Health practical

(to be discussed)

Aim: to be discussed

Introduction

[Link] health

Decades ago , a forward looking world health organisation (1948) defined health as a “complete state of
physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or [Link] definition is
at the core of health psychologists' conception of health .Rather than defining health as the absence of
illness ,health is recognized to be an achievement involving balance among physical, mental and social
well [Link] can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity. It encompasses various aspects of an individual's life,
including their physical, mental, and emotional states, as well as their social and environmental
conditions. Achieving and maintaining good health involves making positive lifestyle choices, such as
engaging in regular physical activity, consuming a balanced diet, getting enough sleep, managing stress,
avoiding harmful substances like tobacco and excessive alcohol, and seeking appropriate medical care
when [Link] took many years ,for psychology to gain acceptance by the medical [Link] 1911 the
american psychological association (APA) recommended that psychology be part of the medical school
curriculum ,but most medical schools failed to pursue this recommendation .during the 1940s ,the
medical speciality of psychiatry incorporated the study of psychological factors related to disease into its
training ,but few psychologists were involved in health [Link] the 1960s, psychology's role in
medicine began to expand with the creation of new medical schools ;the number of psychologists who
held academic appointments on medical school faculties nearly tripled from 1969 to 1993. By the
beginning of the 21st century ,psychologists had made significant progress in their efforts to gain greater
acceptance by the medical profession .In 2002 ,the american medical association accepted several new
categories for health and behavior that permits psychologits to bill for services to patients with physical
[Link] the role of psychologists in medical settinggs has expanded beyond traditional mental
health probelms to includue procedurers and programms to help people stop smoking , eat a healthy
diest ,exercise, adhere to medical advice , reduce stress, control pain and avoid unintentional [Link]
biomedical model is the traditional view of western medicine ,ehich defines health as the absence if
disease .this view conceptualizes disease exclusively as a biological process that is an almost mechanistic
result of exposure to a specific pathogen, a disease cauisong [Link] view spurred the
development of drugs and medical technology oriented towards removing the pathogens and curing
[Link] focus is on disease which is traceable to a specific agent .Removing the pathogen restores
[Link] alternative model of health exists now ,one that advocates a holistic approach to
medicine .This holistic model considers social ,psychological, physiological and even spiritual aspects of a
person's health . This alternative model is the biopsychosocial model ,the approach to health that
includes biological ,psychological and social influences .

This model holds that many diseases result from a combination of factors such as
genetics ,physiology ,social support ,personal control,stress ,compliance ,personality,poverty and cultural
beliefs.

health practices are not independent of culture in any society and the socio-religious beliefs and
practices have various health implications in human societies

Different definition across cultures

health practices are not independent of culture in any society and the socio-religious beliefs and
practices have various health implications in human societies.

World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as ‘A state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity’ (1948). From this definition it is clear that in
matters of a person’s well- being there exists an interrelationship and interaction of the psychological,
physiological and social factors. We must therefore remember that ‘health’ in the broad sense is “quality
of life” rather than only the absence of disease and as 7 a complex dynamic equilibrium stems from the
entire socio-economic condition.

Factors affecting health

Physical

Mental and psychological

Socio cultural

Spiritual

[Link] illness

Illness on the other hand is defined is seen by Kleinman (1978) as the socio-cultural dimension within
which a person experiences disease. Susser in 1973 tried to define the term “illness” by referring it to
the inner sense of an individual’s feeling unwell.

According to him, illness does not refer to any explicit pathology, but refers to a person’s subjective
understanding of it, such as discomfort, tiredness, or general malaise. We can even regard the concept of
sickness as such a notion that combines the biomedical model (disease) with the socio-cultural context
of the patient (illness).

As indicated by Balog (1978), finding an appropriate and encompassing definition of illness may be as
difficult as a task as it is to define health. That is while no one would reject the notion that improper
functioning and deviation from normality are essential components of illness, it might be not so easy to
establish agreement concerning what constitutes proper functioning and what characterizes a deviation
from normality.

There is reason to believe that an individual may be functioning improperly, though not regarded as ill.
Lack of observable or felt symptoms are also not good delimiters of a non sick state. Moreover, medical
professionals and lay persons differ in their judgements and interpretations of symptoms and signs.
Thus, what is considered as a “sick condition” by the former group may not be so designated by latter.

