Magnetism

It refers to physical phenomena arising from the force caused by magnets, objects that produce fields
that attract or repel other objects.
Magnetism is used by Electrical and Electronic Engineers to make components such as relays, solenoids,
inductors, chokes, coils, loudspeakers, motors, generators, transformers, and electricity meters etc.

Magnetic field
This is a region of space around a magnet or a moving electric charge within which a force of magnetism
acts.

In a magnetic field:

- A magnetic force can be experienced

- A moving charge experiences a magnetic force
- A current- currying conductor experiences a force
- An e.m.f is induced in a moving conductor.

The figure below shows Iron filings attracted to a bar magnet to show the magnetic field.

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Magnetic Flux
- All magnets, no matter what their shape, have two regions called magnetic poles; North and
South.
- The north of a compass magnet is the end that points towards the Earth’s north.
- Like poles repel, unlike poles attract
- Magnetic fields are lines of force draw from the North to the South of a magnet. The closer the
Field lines the stronger the magnetic fields.
- The direction of magnetic field B, at any location is given by the direction of North Pole of the
compass needle
- Magnetic field B is measured in N/Am or Tesla, T

Drawings of magnetic field patterns are shown below

(a) For a bar and horse Shoe magnet

- Lines of force leave the North-Pole and enter the South Pole.
- An arrow should be drawn to show the direction of field lines
- Lines of force do not cross each other
- Magnetic field is strongest at the poles

(b) In two nearby magnets,

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Note that a line of the field will pass in opposite directions if like poles are nearby. A neutral point will be
between them

(c) Earth’s magnetic field

The earth’s magnetic field lines are made up of parallel lines running from geographical south to
geographical north.

The study of the earth’s magnetic field involves:

(i) Two marginal lines called magnetic meridian and geographical meridian
(ii) Two angles called angles of dip and angle declination

Definitions

Magnetic meridian: This is the vertical plane containing the magnetic axis

Geographic meridian: this is the vertical plane passing through the axis of rotation of the earth.

Angle of dip (inclination) α: Angle of dip is the angle that the axis of a freely suspended bar magnet
makes with the horizontal when the magnet settles

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Angle of declination (magnetic variance)
This is the angle between the earth’s magnetic and geographical meridians. Or the angle between
magnetic north and true north.

Magnetic axis: This is the imaginary line passing through the earth’s magnetic North and South Pole.

Geographical axis: This is the imaginary line through the center of the earth and passing through the
geographic North and south.

Variation of Angle of dip, α, as one moves from the magnetic equator up to the North Pole
Definitions
Magnetic Equator: This is the greatest circle in a horizontal plane perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian where a freely suspended bar magnet experiences zero magnetic dip.

Explanation
At the magnetic equator, the earth’s magnetic field lines are parallel to the horizontal. Therefore the
angle of dip at the equator is zero, (α =0)

As one moves along a given longitude towards the North Pole, the resultant magnetic field lines meet
the earth’s surface at angles greater than 00 but less than 900 thus the angle of dip at such a position is
also greater than zero but less than 900. i.e. 00 < α <900.

At the North Pole, the magnetic field lines are normal to the earth’s surface, thus they are perpendicular
to the horizontal. Therefore the angle of dip at the North Pole = 900 or α = 900.

Generally the angle of dip varies from 00 at the equator to 900at the North Pole.

The geographical north

α = angle of dip

θ = angle of declination

BH = horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field

BV = vertical component of magnetic field

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 B = resultant magnetic flux density

BH = Bcos α………………………….. (i)

BV = Bsin α ………………………… (ii)

𝐵𝐻2 + 𝐵𝑉2 = 𝐵2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝐵2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼

= B2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼)

= B2

∴ The resultant magnetic field B = √(𝐵𝐻2 + 𝐵𝑉2 )

Eqn. (i) and eqn. (ii)

𝐵𝑉 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼
=
𝐵𝐻 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼

𝐵𝑉
Tan α =
𝐵𝐻

𝐵𝑉
∴ Angle of dip, α = tan-1[ ]
𝐵𝐻

(d) Magnetic field patterns due to current carrying conductors

When a straight wire or conductor is carrying a steady or direct current, a magnetic fields is created or
generated around it. For a straight conductor, the magnetic field pattern is uniform with concentric
circles around it.

The direction of magnetic field is determined by Right hand grip rule

Right hand grip rule

Imagine gripping the conductor with the thumb straight in the direction of flow of current, with the
finger curled around it, the direction in which the fingers gives the direction of magnetic field around
the conductor.

Magnetic pattern due to

(i) A straight (conductor carrying current I)

(Current from left to right)

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 Current from right to left

(ii) A straight wire carrying a current perpendicularly out of or into the plane of paper as shown
in fig (a) and (b) respectively below

(iii) Magnetic field pattern due to two current carrying conductors having current flowing in
same and opposite direction

(e) Magnetic field pattern due solenoid carrying a current

Solenoid consists of a length of insulated wire coiled into a cylinder shape.

- Current in solenoid produces a stronger magnetic field inside the solenoid than outside. The
field lines in this region are parallel and closely spaced showing the field is highly uniform in
strength and direction.

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 - Field lines outside the solenoid are similar to that of a bar magnet, and it behaves in a similar
way – as if it had a north pole at one end and South Pole at the other end. Strength of the field
diminishes with distance from the solenoid.
- Strength of the magnetic field can be increased by:
(i) increasing the current in the coil
(ii) increasing the number of coils in the solenoid; and
(iii) using a soft iron core within the solenoid.
- Reversing the direction of the current reverses the direction of the magnetic field.

Right-hand rule can be used to find the direction of the magnetic field. In this case, point the wrapped
fingers (along the coil) in the direction of the conventional current. Then, the thumb will point to the
direction of magnetic field within the solenoid.

Example 1
The diagram shows a piece of soft iron bar suspended freely on a spring balance. One end of the bar is
close to the end of the coil connected to a source of e.m.f via switch K.

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 Spring balance

B
Iron bar

K coil

When switch K is closed, the spring balance reads 50B. State the polarity of AB and explain your
observation

Solution

The upper end of the coil is a North Pole when K is closed.

Increase in spring balance reading shows that the iron bar is attracted. Thus A is a south pole while B is
the North Pole.

(f) Magnetic field due to a bar magnet placed in the earth’s local magnetic field
(i) North Pole of the magnet facing down (geographical south)
(ii) North of the magnet facing Up (geographical North)

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 (g) A straight wire carrying a current perpendicular (across) the earth’s local magnetic field

Neutral point

This is a region of space where two magnetic fields of equal magnitude and opposite direction cancel
out. A magnetic dipole (compass needle) experiences zero magnetic force at this point.

Magnetic flux φ and magnetic flux density, B

Magnetic flux density, B (magnetic induction)
This is the force acting perpendicularly on a conductor of length one meter carrying a current of one
ampere in a direction normal to the field.

The S.I unit of B is tesla (T)

A tesla is the magnetic flux density in which a straight conductor of length 1m placed across the field
and carrying a current of one ampere experiences a magnetic force of one Newton (1N)
1𝑁
1T =
1𝐴 𝑥 1𝑚

Magnetic flux, φ, is a measure of the number of magnetic lines passing normally across a given area of
space. The strength of the field around a magnet depends on how close you get.

Magnetic flux is thus, a product of magnitude of magnetic flux density and area of projection normal to
magnetic field lines

I.e. φ = B x A = BA

S.I unit of magnetic flux φ is Weber (Wb)

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If a magnetic field is at an angle, θ, to the area, A, then

φ = BAcosθ

Force on a conductor or Fleming's Rule

When a conductor carrying a current is- placed in a magnetic field due to some source other than itself,
it experiences a mechanical force.

To demonstrate this, a short brass rod R is connected across a pair of brass rails, as shown in above. A
horseshoe magnet is placed so that the rod lies in the field between its poles. When current passes
through the rod, from an accumulator, the rod rolls along the rails. The direction of rolling is predicted
by Fleming’s Left Hand rule.

Fleming’s Left Hand rule

States that when a straight conductor is placed across a magnetic field and a current is passed through
it, the direction of magnetic force is predicted by the thumb when the first two fingers are placed
perpendicular to each other. The first finger pointing in magnetic field direction and the second finger in
the direction of current.

Factors affecting the magnitude of force experienced by a current carrying conductor placed across a
magnetic field

i. Magnetic field strength or flux density, B; magnetic force increases with magnetic field density.

