatively affected the national energy infrastructures, Russian energy
Russian economy because of the decline in oil prices. companies may favor certain local businessmen
However, this situation did not continue for a long and politicians and, as such, manipulate domestic
time, and the Russian economy started to show policies (Woehrel, 2010, 404).
significant growth with the election of Vladimir Due to the huge energy import of European
Putin for the Presidency of the Russian Federation. Countries from Russia, many Central and East
Thereafter, the oil revenues contributed to the state European countries fear that Russia may use
budget that in turn dramatically decreased Russia’s this energy dependency as a leverage to interfere
dependence on foreign credits (Viciu, Toma, and in their domestic affairs or force them to make
Tampu, 2013, 163). foreign policy concessions (Woehrel, 2010, 410).
Up until the recent collapse of oil prices, Therefore, the EU has defined some policies toward
although Russia ranked sixth (after Venezuela, Russia to improve the bilateral relations from three
Saudi Arabia, Canada, Iran, Iraq) in terms of total dimensions: political, economic, and normative.
reserves, it took advantage of high energy prices The political dimension aims at reducing the
and was running a current account surplus. This energy import dependency, whereas the economic
allowed paying off all the debts accumulated in dimension aims at achieving to build competitive
the early 1990s. It is clear that oil and natural gas market conditions and sustain reasonable energy
resources are vital for the Russian economy. On the prices (Belyi, 2003, 4, 351). The EU also desires
other hand, this may encourage Russia to follow an to establish a normative dimension in bilateral
aggressive foreign policy. Russia is also the second relations through the international multilateral
largest natural gas producer after the US. However, frameworks for managing energy security issues.
in order to continue its energy leadership, Russia However, despite the efforts of the EU and the
should increase its production in potential regions continuing sanctions on Russia because of the
such as the Arctic. Otherwise, boosting the Crimean conflict (EU, 2014), it has been not the
production in its current locations will result into EU but Russia who steers bilateral relations in
the fast depletion of its reserves (BP, 2018, 12, 26). energy issues. As the Director of the ECFR pointed
The US is planning to meet all its energy needs out, while in the 1990s everybody was talking
from domestic resources by 2035. Toward this about the Russian dependence on Western credits,
objective, the US is increasing its oil and natural now everyone talks about Western dependence on
gas production (BP, 2018, 28). In fact, the USA Russian gas (Leonard and Popescu, 2007, 7).
achieved a 5.6 % increase in oil production and Given the Russian energy policies toward
recently it has become the largest oil producer (BP, the EU countries, it is clear that Russia has had
2018, 14). However, the significant amount of specific energy policies for each member state.
undiscovered oil and natural gas reserves presents a As the European countries are the primary
challenge for the Russian-US relations. export market for Russia, it has developed several
The Russian petroleum companies make the strategies and scenarios such as fast development
largest contribution to the Russian government’s of gas production and pipeline capacity that is
budget. Moreover, these companies control some mainly associated with its long-term gas strategy.
influential institutions such as banks, industrial However, energy transition via transit routes creates
holdings, and the media. In addition, energy a significant obstacle for Russia. Because Russia
companies of Russia have had an impact on the exports the majority of its energy via pipelines, and
state and the national economy (Kaveshnikov, this makes Russia critically dependent on Ukraine
2010, 594). In other words, the impact of Russian and Belarus for transit. Russia prefers to improve
petroleum companies is quite significant because bilateral relations with the EU member states while
they do not only make financial contribution to the taking advantage of the divisions within the Union
state budget, but also they give direction to both (Kulhanek, 2010, 51). For this reason, Russia
domestic and external politics. Many European wants to achieve greater independence from the
transit countries.

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International Security

Energy security is becoming a truly strategic

issue, with numerous implications for international
security. Even without the concerns arose by the
current crises, the political, economic and security
challenges surrounding the energy supply of many
countries are profound. Europe’s dependency on
oil and gas imports is increasing, as are the energy
needs of rising powers such as China and India.
Moreover, the political instability haunts many
energy-producing and transit states. Furthermore,
the quest for energy and other resources has sparked
territorial disputes in several parts of the world.
Figure 7.10 Winter Trans Alaska Pipeline
Terrorist attacks and cyber-attacks against refineries,
pipelines, and power plants are common in many
The Emerging Energy Security countries, as is piracy along critical maritime choke
Issues points. Over the past years, however, state’s energy
security agenda has become more systematic and
Today, shale gas accounts for a significant
focused on the following three major areas: raising
portion of US natural gas production. The shale
strategic awareness of energy developments that
gas production may account for about half of US
have security implications, contributing to the
gas output by 2040 (Medlock, 2010, 27, 28, 33).
protection of critical energy infrastructure, and
In 2012, the US became the top gas producer in
enhancing energy efficiency in the military (Şeker,
the world, and many major LNG exporters that
2017, 165-166).
had spent years in building business plans around a
US import market found themselves in a different The developments in the energy sector affect
position. The Forecasts in 2006 predicted that the international security environment and have
most of the potential US LNG imports would implications for states’ security interests. For
come from suppliers in the Persian Gulf; however example, the American shale gas “revolution” and
today any such dependence has been eliminated growing volumes of LNG shipped worldwide may
(EIA, 2018). raise new maritime security concerns. Similarly,
the falling oil and gas prices may exacerbate the
Asia remains a growing consumer, particularly
instability in many energy supply countries that
with China’s latest Five-Year Plan calling for an
are highly dependent on energy exports, including
increase in natural gas usage. Japan has been
Russia. Finally, energy factors are playing a major
replacing the nuclear capacity with gas-fired plants.
role in the current crises in some countries, as
Indonesia is committed to increasing the use of gas
supply disruptions may have far-reaching security
for power generation as well as in road vehicles
implications for some other states (Poduval, 2014).
and ships. Despite the opportunity for American
businesses, how much of the Asian demand will be The growing energy concerns in international
met by US gas reserves remains an open question. relations suggest that energy security may become
Under the US law, the Department of Energy a part of national education and training programs.
(DOE) determines whether an LNG export Diplomats and military leaders alike may be given
proposal will serve the national interest. the opportunity to develop a better understanding
of energy security and related issues such as resource
The desire of the US to hold onto to its gas reserves
competition and the climate change.
is understandable because the gas revolution has
immensely contributed to the country’s economy. “Energy infrastructure is a critical part of
The abundant US gas supply has not only started global energy security, and is subject to a number
to make many major manufacturers switch from of vulnerabilities. Around half of the total world
oil to natural gas as their feedstock source, but also oil production is transported by oil tankers on
encouraging them to build new plants in the US as fixed maritime routes, many of which have to
well as to renovate the old ones. pass critical choke points. Port facilities are more

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Energy Security

complex and congested than ever before. And many As most states depend on energy imports, they
parts of critical energy infrastructure today are have a vested interest in the security of energy
heavily reliant on cyber systems, which make them infrastructure in the producing countries or transit
vulnerable to cyber-attacks. Moreover, over the countries. Accordingly, sharing best practices on
past years, terrorists and insurgents conducted on the protection of critical energy infrastructure
average about 500 attacks each year against energy- remains an important method for international
related targets. This included the bombing of gas cooperation on energy security. Some countries
and oil pipelines; attacks on fuel trucks; killing and also enhance its competence in cooperation with
kidnapping associated personnel, and disrupting international organizations to help protect the
of electrical power systems. Most of these attacks energy infrastructure. One example is the counter-
are clustered in a few specific regions, such as West piracy operations in the Indian Ocean. Improving
Africa. However, attacks on energy infrastructure the capability of states and organizations toward
can reverberate far beyond their point of origin. ensuring the freedom of navigation matters for the
As energy markets are volatile, even a single attack security of the energy infrastructure.
can lead to global price spikes. Terrorism can drive
up insurance premiums. And the interruption of
the flow of energy-even if only briefly-can have 4
multiple ripple effects, both economically and
psychologically. In short, energy infrastructure will Make some research on the emergency oil
remain a tempting target” (www.nato.int). stocks.

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International Security

LO 1 Explain the concept of energy security.

The International Energy Agency, which works for the energy security in the world, defines
energy security as the access to uninterrupted energy sources at affordable prices. In a similar
way, Baumann describes energy security as the energy at a reasonable price with reliable energy
supply. Therefore, energy security encompasses all economic, political, and environmental
processes from the production of energy to the distribution of energy to final consumers.

Summary
LO 2 Recount important institutions for energy
security.

Among the international institutions that contribute to the management of energy security,
the following ones stand out: The Group of Seven (G7), The Group of 20 (G-20), The World
Energy Council, The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), The
International Energy Agency (IEA), The International Energy Forum (IEF), The International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), The International Energy Charter, The Energy
Community, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), The Organization for Security
and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
UN-Energy, The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), The United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP).

LO 3 Analyze the current energy issues through

regional and global regimes.

In the third year in a row, global energy investment decreased, falling to 1.8 trillion US Dollars
in 2017 – a 2% decline in real terms from the previous year. Energy efficiency and investment
increased in some industries in 2017, including upstream oil and natural gas. Nevertheless,
capital expenditure in fossil fuel supply remained at two-thirds of 2014. The electricity sector
was the biggest buyer in the global energy investment, reflecting the ongoing electrification of
the world economy and supported by strong investment and renewable power in the networks.
The falling costs continue to affect investment trends, prices, and fuel competition in various
parts of the energy sector. The advance in technologies and the plans made by governments
facilitate the economies of scale of new projects in some energy markets. Investments in new
coal-fired power plants fell by 55% in 2017. In 2018, global investments both in shale gas
and LNG are expected to reach almost a quarter of total upstream costs. At the same time,
oil and gas companies are increasing their investments outside the upstream sector. For the
first time in recent years, the United States has been the country that invested the most in
petrochemicals.

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Energy Security

LO 4 Describe and evaluate the threats to energy

security.