Value judgements and social norms have played a strong role, not only in defining health, but also in
defining illness. Despite the aforementioned problems in obtaining a universally valid concept of illness,
the importance of understanding individuals’ ideas of illness and illness-related issues (for both
enhancing health, and promoting adaptive coping) has been well demonstrated by empirical evidence.

akjpb0351n05081979

Pattern of illness

The 20th century brought about major changes in the patterns of disease and death including a shift in
the leading causes of death. Infectious diseases were leading causes of death in 1900, but over the next
several decades, chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and stroke became the leading killers.

During the last few years of the 20th century, deaths from some chronic diseases—those related to
unhealthy lifestyles and behaviours—began to decrease. These diseases include heart disease, cancer,
and stroke, which all were responsible for a smaller proportion of deaths. This change in behaviour
contributed to some of the decline in deaths due to heart

disease; improvements in health care also contributed to this decline.

Death rates due to unintentional injuries, suicide,and homicide have increased in recent years Significant
increases also occurred in Alzheimer’s disease, influenza and pneumonia, kidney disease, septicemia
(blood infection), and Parkinson’s disease. For these causes of

death that have recently increased, behavior is a lessimportant component than for those causes that
have decreased. However, the rising death rates due to Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease reflect
another important trend in health and health care: an increasingly older population.

An important factor influencing the rise of health psychology has been the change in illness
patterns .until the 20th century ,the major causes of illness and death were acute disorders.
Acute disorders are short term illnesses, often result of a viral or bacterial invader and usually amenable
to cure. The prevalence of acute infectious disorders ,such as tuberculosis ,influenz. Measles, and
poliomyelitis ,has declined because of treatmenrs innovations and changes in public health standars ,
such as improvements in waste control and sewage .

[Link] illnesses -especially heart disease ,cancer and respiratory disease -are the main contributors
to disabilty and death ,particularly in industralized countries .chronic illnesses are slowly developing
diseases worldwide at the present times.

Chronic diseases are disease in which psychological and social factors are implicated as causes .for
example ,personal health habits, such as diet and smoking ,contribute to the development of heart
disease and cancer and sexual actuvuty is critical to the likelihood of developing AIDS .

People may live with chronic disease for many years ,psychological issues arise in their
management .health psychologist help chronically ill people adjust psychologically and socially to their
changing health state and tratment regimens ,many of which involve self care .chronic illnesses affect
family functionining , including relationships with a partner or children and health psychologists help
ease the problems in family functioning that may result .

Chronic illnesses may require medication use and self monitoring of symptoms ,as well as chnage in
behvaiour ,such as altering diet and getting exercise. Health pscyhologists develop interventions to help
people learn these regiments and promote adherence to them .

Attitude and beliefs towards illness

[Link] risk behaviour

Health risk behavior refers to any activity or behavior that has the potential to harm a person's physical
or mental health Health risk behavior refers to any behavior or activity that may increase the likelihood
of physical, mental, or emotional harm to an individual. These behaviors can be intentional or
unintentional and may occur across various domains of an individual's life, such as personal habits,
relationships, and social environment. Health risk behaviors are often associated with negative health
outcomes, such as chronic diseases, injuries, mental health problems, and premature death.

Examples of health risk behaviors include substance abuse (e.g. alcohol and drug abuse), smoking and
tobacco use, poor diet and physical inactivity, unsafe sexual practices, reckless driving, poor sleep habits,
aggression and violence, and poor hygiene. These behaviors can be influenced by a range of factors,
including individual attitudes and beliefs, social and cultural norms, peer pressure, environmental
factors, and genetic predisposition.
Identifying and addressing health risk behaviors early on is essential for preventing negative health
outcomes and improving overall well-being. This may involve education, counseling, and treatment to
help individuals develop healthy habits and make positive choices that promote their physical, mental,
and emotional health. . Some examples of health risk behaviors include:

Substance abuse: Substance abuse refers to the use of drugs or alcohol in a way that negatively affects a
person's health, relationships, work, or daily activities. Substance abuse can lead to addiction, which is a
chronic brain disease that causes compulsive drug seeking and use despite negative consequences.
Common substances that people abuse include alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, opioids, cocaine, and
methamphetamine.

Unprotected sex: Engaging in sexual activity without using protection, such as condoms or birth control
pills, increases the risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as chlamydia, gonorrhea,
syphilis, and HIV. Unprotected sex can also lead to unintended pregnancies, which can cause emotional
and financial stress.