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 ii. Size of current, I, flowing through the conductor; the force is directly proportional to the
current.
iii. Length L of the conductor; the force is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
i.e. F ∝ L

iv. Angle of inclination of conductor across a magnetic field

Current I

F = BILsinθ

When θ =900; F = BIL

When θ = 0; F = 0

It follows that F is zero when the conductor is parallel to the field direction

Magnetic Permeability
Magnetic permeability is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic intensity. It is a
scalar quantity and denoted by the symbol, μ.

The greater the magnetic permeability of the material, the greater the conductivity for magnetic lines of
force, and vice versa.

The magnetic permeability of a material indicates the ease with which an external magnetic field can
create a higher magnetic force of attraction in the material. The SI unit of magnetic permeability is
Henry per meter.

Factors Affecting Magnetic Permeability

It depends on the nature of the material, humidity, position in the medium, temperature, and frequency
of the applied force.

Magnetic Permeability Formula

Magnetic permeability formula is given as;

Magnetic permeability (μ) = B/H

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 Where B = magnetic intensity and H = magnetizing field.

The SI unit of magnetic permeability is henneries per meter (H/m) or Newton per ampere squared
(N⋅A−2).

Types of Permeability

The different types of permeability include;

(i) Permeability of Free Space, air or vacuum.

It is represented by μ0=B0/H

The ratio of magnetic intensity in a vacuum and magnetizing field.

(ii) Permeability of Medium

The ratio of magnetic intensity in the medium and magnetizing field.

It is expressed as;

μ = B/H

(iii) Relative Permeability

𝝁
𝝁𝒓 =
𝝁𝟎

Relative permeability = (number of lines of magnetic induction per unit area in a material)/(number of
lines per unit area in a vacuum)

Magnetic Permeability Materials

Magnetic flux produced by a current

(a) A straight wire carrying a current I in a medium of permeability, μ

At perpendicular distance, d from the wire

I
𝜇𝐼
B=
B B 2𝜋𝑑

d d

𝜇0 𝐼
In the vacuum B = where𝜇0 = 4π x 10-7Hm-1
2𝜋𝑑

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 Example 2
B P

300
X

Write down the expression for magnetic flux density at P due to AB placed in a vacuum

Solution
The perpendicular distance, d, of P from AB = xsin300.
𝜇0 𝐼
Thus at P, B =
2𝜋 𝑥 (𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 30)

(b) At the center of a plane circular coil of radius, r, and having N-turns of wire each carrying current I in
the vacuum.

Plane circular r N-turns

B
coil Air/vacuum

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
At the center of the coil, magnetic flux density, B = in the vacuum/air
2𝑟

Example 3
Determine the expression for magnetic flux density at the center of plane circular coil of 10
turns each radius r and currying a current I in a vacuum.

Solution
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
From B = 2𝑟
𝜇0 𝑥 10 𝑥 𝐼 5𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B= =
2𝑟 𝑟

Example 4
A plane circular coil of 20 turns is placed with its surface flat on a horizontal table. If the plane of the
coil is threaded by magnetic field of flus density 3.6x 10 -5T at an angle 670, find magnetic flux
threading the coil of radius 5cm

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 Bcos670
670

Bsin670
B

Magnetic flux threading the plane of the coil normally

φ = B’A where B’ = Bsin 670
= BAsin 670
= 2πr2sin670
= 3.6 x 10-5 x2π x (0.05)2 x sin670
= 2.6 x 10-7Wb

Magnetic flux density due to a solenoid (long coil) carrying a current I

L
Current into
Left Right
C
Current out

C = center of the solenoid

At the center and along the axis of the solenoid magnetic flux density in air, B

𝑁
B = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 where n = (number of turns per meter)
𝐿
Or
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
B=
𝐿

At the left or right ends of the solenoid, the magnetic flux density B is half the value at the center, C,
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
of the solenoid =
2𝐿

Magnetic force due to current carrying conductor

Whenever a straight conductor or wire carrying current I in the direction normal to an external
magnetic field is placed across the field, the wire experiences magnetic force F = BIL in the direction
provided by Flemings Left hand rule.

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Explanation

The current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around itself. This magnetic field interacts
with the external magnetic field B where the wire is placed creating a region of stronger magnetic field
on one side of the wire and weaker magnetic for field on another of the wire (opposite side)

The net force acts on the wire from the direction of stronger field to that of weaker field and is given by

F = BIL.

Derivation of F = BIL

Consider a conductor of length L, cross section area A with N free electrons

𝐼 𝑁
When a p.d is applied across its ends, the electrons begin to drift with velocity, V= ; where n =
𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝐴𝐿
(number of electrons per unit volume.)

When the conductor is placed across an external magnetic field of density B, each electron experiences
a force

F1= BeV
𝐼
=Be .
𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝐵𝐼
=
𝑛𝐴
𝑁𝐵𝐼
Total force on N electrons, F = NF1 =
𝑛𝐴

But N = nAL
(𝑛𝐴𝐿)𝐵𝐼
Thus F = = BIL
𝑛𝐴

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Parallel straight wires carrying current I1 and I2

(a) In the same direction

Wire 1 Wire 2
B2 F1

I1 I2

F2 B1

𝜇0 𝐼1
Magnetic field due to wire 1 a distance d away = 𝐵1 =
2𝜋𝑑
𝜇0 𝐼2
Magnetic field due to wire 2, a distance d away = 𝐵2 =
2𝜋𝑑

Magnetic force acting on wire 1, F1 = B2I1L1

𝜇0 𝐼2 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐿1
Substituting for B2; F1 = ( ) 𝐼1 𝐿1 = towards wire 2
2𝜋𝑑 2𝜋𝑑

𝐹1 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1
Force per unit length, F = =
𝐿1 2𝜋𝑑

Magnetic force on wire 2, F2 = B1I2L2

𝜇0 𝐼1 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐿2
Substituting for B1, F2 =( ) 𝐼2 𝐿2 = toward wire 1
2𝜋𝑑 2𝜋𝑑

𝐹2 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1
Force per unit length F = =
𝐿2 2𝜋𝑑

(b) In opposite direction

Two straight and parallel conductors (wires) carrying current I1 and I2 in opposite direction
experience magnetic forces F1 = B2I1L and F2 = B1I2L acting perpendicularly away from the next wire.
(Repulsive forces)

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 Wire 1 Wire 2
F1 B2

I1 I2

B1 F2

𝜇0 𝐼1
Magnetic field due to wire 1 a distance d away = 𝐵1 =
2𝜋𝑑
𝜇0 𝐼2
Magnetic field due to wire 2, a distance d away = 𝐵2 =
2𝜋𝑑

Magnetic force acting on wire 1, F1 = B2I1L1

𝜇0 𝐼2 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐿1
Substituting for B2; F1 = ( ) 𝐼1 𝐿1 = towards wire 2
2𝜋𝑑 2𝜋𝑑

𝐹1 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1
Force per unit length, F = =
𝐿1 2𝜋𝑑

Magnetic force on wire 2, F2 = B1I2L2

𝜇0 𝐼1 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐿2
Substituting for B1, F2 =( ) 𝐼2 𝐿2 = toward wire 1
2𝜋𝑑 2𝜋𝑑

𝐹2 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1
Force per unit length F = =
𝐿2 2𝜋𝑑

Generally F1 = F2 = F

When current is flowing in the same direction, the forces between the wires are attractive but in
different directions, the forces are repulsive.

Ampere

It is a unit of current.

Definition

An ampere is a steady current which when flowing in each of two straight parallel wires of infinite length
and negligible cross section area and placed a distance of 1m apart in a vacuum produce a force of 2 x10-
7
N per meter on each other.