During the second half of the 20th century, the structure of the international system went
through significant changes. The most influential ones in terms of geopolitics can be listed as
follows: the emergence of the “energy security” concept in 1970s, the disappearance of the Soviet
Union from the international arena in 1991, and finally, the advancement of globalization at
a very quick pace. All these have created a direct impact on the classical concepts of power,
politics, security, economics, and even ways/methods to use military force. Energy security is
becoming a truly strategic issue, with numerous implications for international security. Even
Summary

without the concerns arose by the current crises, the political, economic and security challenges
surrounding the energy supply of many countries are profound. Europe’s dependency on oil
and gas imports is increasing, as are the energy needs of rising powers such as China and
India. Moreover, the political instability haunts many energy-producing and transit states.
Furthermore, the quest for energy and other resources has sparked territorial disputes in several
parts of the world. Terrorist attacks and cyber-attacks against refineries, pipelines, and power
plants are common in many countries, as is piracy along critical maritime choke points. Over
the past years, however, state’s energy security agenda has become more systematic and focused
on the following three major areas: raising strategic awareness of energy developments that
have security implications, contributing to the protection of critical energy infrastructure, and
enhancing energy efficiency in the military.

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International Security

1 Which of the following is not one of the UN- 6 Which of the following is geostrategically and
related energy institutions? geopolitically less important in the power struggle
among states to ensure their energy security?
A. UN-Energy
A. Sea lines of communications (SLOCS)

Test yourself
B. ESCAP
C. UNIDO B. Choke points
D. OFID C. Pipelines
E. UNECE D. Energy transportation lines
E. Livestock and crops
2 The oldest energy-related global organization is---
7 As a social value, security has historically
Which of the following options correctly com- been an antidote of ---
pletes the sentence above?
Which of the following options correctly comple-
A. The World Energy Council tes the sentence above?
B. OPEC
A. global warming
C. IEA
B. hunger
D. IEF
C. disorder
E. IAEA
D. immigration
E. piracy
3 G7 is promoting all of the following except---
Which of the following options correctly completes the 8 Which of the following is not a crucial part
sentence above? of the energy security?
A. gas security A. Security of the energy supply
B. opening of new pipeline interconnections B. Energy supply-demand equilibrium
C. an increase in oil production C. Energy demand security
D. the market liquidity and diversity D. Safety of the energy
E. new gas supply corridors E. Safety of the transfer

4 Contemporary definition of energy security 9 LNG is a clear, colorless and non-toxic liquid
does not include the notion of--- that forms when natural gas is cooled down to---
Which of the following options correctly comple- Which of the following options correctly comple-
tes the sentence above? tes the sentence above?
A. acceptability A. -52ºC
B. reliability B. -72ºC
C. supplies C. -110ºC
D. viscosity D. -132ºC
E. interruptions E. -162ºC

5 Which of the following is not a current or 10 In which of the following regions is the off-
potential threat to energy security? shore wind energy the most common?
A. The Russian-US energy rivalry A. North America
B. Nuclear energy under the control of IAEA B. Central Asia
C. The EU’s energy dependency on the Russian C. The Far East
Federation D. Europe
D. China’s demand for an increase in natural gas E. Africa
usage
E. Natural and man-made disasters

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Energy Security

1. D If your answer is not correct, review the 6. E If your answer is not correct, review
section on “International Institutions and the section on “The Concept of Energy
Managing the Energy Security” section. Security” section.
Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. A If your answer is not correct, review the 7. C If your answer is not correct, review
section on “International Institutions and the section on “The Concept of Energy
Managing the Energy Security” section. Security” section.

3. C If your answer is not correct, review the 8. B If your answer is not correct, review
section on “International Institutions and the section on “The Concept of Energy
Managing the Energy Security” section. Security” section.

If your answer is not correct, review the

4. D If your answer is not correct, review the 9. E section on “An Overview of Energy Issues
section on “Threats to Energy Security”
through Global and Regional Regimes”
section.
section.

If your answer is not correct, review the If your answer is not correct, review the
5. B 10. D section on “An Overview of Energy Issues
section on “Threats to Energy Security”
section. through Global and Regional Regimes”
section.
Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Discuss the dimensions of energy security.

Although the continuity of energy services falls in the scope of energy security,
the Asia Pacific Energy Research Center (APERC) has made an effective
attempt to determine the components of energy security. In a 2007 study, it
listed these components as follows: energy efficiency, availability, accessibility,
affordability, and sustainability. There has been some discussion on these
components; however, the APERC’s approach has been widely accepted in
academic circles (Cherp and Jewell, 2014: 420). The concept of availability
refers to the presence of energy resources and sustaining the “demand and
your turn 1 supply equilibrium” of the world energy resources. Accessibility is important for
ensuring the continuous flow of energy within the technological means. As for
the concept of affordability, while a competitive energy market with an energy
supply-demand equilibrium is significant, it is also critical to provide energy at
low cost and affordable prices. It is important to make sure that the marginal
utility of the energy to be produced by investments be higher than its marginal
cost. Sustainability means that the requested energy can be supplied without
any disruption as long as the energy is needed (APERC, 2017).

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Make some research on the purposes of the International Atomic

Energy Agency (IAEA).

“According to the statute of the IAEA, the agency “shall seek to accelerate

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity
throughout the world. It shall ensure, so far as it is able, that assistance provi-
ded by it or at its request or under its supervision and control is not used in
such a way as to further any military purpose.” The IAEA acts as a clearingho-
use for the pooling and coordination of experience and research in the peace-
ful uses of nuclear power. It helps its member countries acquire the necessary
skills and materials to share in the benefits of the atomic age. In practice, the
IAEA has been particularly concerned with bringing the advantages of atomic
your turn 2 energy to underdeveloped regions. The IAEA is obliged under its statute to
“ensure, so far as it is able,” that all the activities in which it takes part are di-
rected exclusively to civilian uses. A second important task of the IAEA, then,
is to establish a system of supervision and control to make certain that none
of the assistance programs that it fosters and none of the materials whose dist-
ribution it supervises are used for military purposes. This aspect of the work
assumed significance far beyond its primary objective when the Treaty on the
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons came into force in March 1970, since
the IAEA is the body responsible for the necessary control system under that
treaty.” (Worldmark, 2007: 234-235).

Discuss the renewable and non-renewable energy resources.

“Over the last 200 years, an ever-increasing proportion of our energy has
come from nonrenewable sources such as oil and coal. While demand for
energy rises, these resources are running out and scientists are exploring the
potential of renewable sources of energy for the future. All life on earth is
sustained by energy from the sun. Plants and animals can store energy and
some of this energy remains with them when they die. It is the remains
of these ancient animals and plants that make up fossil fuels. Fossil fuels
are non-renewable because they will run out one day. Burning fossil fuels
generates greenhouse gases and relying on them for energy generation is
unsustainable. Hence the need to find more renewable, sustainable ways of
generating energy. Renewable or infinite energy resources are sources of power
your turn 3 that quickly replenish themselves and can be used again and again. Estimates
from international organizations suggest that if the world’s demand for energy
from fossil fuels continues at the present rate, oil and gas reserves may run
out within some of our lifetimes. The estimated length of time left for oil is
50 years, while for natural gas it is 70 years. Coal is expected to last longer,
about 250 years. Renewable energy is the energy derived from resources
that are regenerative or for all practical purposes cannot be depleted. Types
of renewable energy resources include moving water (hydro, tidal and wave
power), thermal gradients in ocean water, biomass, geothermal energy, solar
energy, and wind energy. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is also considered to
be a renewable energy resource” (Szabo, 2016).

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Make some research on the emergency oil stocks.

“IAE (The International Energy Agency) Member countries use three

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

approaches to meet their stockholding obligations: industry stocks,

government stocks, and agency stocks. Most countries use some combination
of these three approaches.
Industry stocks are stocks held by industry, whether for commercial purposes
or in order to comply with national emergency stockholding regulations.
Both commercial stocks and obligated stocks count towards IEA Member
countries’ stockholding commitments. Most IEA Member governments
require that certain companies (e.g. importers, refiners, product suppliers,
wholesalers, etc.) hold a minimum amount of stocks, related to the company’s
your turn 4 share of oil imports or sales in the domestic market.
Government stocks are those owned directly by the state, typically financed
through the central government budget and held exclusively for emergency
purposes.
Agency stocks are stocks held by a separate agency, either on behalf of the
government of domestic industry. Several countries have established a separate
agency defined by state legislation and endowed with the responsibility of
holding all or part of the obligated emergency stocks. The agency structure and
arrangements vary from country to country and can range from government-
sponsored schemes to industry-created initiatives, but in all cases compulsory
stocks can only be released with government authorization” (www.iea.org).

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 Chapter 8 Non-Military Security
After completing this chapter, you will able to:
Learning Outcomes

1 Define the concept of human security. 2 Explain the historical evolution of the concept
of human security.

3 Debate the environmental security. 4 Contextualize the economic security and

poverty.

5 Identify food security as a security threat.

Chapter Outline Key Terms

Introduction • Responsibility to Protect
• UNDP
The Concept of Human Security • Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The Historical Evolution of Human Security • Security Dilemma
Environmental Security • Cold War
• Human Security
Economic Security • Human Development
Food Security • Resource Wars
• Global Warming
• Environmental Scarcity
• Sustainable Development
• Poverty
• Food Security
• Climate Change
• Collective Goods

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INTRODUCTION The United Nations Development Program

A common meaning of security in IR theory works in about 170 countries and territories,
studies is the military security in the narrow sense helping to achieve the eradication of poverty,
dominated by the realist perspective. The discussion and the reduction of inequalities and exclusion.
on national, international, and collective security The main three areas of UNDP are sustainable
focused on military threats during the Cold War. development, democratic governance and peace
In the 1970s, with the effect of the softening the building and climate and disaster resilience.
Cold War, an extended security perspective, as well
as non-military issues in the security discourse,
Despite the brief description of human security
have emerged.
in the UNDP report, its full definition is still
The structural changes in the post-Cold War era a controversial issue in International Relations.
have resulted in new views on the definition and The different conceptions of human security are
nature of security. According to this new approach, classified under three distinct groups: the natural
security comprises aspects of non-traditional threats rights-rule of law, the humanitarian view, and the
as well as military issues. It is generally agreed that broader view (Hampson, 2008:231). Newman
the concept of security has widened and deepened; (2001:243) entitles these groups as basic human
and new threats such as environmental challenges, needs, assertive-interventionist focus, social
manifold vulnerabilities, and risks have gradually welfare-developmentalist focus with an additional
evolved. interpretation, and new security.
Under such an atmosphere, the concept of
human security was proposed and popularized in
the first half of the 1990s. In response to the new Natural Rights-Rule of Law
international order, non-traditional challenges at Conception
the turn of the millennium, United Nations (UN) The natural rights conception of human security
Secretary-General Kofi Annan advanced the idea involves the protection of basic human values such
of ‘human security’ that includes three basic as individuals’ right to life and liberty as well as
freedoms: “freedom from fear, freedom from want, the security of the human person, as articulated in
freedom to live in dignity.” Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human
The UN’s Human Development Report of Rights.
1994 highlighted the need for a shift from the
exclusive stress on territorial security to focusing
on people’s security, and instead of seeking security Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
is an international document adopted by the
through armaments to gaining security through
United Nations General Assembly in 1948 that
sustainable development.
articulates “the rights and freedoms to which
every human being is equally and inalienably
THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN entitled (The Universal Declaration of Human
SECURITY Rights, 1948: 6).
The concept of human security was first used
in the 1994 Human Development Report of the This conception also underlines the international
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) community’s role to protect and promote these
as “safety from chronic threats such as hunger, basic human values. In other words, the norm of
disease and repression, and protection from sudden responsibility to protect (R2P) that depends on
and harmful disruptions in the patterns of daily the willingness of the international community
life whether in homes, in jobs, or in communities” to prevent gross violations of human rights is
(UNDP Report 1994: 23). considered within the concept of human security.