Poor diet: Eating a diet that is high in calories, sugar, salt, and unhealthy fats can lead to obesity,
diabetes, heart disease, and other health problems. A poor diet can also affect mental health, causing
symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Lack of physical activity: Failing to exercise regularly can increase the risk of obesity, heart disease, and
other health problems. Regular physical activity can improve mental health, reduce stress and anxiety,
and improve overall quality of life.

Reckless driving: Driving under the influence of drugs or alcohol, or engaging in other reckless behaviors
while driving, can lead to accidents and serious injuries. Reckless driving can also result in legal
consequences such as fines, license suspension, or even imprisonment.

Unsafe use of technology: Spending too much time on electronic devices can lead to a sedentary lifestyle
and increase the risk of obesity, diabetes, and other health problems. Cyberbullying, or the use of
technology to harass or intimidate others, can lead to social isolation, depression, and other mental

health problems.

[Link] seeking behaviour

Health seeking behavior is the set of actions or behaviors that individuals undertake to maintain their
physical and mental health, prevent illness, and seek care when needed. It encompasses a wide range of
behaviors, including seeking information on healthy behaviors and preventative measures, engaging in
self-care practices, seeking medical care when necessary, and adhering to treatment plans.

Effective health seeking behavior requires individuals to take an active role in their own health and well-
being. This involves making informed decisions about health care, seeking out appropriate health care
services, and following through with recommended treatments and preventative measures.

Some factors that may influence health seeking behavior include individual attitudes and beliefs about
health and illness, access to health care services, cultural norms and practices, and socioeconomic
status. For example, individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may face barriers to accessing
health care services, such as lack of transportation or limited financial resources, which can impact their
ability to seek care when needed.

Promoting effective health seeking behavior is an important goal of public health initiatives, as it can
help to prevent the development of chronic diseases and improve overall health outcomes. This may
involve providing education and resources to help individuals make informed decisions about their
health, improving access to health care services, and addressing social determinants of health that can
impact health seeking behavior.

Several factors can influence an individual's health seeking behavior, including:

Attitudes and beliefs about health and illness: An individual's attitudes and beliefs about health and
illness can impact their willingness to seek care when needed. For example, some people may believe
that seeking medical care is unnecessary unless they are experiencing severe symptoms, while others
may be more proactive in seeking care.

Access to health care services: Access to health care services, including availability, affordability, and
quality of care, can impact an individual's ability to seek care when needed. For example, individuals
living in rural or remote areas may face barriers to accessing health care services, such as transportation
or distance.

Cultural norms and practices: Cultural norms and practices can impact an individual's health seeking
behavior, including attitudes toward health care providers, alternative medicine, and traditional healing
practices.

Socioeconomic status: Socioeconomic status can impact an individual's ability to seek care when needed,
including access to health care services and financial resources to pay for care.

Health seeking behavior refers to actions taken by individuals to maintain their physical and mental
health, prevent illnesses, and seek care when necessary. It encompasses a range of activities, from
seeking information on healthy behaviors and preventative measures to accessing health care services
when a health problem arises.

Some examples of health seeking behaviors include:

Seeking information: This involves actively seeking out information on healthy behaviors, preventative
measures, and potential health risks. This may include reading health-related materials, talking to health
care professionals, or searching for health information online.

Preventative measures: These are actions taken to prevent illness or injury, such as getting regular check-
ups, exercising regularly, and practicing good hygiene.

Self-care: This includes taking care of one's own physical and mental health through practices such as
healthy eating, exercise, and stress management.

Seeking care: This involves seeking out health care services when necessary, such as when experiencing
symptoms of illness or injury. This may include visiting a primary care physician, going to the emergency
room, or seeking care from a specialist.

Adherence to treatment: This refers to following through with recommended treatment plans, such as
taking medication as prescribed or attending follow-up appointments.

Health and lifestyle

Lifestyle is a broad term that encompasses a range of factors that contribute to an individual's overall
way of living, including diet, exercise, sleep, stress management, and substance use. Each of these
factors can impact an individual's health in different ways.

The relationship between health and lifestyle is complex, as each factor can impact the other. For
example, poor diet and lack of exercise can lead to weight gain and the development of chronic diseases,
which can in turn impact sleep and mental health. Similarly, chronic stress and poor sleep can lead to
unhealthy coping mechanisms such as substance use.

Making healthy lifestyle choices is important for maintaining good health and preventing the
development of chronic diseases. Public health initiatives often focus on promoting healthy lifestyle
choices, such as providing education and resources on healthy eating, exercise, and stress management.
Additionally, healthcare providers may work with patients to develop personalized lifestyle plans to
improve their overall health and prevent the development of chronic diseases.