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Derivation of an ampere
𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼2 𝐼1
From expression =
𝐿 2𝜋𝑑

Suppose I1 = I2 = 1A, d = 1m, μ0 = 4π x 10-7H/m

𝐹 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 1 𝑥 1
= = 2.0 x 10-7N/m
𝐿 2𝜋 𝑥 1

Example 5
Two straight wires A and B carry currents 4A and 6A respectively in a vacuum. Given that A and B are
parallel to each other and are a distance of 2.0cm apart, calculate the resultant magnetic field mid-way
between the wires carrying current in

(a) Opposite direction

Solution
A
1cm

BA BB 1cm
B
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 𝜇0 𝐼𝐵
BA = ; BB =
2𝜋𝑑𝐴 2𝜋𝑑𝐵

Resultant magnetic field midway, B = BA + BB; dA = dB = 1cm = 0.01m

𝜇0 𝑥 4 𝜇0 𝑥 6 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7
B= + = (4 + 6) = 2 x 10-4T perpendicular to the plane of paper
2𝜋 𝑥 0.01 2𝜋 𝑥 0.01 2𝜋 𝑥 0.01

(b) Same direction

A
1cm

BA BB 1cm
B

Resultant magnetic field midway, B = BA + (-BB); dA = dB = 1cm = 0.01m

𝜇0 𝑥 6 𝜇0 𝑥 4 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7
B= − += (6 − 4) = 4 x 10-5T perpendicular to the plane of paper
2𝜋 𝑥 0.01 2𝜋 𝑥 0.01 2𝜋 𝑥 0.01

Example 6
Find the force per unit length of the wires when IA = 8.0A , IB =11.0A and r = 3.0cm (04marks)

The magnetic flux density which A produces at B is given by

𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8
= = 5.30 x 10-5T
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 𝑥 3 𝑥 10−2

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 Force exerted by A on B, F = BIBL
𝐹
= 𝐵𝐼𝐵 = 5.30 x 10-5 x 11 = 5.85 x 10-4Nm-1.
𝐿

Or
𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 𝐼𝐵 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 8 𝑥 11
= = = 5.85 x 10-4Nm-1
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 𝑥 3 𝑥 10−2

Example 7
Two parallel wires P and Q, each of length 0.2m carry currents of 10A and 1A respectively

The distance between the wires is 0.04m. If both wires remain stationary and the angle of the plane with
the horizontal is 300. Calculate weight of Q.

Solution

Force F between the two wires is given by

𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 10 𝑥 1 𝑥 0.2
F= = = 1.0 x 10-3N
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑥 0.4

But for equilibrium, the component of the weight along the slop is balanced by the magnetic
force on the wire i.e. F = Wsinθ
𝐹 1.0 𝑥 10−3
=> W = = = 2 x 10-3N
sin 𝜃 sin 30

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Example 8
Two parallel wire, P and Q of equal length 0.1m, each carrying a current of 10A are a distance 0.05m
apart with P directly above Q. If P remains stationary, find the weight of P. (03marks)

Solution

Force due to magnetic field on P = weight of P, W.

𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 10 𝑥 10 𝑥 0.1
W= = = 4.0 x 10-5N
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑥 0.05

Example 9
Two straight long and straight wires of negligible cross-section area carry currents of 6.0A and 3.0A in
opposite direction as shown below

If the wire are separated by a distance of 8.0cm, find the;

(i) Magnetic flux density at a point mid-way between the wires (04marks)

Magnetic flux density midway between the wires.

B = B1 + B2
𝜇0 𝐼1 𝜇0 𝐼2
= +
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑅
6 𝑥 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 6 𝑥 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7
= +
2𝜋 𝑥 0.4 2𝜋 𝑥 0.4
= 4.5 x 10-5T

(ii) Force per meter between the wire (03marks)

𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝑥6 𝑥 3
= = = 4.5 x 10-5Nm-1
𝐿 2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑛 𝑥 0.8

Example 10
Two long parallel wires placed 12cm apart in air carry currents of 10A and 15A respectively in the same
direction. Determine the position where the magnetic flux is zero. (04marks)

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 Let P be the point where the resultant magnetic flux is zero
𝜇0 11 𝜇0 12
Then, =
2𝜋𝑥 2𝜋(12−𝑥)

10 15
=
𝑥 12−𝑥

x = 4.8cm

P is 4.8cm from 10A current and 7.2 cm from the 15A current carrying conductor.

Measurements of current using a current balance

The ampere balance (also current balance or Kelvin balance) is an electromechanical apparatus used
for the precise measurement of the SI unit of Electrical current, the ampere. It was invented by Williams
Thomson 1St Baron Kelvin.
Set up

AB = AF, length BC = L and the current through the wire is A

The magnets provide a uniform magnetic field, B, perpendicular to wire BC.

At equilibrium when the frame BCEF is balanced

The force exerted on the wire = weight of the mass

BIL = Mg
𝑀𝑔
I=
𝐵𝐿

Sources of error

- Accuracy of length L
- Rigidity of the frame

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 - To avoid overheating, the current should be switched off as soon as measurements have been
taken.
- Shield the set-up from the disturbance of wind.

Self-induction
It is a process by which an e.m.f is induced in a coil or circuit when the magnetic flux linking it changes
due to the current flowing in the same circuit/coil.

Mutual induction

It is a process by which an e.m.f is induced in a coil when the magnetic flux linking it changes as a result
of a change in the current flowing in nearby coil.

Experiment to demonstrate self-induction.

The circuit is arranged as shown below.

Procedure

- Switch K first closed and the rheostat adjusted until the two bulbs indicate the same brightness.
- When the switch is opened and closed again, bulb A2 is observed to attain maximum brightness
almost instantly while bulb A1 take some time to attain maximum brightness.

Explanation

The current in A1 takes some time to attain a steady value due to back e.m.f induced in the coil as a result
of change in the current flowing (due to self-induction) in the coil when the switch is closed.

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The back e.m.f gradually decay to zero as current establishes a steady value and hence the current in the
coil rises slowly to its maximum when the back e.m.f is zero for there is no change in magnetic flux linking
it.

Example 11

In the figure below, A and B are identical bulbs and L is an iron cored coil.

(i) Explain what will be observed when switch K is closed and when it is opened

When K is closed, bulb A light s dimly and slowly becomes brighter while B becomes bright
almost instantly and later the two bulbs acquire the same brightness.

When K is closed, the current begins to flow around the closed circuit and gradually increases to
its steady value or maximum. The sudden change or increase in the current creates an increase
in the magnetic flux around the coil and large back e.m.f is induced into the coil due to self-
induction. This greatly oppose the flow of current in bulb A, causing most of the current to flow
in bulb B, hence bulb A lights dimly and B brighter initially but latter the back e.m.f decay to zero
and bulbs A and B now light to the same brightness.

When the switch is opened, bulbs A and B dim out gradually before going off. This is because
opening switch will cause the currents and hence the magnetic flux around the coil to decay to
zero. This cause back e.m.f in the opposite direction which tries to maintain the current in the
circuit and hence the bulbs dim out gradually
(ii) Explain what you would observe when a battery is replaced by a.c voltage source and K is
closed.

Bulb A may not light while B lights brightly because a.c causes a higher constant rate of change
in magnetic flux around the soft iron cored coil and hence back e.m.f is constantly induced in the
coil which greatly opposes the flow of current in A. the current in A may not rise to a value
enough to lit it.

Secondary observation

The iron core become warm

- The higher constant rate of changing magnetic flux caused by the a.c induces eddy currents
in the core which generate heat by I2R mechanism and hence the core become warm.

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 - The a.c also cause the direction of the magnetic domain in iron core to change according to
the changing flux. This requires energy (hysteresis) which is later converted into heat
energy in the core

Experiment to demonstrate mutual induction

- The setup is shown above

- When the switch K is closed, the galvanometer deflects indicating induction of e.m.f in the coil B,
hence mutual induction.

Self-inductance
𝑑𝐼 𝐸
E=𝐿 => 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

It can be defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the back e.m.f induced in a coil or circuit to the rate of
change of current flowing in the coil or circuit.

Or
𝑑𝐼
𝐸= 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
When = 1𝐴𝑠 −1 ;
𝑑𝑡

E=L

Thus self-inductance can also be defined as the magnitude of the back e.m.f induced in a coil or circuit
when rate of change of current flowing in the coil is 1As-1.

Magnetic flux, φ

Magnetic flux density is the force acting on a charge of 1C moving with a velocity of 1ms-1 at right angle
to magnetic field.

Or

Magnetic flux is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the product of the area of the plane of the
conductor or coil and the component of magnetic flux density normal to the plane of conductor or coil.

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For a coil of N turns, magnetic flux linkage

Φ =NBAcosθ

An experiment to determine the magnetic flux density of a uniform magnetic field using a search coil
and ballistic galvanometer

A search coil of cross section area A and number of turn’s N is connected in series with ballistic
galvanometer. The search coil is then placed in uniform magnetic field such that the plane of the
coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field. The coil is then pulled completely out of the field. The
first deflection of the ballistic galvanometer noted θ1.

A capacitor of known capacitance C is then charged to a p.d. V and then charged through the
ballistic galvanometer, θ2 is noted

The magnetic flux density of uniform magnetic field is obtained from

𝐶𝑉𝑅 𝜃1
B= 𝑥
𝐴𝑁 𝜃2

Where R is the resistance of the whole circuit.