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Non-Military Security

Responsibility to Protect (R2P) is a norm based on states responsibility to protect their own citizens and
the international community’s obligation to protect humans from serious violations such as genocide,
war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

The Humanitarian Conception

The humanitarian conception is an extension of the state responsibility approach to protect citizens
based on the natural rights conception of human rights because it depends on “the right to intervene”
or “duty to intervene” of the international community in countries with gross human rights violations.
Even if this contradicts with the core principles of international relations (such as the state sovereignty,
the prohibition of use of force against the territorial integrity, and non-interference in the domestic affairs
of a sovereign country), the security of the state does not automatically mean the security of its citizens
(Newman, 2001:244). The rise in the number of civil wars and failed states after the end of the Cold War
made it necessary for the international community to take action to prevent human-rights violations in
various countries such as Somalia, Rwanda, ex-Yugoslavia, and Kosovo.
The United Nations has involved in international conflicts within the framework of humanitarian
intervention and judicial intervention through the establishment of ad hoc international criminal tribunals
by the Security Council resolutions (namely, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
in May 1993 and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in November 1994). This involvement
of the UN is considered as critical for the protection of populations from state-sponsored violence as well
as civil and ethnic conflicts.

Ad hoc International Criminal Tribunals: are the judicial mechanisms that were established by the
UN Security Council in the framework of Resolution 827 for the former Yugoslavia and Resolution
955 for Rwanda. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was created in Arusha,
Tanzania to “prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other serious violations of international
humanitarian law committed in the territory of Rwanda and neighboring States, between 1 January
1994 and 31 December 1994” (http://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal). The International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was created to “deal with war crimes that took place during
the conflicts in the Balkans in the 1990s” The ICTR closed its doors in 2015 with 61 convictions and
14 acquittals before the ICTY concluded its mission in 2017 with 83 convictions and 19 acquittals.

Figure 8.1 The European Headquarters of the United Nations, Geneva/Switzerland.

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Both conceptions (the humanitarian conception and the natural rights conception) focus on a specific
dimension of human security. However, the multidimensional aspect of human security is not well
reflected in these interpretations. A relatively broader view, on the other hand, takes into consideration the
multidimensionality of the concept. This broader view encompasses all possible forms of threat to human
security, including political, economic, environmental, and social threats. Moreover, this broader view was
embraced in the 1994 Human Development Report under seven main domains: economic security, food
security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security
(UNDP Report, 1994: 24). (See Table 8.1 for the specific examples for these seven domains in the Report).

Table 8.1 Possible Types of Human Security Threats

Type of Security Examples of Main Threats

Economic security Persistent poverty, unemployment
Food security Hunger, famine
Deadly infectious diseases, unsafe food, malnutrition, lack of access to basic
Health security
health care
Environmental security Environmental degradation, resource depletion, natural disasters, pollution
Personal security Physical violence, crime, terrorism, domestic violence, child labor
Community security Inter-ethnic, religious and other identity based tensions
Political security Political repression, human rights abuses
Source: UNDP Report, 1994

According to this broader conception of important

security, globalization, global economy, and the
environment are current threats to human security.
Human security should not be confused with
The soil degradation, pollution, poverty, climate
human development. Human development is about
change, illegal immigration, refugee problem,
expanding the richness of human life by increasing
and terrorism are among the prominent threats to
opportunities and choices for people. It is certain that
human security.
the two are related concepts. Because human security
While the narrow conceptions of human depends on sustainable human development, and
security may be associated with the traditional sustainable development can be ensured in a secure
security approach, which is focused on classical environment for humans. For further information,
threats such as violence and war, the broader view see http://hdr.undp.org/en/humandev
offers a holistic approach that discusses new threats
to security and shows causal relationships between
them (Tzifakis, 2011: 361). Today the UNDP’s
1994 definition that encompasses seven domains of human security is generally approved in International
Relations literature; however, there is still an ongoing debate between the proponents of the narrow
approach and the broader approach.
There are some general characteristics of human security. First, human security
has become a concern of everyone; thus, it is universal. Second, the interdependent
1 character of human security threats necessitates the cooperation of states in security
issues. Third, the human security approach attaches greater importance to early
Discuss the main prevention than intervention because the cost of late intervention may be very
conceptions of high. Finally, the individual-centered approach of human security is undisputable
human security. (Human Development Report, 1994).

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THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SECURITY

The end of the Cold War changed the threat perception in international relations. The threat perception
now encompasses non-military threats. Thus, the referent object of security is now not the state, but human
beings. One can provide different reasons for this transformation; however, almost all scholars agree that since
the end of Cold War, the state-centered threats lost their relative importance in the international system.

The Cold War was the rivalry between the United States of America and the Soviet Union as well as
between their respective allies from the end of the Second World War to 1989. This rivalry was based on
the ideological difference between the two superpowers. It never escalated into an actual conflict; it was
rather based on the use of political, economic, bureaucratic, and propaganda tools despite the existence
of proxy wars such as the Korean War (1950-1953), the Vietnam War (1955-1975), and the Soviet-
Afghan War (1979-1989). The Cold War came to an end with the collapse of Communist bloc in 1989
and the dissolution of the USSR in 1991(Dağ, 2005, 93).

Figure 8.2 Soviet tanks at Friedrichstrasse, approximately 150 meters behind the border in East Berlin, 10/28/1961
Source: https://www.archives.gov/research/foreign-policy/cold-war/1961-berlin-crisis/nara-documents.html

Even if the end of Cold War may be considered as the turning point for a new threat perception,
there were developments focused on the individual dimension of security even during the Cold War years
(Bilgin, 2003:203).

The Cold War and the Humanitarian Conception

The dominant traditional security approach during the Cold War years was based on the national security
or the state security. As we mentioned above, the core principles of international relations have been the
territorial integrity, the sovereign equality of states, and non-interference in internal matters. Article 2 of the
UN Charter states these principles as follows:

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“The Organization and its Members, in with the academic work of Johan Galtung, the
pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, international society started to debate new kinds
shall act in accordance with the following of violence (besides the physical violence) such as
Principles. 1) The Organization is based on indirect violence or structural violence.
the principle of the sovereign equality of all This expanded conceptualization of violence led
its Members…4) All Members shall refrain to an expansion in the meaning of peace. Galtung
in their international relations from the (1964:2) underlined this expansion through
threat or use of force against the territorial the concepts of “positive peace” and “negative
integrity or political independence of any peace.” While negative peace is related to the
state, or in any other manner inconsistent traditional security approach that is based on the
with the Purposes of the United Nations” absence of war between two states, positive peace
(UN Charter, 1945). refers to the establishment of a socially just system
by taking into consideration all dimensions of
According to Bilgin (2003:203), the bipolar human security. According to Bilgin (2003:205),
system of the Cold War was based on a state- this shift in peace studies led to the emergence
centered security approach. However, the adoption of alternative security conceptions such as Third
of a common security perspective by Mikhail World security approaches.
Gorbachev, the rise of peace studies, and the
In fact, the formation of the Non-Aligned
Third World’s security approaches triggered the
Movement encouraged the emergence of new
transformation in the security understanding- and
approaches that criticized the Cold War structure,
now the focus was not on the state but rather on
which was based on bipolarity.
human beings.
Gorbachev’s common security perspective
heralded the end of the Cold War through efforts The Non-Aligned Movement is an organization
for stopping the arms race and ending the classical created by 29 Asian and African former colonial
security dilemma (Herz, 1950:157). Under countries in Bandung/Indonesia in 1955. All
Gorbachev, the USSR adopted some security these countries strived to follow an independent
policies in a coordinated manner with other states foreign policy from both NATO and the
in an attempt to avoid a nuclear catastrophe. Warsaw Pact and supported the independence
movements. They followed an agenda for
economic development, disarmament, and
Security Dilemma is a situation in which actions economic inequality between countries (Dağ,
taken by a state to increase its own security cause 2005, 330).
reactions from other states, which in turn lead to
a decrease rather than an increase in the original
state’s security (https://www.britannica.com/ Moreover, the Group of Seventy Seven (Group
topic/security-dilemma). of 77), which was established in 1984 in the
framework of the United Nations Conference of
Trade and Development, fought for economic and
Common security (collective security) focuses development security. In other words, non-military
on the interdependence of security on the one dimensions of security became the concern of the
hand and peace studies, on the other hand. It has international community, and the new groupings
initiated a debate on the necessity of a stable peace challenged the Cold War bipolarity in the late
rather than the absence of wars and armed conflicts 1970s.
in the system. Even if the evolution of human security concept
Generally, peace studies were based on an started with these studies in International Relations
understanding of the absence of war and violence during the Cold War, the end of the bipolar system
in the 1950’s. However, with the initiative of the happened to be a turning point for the human
Peace Research Institute in Oslo and especially security approach.