It's important to note that lifestyle choices are not the only factor that can impact health. Genetics,
environmental factors, and access to healthcare can also play a role in determining an individual's health
outcomes. However, making healthy lifestyle choices can help to mitigate the impact of these factors and
promote good health and well-being.

mental health is an important aspect of overall health and well-being, and lifestyle factors can impact
mental health in significant ways. Promoting healthy lifestyle choices such as exercise, healthy eating,
and stress management can improve mental health and reduce the risk of mental health disorders.
Conversely, addressing mental health is crucial for promoting healthy lifestyles and reducing the risk of
chronic diseases.

Health and attitude

Health can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity. Attitude refers to a person's general outlook or mindset towards
something, which can be positive or negative.

In the context of health, attitude can refer to an individual's mindset or outlook towards their health and
well-being. A positive attitude towards health can involve adopting healthy behaviors, such as regular
exercise, healthy eating habits, and stress management techniques. A positive attitude can also involve a
mindset of resilience, optimism, and self-efficacy in regards to one's ability to achieve and maintain good
health.

On the other hand, a negative attitude towards health can involve behaviors that are detrimental to
health, such as smoking, excessive drinking, and a sedentary lifestyle. A negative attitude can also involve
feelings of hopelessness, pessimism, and a lack of motivation to take care of one's health.

Overall, attitude can have a significant impact on health and well-being. Adopting a positive attitude
towards health can promote healthy behaviors, improve mental health, and increase resilience in the
face of illness or health challenges. Encouraging positive attitudes towards health and addressing
negative attitudes can be an important aspect of promoting overall health and well-being.

ll-being.

how attitude relates to health:

Mind-body connection: Attitude can impact physical health by affecting the mind-body connection.
Negative attitudes such as stress, anxiety, and pessimism can activate the body's stress response, leading
to increased levels of stress hormones and a compromised immune system. This can increase the risk of
physical health problems such as cardiovascular disease, digestive problems, and chronic pain.

Positive attitudes and health: Positive attitudes such as optimism, gratitude, and resilience can promote
physical health by reducing stress levels, improving immune function, and increasing feelings of well-
being. Studies have shown that positive attitudes are associated with lower levels of inflammation and a
reduced risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and diabetes.

Health behaviors and attitude: Attitude can impact health behaviors such as exercise, diet, and smoking.
Positive attitudes can promote healthy behaviors, while negative attitudes can discourage healthy
behaviors and increase the risk of unhealthy behaviors. For example, a positive attitude towards exercise
can increase motivation and adherence to an exercise routine, while a negative attitude can decrease
motivation and lead to a sedentary lifestyle.

Perception of illness and attitude: Attitude can impact the way individuals perceive and cope with illness.
A positive attitude can improve coping skills and increase resilience in the face of illness, while a negative
attitude can worsen symptoms and decrease the effectiveness of treatments. Studies have shown that
individuals with a positive attitude towards their illness have a better quality of life and may even
experience better health outcomes.

Attitude and self-care: Attitude can impact self-care practices such as sleep, stress management, and
self-care routines. Positive attitudes can encourage self-care practices, while negative attitudes can
discourage self-care and increase the risk of health problems. For example, a positive attitude towards
self-care may lead to consistent sleep habits, stress management practices, and a healthy diet, while a
negative attitude may result in poor sleep, high stress levels, and an unhealthy diet.

In summary, attitude plays a crucial role in overall health and well-being. Positive attitudes can promote
physical health, improve health behaviors, and increase resilience in the face of illness, while negative
attitudes can increase the risk of physical health problems and discourage healthy behaviors.
Encouraging positive attitudes and addressing negative attitudes can be an important aspect of
promoting overall health and well-being

Health and beliefs

Beliefs play a significant role in health and well-being. They can influence a person's behavior, attitude,
and perception of health-related issues.

Beliefs can be defined as ideas or convictions that a person holds to be true. In the context of health,
beliefs can be related to various aspects of health such as the cause of illness, the effectiveness of
treatments, and the importance of healthy lifestyle choices. For example, some people may believe that
illnesses are caused by environmental factors, while others may believe that illnesses are caused by
genetic factors.