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An experiment to measure the magnetic flux density between the poles pieces of a strong magnet.

A search coil is connected to a ballistic galvanometer. The coil is then placed with its plane normal to
the magnetic field whose magnetic flux density, B is required.

The coil is then pulled completely out of the field and deflection θ1 of ballistic galvanometer is noted
𝑁𝐴𝐵
= 𝐶𝑄, where R = resistance of the coil
𝑅

A capacitor of known capacitance Q is charged to a p.d. V and is then discharged through the ballistic
galvanometer. The deflection θ2 is noted

CV = Cθ2
𝐶𝑉𝑅𝜃
The magnetic flux density B is now calculated from B = where A is the area of the coil, N is the
𝑁𝐴𝜃′
number of turns in the coil and R is the resistance of the coil circuit.

An experiment to determine the value of the earth’s magnetic flux density at a place, using a
search coil.

- A coil of known number of turns, N (about 100) and area A is connected to a calibrated ballistic
galvanometer so that the total resistance in the circuit is R.

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- The coil is placed in a vertical plane perpendicular to the magnetic meridian of the earth as shown
in (i) in figure above. The coil is then rotated through 1800 about the vertical axis. The maximum
throw θ1 is noted.
- The coil is then placed with its plane in horizontal plane perpendicular to the magnetic meridian of
the earth as shown in (ii) in figure above. The coil is then rotated through 1800 about the horizontal
axis. The maximum throw θ2 is noted.
- Treatment of results
𝑘𝜃1 𝑅 𝑘𝜃2 𝑅
BH = and BV =
2𝑁𝐴 2𝑁𝐴
k is obtained by charging standard capacitor to a known p.d V and then discharging it through the
ballistic galvanometer and the deflection α is noted.
𝐶𝑉
k=
𝛼
Then B is calculated from b = √𝐵𝐻2 + 𝐵𝑉2

Magnetic moment

Magnetic moment, also known as magnetic dipole moment, is the measure of the object's
tendency to align with a magnetic field.

Magnetic Moment is defined as magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet or other object
that produces a magnetic field.

The magnetic moment is a vector quantity. Magnetic moments of two magnets are compared
using a deflected magnetometer

The structure and mode of action of the deflection magnetometer

It consists of a small compass needle (small magnet) enclosed in a transparent box which is
pivoted on a vertical axis and carries alight aluminium pointer. The pointer can rotate over a
circular scale.

The box is fixed in the center of wooden box with two arms of linear scales of 0.5m each that
coincide at the center of the magnetic compass.

Deflection magnetometer is used for

- Comparing magnetic moments of two magnets

- Verifying inverse law

The magnetometer can be used in two position; i.e. Tan A position and Tan B position

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(a) Tan A position
The arms of magnetometer are adjusted to be parallel the aluminium pointer so that they lie in
east-west direction and compass pointer adjusted to read zero degrees on the circular scale while
the magnetic needle lies in the direction of magnetic meridian
(b) Tan B position

The arms of magnetometer are adjusted to be parallel the aluminium pointer so that they lie in
north-south direction and compass pointer adjusted to read zero degrees on the circular scale while
the magnetic needle lies in the direction of magnetic meridian

(i) Comparing magnetic moments of two magnets using a magnetometer at equal distances in Tan A
position

(a) The first bar magnet is placed a distance d from the magnetic compass as shown above and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α1 and α2 are noted
(b) The polarity of the bar magnet in (a) is reversed and angles of deflections α3 and α4 are noted
(c) The first bar magnet is placed equal distance d from magnetic compass on the opposite arm and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α5 and α6 are noted
(d) The polarity of the bar magnet in (c) is reversed and angles of deflections α7 and α8 are noted
𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + 𝛼4 + 𝛼5 +𝛼6 + 𝛼7 + 𝛼8
(e) Average angle θ1 =
8
(f) Steps (a) to (e) are repeated for the second magnet to obtain average angle θ2
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 𝑀1 tan 𝜃1
(g) The ratio of magnetic moments is given by =
𝑀2 tan 𝜃2

(ii) Comparing magnetic moments of two magnets using a magnetometer at equal distances in Tan B
position

(a) The first bar magnet is placed a distance d from the magnetic compass as shown above and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α1 and α2 are noted
(b) The polarity of the bar magnet in (a) is reversed and angles of deflections α3 and α4 are noted
(c) The first bar magnet is placed equal distance d from magnetic compass on the opposite arm and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α5 and α6 are noted
(d) The polarity of the bar magnet in (c) is reversed and angles of deflections α7 and α8 are noted
𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + 𝛼4 + 𝛼5 +𝛼6 + 𝛼7 + 𝛼8
(e) Average angle θ1 =
8
(f) Steps (a) to (e) are repeated for the second magnet to obtain average angle θ2
𝑀1 tan 𝜃1
(g) The ratio of magnetic moments is given by =
𝑀2 tan 𝜃2

Comparing magnetic moments of two magnets using a magnetometer and null method in tan A
position

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 (a) Place one magnet a distance d1 from the magnetic compass and another on the opposite arm
facing each other.
(b) Adjust the second magnet to a distance r1 until the compass needle shows zero deflection
(c) Reverse the poles of the two magnets keeping the distance d of the first magnet and determine
the distance r2 of the second magnet leading to zero to zero deflection.
(d) The magnets are interchanged keeping the distance d of first magnet unchanged, procedures (b)
and C are repeated for distances r3 and r4.
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + 𝑟4
(e) Now d2 =
4
𝑀1 𝑑13
(f) The ratio of magnetic moments is given by =
𝑀2 𝑑23

Comparing magnetic moments of two magnets using a magnetometer and null method in tan
B position

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 (a) Place one magnet a distance d1 from the magnetic compass and another on the opposite arm
facing each other.
(b) Adjust the second magnet to a distance r1 until the compass needle shows zero deflection
(c) Reverse the poles of the two magnets keeping the distance d of the first magnet and determine
the distance r2 of the second magnet leading to zero to zero deflection.
(d) The magnets are interchanged keeping the distance d of first magnet unchanged, procedures (b)
and C are repeated for distances r3 and r4.
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + 𝑟4
(e) Now d2 =
4
𝑀1 𝑑13
(f) The ratio of magnetic moments is given by =
𝑀2 𝑑23

Verifying inverse square law

A. Arrange the magnetometer in tan A position

(a) The first bar magnet is placed a distance d from the magnetic compass as shown above and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α1 and α2 are noted
(b) The polarity of the bar magnet in (a) is reversed and angles of deflections α3 and α4 are noted
(c) The first bar magnet is placed equal distance d from magnetic compass on the opposite arm and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α5 and α6 are noted
(d) The polarity of the bar magnet in (c) is reversed and angles of deflections α7 and α8 are noted
𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + 𝛼4 + 𝛼5 +𝛼6 + 𝛼7 + 𝛼8
(e) Average angle θA =
8
B. Arrange the deflection magnetometer in position B

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 (a) The first bar magnet is placed a distance d from the magnetic compass as shown above and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α1 and α2 are noted
(b) The polarity of the bar magnet in (a) is reversed and angles of deflections α3 and α4 are noted
(c) The first bar magnet is placed equal distance d from magnetic compass on the opposite arm and
angles of deflection of aluminium pointer α5 and α6 are noted
(d) The polarity of the bar magnet in (c) is reversed and angles of deflections α7 and α8 are noted
𝛼1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + 𝛼4 + 𝛼5 +𝛼6 + 𝛼7 + 𝛼8
(e) Average angle θB =
8
tan 𝜃𝐴
(f) Inverse square law is verified if = 2.
tan 𝜃𝐵

Electromagnetic induction
It is the induction of an e.m.f. in a conductor or in a coil by moving it relatively to a magnetic field

Laws of electromagnetic induction

(i) Faraday’s law states that the magnitude of the e.m.f induced in a circuit is directly proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
(ii) Lenz’s Laws states that induced current flows always in such a direction as to oppose the change
which is giving rise to· it.

An experiment to demonstrate Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Verification setup

X and Y are brush contact.

A copper rod which can rotate round the north pole of permanent magnet is connected as
shown above.

The wheel is turned steadily until the deflection of the galvanometer is constant.

The time, t, for N rotations is measured and the number of revolution (n) per second is
𝑁
determined from n = . The deflection θ of the galvanometer is also noted.
𝑡

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 The experiment is repeated at different speed of rotation of the wheel and values of n and θ
tabulated.