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The Post-Cold War Era areas such as gender inequality, human rights,
Post-Cold War developments paved the way for democracy, and economic development. The
the increasing interest of the international society national concerns of the Cold War period left its
in human security. Bilgin (2003:207) underlines place to new dimensions of human security in
all dimensions of human security and lists Post- 1990s (Newman, 2001:242).
Cold War developments as follows:
• growing disparities in economic opportuni- Complex Interdependence is a theory
ties both within and between states; developed by Keohane and Nye (1977) for
• increasing hardships faced by peoples in the explaining economic interdependence between
developing world who found themselves on states. The theory focuses on dependent relations
the margins of a globalizing world economy; between states in all dimension of security and
• diminishing non-renewable resources lead- underlines the importance of cooperation for
international community under the international
ing families and groups to become refugees;
organizations and regimes. Furthermore, it
• rising anti-foreigner feelings and violence assesses the high costs of military security in the
in reaction to migration pressures from the face of institutionalization and cooperation for
developing to the developed world; human security (Işıksal, 2004, 140).
• proliferating intrastate conflicts increasing
public interest in, and pressure for, human-
itarian intervention.” The shift towards human security after the Cold
Ovalı (2006:18) focuses on further political War led to various political efforts by the initiatives
developments for clarifying the shift in the of global commissions, international organizations,
understanding of security. He reflects on the and states. Even if the concept of human
human-based threats, including intrastate security was first mentioned in the 1994 UNDP
conflicts, human rights violations, the state’s loss of Development Report, the Palme Commission
its monopoly on the use of violence, transnational, (1982), the Brandt Commission (Brandt et al.
non-traditional and nonconventional threats as 1980-1983), the Brundtland Commission (1988),
well as technologic innovations. and the Commission on Global Governance
(1995) incorporated similar concepts into their
Newman (2001:241) assesses the increasing
reports (Oberleitner, 2005:185). This led to further
interest of the international society in human
broadening of the traditional security approach.
security following the end of the bipolar system
of the Cold War as well as in such issues as In 1996, Canada integrated the idea of human
globalization and normative changes related to security in its foreign policy formulation. Lloyd
the systemic change. First, upon the end of the Axworhty, Canada’s Minister of Foreign Affairs,
Cold War the state-centric security approach made a speech on human security at the United
came to an end. Consequently, non-traditional Nations General Assembly in an attempt to explain
threats including environmental problems, ethnic the expansion of the security understanding
conflicts, health issues, the weapons of mass through touching on such issues as security against
destruction became prominent in the discussion economic privation, an acceptable quality of life,
of human security. Second, Newman (2001:241) and a guarantee of fundamental human rights
underlines the importance of globalization (which (Axworhty, 1997:184).
altered the structure of the world economy) and Moreover, Canada took the initiative of forming
the complex interdependence, which has made all the Human Security Network in 1998 together
countries dependent on each other economically. with some other countries including Austria, Chile,
Third, normative changes related to the systemic Costa Rica, Greece, Ireland, Jordan, Mali, Norway,
change encompass the internationalization of all Slovenia, Switzerland, and Thailand.

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“Wars since the 1990s have been mainly

Lysoen Declaration: “Foreign Minister Lloyd
Axworthy and Norwegian Foreign Minister internal. They have been brutal, claiming
Knut Vollebaek met on the island of Lysoen more than 5 million lives. They have
near Bergen, Norway, to craft an international violated, not so much borders, as people.
agreement on advancing basic human security. Humanitarian conventions have been
The pact, known as the Lysoen Declaration, led routinely flouted, civilians and aid workers
to the creation of the Human Security Network have become strategic targets, and children
by a coalition of governments and to greater have been forced to become killers. Often
global cooperation on a wide range of issues
driven by political ambition or greed, these
related to peace, conflict, and the protection of
human lives” (www.stanleyfoundation.org). wars have preyed on ethnic and religious
differences, they are often sustained by
external economic interests, and they are
Lloyd Axworhty and Norway’s foreign minister fed by a hyperactive and in large part illicit
adopted the “Lysoen Declaration,” which was a global arms market.
framework for consultation and concerted action in
In the wake of these conflicts, a new
the areas of enhancing human security, promoting
understanding of the concept of security
human rights, strengthening humanitarian law,
is evolving. Once synonymous with the
preventing conflict, and fostering democracy and
defense of territory from external attack, the
good governance as well as cooperation in the
Arctic” (Axworthy, Vollebæk, Kuhnle and Peou, requirements of security today have come to
2014:145). Furthermore, Japan contributed to the embrace the protection of communities and
internationalization of human security by setting individuals from internal violence.
up the Commission on Human Security in 2001. The need for a more human-centered
Beyond the efforts of individual countries, approach to security is reinforced by the
the UN paved the way for institutionalization of continuing dangers that weapons of mass
human security. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan destruction, most notably nuclear weapons,
made references several times to human security in pose to humanity: their very name reveals
his speeches and the UN reports. First, he assessed their scope and their intended objective,
the security in non-military terms in his article if they were ever used” (Commission for
titled “Towards a Culture of Peace” (1999:15). He Human Security, 2000: 43).
stated as follows:
After the publication of this report, the UN
“We must also broaden our view of requested a final report for human security from
what is meant by peace and security. Peace the Commission on Human Security. The
means much more than the absence of Commission specified the priorities of human
war. Human security can no longer be security as follows (Human Security Now,
understood in purely military terms. Rather, 2003:133):
it must encompass economic development,
• “Protecting people in violent conflict;
social justice, environmental protection,
• Protecting people from the proliferation of
democratization, disarmament, and respect
arms;
for human rights and the rule of law.”
• Supporting the human security of people
Kofi Annan also talked about the changing on the move;
nature of wars after the Cold War and its effects on • Establishing human security transition
the understanding of security in his report titled funds for post-conflict situations;
“We the Peoples: the Role of UN in the 21st Century”. • Encouraging fair trade and markets to
He explained as follows: benefit the extreme poor;

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• Providing minimum living standards everywhere;

• According high priority to universal access to basic health care;
• Developing an efficient and equitable global system for patent rights;
• Empowering all people with universal basic education, through much stronger global and national
efforts;
• Clarifying the need for a global human identity while respecting the freedom of individuals to have
diverse identities and affiliations.”
The priorities of human security cover not only the military threats but also issues of non-military
security such as health and economic development. In other words, human security is not an alternative to
the state-centered security approach; it rather complements traditional security approach in the following
four different ways (Human Security Now, 2003:4):

• “Its concern is the individual and the community rather than the state;
• Menaces to people’s security include threats and conditions that have not always been classified
as threats to state security;
• The range of actors is expanded beyond the state alone;
• Achieving human security includes not just protecting people but also empowering people to
fend for themselves.”

As summarized in Table 8.2, these four directions reflect the developments in international relations
after the end of the Cold War:

Table 8.2 Traditional and Human Security Differences

Security Approach Reference Object Responsibility to protect Possible Threats

Interstate War, Nuclear
Traditional Security State The integrity of state
Weapons
Disease, Poverty, Food Security
Human Security Individual The integrity of Individual
Natural Disaster, Violence

In the first place, from the perspective of human security, the referent object of security is the individual
rather than the state. Second, the understanding of security as external aggression transforms into protecting
human beings from a new generation of threats. This new generation of threats such as climate change,
refugee problems, immigration flows, and ethnic conflicts have relatively direct effects on human beings
than on states. Third, the multiplication of actors in international relations makes it necessary to incorporate
international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and social movements into any understanding
of security. In other words, the expansion of the security understanding and the emergence new threats have
made it necessary for the students and scholars of IR to take into account the activities of other actors than
the state in order to explain the modern world politics. Finally, security today refers to the security of human
beings which in turn empowers people and societies as indispensable actors toward creating positive peace.
The institutionalization efforts in the framework of the UN continued
after the end of the Cold War. The UN Trust Fund for Human Security
was established in 1999. Later, the Advisory Board on Human Security
was formed by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in 2003 with a Human 2
Security Branch in the UN Office on Drugs and Crime in Vienna. The
What are the turning points
Human Security Unit was established in 2004 for managing the UN
in the historical evolution of
Trust Fund for Human Security. The first report of the UN on human
human security?
security was published in March 2010. With regard to human security,
the UN has published one report each year since 2010.

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ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY million copies as well as Murray Bookchin’s work

The 21st century presents a new approach to Our Synthetic Environment.
security threats. Today scholars and politicians In 1972, the Club of Rome released a report,
alike have been debating non-traditional security Limits of Growth, in which it was suggested that if
(NTS) threats, which are also known as non- the then economic patterns continued, the world
military threats, to better understand world would soon experience an ecological disaster. Limits
politics and take the necessary measures to sustain of Growth was the first report that has warned that
and promote the international order. Among the humanity is on the verge of a global economic
critical NTS are environmental security, economic and ecological destruction. Limits of Growth
security, the security of food and water resources. has also laid the foundations of the concept of
Other NTS include migration, climate change, sustainable development, a concept which is now
diseases and pandemics, social issues, human acknowledged all over the world and which for the
trafficking and drugs. first time brings together the issues of environment
and national/international economy.

The Development of the Concept

of Environmental Security Ecology: is the study of relationships between
The concept of environmental security seeks plants, animals, people, and their environment,
to explain the dangers arising from the ecosystem and the balances between these relationships.
change, ecosystem loss, and global warming The term was coined by the German zoologist
(Scheffran, 1993). Although the main reason of Ernst Haeckel in 1866. He used it to refer to
such security threats is not environmentally-related ‘the investigations of the total relations of the
animal both to its organic and its inorganic
in many cases, the environmental degradation
environment’.
shares a substantial role in the rise of a conflict in
world politics. A number of analysts suggested that
not only environmental issues should be considered The early environmentalists such as Lester
as a security problem but also that they might Brown sought to affect world politics by labeling
trigger a violent conflict (Homer-Dixon, 1991; environmental changes as new risks to national
Myers, 1989; Gleick, 1993). For example, climate security. In his article titled “Redefining National
change, which is the main environmental concern, Security,” Brown claimed that new threats to security
has been considered as a “threat multiplier” of the such as oil depletion, soil erosion, shrinking forests,
existing forms of conflicts and political violence. and climate change should be addressed within the
In 2011, the UN Security Council convened for framework of national security (Brown, 1977:6).
debating the security impacts of climate change. From the 1980s onwards, especially with the
The UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon stated new détente in the mid-1980s, environmental
at the meeting that “climate change not only questions have been kept on the political agenda. In
exacerbates threats to peace and security, it is a the late 1980s, scholars created a security discourse
threat to peace and security” (United Nations through debating such issues as environmental
Secretary General, 2011). problems (Brown, 1977, Falk ,1971). In the IR
Although in one way or another environmental literature, the casual relationship between the
politics has been with us for a long time now, the environment and security is being discussed in the
idea of systematically protecting the environment last three decades (Dalby, 2002; Brauch, 2003;
is the product of the 20th century. Green politics Homer-Dixon, 1991).
or ecology became a significant national and An important academic literature has evolved
international issue in the 1960s. Starting from connecting environmental issues with military
the 1960s, the environmentalist movements have conflicts and, in particular, with inter-state
been influential in world politics. One of the first conflicts, civil wars, and inter-group conflicts. The
calls for an ecological approach to world problems relation between the environmental degradation,
came with Rachel Carson’s (1962) book entitled scarcity and armed conflict (either in the form of
The Silent Spring, which has sold more than two a civil war or an inter-group violence) has been