Beliefs can also influence health behaviors such as diet, exercise, and smoking. For example, someone
who believes that exercise is important for maintaining good health may be more likely to engage in
regular physical activity, while someone who does not hold this belief may be less likely to exercise.
Moreover, beliefs can impact a person's perception of health-related issues such as the severity of an
illness, the effectiveness of treatments, and the need for preventative measures. For instance, someone
who believes that a particular treatment or medication is ineffective may be less likely to seek medical
attention or adhere to a treatment regimen.

In some cases, beliefs can also impact an individual's decision to seek medical treatment or alternative
therapies. For example, someone who holds a belief that alternative therapies are more effective than
conventional medical treatments may opt for these therapies instead of seeking medical attention.

Overall, beliefs play a significant role in health and well-being by influencing behavior, attitude, and
perception of health-related issues. Encouraging positive beliefs about health and addressing negative
beliefs can be an important aspect of promoting overall health and well-being.

Health and awareness

Health awareness refers to the level of knowledge, understanding, and consciousness that individuals
have about their own health and well-being. It includes knowledge about health risks and preventive
measures, as well as awareness about the signs and symptoms of illnesses and conditions.

Awareness is a crucial factor in promoting and maintaining good health. Individuals who are aware of
their health and the risks associated with certain behaviors and lifestyle choices are more likely to make
informed decisions about their health. They are also more likely to seek medical attention when
necessary and adhere to treatment plans.

Health awareness can be promoted through education, public health campaigns, and individual efforts
to stay informed about health-related issues. Education can include information about healthy eating
habits, exercise, stress management, and disease prevention measures. Public health campaigns can
raise awareness about specific health issues, such as cancer, heart disease, and mental health. Individual
efforts can include staying informed about health news and developments, consulting with healthcare
professionals, and engaging in healthy behaviors.

Overall, health awareness is a critical component of promoting and maintaining good health. It can help
individuals make informed decisions about their health and take proactive measures to prevent illness
and disease. By promoting health awareness, individuals can take control of their health and improve
their overall well-being.

[Link] and illness relationship

The relationship between health and illness is multifaceted and can be influenced by a variety of factors,
including genetics, lifestyle, environmental factors, and access to healthcare. In addition, the definitions
of health and illness are not always clear-cut, as they can be influenced by cultural, social, and historical
contexts.

One important aspect of the relationship between health and illness is the concept of health equity.
Health equity refers to the idea that everyone should have an equal opportunity to achieve good health,
regardless of their social or economic circumstances. This means that access to healthcare, healthy food,
safe living conditions, and other factors that impact health should be available to all individuals,
regardless of their race, ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status.

Another important aspect of the relationship between health and illness is the concept of the social
determinants of health. The social determinants of health are the economic and social conditions that
influence the health of individuals and communities. These include factors such as income, education,
employment, housing, and access to healthcare. Research has shown that these factors can have a
significant impact on health outcomes and can contribute to health disparities between different
populations.

Moreover, the relationship between health and illness can be influenced by individual behaviors and
lifestyle choices. For example, smoking, unhealthy eating habits, and a lack of physical activity can
increase the risk of developing chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. On the other
hand, engaging in healthy behaviors such as eating a balanced diet, getting regular exercise, and getting
enough sleep can help to promote good health and prevent illness.

In conclusion, the relationship between health and illness is complex and multifaceted. Factors such as
genetics, lifestyle choices, access to healthcare, and social and economic conditions can all play a role in
determining health outcomes. By promoting health equity and addressing the social determinants of
health, we can work to improve health outcomes for all individuals and communities. Additionally,
individual behaviors and lifestyle choices can also have a significant impact on overall health and can be
modified to promote good health and prevent illness.

Challenges and issuesAccess to healthcare: Access to healthcare is a critical issue that affects millions of
people worldwide. Lack of access to healthcare services can lead to untreated illnesses and injuries,
which can result in significant health complications and even death. In many cases, access to healthcare
is limited by factors such as geographic location, income, and insurance coverage. This can result in
significant disparities in health outcomes between different populations.

Health disparities: Health disparities refer to differences in health outcomes between different
populations. These disparities can be influenced by a range of factors, including socioeconomic status,
race, ethnicity, and geographic location. For example, individuals who live in low-income neighborhoods
may have limited access to healthy food options and safe places to exercise, which can contribute to
higher rates of obesity and chronic disease. Similarly, individuals from certain racial and ethnic
backgrounds may experience discrimination and other factors that negatively impact their health
outcomes.

Chronic disease: Chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes are a major health
challenge that affects millions of people worldwide. These diseases often require ongoing medical
treatment and management, which can be difficult to access or afford for some individuals. In addition,
many chronic diseases are associated with lifestyle factors such as poor diet and lack of exercise, which
can make prevention and management more challenging.