A graph of θ against n is plotted.

A straight line graph is obtained implying that θ ∝ n

Since θ ∝ e.m.f induced and n ∝ speed of rotation of the rod, then the induced e.m.f is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage.

An experiment to illustrate Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction

- The galvanometer is first connected in series with a battery and the direction for a given direction
of current is determined.
- The battery is disconnected and is replaced by a coil of known winds.
- A strong permanent magnet is brought towards the coil with N-pole facing the coil, the
galvanometer deflects in a direction for which the side of the coil facing the magnet is N-pole.
- When the magnet is move away from the coil, the galvanometer deflects in opposite direction,
implying that the pole near the coil is a S-pole.
- In the first case, the pole due to the induced current was repelling the approaching magnet, while
in the second case, the pole was attracting the receding magnet.
- The induced current therefore is in such as to oppose the change causing it, which is Lenz’s law.

Example 12

Explain why Lenz’s law is referred to as an example of energy conservation or

Why Lenz’s law does not violet the principle of conservation of energy.

In order not to violet the principle of conservation of energy, the effects of induced current must oppose
the motion of the magnet in such a way that work done by an external agent in moving the magnet is
the one that is converted into electrical energy and hence there is just transformation of energy from
one form to another (from mechanical energy to electrical energy) and hence Lenz’s law is an example
of energy conservation..

Magnitude of e.m.f induced in a coil depends on

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 - Number of turns N in the coil
- Rate of change in magnetic flux
- Strength of Magnetic flux
- Area of the coil

Magnetic moment of a coil.

Magnetic moment is torque experienced by the coil per tesla of magnetic field acting along the plane of
the coil.

Or

Magnetic moment of a coil is a couple exerted on a coil when it is placed with its plane parallel to a
magnetic field of 1T

Derivation of expression for torque on rectangular coil in a magnetic field

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns each of dimensions L x b is inclined at an angle θ to uniform
magnetic field of flux density, B.

- When current flows through the coil, the conductor experiences a magnetic force.
- Force on side PQ = NBIbsinθ (downwards) while Force on side RS = NBINsinθ (upwards). The two
forces cancel out due to rigidity of the coil.
- Side PS experiences force NBILcosθ perpendicularly into the page while RQ experiences force NBIL
cosθ perpendicularly out of page. The two forces constitute a couple whose moment of force
τ=Fxb
= NBILbcosθ
= NBIAcosθ (where A is the area = L x b)

Example 13

A small circular coil of 20 turns of wire lies in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 5.0 x 10-2T. The
normal to the coil makes an angle of 300 with the direction of the magnetic field. If the radius of the coil
is 4cm and the coil carries a current of 2.0A, find the

(i) Magnetic moment of the coil (02marks)

M = NIA = 20π x (4 x 10-2)2 x 2 = 0.2Am2

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 (ii) Torque on the coil
T = MBsinθ = 0.2 x 5 x 10-2sin300 = 5.0x 10-3Nm

Example 14

Show that when the magnetic flux linking a coil changes, the total charge which passes through is
depends only on the resistance of the coil and total flux linking it (05marks).
Consider a coil of N turns each linked by magnetic flux of φ1.
Suppose the magnetic flux changes to φ2.
When the magnetic flux φ changes, an e.m.f ε is induced in the coil.
−𝑁𝑑𝜙
ε=
𝑑𝑡
𝜀
I = ; R = the resistance of the coil
𝑅
ε = IR
−𝑁𝑑𝜙
Hence IR =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
But I = ; where Q is the induced charge
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄 −𝑁 𝑑𝜑
 = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
−𝑁
dQ = 𝑑𝜑
𝑅

The amount of the charge which passes through the coil when the magnetic flux changes from
φ1 to φ2 is
−𝑁 𝜙2 −𝑁
Q=
𝑅
∫𝜙 𝑑𝜙 = 𝑅
(𝜙2 − 𝜙1 )
1

Derivation of e.m.f induced in a moving rod by applying the laws of electromagnetic induction

Considering a rod of length L meters moving at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density B
tesla moving with uniform speed v ms-1 as shown in figure below:

From the laws of electromagnetic induction;

∆𝜙
The induced e.m.f, E = …………. (i)
∆𝑡

But φ = BA ……………………………….. (ii)

𝑑(𝐵𝐴)
 E=− ……………………….. (iii)
𝑑𝑡

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 𝑑𝐴
= −𝐵
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴
But = -Lv ………………………. (iv)
𝑑𝑡

(negative because the area is decreasing, rate of decrease in area)

∴ E = -B x –Lv

= BLv

Derivation of e.m.f induced in a moving rod by considering the force extended on the electrons

By virtue of motion of the rod in the magnetic field, the electrons inside the rod experiences a magnetic
force.

Applying Fleming’s right Handle Rule, the induced e.m.f for current is directly from Q to P.

The electrons flow or drift from P to Q thus acquires a positive charge and Q acquires a negative charge.

An electric field s thus setup which attract electrons towards the positively charged end P.

Equilibrium is reached when upward electronic force is counterbalanced by the downward magnetic
force.

At equilibrium, Ee =Bev

 E = BV, where E is electric field intensity

𝐸′
But E = , where E’ is the induced e.m.f.
𝐿
𝐸′
∴ = 𝐵𝑣 where v= speed of the rod, B= magnetic, L = length of the rod.
𝐿

Derivation of e.m.f induced in a moving rod by applying the principle of conservation of energy

Consider a rod PQ placed at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux density B Tesla as shown.

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 Suppose the rod is moved through of x meters in time t seconds; from the principle of conservation of
energy, work done by the external agent in moving the rod is what is conserved into electrical energy.

Therefore, electrical energy = work done in moving the rod.

If E is the induced e.m.f in the rod, then

EIt = Force x distance

But force = BIL, I is the induced current in the rod

 EIt = BILx
𝐵𝐿𝑥
E=
𝑡
𝑥
Since = 𝑣 (speed of the body)
𝑡
∴ E = BLv

Example 15

A rod PQ, 1.2m long moves at right angles to a magnetic field of flux density 0.4T and at a speed of 4ms-
1
. Find the e.m.f induced in the rod.

Induced e.m.f, E = BLv = 0.4 x 1.2 x 4 = 1.92V

Example 16

In the figure above, a rod PQ 1.2m long is moved in a perpendicular magnetic field of flux density 0.4T
at a speed of 4m/s along a frictionless rails XY and WZ. Find the power generated by the rod.

Solution

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Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, the induced current flows from Q to P, this gives the polarity of
induced e.m.f with a positive terminal on the side P.

E = BLv = 0.4 x 1.2 x 4 = 1.92V

At the junction, I = I1 + I2
𝑉
From I =
𝑅

Considering loop 1;
1.92
I1 = = 0.64A
3

Considering loop 1;
1.92
I2 = = 0.96A
2

I = I1 + I2 = 0.64 +0.96 = 1.6A

Power = E = 1.92 x 1.6 = 3.1W

E.m.f induced in a circular disc (disc dynamo)

A disc is an arrangement of obtaining electrical energy from mechanical energy by rotating a circular
metal disc in a perpendicular magnetic field abut an axle passing through it center.

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The disc is rotated at uniform angular velocity, ω, and the e.m.f induced in the disc is tapped by
connecting a wire between the center of the disc axle and the rim of the disc.

The induced e.m.f is due to the motion of linear conductor of length = radius r.

From the e.m.f induced in a moving rod

E = BLv …………………………………….(i)

Where v is the average velocity,

0+𝑟𝜔 𝑟𝜔
v= = ……………………………. (ii)
2 2

(i) and (ii)

𝐵𝑟 𝑥 𝑟𝜔 𝐵𝑟 2 𝜔
E= =
2 2

But ω =2πf, where f is the frequency of rotation

𝐵 𝑥 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑓
E= = Bπr2f
2

E = BAf

Example 17

A circular metal disc of radius 8cm is rotated at right angle to a uniform magnetic field of flux density
0.4T at 80revolution per minute. Find the e.m.f induced in the disc.

Solution
80
Induced e.m.f, E = BAf, E = πr2 = 3.14 x 0.082, f = 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠
60
80
E = 0.4 x 3.14 x 0.082 x = 0.011V
60

Example 18

A circular metal disc of radius 12cm is rotated in a perpendicular magnetic field of flux density 0.4T
about an axle of radius 6cm at 52rev/min.