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well documented (Dalby, 2006). Some researchers politics perhaps explains the sudden swell in
have attempted to show that the environmental writing on the environmental security and, in
scarcity is directly related with armed conflicts. particular, on the environmental causes of violent
Accordingly, scarcity causes despair which in turn conflicts (Dalby 1992; Deudney and Matthew
leads to a conflict. 1999; Matthew 2002).
One of the most ardent supporters of the During this period some scholars, represented
environmental security approach has been Thomas by Barry Buzan, attempted to broaden the scope
Homer-Dixon. Homer-Dixon (1991, 1994) and and domain of the concept of security in order to
others have shown a strong correlation between include non-military concerns in the definition
environmental conditions and inter-state warfare. and scope of national and international security.
According to them, environmental pressures may In 1994, the well-known travel author Robert
lead to four major problems: the beginning of these Kaplan used the Toronto Group’s thesis in an
effects is a decline in agricultural production. In essay published in The Atlantic Monthly where he
this sense, food security is assumed to be a serious proclaimed that the environment has been “the
problem for nation states. The economic collapse, national security issue of the early twenty-first
the displacement of the population, and the century” (Kaplan, 1994: 190).
deterioration of social relations are other probable Environmental insecurity is dependent on
effects of environmental problems. the resilience of individuals and societies to
The idea that environmental issues may lead to environmental shocks. This includes possessing
violent conflicts has received substantial attention in the economic robustness necessary to understand
the environmental security literature. Today, several economic downturns with regard to the agricultural
competing approaches to environmental security production, the transportation of goods, or the
exist. The most influential of these approaches production loss caused by the environmental
focuses on the role of environmental scarcity as damage. In addition, the vulnerability of states
an independent variable in violent conflicts. The and local civil governments to crises brought about
so-called Toronto Group under the leadership of by environmental change often has immediate
Thomas Homer-Dixon developed this approach. consequences for local groups and individuals
Since 1989, this group has conducted a series of because of the loss of services or life as well as
case studies (including in Mexico, Pakistan, Gaza, the infrastructures related to public health. This
Rwanda, and South Africa), and advanced the ‘political ecology’ re-visits the premises of security
thesis that when the scarcity of renewable resources and development economy in such a way that
(such as cropland and river waters) interacts with leaves military geopolitics relatively irrelevant in
harsh social effects, conflicts arise. A key concept the 21st century (Burgess, 2008.)
in Homer-Dixon’s work on scarcity-induced However, it is clear from the historical
environmental conflict is the “resource capture,” development that environmental crises have
the idea that “environmental scarcity encourages sometimes been a significant factor in violence
powerful groups to capture valuable environmental and warfare. If this was true in the past, it will be
resources and prompts marginal groups to migrate even truer in the future, because the increasing
to ecologically sensitive areas. These two processes population and economic pressures lead to
in turn reinforce environmental scarcity and raise increasing strains on the ecological system.
potential for social instability (Homer -Dixon,
Environmental changes might lead to a conflict
“The Project on Environment, Population and
and possibly to an international war as a result of
Security”, 46).
“1) Food shortages due to decreases in net global
As a result, security discourse has undergone a agricultural production; 2) Decreased availability
serious transformation since the early 1990s. These and quality of fresh water in key regions due to
initiatives have drawn considerable political and shifted precipitation patterns, causing more
societal attention to the issue of environmental frequent floods and droughts; 3) Disrupted access
change in the early 1990s. This confluence of to energy supplies due to extensive sea ice and
moments in global security and environmental storminess” (Schwartz and Randall 2003: 2).

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In fact, if we review the incidences of war and conflict, we can easily observe the effects of environmental
factors, which include:
• “Competition for natural resources;
• The overuse and depletion of shared resources by one or more groups in a bio-region, affecting
others who also depend on the resources (often exacerbated by class, ethnic, national, or other
divisions);
• Environmental degradation (e.g. pollution, soil erosion, deforestation, loss of biodiversity) that
impoverishes the living space and undermines a society’s physical, economic, social, and spiritual
quality of life. Although these environmental factors have been listed here separately for reasons
of discussion, in fact they often overlap or are different dimensions of a single ecological problem”
(Mische, 2004: 39).

International Initiatives on Environmental Issues

An international environmental regime was developed over the last thirty years. Interest in the
environment has grown steadily since the first Earth Day organized by environmental activists in 1970.
The first UN conference on the environment, which was accepted as the beginning of the international
environmental policy, took place in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972. This conference led to the creation of
the United Nations Environment Programme, which is responsible for coordinating the environmental
activities of states and international organizations to promote better regional and global environmental
protection. A second conference was held with less publicity in 1982 in Nairobi, Kenya (the headquarters
of the UN Environment Program). Developments in the 1980s such as the 1984 Bhopal chemical plant
disaster and the Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident in 1986 pushed environmental issues to the top of
the global agenda.

Figure 8.3 Remains of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant’s 4th reactor is enclosed within the New Safe
Confinement (NSC) which is built on top of the sarcophagus.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NSC-Oct-2017.jpg

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The World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Norwegian Prime Minister
Gro Harlem Brundtland, published the report entitled Our Common Future in 1987. The report
acknowledged the relationship between the environment and development, with a special emphasis on
sustainable development. Because of the echoes created by the Brundtland Report, the United Nations has
decided to organize a new conference in Rio on the environment and development in 1992. The argument
that environmental change was a security issue pointed out for the first time in 1992 UN Conference on
Environment and Development, which became popularly known as the Rio Earth Summit. The Earth
Summit as the largest conference brought together more than a hundred state leaders and established the
Commission on Sustainable Development, which provided the political basis for the concept of sustainable
development. During the 1992 Rio Earth Summit conference, world leaders highlighted a number of
environmental problems including biodiversity, the growing ozone hole, pollution, desertification, and
climate change.
At this conference, The US and more than 150 other nations also signed the Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and pledged to cut all Greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2000.
From the 1990s onwards, environmental debate increasingly focused on the issue of ‘climate change,’
which is also known as global warming.

Greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide and other gases that, when concentrated in the atmosphere, act like
the glass in a greenhouse, holding energy in and leading to global warming.

Figure 8.4 Greenhouse Gasses’ effect on heat retention in atmosphere

In 1997, nations adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which required the signatory developed countries to
reduce their production of greenhouse gases by the year 2012 by 5.2 percent.

Kyoto Protocol (1997): is the main international treaty on global warming, which entered into effect
in 2005 and mandates cuts in carbon emissions in 2008–2012. Almost all the world’s major countries,
except the United States, are participants.

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Ten years after the Earth Summit, during the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development
convened in Johannesburg/South Africa, the commitment to sustainable development was reaffirmed and
the importance of globalization was emphasized.
In 2012, at the 20th anniversary of the Rio Earth Summit, the Rio+20 UN Conference on
Sustainable Development was held in Rio/Brazil. Members agreed to establish a high-level political
forum for sustainable development. They also decided to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), which will build upon the Millennium Development Goals.

Table 8.3 Chronology (Baylis J., Smith S. and Owens P. eds., 2011:350)
Chronology
1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
1956 UK Clean Air Act to combat “smog” in British cities
1958 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil
1959 Antarctic Treaty
1962 Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring
1967 Torrey Canyon oil tanker disaster
1969 Greenpeace founded
1971 At the Founex Meeting in Switzerland, Southern experts formulate a link between environment and
development
1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE) in Stockholm
Establishment of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
1973 MARPOL Convention on oil pollution from ships
1979 Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention (LRTAP)
1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
1982 UN Law of the Sea Convention (enters into force in 1994)
1984 Bhopal chemical plant disaster
1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer
The Antarctic “ozone hole” confirmed
1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster
1987 Brundtland Commission Report
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
1988 Establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
1989 Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
1991 Madrid Protocol (to the Antarctic Treaty) on Environmental Protection 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held at Rio de Janerio. Publication of
the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21.United Nations Conventions on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
and Biological Diversity (CBD) both signed. Establishment of the Commission on Sustainable
Development (CSD).
1995 World Trade Organization (WTO) founded
1997 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC
1998 Rotterdam Convention on Hazardous Chemicals to Pesticides

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Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to

Justice in Environmental Matters
2000 Cartagena Protocol to the CBD on Biosafety
2001 US President Bush revokes signature of the Kyoto Protocol
2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), Johannesburg, Johannesburg Plan of
Implementation
2005 Entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol and introduction of the first international emissions trading
system by the European Union
2006 International discussions on the climate change regime after 2012
2007 Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC; Bali CoP produces “road map” for climate negotiations
2009 Copenhagen climate CoP fails to provide a new international agreement
2010 Nagoya Protocol to the CBD on Access and benefit sharing
2011 Durban climate CoP aims to produce a new agreement by 2015
2012 Rio+20 Conference
2016 UN Climate Change Conference

Current Environmental Issues

Most global environmental problems involve the common good for all states and people on the planet.
Today major environmental issues such as ozone depletion, greenhouse gases, biodiversity decline, the
destruction of habitats, population rise, and water scarcity all contribute, directly or indirectly, to human
insecurity.

The Atmosphere
Two problems of the atmosphere, namely the global warming and the depletion of the ozone layer, had
long been debated among scientists. The ozone layer has two basic functions for filtering the ultraviolet
rays of the sun and dissipating the atmosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer allows more harmful rays
to reach Earth, resulting in more skin cancer, weakened immune systems, reduced plant yields, damage to
ocean ecosystems, and climate change.

Ozone layer: is the part of the atmosphere that screens out harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.
Certain chemicals used in industrial economies break the ozone layer down.