Mental health: Mental health issues are a growing concern for individuals and communities worldwide.
Mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse can have a significant impact on
overall health and well-being. Many individuals who experience mental health issues may struggle to
access appropriate treatment and support, which can lead to significant negative impacts on their lives.

Infectious diseases: Infectious diseases continue to be a major health challenge, particularly in

developing countries. Diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and hepatitis can have significant health
impacts and can be difficult to treat or prevent. In addition, new infectious diseases such as COVID-19
can emerge at any time, presenting new challenges for healthcare providers and communities.

Environmental health: Environmental factors such as pollution, climate change, and natural disasters can
have a significant impact on health. Exposure to environmental hazards can increase the risk of
respiratory and cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other health issues. Climate change is also
contributing to the spread of vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever.

Lifestyle-related health issues: Lifestyle-related health issues such as smoking, poor diet, and lack of
physical activity can contribute to a range of health issues, including chronic disease and obesity. These
issues can be particularly challenging to address, as they often require significant lifestyle changes and
behavior modification.

Addressing these challenges and issues related to health requires a multifaceted approach that involves
improving access to healthcare services, addressing social and economic factors that contribute to health
disparities, promoting healthy behaviors and lifestyles, and addressing environmental factors that impact
health. By working together to address these challenges, individuals and communities can work towards
achieving better health outcomes and promoting overall well-being. related to health

Indivisual

Group

Community
[Link] socio cultural context and health

The current socio-cultural context can have both positive and negative impacts on health, depending on
various factors. Here are some more detailed explanations of how the socio-cultural context can affect
health:

COVID-19 pandemic: The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has created a unique situation in terms of its
impact on health. The pandemic has resulted in increased stress and anxiety, which can negatively
impact physical and mental health. Social distancing measures and restrictions on movement and
activities have also disrupted daily routines and led to increased isolation, which can have negative
impacts on mental health. Additionally, the pandemic has highlighted and exacerbated existing health
disparities and inequities, particularly for marginalized communities.

Social determinants of health: Social determinants of health are the conditions in which people are born,
grow, live, work, and age. These factors can have a significant impact on health outcomes and can
include factors such as income, education, employment, access to healthcare, and social support.
Addressing social determinants of health is critical to improving health outcomes and reducing health
disparities. For example, policies that promote income equality, affordable housing, and access to
healthcare can have positive impacts on health outcomes.

Cultural beliefs and practices: Cultural beliefs and practices can influence health behaviors and
outcomes. For example, some cultural beliefs and practices may promote healthy behaviors, such as
physical activity, healthy eating, and stress reduction practices like meditation. However, other cultural
practices may promote unhealthy behaviors such as smoking or excessive alcohol consumption. Similarly,
cultural beliefs about mental health and seeking help for mental health issues may impact individuals'
willingness to seek treatment. Addressing these cultural factors through culturally appropriate health
education and outreach programs can help promote healthy behaviors.

Political and economic context: The political and economic context can also impact health outcomes. For
example, policies that limit access to healthcare or environmental regulations that promote pollution can
have negative impacts on health. Similarly, economic factors such as unemployment and income
inequality can contribute to poor health outcomes. Policies that promote access to healthcare and
address social determinants of health can help address these issues.

Social media and technology: The rise of social media and technology has also impacted health
behaviors and outcomes. Social media can provide access to health information and support, but it can
also contribute to the spread of misinformation and promote unhealthy behaviors such as disordered
eating or excessive screen time. Additionally, the increasing use of technology and automation in the
workplace may contribute to sedentary lifestyles, which can negatively impact health outcomes.

In summary, the current socio-cultural context can impact health in many ways. Addressing social
determinants of health, promoting healthy cultural practices, and enacting policies that promote equity
and access to healthcare can help mitigate negative impacts on health and promote overall health and
well-being.

Current health status around the globe

The current health status around the globe is complex and multifaceted. Here are some key trends and
issues:

COVID-19 pandemic: The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on global health. As
of April 2023, the pandemic has led to over 365 million confirmed cases and 5.5 million deaths
worldwide. The pandemic has highlighted existing health disparities and inequities, particularly for
marginalized communities. The development and distribution of vaccines has been a key focus in efforts
to control the spread of the virus.