Solution

Induced e.m.f, E = BAf

= B (π(R2 – r2)f
52
= 0.4 (π (0.122 – 0.062) x
60

= 0.0117V

Example 19

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 A conducting disc of radius 0.05m with its plane perpendicular to uniform magnetic field of flux
density 0.25T, rotates at 15 revolution per second about an axis through its center and
perpendicular to its plane.
Calculate
(i) Magnetic flux threading the disc at any time (03marks)
Magnetic flux, φ = BA but A = πr2
- φ = Bπr2
= 0.25 x 3.14 x (0.05)2 = 1.96 x 10-3Wb

(ii) E.m.f generated between the center of the disc and any point on its rim.
ε = Bπr2f = 0.25 x 3.14 x (0.05)2 x 15 = 2.9 x 10-2V

or ε = φf = 1.96 x 10-3 x 15 =2.9 x 10-2V

Example 20

An aero plane of wing span 30m flies horizontally at a speed of 1000kmh-1.

What is the p.d across the tips of its wings, if the horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field is 1.46 x 10-4T? (Angle of dip at the place is 700) (03marks)

E = BVLv; but Bv = BHtan700

E = BHtan700Lv
1000 𝑥 1000
= 1.46 x 10-4 x tan700 x 30 x = 3.34V
1 𝑥 60 𝑥 60

Example 21

A circular metal disc of radius R. rotates in an anticlockwise direction at angular velocity, ω, in a uniform
magnetic field of flux density, B, directed in to paper as shown in the figure below

A and C are contact points

Derive an expression for e.m.f induced between A and C.

Le r = radius of the disc

Thus AC cuts the magnetic flux continuously.
0+𝑟𝜔 𝑟𝜔
The average velocity V of AC = =
2 2
∴ Induced e.m.f in Ac = E = BLV
𝐵𝑟.𝑟𝜔
=
2

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 1
= 𝐵𝑟 2 𝜔
2

Absolute method of measurement of resistance (Lorentz method)

The e.m.f induced in a moving rod is used in the absolute measurement.

A circular metal disc is placed inside a solenoid X of known number of turns, N and length, L meters in
series with a battery, unknown resistance R, a rheostat and a switch K

Switch K is closed and the disc of diameter, r, is rotated about an axle passing through its center at such
a speed until the e.m.f induced between the center and the rim is counter balanced by the potential
difference across the resistor when the galvanometer shows no deflection

At this stage, the number of revolutions n in a given time t (s) are noted.
𝑛
f = revolution per second
𝑡

area A of the disc = 𝜋𝑟 2

At no deflection the induced e.m.f in the disc, BAf = IR, where I is the current flowing through the coil
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
But B =
𝐿

𝜇0 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝑓
∴ 𝐼𝑅 =
𝐿

𝜇0 𝑁𝐴𝑓
R=
𝐿

The simple a.c generator

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 It consists of a rectangular coil of wire pivoted between opposite curve poles of a strong magnet
and free to rotate about its axis with uniform angular velocity.

The ends of the coil are connected to two slip rings which press slightly against the carbon
brushes connected to the load.

How it works
- The coil ABCD is rotated in a magnetic field, the magnetic field linked with it changes and
hence e.m.f is led away by means of slip rings which press slightly against the carbon
brushes.
- Applying Fleming’s right hand rule, the induced current enters the coil AB and leave the coil
via CD.
- Starting with the coil in the vertical position, the magnetic flux linking it is maximum and
hence no induced e.m.f.
- The induced e.m.f increases with the position of the coil in the magnetic field until it
becomes maximum with the coil in horizontal position and then decrease to zero as the coil
rotates to the vertical position
- The force acting on the sides of the coil change as the coil passes over the position and
hence he current flowing in the coil reverses. Hence an alternating e.m.f or current flows
through the load.

A graph of induced e.m.f against time in an a.c generator

The he main energy losses in a practical a.c. generator and how are they minimized?
- Eddy current loss are minimized by laminating the armature
- I2R losses are minimized by use of low resistance winding wires
- loss due to friction minimized by lubricating the rubbing parts

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d.c. generator

It consists of a rectangular coil abcd of wire pivoted between curved poles of a strong
magnet and free to rotate about its axis with a uniform velocity.

The ends of the coil are connected to two halves of sprit ring (commutators) which press
lightly against the carbon brush.

Mode of action
When the coil rotates at uniform velocity in magnetic field, e.m.f is induced in it. When
the coil is in vertical position, the commutators change brushes C1 to B2 and C2 to B1.
E.m.f reverses direction but the current does not change direction. Hence current flows
in the same direction in a resistor.

A graph of induced e.m.f against time in a d.c generator

The peak value of induced e.m.f increases with increase in

- The number of turns in the coil
- The area of the coil
- The strength of the magnetic field
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 - The frequency of rotation of the coil

How to convert a d.c. generator be converted into an a.c. generator.

To convert a d.c. generator to an a.c. generator, the ends of the rectangular coil are connected to a pair
of slip rings instead of the commutators.

How to convert an a.c. generator be converted into d.c. generator

To convert an a.c. generator to d.c. generator, the ends of the rectangular coil are connected to a pair of
commutators instead of the slip rings.

A d.c motor

It consists of a rectangular coil abcd of wire pivoted between curved poles of a strong magnet and free
to rotate about its axis with a uniform velocity.

The ends of the coil are connected to two halves of sprit ring (commutators) which press lightly against
the carbon brush.

Mode of operation

The switch K is closed and current flows in the coil in the direction shown

Applying Fleming’s left hand rule, ab experiences an upward force and side cd a downward force. the
two forces constitute a couple which rotates the coil in a clockwise direction.

When the coil passes over the vertical position, the commutators change contact with the carbon
brushes and current in the coil is immediately reversed. The force acting on the sides thus change and
the coil continues to rotate in the same direction.

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Because the conductor cuts the magnetic field, an e.m.f that oppose the supply voltage is induced in it
called back e.m.f

If Vis the supply voltage and E is the back e.m.f, then then the current Ia is given by
𝑉−𝐸
Ia = where Ra id the armature resistance
𝑅𝑎

Back e.m.f and efficiency of the motor

When the armature coil of a motor rotates in magnetic field, an, e.m.f is induced in the coil. The induced
e.m.f opposes the applied p.d. and is therefore a back e.m.f.

If V, E and r are applied p.d, induced e.m.f and resistance to the armature coil respectively, then the
current flowing in the coil is given by
𝑉−𝐸
I=
𝑟
=> V- E = Ir
Multiplying through by I
VI = EI + I2r
Since I2r is the power dissipated as heat in the armature, EI is the mechanical power output and VI is the
power supplied.
𝐸𝐼
Efficiency of the motor, η = 𝑥 100%
𝑉𝐼
𝐸
= 𝑥 100%
𝑉

Example 22

A motor whose armature resistance is 2Ω is operated on 240V mains supply. If the back e.m.f in the
motor is 220V, calculate the armature current. (03marks)
𝑉−𝐸 240−220
I= = = 10A
𝑟 2

Example 23

A transformer has 2000 turns in the primary coil. The primary coil is connected to a 240V mains. A 12 V,
36W lap is connected to the secondary coil. If the efficiency of the transformer is 90%, determine
the

(i) number of turns in the secondary coil (02marks)

𝑉𝑆 12
𝑁𝑆 = 𝑥 𝑁𝑃 = 𝑥2000 = 100
𝑉𝑃 240

(ii) current flowing in the primary coil (03marks)

IsVs = 0.9IpVp
𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠 36
Ip = = = 0.167A
0.9𝑉𝑝 0.9 𝑥 240

Example 24

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 Explain the significance of back e.m.f. in the operation of a d.c. motor (02marks)

The back e.m.f in a d.c. motor provides the useful power of the motor.
back e.m.f also reduces the heating effect in motor by reducing the current, since
𝑉− 𝐸𝑏
I= where Eb = back e.m.f
𝑟

Difference between a d.c generator and d.c motor

A d.c. generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy while a d.c motor converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy

Moving coil galvanometer.

Structure

- It consist of a rectangular coil of fine insulated copper wire wound on an aluminium frame to
provide electromagnetic damping.
- The coil together with the frame of aluminium are mounted over a soft iron cylindrical core
and freely pivoted on jeweled bearing to minimize friction at contact.
- The suspension torsion wire suspending the coil is attached to a pair of control hair springs
T1 and T2 for feeding current in and out of the coil and control rotation of the coil.
- The coil is then suspended between concave pieces of a strong magnet to provide magnetic
field.