In the early 1970s, researchers suggested that nitrogen oxides from fertilizers and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) were breaking apart in the atmosphere and releasing chlorine atoms that were causing the ozone
depletion. International agreements such as Geneva, Vienna, and Montreal Conventions have aimed at
reducing and eventually eliminating CFC production. Particularly in 1987, the Montreal Protocol put
limits on CFC emissions in an effort to phase them out.
The global warming presents states with a triple dilemma. First, there is the dilemma of short-term (and
predictable) costs to gain long-term (and less predictable) benefits. Second, specific constituencies such as
oil companies and industrial workers pay the costs. Third, there is the collective goods dilemma among
states: benefits are shared globally but costs must be extracted from each state individually. The first is the
intrinsic problem that individual states will always tend to put their national interests before the common
good of the international community, as suggested by the idea of the ‘tragedy of the commons’.

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The main function of the UN Environment

Tragedy of the commons: is a common
Program (UNEP) is to monitor environmental
good dilemma that is created when common
conditions. It works with the World
environmental assets (such as the world’s
sherries) are depleted or degraded through the Meteorological Organization to measure changes
failure of states to cooperate effectively. One in global climate from year to year. Since 1989,
solution is to “enclose” the commons (split them the UN-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on
into individually owned pieces); international Climate Change (IPCC) has served as a negotiating
regimes can also be a (partial) solution. Garrett forum for this issue. In 2007, the IPCC issued a
Hardin (404) used the idea of the ‘tragedy report from scientists around the world, approved
of the commons’ to draw parallels between by more than 100 countries, calling global
global environmental degradation and the fate warming “unequivocal” and expressing “very high
of common land before the introduction of confidence” that humans are the main cause of
enclosures. He argued that if pasture is open to global warming. The IPCC estimates that by 2080,
all, each herder will try to keep as many cattle as if current trends continue, anything from 1.2 to 3.2
possible on the commons. billion people will be experiencing water scarcity,
200–600 million people will be malnourished or
hungry, and between two and seven million people
Unlike the ozone layer problem, in the first
a year will be subject to coastal flooding. However,
decade of the twenty-first century, climate change
the effects of climate change will be truly global,
has become the most prominent cause of concern.
not least through its impact on migration trends
Gardiner aptly calls the climate change problem
and economic development.
“a perfect moral storm,” at the base of which lies
his thesis of ‘theoretical ineptitude’ (Gardiner,
2006: 407). Especially during the 1990s, the
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
issue of global warming achieved a higher profile
Change (IPCC): is an international panel of
on the international environmental agenda. It scientists and researchers that provide advice on
also features prominently in the environmental climate change to the international community.
conflict literature and within the human security The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World
approach to environmental security. Scholars Meteorological Organization (WMO) and
based in security studies have often conceptualized UNEP to provide decision-makers and others
environmental problems as an international security interested in climate change with an objective
threat – with an increasing emphasis on climate source of information about an issue that had
change (see Westing, 1986; Homer-Dixon, 1994; become increasingly complex and controversial.
Barnett, 2000). Its causes (man-made greenhouse The IPCC does not conduct any research, nor
gas emissions) and impacts are distributed and does it monitor climate change-related data or
felt (albeit not equally) across the international parameters. Its role is to assess on a comprehensive,
system, transcending traditional boundaries and open and transparent basis the latest scientific,
jurisdictions of states. The erosion of glaciers in the technical and socio-economic literature produced
poles, abnormal weather conditions, the hurricanes worldwide, with a view to better understanding
of 2005 and 2012 have recently raised the issue of (1) the risks of anthropocentric climate change,
(2) its observed and projected impacts (3) and
global warming to the top of the political agenda.
options for adaptation and mitigation.

Global warming: is an increase in the volume Biodiversity

of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s temperature,
contributing to a green-house effect that traps Biodiversity refers to the tremendous diversity
heat from the sun’s rays and raises the average of plant and animal species making up the earth’s
temperature around the world. (global, regional, and local) ecosystems. The extent
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termed the natural rate of extinction. Unfortunately, The population growth contributes to
the loss of biodiversity is many times higher due to environmental destruction. The tendency of world
land conversion, climate change, pollution, and the population to grow rapidly and overly creates serious
harvesting of natural resources. concerns about the exhaustion of natural resources
Two types of habitat (tropical rain forests and (both renewable and non-renewable resources)
oceans) are especially important to biodiversity and and requires the states to cooperate toward finding
the atmosphere. As many as half the world’s total solutions to environmental problems.
species live in rain forests, which replenish oxygen
and reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Water Disputes
According to researches, 3 to 10 million animals
The world water use is 35 times higher than
and plant species live on the earth, and 50% to 80%
that of a few centuries ago. It has grown twice as
of them are in tropical forests. Rain forests thus
fast as the world population in the 20th century.
benefit all the states. In less developed countries the
By the mid-1990s, eighty countries, constituting
tropical rain forests were plundered rapidly with
40 percent of the world’s population, suffered
the extreme population growth, poverty, and high
from serious water shortages. According to a study
external debt pressure. For instance, more than
published in 1995 by the World Bank, the “wars of
80% of forests in Ivory Coast and Madagascar have
the next century will be over water” (The Economist
been recently destroyed.
2000: 52). According to The Economist, the Bank’s
experts and most other water scholars believe that
Population Growth the Middle East is the likeliest crucible for future
Although we have noted that a number of factors water wars.
place stress on the global environment, the key- Yet water supplies are relatively unchanging
underlying factor is the growing world population. and are becoming depleted in many places. One-
Some demographers project that within three fifth of the world’s population lacks safe drinking
decades or so world population will have passed water, and 80 countries suffer water shortages.
nine billion. Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), a Water supplies (rivers and other bodies of water)
British political economist, published “An Essay on often cross international boundaries; thus, access
the Principle of Population” in 1798. In the almost to water is increasingly a source of international
two centuries since Malthus made his predictions, conflict (and therefore a legitimate subfield of
world population has grown dramatically from the security studies).
hundreds of millions to more than seven billion Water problems are especially important in
people today. the Middle East. Water scarcity is potentially a
“The current world population of 7.6 billion is very stressful issue in the Middle East, the most
expected to reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in water-contested region in the world. Besides, the
2050 and 11.2 billion in 2100, according to a new Middle East is already a conflict-ridden region.
United Nations report. With roughly 83 million Cooperation between the neighboring countries is
people being added to the world’s population absolutely needed to deal with the water shortage
every year, the upward trend in population size is problem. Water security is a “high politics” issue
expected to continue, even assuming that fertility in the Middle East and North Africa (the MENA
levels will continue to decline” (www.un.org). region).

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Figure 8.5 Somalian children refugees fetch water at the new Ifo-extension in Dadaab on August 14, 2011

Gray and Sadoff define water security in non-conflict and humanitarian terms as “the availability of
an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods, ecosystems and production, coupled
with an acceptable level of water-related risks to people, environments and economies”(Grey and Sadoff
2007, p. 545). Homer-Dixon concludes that “environmental scarcity rarely, if ever, causes inter-state war.
Instead, it contributes to chronic and diffuse strife within countries.” However, he also argues that “the
renewable resource most likely to stimulate interstate war is river water” (1996a: 48).
The Ministerial Declaration from the World Water Council (2000)
stated that water security refers to a situation where “fresh-water, coastal and
3
related ecosystems are protected and improved; sustainable development
and political stability are promoted; every person has access to enough safe
How and why has the water at an affordable cost to lead a healthy and productive life; and the
environment developed vulnerable are protected from the risks of water-related hazards.” Perhaps
into a global issue? one of the most well-known definitions of water security comes from the
Global Water Partnership (2000). Accordingly, “water security at any
level, from the household to the global, means that every person has access
to enough safe water at affordable cost to lead a clean, healthy and productive life, while ensuring that the
natural environment is protected and enhanced.”

ECONOMIC SECURITY

Defining the Concept of Economic Security

The narrow military conception of security has largely excluded the consideration of potential non-
military threats and non-military means for providing security. Economic and ecological developments in
an increasingly interdependent world present potential threats for actors at all levels of analysis. The causes,
effects, and solutions of these economic and environmental challenges ignore national boundaries, calling
into question many assumptions of statist definitions of security.

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During the 1990s, the mainstream security Economic security is also often defined as “the
agenda merged with the mainstream development degree to which individuals are protected against
agenda under the mantle of global governance. hardship-causing economic losses” (Hacker,
Global political changes in the post-Cold War Huber, Nichols, Rehm, Schlesinger, Valletta,
system, the shift in conflicts mainly to poorer Craig, 2012). The UN Development Report 2003
regions of the world (particularly to Africa), the states that “almost across the board, the story is one
scale of humanitarian emergencies, the perceived of stagnation. Economies have not grown, half of
threat of global terrorism, and the deepening Africans live in extreme poverty and one-third in
global economic integration with its inequalities hunger, and about one-sixth of children die before
and political protests created some space for the the age of five – the same as a decade ago” (UNDP,
exploration of the relationship between poverty 2003:37).
and security. Another problem with the notion of economic
Poverty has often been portrayed as a case for security relates to the fact that even though
economic security. Poverty and economic insecurity economic deprivation might represent a severe
can be seen as a ‘non-traditional’ security concern. threat to life, it does not necessarily cast itself
In some societies, poverty and economic disparity as a security issue. Williams (2003) argues that
are sensitive and highly politicized issues, and economic issues are rarely successfully securitized
any move to securitize those issues could provoke because of two reasons: 1) the abstractness of
instability, social unrest, bloody ethno-religious markets, and 2) the individualized and intrinsically
conflict, and national disintegration. risky nature of capitalism.
Economic security is a basis of the national Despite the problems in economic security
security of the state. Ensuring the national as a concept, it is undeniable that economic
security is the primary responsibility of the State. insecurity can trigger survival issues in the societal
This responsibility is being carried out in close and political sectors. Basic economic failures
collaboration with the economic agents of the state. such as famine, negative growth, unemployment
The national security reflects the ability of relevant and market failure may generate ethnic rivalries
political, legal and economic institutions of the state that exploit political antagonism as seen in the
to protect the interests of its key entities in national collapse of Yugoslavia, the bloody ethnic conflicts
economic traditions and values. Buzan et al. (1998: in Rwanda and Burundi, and the social unrest in
95) for example argue that the idea of economic Indonesia.
security is located at the center of “the unresolved and
highly political debates about international political
economy concerning the nature of relationship
Poverty as a Multidimensional
between the political structure of anarchy and Concept
the economic structure of the market.” The main Global political changes in the post-Cold War
problem lies in how we should treat states, societies, era, the shift in conflicts mainly to poorer regions
and markets in our analysis. of the world (particularly Africa), the scale of
Economic security refers to the entitlement of humanitarian emergencies, the perceived threat of
any individual to have a minimum regular income global terrorism, and deepening global economic
that comes from a lucrative activity or, as a last integration with its attendant inequalities and
resort, from a social security trust fund. Taking political protests created space for the exploration
such a view can only mean that only a quarter of the relationship between poverty and security
of the whole world’s population benefits from within mainstream analysis. Poverty has often been
economic security. Even if the problems related to portrayed as a case for economic security.
economic insecurity are greater in the developing While globalization has created new
countries, the developed states also show concern opportunities, it has also generated “political and
for these problems. In this respect, unemployment economic instabilities and conflicts within states.”
is considered as one of the factors that leads to Whereas over 800,000 people a year lose their lives
political tensions and interethnic violence. to violence, about 2.8 billion suffer from poverty,