Non-communicable diseases: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as heart disease, cancer,

diabetes, and chronic respiratory disease are the leading causes of death worldwide. According to the
World Health Organization, NCDs account for 71% of all deaths globally. These diseases are often
associated with unhealthy lifestyle behaviors such as smoking, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diets.

Mental health: Mental health is a growing concern globally. According to the World Health Organization,
approximately 1 in 4 people globally will experience a mental health condition in their lifetime. Mental
health conditions can have significant impacts on individuals' well-being and quality of life, and can
contribute to increased rates of disability and premature death.

Global health disparities: There are significant disparities in health outcomes and access to healthcare
around the globe. Low- and middle-income countries often experience higher rates of mortality and
morbidity due to limited access to healthcare, poverty, and other social determinants of health.

Climate change and health: Climate change is also a growing concern for global health. Climate change
can impact health in many ways, such as through the spread of infectious diseases, increased frequency
and severity of natural disasters, and negative impacts on air quality and water supplies.

Aging population: The global population is aging, with the number of people aged 65 and over projected
to triple by 2050. This demographic shift will have significant impacts on healthcare systems and
services, as older adults often require more healthcare services and support.

In summary, the current health status around the globe is complex and influenced by a variety of factors.
Addressing global health issues such as the COVID-19 pandemic, non-communicable diseases, mental
health, health disparities, climate change, and the aging population will require coordinated efforts from
governments, healthcare systems, and communities around the world.
Various policies

here are some more details on each of the policies I mentioned:

Universal Health Coverage: Universal Health Coverage aims to provide access to quality healthcare
services to all individuals and communities, regardless of their ability to pay. This policy is based on the
idea that access to healthcare is a fundamental human right. In practice, UHC policies may involve
measures such as expanding healthcare coverage to underserved populations, reducing out-of-pocket
expenses for healthcare services, and improving the quality of healthcare services.

Tobacco control policies: Tobacco use is a major risk factor for non-communicable diseases such as
cancer, heart disease, and stroke. Tobacco control policies aim to reduce tobacco use and promote public
health. These policies may include measures such as taxation, advertising bans, smoke-free policies, and
warning labels on cigarette packages. Tobacco control policies have been effective in reducing tobacco
use in many countries around the world.

Mental health policies: Mental health policies aim to promote mental health and prevent mental illness,
as well as to improve access to mental health services and support for individuals with mental health
conditions. These policies may include measures such as public education campaigns to reduce stigma
around mental illness, improved screening and diagnosis of mental health conditions, and expanded
access to mental health services and treatments.

Climate change policies: Climate change policies aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate
the negative impacts of climate change on public health. These policies may include measures such as
reducing reliance on fossil fuels, promoting renewable energy sources, and improving public
transportation. Climate change policies are critical to protecting public health, as climate change can
lead to increased heat waves, natural disasters, and the spread of infectious diseases.

Nutrition policies: Nutrition policies aim to improve diets and prevent diet-related diseases such as
obesity, diabetes, and heart disease. These policies may include measures such as promoting healthy
food choices, reducing salt and sugar in processed foods, and implementing food labeling and
advertising regulations. Nutrition policies can be effective in promoting healthy behaviors and reducing
the burden of diet-related diseases.
Immunization policies: Immunization policies aim to promote vaccination and prevent the spread of
infectious diseases. These policies may include measures such as vaccination schedules and campaigns,
as well as public education and outreach programs. Immunization policies have been effective in
reducing the spread of many infectious diseases, such as measles, polio, and influenza.

Overall, policies are an important tool for addressing global health challenges and improving health
outcomes. Effective policies require collaboration and coordination among government agencies,
healthcare providers, public health experts, and community organizations. By implementing evidence-
based policies, we can work to improve health outcomes and promote health equity around the world.

In India, there are a variety of health policies and programs that have been implemented at the national
and state levels to address health challenges and improve health outcomes. Here are some examples:

National Health Policy: India's National Health Policy 2017 aims to provide universal access to affordable
healthcare services for all citizens, with a focus on primary healthcare and preventive services. The policy
also emphasizes the need for greater collaboration between public and private sectors to improve health
outcomes.

Ayushman Bharat: Ayushman Bharat is a national health insurance scheme launched in 2018 that aims to
provide financial protection to poor and vulnerable populations in India. The scheme provides coverage
for secondary and tertiary healthcare services, with a focus on non-communicable diseases and
catastrophic health expenditures.

National Rural Health Mission: The National Rural Health Mission was launched in 2005 with the goal of
improving access to healthcare services in rural areas of India. The program focuses on improving
infrastructure, recruiting and training healthcare workers, and expanding access to essential medicines.

Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan is a national cleanliness campaign launched in 2014
with the goal of improving sanitation and hygiene in India. Improved sanitation can help prevent the
spread of communicable diseases and improve overall health outcomes.

National Tobacco Control Programme: The National Tobacco Control Programme was launched in 2007
to reduce tobacco use and promote public health. The program focuses on implementing tobacco
control policies such as advertising bans, smoke-free policies, and warning labels on cigarette packages.
These are just a few examples of the many health policies and programs in India. While progress has
been made in improving health outcomes in India, there are still significant challenges to be addressed,
particularly in the areas of maternal and child health, non-communicable diseases, and healthcare
infrastructure.

Current health status of india

Life expectancy: The life expectancy at birth in India has been steadily increasing over the past few
decades. In 2019, the life expectancy at birth for males was 67 years and for females was 70.4 years,
according to the National Health Profile 2020.

Infant mortality rate: The infant mortality rate (IMR) in India has been declining over the past few
decades. However, there are significant variations across states, with some states having much higher
IMRs than others. For example, the IMR in Uttar Pradesh (a large northern state) was 43 deaths per
1,000 live births in NFHS-5, while the IMR in Kerala (a southern state) was only 7 deaths per 1,000 live
births.

Maternal mortality rate: The maternal mortality rate (MMR) in India has also been declining, but it
remains a significant health challenge. According to the National Health Profile 2020, the MMR in India
was 113 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2016-18. Again, there are significant variations across states,
with some states having much higher MMRs than others.

Communicable diseases: Communicable diseases such as tuberculosis (TB), malaria, and HIV/AIDS
continue to be major health challenges in India. According to the World Health Organization (WHO),
India accounted for around 9% of the global burden of TB cases in 2020. Malaria is also a significant
health challenge, particularly in certain parts of the country. In addition, India has the third-highest
number of people living with HIV/AIDS in the world, according to UNAIDS.

Non-communicable diseases: Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as cardiovascular disease, cancer,

and diabetes are also major health challenges in India. According to the National Health Profile 2020,
NCDs accounted for around 61% of all deaths in India in 2016. The prevalence of NCDs is increasing,
particularly in urban areas, and is driven by factors such as changes in diet and lifestyle.

Access to healthcare: Despite progress in some areas, access to healthcare remains a significant
challenge in India, particularly in rural areas. According to the National Health Profile 2020, there were
only 0.55 hospital beds per 1,000 population in India in 2019, and only around 25% of healthcare
facilities in rural areas meet the Indian Public Health Standards.

Nutrition and sanitation: India also faces significant challenges related to nutrition and sanitation.
According to NFHS-5, around 34% of children under the age of five in India are stunted, and around 17%
are wasted. In addition, open defecation remains a significant challenge, particularly in rural areas.
According to NFHS-5, around 41% of households in India still do not have access to basic sanitation
facilities.
Goverment status

The National Health Policy 2017 is the overarching framework for health in India that aims to provide
comprehensive primary healthcare to all citizens. It recognizes that the current health system is
fragmented and that there is a need for integration and convergence of various health programs. The
policy aims to increase public health expenditure to 2.5% of GDP and to provide universal access to free
drugs and diagnostics.

The government has also established the National Health Authority (NHA) as the nodal agency for
implementing the Ayushman Bharat program. The NHA is responsible for empanelling hospitals,
implementing the IT platform for the scheme, and monitoring the quality of services provided.

The government has also launched several digital health initiatives, such as the National Digital Health
Mission (NDHM), which aims to create a digital health infrastructure that will enable the interoperability
of health records and facilitate the delivery of telemedicine services. The NDHM will also provide unique
health IDs to individuals, which will enable them to access their health records from anywhere in the
country.

The government has also launched the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission), which aims to
improve sanitation and cleanliness in the country, as well as the National Nutrition Mission, which aims
to reduce malnutrition in children and women.

Despite these initiatives, there are still several challenges that the healthcare system in India faces, such
as a shortage of healthcare professionals, inadequate public spending, and a high burden of non-
communicable diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic has also highlighted the gaps in the health system,
particularly in terms of preparedness and response to outbreaks.

Stastical data

Objective -

The objective of the study were to -

[Link] the perception on health snd illness among adults

[Link] the health care seeking behaviour

[Link] the perceived health risk among adulys

[Link] the assossiation between perceived score on health and illness and selected variables

Methodology