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 Mode of action

- Current I to be measured is passed into the coil via hair spring T1.
- The current then causes the coil to experience a deflection torque, r = NABI due to a couple
force causing rotation in a radial magnetic field.
- The coil turns with the pointer through angle θ until stopped by restoring torque, r = kθ
provided by a pair of hair springs T1 and T2.
- At equilibrium, NABI = Kθ
𝑘
- ∴ current I = ( )𝜃
𝑁𝐴𝐵
- I ∝ θ, hence the instrument has a linear scale
Where B = magnetic field strength between the poles of the magnets
A = area of the plane of the coil
N = number of turns of the coil
k = torsion constant of suspension wire

The factors which affect the current sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer

- Strength of magnet, current sensitivity is proportional to the strength of the magnets

- Number of turns, current sensitivity is proportional to the number of turns
- Nature of suspension torsion wire, current sensitivity is inversely proportional to the torsion
constant of the suspension torsion wire.
- Area A of the plane of the coil; current sensitivity is proportional to the area of the plane of
the coil
- Size of copper wire making the coil; current sensitivity is proportional to the size of copper
wires making the coil since the bigger the wires the lower the resistance.

Example 25

Explain why a moving coil ammeter cannot be used to measure alternating current from the mains.
(03marks)

The coil rotates about a vertical axis between the north and south concave poles of strong magnet. This
provides a radial magnetic field. When an alternating current is passed through the coil, the torque on
the coil reverses direction at the same frequency as current. The pointer vibrates with very small
amplitude about the mean position hence a steady current reading cannot be taken

Example 26

Explain why a moving coil galvanometer should have a radial magnetic field, fine springs and many
turns. (06marks)

Radial magnetic field ensures that the Force, F, remains normal to the plane of the coil when it turns
through an angle i.e.

Torque on the coil τ = BANIsinα, where α is the angle between the normal to the coil and magnetic
field this is balanced by restoring torque = kθ due to current, where θ is the angle turned through
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 𝜃 𝐵𝐴𝑁𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Thus, current sensitivity given by =
𝐼 𝑘

For a linear scale, sin α = 1 => radial field

For current sensitivity, k must be small; i.e. the springs must be fine

For current sensitivity, N, must be large

Other a.c measuring instruments

Thermocouple ammeter

P and Q are dissimilar wires

Current to be measured is passed through the wire AB and heats the junction R of the
thermocouple. The thermoelectric effect generated at R causes a direct current to flow through
the micrometer calibrated to measure the r.m.s value of current.

Example 27
Explain any precautionary measure taken in the design of thermocouple meter (02mark)

The fine wire is enclosed in an evacuated glass bulb to shield it from draughts. If the wire was in
the open, some heat would be lost to the surrounding so that the temperature difference
between the hot and cold junctions would not be proportional to the power dissipated in the
wire.

The repulsion type moving iron meter.

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 -
- When a current is passed through the coil, the iron rods magnetize in the same poles adjacent
to each other in whatever the direction of current. Hence they repel and the pointer move in
the same direction until it is stopped by the restoring spring.
- Since the magnetic force is proportional to the square of the average current, hence, the
deflection is proportional to the square of average current.
- Advantage: it measured both direct and alternating current.
- Disadvantage: it has nonlinear scale

A hot wire ammeter.

- The current flows through a fine resistance-wire XY, which it heats.

- The wire warms up to such a temperature that it loses heat-mainly by convection-at a
rate equal to the average rate at which heat is developed in the wire.
- The rise in temperature of the wire makes it expand and sag; the sag is taken up by a
second fine wire PQ, which is held taut by a spring.
- The wire PQ passes round a pulley attached to the pointer of the instrument, which
rotates as the wire XY sags.
- The deflection of the pointer is roughly proportional to the average rate at which heat is
developed in the wire XY; it is therefore roughly proportional to the average value of the
square of the alternating current, and the scale is a square-law one.

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The structure and action of a.c transformer.

- Transformer consists of two coil of insulated wire, the primary and secondary wound on
laminated soft iron core.
- When alternating voltage, Vp is connected to primary coil, it drives alternating current in the
primary coil.
- The alternating current produces a varying magnetic flux φp that link the primary coils
inducing a back e.m.f EB in the primary.
- The varying magnetic flux, φs links the secondary coil by mutual induction/inducing
alternating voltage, Vs in the secondary
𝑑𝜙𝑝
Vp = Np ……………………….. (i)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜙𝑝
Vs = Ns ………………………..(ii)
𝑑𝑡
Eqn (i) ÷Eqn (i)
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
=
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠

When Ns > Np the transformer is a step up

Ns < Np the transformer is a step down

(ii) Explain why the voltage at a generating power station must be stepped up to very high
value for long distance transmission (03marks)

Transmission is at high voltage to reduce power loss

Note that

Power supplied, P =IV

𝑃
I=
𝑉

Hence when V is high, I is small. From power loss, P’ = I2R, when I is small power loss is
reduced.

Example 28

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 A transformer connected to a.c supply of peak voltage 240V is to supply a peak voltage of 9.0V
to a mini-lighting system of resistance 5Ω. Calculate the

(i) r.m.s current supplied to the lighting system (02marks)

𝑉0
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
√2

𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑉0
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = =
𝑅 √2𝑅
9.0
= = 1.27𝐴
5√2

(ii) average power delivered to the lighting system. (02marks)

P = I2R
2
= 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑅

= (1.27)2 x 5

= 8.1W

Example 29

Explain why the current in the primary coil of a transformer increases when the secondary is connected
to the load.

When load is connected to the secondary winding, a current flows in it. The current flows in such a
direction as to reduce the back e.m.f in primary coil, hence the current increase

Energy losses in a transformer

- Heat dissipated in the windings by I2R mechanism. This is minimized by use low resistance thick
copper wires.
- Energy loss resulting from loss of flux or flux leakage. This is minimized by winding secondary coil on
primary coil
- Eddy currents are minimized by laminating the core.

- loss due to friction minimized by lubricating the rubbing parts

- Hysteresis losses. When an alternating current is passes through the coil, wound on the core, the
magnetic domain dipoles are forced to change directions according to changing magnetic flux
created as a result of a.c. These changes of the domain dipoles require energy which is lost from
the system. This energy loss is called hysteresis loss.

Hysteresis loss is minimized by using a core made of self-magnetic substance which requires very
little energy to create magnetic reversal e.g. soft iron below the hysteresis curve of a ferromagnetic
substance

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 A graph, explain the hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic material

- When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic domains tend to
align with the applied field. The magnetic flux density increases along OA until saturation.
When the magnetizing field is reduced to zero, there is residue magnetization at C. This is
due to failure of the dipoles to respond instantly. Energy is lost.
- To bring the dipoles to their original orientation, a magnetic field OD is applied in opposite
direction. As the magnetic field is increased in this reversed direction, saturation is attained
at E
- When reversed magnetic field is reduced to zero, state F is attained. Reversal of dipoles
requires an increase of magnetic field in opposite direction to state EF. The cycle is then
repeated on further increase of magnetic field
- The curve of B verses H is called a hysteresis curve

Uses of transformers
A transformer is used to step up or down voltage to suit the required appliance.

The appliances that may require a transformer include telephone, radios, loud speakers, x-ray machines.
T.Vs and so on.

Eddy currents

If a bock of metal is moved in a magnetic filed or kept in changing magnetic field, free electrons in the
conductor experience a force and bigin to circulate.

This gives rise to induced currents in a closed circular path know as edd currents.

These currents flow in such a direction so as to oppose the motion of a conductor in the field.

Eddy currents produce a large amounts of heat in the soft iron core of transformers, induction
coils,electronics and thus reduce efficiency of electrical devices.

Uses of eddy currents

- Damp oscillations in a moving coil galvanometer preventing oscillation of the pointer and leading
to accurate reading

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- Eddy currents produce enough heat to melt metals in induction furnace.
- Electric brakes: the axle of a train is surrounded by a coaxial cylindrical drum. When the train is to
be stopped, a strong magnetic field is applied to the rotating drum. This generates large eddy
currents that oppose motion of axle.
- Speedometer, eddy current are used in speedometer

Sinusoidal a.c Currents

Terminologies
An alternating current or voltage
It is the voltage or current whose magnitude and direction varies periodically with time.
NB. Its variations with time can be represented by sine curve or wave and it is sometimes
referred to as a sinusoidal current or voltage.
Example
What is meant by a sinusoidal voltage?
A sinusoidal voltage is a voltage whose variation with time can be represented by a sine curve.
Peak value/ amplitude
It is the maximum current or voltage of an alternating current.
NB: peak values are denoted by V0, Vm, I0. or Im.