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ill health, illiteracy, and other maladies. Human security recognizes the linkage between conflict and
deprivation –the latter provides a causal context to many conflicts. Conversely, conflict increases poverty
and crime and devastates economies. A broad “all-encompassing” and “integrated” approach is therefore
required to account for these complex interconnections (Human Security Now, Commission on Human
Security, 2003).
Nowadays, mainstream academics, diplomats and politicians speak openly of the need to integrate
approaches to poverty and security. Leaders of the G8, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the
World Bank, for example, have spoken about a possible link between poverty and conflict. Globally, the
political and economic challenge is defined in limited terms of ‘poverty reduction’ via quantitative targets
set out in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Putting the issue of poverty in the context of economic security is a stinker. Recent studies of intrastate
conflicts reveal that many protracted bloody ethno-religious conflicts in the 1990s can be associated with
poverty, economic disparity, and unequal distribution of wealth due to majority–minority dichotomy,
racial discrimination, and unfair competition. The desire to reinvigorate the UN Development Programme
led to the unveiling in 2000 of the Millennium Development Goals (see Table 8.4).

Table 8.4 The Millennium Development Goals

THE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS, 2000
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs or MDG 8) are a long -and medium- term (to be achieved by
2015) development agenda approved by the UN General Assembly in December 2000. Their purpose was
to inject renewed urgency into global development efforts by establishing challenging targets in each of
the key human development areas.
Goal 1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Targets: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose income is less than one dollar a
day; and halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.
Goal 2 Achieve universal primary education
Target: Ensure that by 2015, children everywhere – boys and girls – will be able to complete primary
schooling.
Goal 3 Promote gender equality and empower women
Target: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary schools by 2005, and all levels of education
by 2015.
Goal 4 Reduce child mortality
Target: Reduce by two-thirds (1990–2015) the under-5 mortality rate.
Goal 5 Improve maternal health
Target: Reduce by three-quarters (1990–2015) the maternal morbidity ratio.
Goal 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Targets: Halt and begin to reverse spread of HIV/AIDS by 2015, and the incidence of malaria and other
diseases.
Goal 7 Ensure environmental sustainability
Targets: Integrate sustainable development principles; halve the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water; achieve a significant improvement in the lives of 100 million
slum dwellers by 2020.
Goal 8 Develop a global partnership for development
Targets: Further develop a rule-based non-discriminatory financial and trading system; address needs of
least developed countries, small island and landlocked states; make debt sustainable; employment for
youths; access to medicines; share benefits of new information and communications technologies.
Source: United Nations, 2010

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The eight Millennium Development Goals growth is exponential (or geometric) while the
(that range from halving extreme poverty to halting growth in the supply of food and other essentials
the spread of HIV/AIDS and providing universal is merely arithmetical. Population growth would
primary education, all by the target date of 2015) therefore always result in famine, disease, and war.
form a blueprint agreed by all countries and all the While some have argued that Malthus’ predictions
world’s leading development institutions. They were fundamentally flawed, as they took no
have galvanized unprecedented efforts to meet the account of improvements in agricultural and
needs of the world’s poorest. However, the UN’s other technologies, others have suggested that his
2009 progress report on the achievement of the predictions have merely been postponed. Because
MDGs concluded that overall progress had been the application of technology to agriculture,
too slow for most of the targets to be met by 2015, particularly in capital-rich countries, has extended
particularly in view of global economic and food the food-production limits of which Malthus wrote
crises. It is clear that both food security and health so pessimistically. However, the world today does
security might be directly undermined by the still suffer from widespread malnutrition and even
generation of economic insecurity. starvation, especially the capital-poor countries.
As the era of Millennium Development Goals Global food crisis can be considered as an
came to a conclusion, we witnessed the introduction essential part of human security. Bryan McDonald
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. highlights that “the guarantee of food security
World leaders adopted the 2030 Agenda in can be recognized as a key component of human
September 2015 at a historic UN Summit. security.” He also thought that governments and
international agencies can play a significant role in
ensuring food security.
The concept of food security is a highly
4 complex issue and has been defined in at least 200
ways. Food security emerged as a critical issue in
Discuss the relationship between the mid-1970s in the discussions of international
poverty and security. food problems. According to the 1974 World Food
Summit, food security refers to the “availability
at all times of adequate world food supplies of
FOOD SECURITY basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of
food consumption and to offset fluctuations in
production and prices”.
Describing the Concept of Food
In the early 1980s, following the seminal
Security work of Amartya Sen on entitlement analysis,
In 2017, an estimated of nearly 821 million the definition of food security used by FAO was
people faced persistent hunger and chronic food expanded to include both physical and economic
deprivation (FAO, 2018). Meanwhile, due to access. According to the Nobel Prize laureate and
conflict-induced emergencies as well as rising economist Amartya Sen, food insecurity is not a
natural disasters, demand for food assistance has problem of food production or availability but
continued to grow. of people’s limited ability to mobilize resources.
Two hundred years ago, the British scholar Sen has made a major contribution to shifting
Thomas Malthus warned that population tends the perception about development away from
to increase faster than food supply and predicted economic models and towards ideas such as
that population growth would limit itself through capacity, freedom, and choice. His works include
famine and disease. Malthus is best known for the Poverty and Famine (1981), Development as
views set out in his pamphlet, later expanded into Freedom (1999) and The Idea of Justice (2009).
a book in many editions, the Essay on Population During the 1990s, the food security literature
(1798). Its key argument was that unchecked has broadened to address market-oriented economic
population growth will always exceed the growth growth, agricultural development, poverty
of the means of subsistence, because population reduction, demographic trends, rising incomes,

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changing food consumption patterns, gender issues, Utilization refers to food quality and nutritional
and the environment. The most commonly used content. This relates to health, HIV/AIDS, access
definition of food security is the one developed at to water and clean energy sources. FAO considers
the World Food Summit of 1996. The principal the principle of stability as the fourth dimension of
achievement of this summit was a pledge by the 186 food security. This principle is mostly related to the
participating governments to reduce the number of consequences of sudden shocks. Food security is “a
undernourished people worldwide by about one- situation” that does not have to occur a moment,
half to 400 million by the year 2015. a day or a season only but on a permanent basis
According to this definition, at the individual, with sustainability. For food security objectives
household, national, regional and global levels to be realized, all four dimensions must be
food security is achieved “when all people at all fulfilled simultaneously. Moreover, each of these
times have both physical and economic access to components needs to be considered at the level of
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their individuals, households, and global.
dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life.” This definition has been again refined
in The State of Food Insecurity 2001 by FAO as Food Security
Dimensions
follows: “Food security exits when all people, at all Food Availability
times, have physical, social and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their
dietary needs and food preferences for an active
and healthy life.” Food Access
Stability

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): is

the oldest permanent specialized agency of the Food Utilization
United Nations, established in October 1945 with
the objective of defeating hunger and improving
nutrition and standards of living by increasing
agricultural productivity. With over 194 member
states, FAO works in over 130 countries. In Nutritional Outcome
agriculture, FAO is the lead agency.
Figure 8.6 Dimensions of Food Security
Dimensions of Food Security Source: www.foodandenvironment.com
In this context, there are four main components
of food security. These are availability, accessibility, One of the purposes of The World Food
utilization, and stability. The first dimension is the Summit at 1996 was to halve the number of
availability. Availability refers to whether food is undernourished by 2015, while the Millennium
physically available. In other words, it is related to Development Goals (MDGs), set in 2000, aspired
the question of whether enough food is produced to reduce by half the proportion of people suffering
to meet the needs. The second dimension of food from hunger. The first MDG aimed to “eradicate
security is accessibility, which is the key issue when extreme poverty and hunger” by 2015, however
discussing food security. The concept of access to this target has not been achieved.
food was first presented by Amartya Sen in the early According to a joint report issued in 2009
1980s. Amartya Sen contributed to the literature by the World Bank, the United Nations Food
on food security in pointing out that famines often and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the
arise not from a lack of food, but from a complex International Fund for Agricultural Development,
of social, economic, and political factors such as Arab countries are the largest importers of cereal
rising food prices, poor food distribution systems, in the world and most of these countries import at
and government inefficiency. least 50% of the food calories that they consume.

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Food insecurity and economic insecurity as well global food insecurity, driving millions of people
as natural resource scarcities (real or perceived) may into poverty, worsening the state of the world’s
be sources of conflict. When politically dominant most food-insecure regions and threatening long-
groups seize land and food resources, deny access term human security. In conclusion, recent and
to food to other culturally or economically ongoing developments in the Middle East have
marginalized groups, and cause hunger and once again brought the question of food security
scarcities, violence often flares. In Ethiopia, to the forefront of the global security agenda. It
Rwanda, and Sudan the food crises resulting from is the right time for security scholars to take up
drought and mismanagement of agriculture led to the challenge of dealing with the idea of food
a rebellion and the governmental collapse, followed security. Such an effort will inevitably need to be
by even greater food shortfalls in ensuing years of multidisciplinary in nature and extend beyond the
conflict. Reductions in agriculture also threaten a current, underdeveloped inferences made to links
state’s policy of food security even where a country between food security and conflict, and generate
is not as vulnerable to an international embargo a fuller, more comprehensive picture of how food
of food as, for example, Iraq was during the 1990 dynamics intersect with security at the local,
Gulf crisis. regional, and global levels.
The high food prices have pushed 44 million
people into severe poverty and hunger between
June 2010 and February 2011 alone. Surely,
there are a number of structural factors driving 5
food insecurity. The recent rise in food prices Explain the key components of food security.
is one the main causes exacerbating the state of

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LO 1 Define the concept of human security.

There are three conceptions of human security, natural rights-rule of law conception, humanitarian
conception and broader view conception. Natural rights conception depends on the protection
of humans basic needs like rights to life, liberty, and the security of person as in Article 3 of
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Humanitarian conception is based on state’s and
international community’s responsibility to protect human beings from human rights violations
such as genocide, crimes against humanity, and crimes against peace. Finally, the broader view

Summary
encompasses all dimensions of human security including economic security, food security, health
security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security.

Explain the historical evolution of the concept of human

LO 2 security.

The evolution of human security can be analyzed in two separate periods, during the Cold War and in
the post-Cold War era. During the Cold War, collective security concept of Gorbachev, peace studies
and third world security approaches revealed the different dimensions of human security. Collective
security concept of Gorbachev depends on the cooperation of states for security and ending of
security dilemma and arms race of the Cold War on one hand. On the other hand, the absence of
war began to be defined only as negative peace, and the necessities of positive and real peace were
determined as the establishment of social justice by taking in consideration of all dimensions of
human security. The final one, the third world security approaches put forward economic dimension
of human security for developing countries. The post-Cold War era witnessed major developments
in international relations such as the multiplication of actors, the end of bipolarity, the change of
the referent object of security from state to individual, and technological innovations. Different
dimensions of human security started to be handled separately. Consequently, human security is
codified and institutionalized in the framework of the United Nations.

LO 3 Debate the environmental security.

Environmental Security (ES) has been an interdisciplinary academic field since the mid-1970s.
Ideas on environmental security surfaced in the security discourse in the late 1980s. The Chernobyl
nuclear reactor accident in 1986 and the 1984 Bhopal chemical plant disaster had drawn the
attention to environmental threats. In the 1987 report, Our Common Future, the authors argued
that environmental degradation and shortage of resources would lead to conflict as people fought
over resources. Hence, in the Brundtland Commission report, the need for sustainable development
is partly justified by the fear of conflict. Now, the environment is a transnational issue, and
environmental security is an important dimension of peace and national security. Environmental
problems, such as environmental change, the depletion of the ozone layer, climate change, loss of
biodiversity, transboundary pollution, and water disputes may lead to disagreements among states. In
fact, environmental problems can have a serious and long lasting negative influence on peoples’ living
conditions and this may cause new social conflicts.

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LO 4 Contextualize the economic security and poverty.

Economic security refers to the entitlement of any individual to have a minimum regular income
that comes from a lucrative activity or, as a last resort, from a social security trust fund. Basic
economic security should be a human right, and this should be defined in terms of advancing
the freedom of the individual. Moreover, scholars of public policy have long regarded economic
security in terms of securing the individual (through such means as social security provision)
against sudden income losses and consumption losses. Poverty and unemployment are two of the
Summary

most distinct and urgent issues of economic insecurities. Earlier in the literature, poverty was often
associated with the lack of material supplies that support a person’s life. This includes sufficient
food, decent housing, land, and other assets as well as human capital (education and skills). Later
definitions in the literature have focused on the psychological and social aspects of poverty. Poverty
began to be associated with unheard voices, powerlessness, marginalization, injustice, negligence,
manipulation, and exploitation.

LO 5 Identify food security as a security threat.

Since the end of the Cold War, the landscape of national and international security threats has
changed. These new security challenges are most often felt in people’s daily lives. Food security
refers to the idea that all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food
that is necessary to lead active and healthy lives.  The non-traditional elements of security pose a
greater threat to the state than the traditional ones. One of those elements, the absence of food
security (described as food insecurity that may trouble the peace situation) is a reality for billions
of people, making their lives less secure. Despite the great economic and technological advances,
many people around the world are starving. Ensuring food security has been a central feature
of global-governance efforts to promote peace and prosperity. Many current projections strongly
suggest that global population growth, climate change, and food demand will remain a pressing
concern for individuals, communities, and states in the near future. Take the recent developments
in the wake of the Arab Spring as an example. Unstable food security and the recent international
food price spikes were certainly one of the many grievances in the region.

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1 When has the human security concept been 6 Which of the following is an environmental
officially used for the first time by the UNDP? problem that is related to the atmosphere?
a. 1990 a. Loss of Biodiversity
b. 1994 b. Overpopulation
c. 2000 c. Climate Change
d. 2001 d. Water Shortages

Test Yourself
e. 2011 e. Acid Rain

2 The conceptions of human security do not 7 Thomas Malthus wrote about the---
cover---
Which of the following options correctly completes
Which of the following options correctly completes the sentence above?
the sentence above?
a. population growth
a. natural rights b. causes of war
b. the security dilemma c. climate change
c. the rule of law d. air pollution
d. a humanitarian understanding e. Cold War
e. a broader approach
8 Which of the following is not one of the
3 Which of the following is not one of the main components of food security?
seven domains of human security?
a. Availability
a. Development b. Accessibility
b. Health c. Utilization
c. International organizations d. Stability
d. Economic issues e. Health
e. Political issues
9 The international initiatives concerned with
4 One can best trace the evolution of the environmental issues include all of the following
human security concept through the historical except the---
periods of ---
Which of the following options correctly completes
Which of the following options correctly completes the sentence above?
the sentence above?
a. 1992 UN Conference on Environment and
a. The Second World War/The Post-Cold War Development
b. The Second World War/ During the Cold War b. 1997 Kyoto Protocol
c. The First World War/The Second World War c. 1986 Chernobyl Disaster
d. During the Cold-War/The Post-Cold War d. 2012 Rio+20
e. The Post-Cold War/ the 21st Century e. 1988 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change
5 Which of the following is not one of the four
issues that human security complements the state 10 Which of the following is not one of the
security approach through its analysis? tasks of FAO?
a. The state sovereignty a. Defeating hunger
b. The multiplication of actors in international b. Improving the standards of living
relations c. Regulating the agricultural productivity
c. The change in the referent object of security d. Creating a common external tariff
d. The occurrence of new threats e. Coordinating the programs for developing
e. The empowerment of human beings agriculture

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If your answer is not correct, review the If your answer is not correct, review the
1. b 6. c
section on “The Concept of Human Security.” section on “Environmental Security.”

If your answer is not correct, review the If your answer is not correct, review the
Answer Key for “Test Yourself”

2. b 7. a
section on “The Concept of Human Security.” section on “Environmental Security.”

If your answer is not correct, review the If your answer is not correct, review the
3. c 8. e
section on “The Concept of Human Security.” section on “Food Security”

4. d If your answer is not correct, review the 9. c If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “The Historical Evolution of
section on “Environmental Security.”
Human Security”

5. a If your answer is not correct, review the 10. d If your answer is not correct, review the
section on “The Historical Evolution of
section on “Food Security.”
Human Security.”

Discuss the main conceptions of human security.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Natural rights-rule of law conception focuses just on basic needs of human

beings such as rights to life, liberty, and the security of person. Humanitarian
conception evaluates the human security from state-centered approach and
it depends on state’s and international community’s responsibility to protect
your turn 1 individuals. Both of them rely on specific dimension of human security
with a narrower approach on security. On the contrary, the broader view
encompasses all dimensions of human security and offers larger perspective in
the understanding of the security. The main difference between them is the
depth of their perspective, narrow or broad.

What are the turning points in the historical evolution of human security?

The end of the Cold War can be accepted as the main turning point in the
evolution of human security. It led to major developments in international
relations. Different authors assess these developments from various differing
aspects. Bilgin underlines the growing economic inequalities, globalization,
and refugee problems because of diminishing resources, the rising nationalist
your turn 2 feelings and immigration flows, the multiplication of intrastate conflicts and of
the debates on humanitarian intervention. Ovalı’s analysis heralds a shift in the
understanding of security and underlines the changing character of threats as well
as the effect of the technological advance on security. Furthermore, normative
changes in internationals relations pave the way for the internationalization of
national concerns such as democracy, development, and human rights.

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International Security

How and why has the environment developed into a global issue?

The security discourse has undergone a serious of transformation since the early

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

1990s. These initiatives resulted in considerable political and societal attention
to issues of environmental change in the early 1990s. In the literature, the causal
relationship between the environment and security started to be discussed in
the last three decades (Dalby, 2002; Brauch, 2003; Homer-Dixon, 1991).
This confluence of moments in global security and environmental politics
perhaps explains the sudden swell in writing about environmental security and
in particular about environmental causes of violent conflicts. Environmental
your turn 3 challenges can be considered as a potential concern – although the more
modern view attaches a greater significance to environmental issues because of
their direct impact on human health and economic stability. Under the narrow
definition of security, environmental problems can threaten domestic peace or
national territory. The rapid growth in population and its effects on resources
have led to the emergence of many environmental problems. Problems such as
the ozone layer depletion, climate change, air pollution, and loss of biodiversity
have strained international security.

Discuss the relationship between poverty and security.

Poverty and insecurity are closely related. However, poverty is both a cause
and a consequence of insecurity. Poverty is a security issue in that the
lives of poor people are under treat and the eradication of all those risks is
necessary through anti-poverty policies. Violent conflicts caused the death
of many people, displacement of people, and the destruction of property.
Taken together, these problems lead to the destruction of years’ worth of
development efforts and investments- a process that causes insecurity at the
your turn 4 national and international levels. On the other hand, when aspirations are
not met, people may resort to armed struggles which in turn make the lives
of individuals insecure. Those who dismiss the fact that poverty is a major
cause of conflict and insecurity argue that poverty may lead to a conflict
when other factors are also present.

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Non-Military Security

Explain the key components of food security.

Suggested Answers for “Your Turn”

Four components build the framework of food security:

Availability: Food availability addresses the “supply side” of food security and is
determined by the level of food production, stock levels, and net trade. On the
national level, food availability is a combination of domestic food production,
commercial food imports and exports, food aid, and domestic food stocks. 
Access: An adequate supply of food at the national level or international level
does not in itself guarantee the household level food security. Concerns about
insufficient food access have resulted in a greater policy focus on incomes,
your turn 5 expenditure, markets, and prices toward achieving the objectives of food
security.
Utilization: Utilization is the way that the body makes the most out of various
nutrients in the food.
Stability: Even if your food intake is adequate today, you are still considered
to be food insecure if you have inadequate access to food on a periodic basis,
risking a deterioration of your nutritional status. Adverse weather conditions,
political instability, or economic factors (such as unemployment and rising
food prices) may have an impact on your food security status.

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