Root mean squared value (r.m.s)

It is a steady current or voltage that would dissipate heat in a given resistor at the same rate as
the alternative current or voltage.
𝐼0 𝑉0
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = and 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 =
√2 √2

Period, T
It is the time taken to complete one cycle

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Frequency, f
It is the number of cycles per second
1
f=
𝑇

a.c wave equation

The sinusoidal wave equation for a.c are represented by
V = V0sin ωt and,
I = I0sinωt
Where I0 and V0 are the peak alternating current or voltage
2𝜋 1
But ω = and T =
𝑇 𝑓

∴ ω =2πf
Thus the wave equations can be written as
V = V0sin 2πf t and,
I = I0sin2πf t
From Ohm’s law
V = IR
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
R=
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠

Example 32
𝑉
Show that the r.ms value of an alternating voltage is Vr.ms = 0 , where V0 is the peak voltage (03marks)
√2

𝑉2
Instantaneous power = , where V = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝑉02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
Pinst =
𝑅
𝑉02 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
Average power, P =
𝑅
1
But sin2ωt =
2
2
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
For steady voltage, P =
2𝑅
𝑉2 2
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
=> =
𝑅 2𝑅
𝑉0
Hence Vr.m.s =
√2

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Example 33
A sinusoidal alternating voltage V = 170sin120πt, voltage, is applied across a resistor of resistance 100Ω
Determine
(i) The r.m.s value of current which flows. (03marks)
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑉0
Ir.m.s = but
𝑅 √2
𝑉0 170
∴ 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = = = 1.2 𝐴
𝑅√2 100√2

(ii) The frequency of the current through the resistor. (02marks)

ω = 2πf; ω = 120π
𝜔 120𝜋
∴f= = = 60Hz
2𝜋 2𝜋

A capacitor in an a.c circuit

Consider a capacitor C farads in an a.c circuit as shown below

Assume a sinusoidal voltage

V = V0sinωt ……………………….. (i)
Across the capacitor plates from definition of capacitor.
The instantaneous charge Q on plates is
Q = CV……………………………… (ii)
Putting (i) into (ii)
Q = C V0sinωt ………………….. (iii)

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From definition of current
𝑑𝑄
I= (rate of charge flow)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐶𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡)
I= ………………….. (iv)
𝑑𝑡

I = ωCV0cos ωt ………………….. (v)

Putting ωCV0 = I0
I = I0cosωt
𝜋
From trigonometry, cos θ = sin (θ + )
2
𝜋
∴ I = I0sin (ωt+ )
2
𝜋
= ωCV0 sin (ωt+ )
2
𝜋
Hence the current leads the voltage by a phase angle of
2

Variation of V and I against time

Explanation of the curve

𝑑𝑉
- The current I through (not across) a capacitor is C . This is the slope of the voltage.
𝑑𝑡
- When a capacitor is connected to an AC voltage (at the zero crossing) the maximum current flow
𝑑𝑉
will occur immediately, i.e. t = 0, will approach infinity instantly and then repeat as a
𝑑𝑡
sinusoidal waveform.
- There will be a peak current at every zero crossing of the voltage waveform. The current
waveform will lead the voltage waveform 90 degrees.

Reactance
This is the non-resistive opposition to the flow of alternating current in either a capacitor or an
inductor.

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Greater reactance leads to smaller currents for the same applied voltage. Reactance is similar
to electric resistance, although it differs in several respects
Reactance of a capacitor (capacitive reactance)
It’s denoted by Xc.
𝑉0 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠
Definition, Xc = or Xc =
𝐼0 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠

Derivation of an expression for reactance of a capacitor

Assume a sinusoidal voltage;
V = V0sin ωt ……………………… (i)
Across capacitor’s plates; the instantaneous charge Q is
Q =CV ……………………………… (ii)
Q= CV0sin ωt ………………….. (iii)
From definition of current,
𝑑𝑄
I= (rate of charge flow) ……. (iv)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐶𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡)
I= ……………………… (v)
𝑑𝑡

I = ωCV0cos ωt ……………………. (vi)

But ωCV0 = I0 ………………………. (vii)
From definition
𝑉0
Capacitance reactance, Xc =
𝐼0

𝑉0
=
𝜔𝐶𝑉0

1
=
𝜔𝐶

But ω = 2πf
1
∴ 𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

Example 34
A sinusoidal voltage of r.ms value 13.2V is connected across a 50μF capacitor.

(i) Find peak value of the charge on the capacitor (02marks)

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 𝑄0 = 𝐶𝑉0 but 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑥 √2

Hence 𝑄0 = 𝐶𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑥 √2

= 50 x 10-6 x 13.2 x √2

= 9.333 x 10-4C

(ii) If the frequency of the alternating current is 49.6Hz, calculate the r.m.s value of current through the
capacitor. (03marks)
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 1
= = 𝑋𝐶
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑥 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
= 13.2 x 2π x 49.6 x 50 x 10−6 =0.206A

Example 35

A 100V, 50Hz a.c. supply is connected across a capacitor of 24μF as shown in figure above.
Calculate the reactance of the circuit (03marks)
1 1
Capacitive reactance, Xc = = = 132.6Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 24 𝑥 10−6

Example 36

A capacitor of capacitance 60μF is connected to an a.c. voltage supply of frequency 40Hz. An a.c
ammeter connected in series with the capacitor reads 2.2A. Find the p.d across the capacitor.
(03marks).

𝐼 1
𝑋𝑐 = =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶 2𝜋 𝑥 40 𝑥 60 𝑥 10−6

Voltage, Vr.m.s = Ir.m.s x Xc

2.2 𝑥 1
=
2𝜋 𝑥 40 𝑥 60 𝑥 10−6

= 146V

Example 37

A sinusoidal p.d of r.m.s value of 20V and frequency50Hz is applied across a 100μF capacitor. Calculate
the capacitive reactance of the circuit. (02 marks)

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 1 1
Xc = = = 31.8Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝑐 2𝜋 𝑥 50 𝑥 100 𝑥 10−6

a.c through an inductor

An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component
that stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An inductor
typically consists of an insulated wire wound into a coil
Example of inductors

Example 38
(i) Show that in a coil placed in an a.c circuit, the voltage across the coil leads the current by a
phase angle of 𝜋⁄2 radian or 900

Instantaneous voltage, V = V0sin2πft,

𝑑𝐼
EB = -L
𝑑𝑡
But for finite current, V = -Eb
𝐿𝑑𝐼
V= ; but V = V0sin2πft,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 −𝑉0
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑉0
∫ 𝑑𝐼 = 𝐿
∫ sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝑑𝑡
−𝑉0
I= 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑡
2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝐿

𝜋
From trigonometry, cosθ = sin (θ + )
2
−𝑉0 𝜋
I= sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + )
2𝜋𝑓𝑡𝐿 2
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 𝜋
 I lags V by or 900
2

(ii) Using the axes, sketch graphs to show the relative phases of the current and voltage across the
inductor. (02marks)

Note that the current starts at zero and rises to its peak after the voltage that drives it, i.e., the voltage
across an inductor leads the current because the Lenz’s Law behavior resists the buildup of current and
it takes a finite time for an imposed voltage to force the buildup of current to its maximum.

Derivation of an expression for reactance of an inductor

Method I
𝑑𝐼
Induced e.m.f = -L
𝑑𝑡
𝑑(𝐼) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
E= -L = -ωLI0cosωt
𝑑𝑡
Current flow in a pure inductors, V = -EωLI0cosωt
Hence V = V0cosωt where V0 = ωLI0
𝑉0 𝜔𝐿𝐼0
Inductance = XL = = = ωL
𝐼0 𝐼0

Method II

V = V0cosωt
𝑑𝐼
Induced e.m.f E = -L
𝑑𝑡
Since the inductor is a coil of zero resistance (for finite current) V = -E
𝑑𝐼
V0cosωt = L
𝑑𝑡
𝑉0
dI = cosωt . dt
𝐿
𝑉0
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡. 𝑑𝑡
𝑉0
I = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝐿
𝑉0
But I0 =
𝜔𝐿
I = I0sinωt
𝑉0 𝑉
XL = = 𝑉0 0 = ωL
𝐼0 ⁄𝜔𝐿

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Ballistic galvanometer
It is a moving coil galvanometer used for estimating the quantity of charge flow whose
deflection of the coil is directly proportional t0 the charge that passes through it.

Thank you so much

Dr. Bbosa Science

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