Definition of Objective

 An objective is a measurable desired accomplishment,

the attainment of which within a given frame and
under specifiable conditions can be evaluated.
 It is an intent, communicated by a statement
describing a proposed change in a learning experience.
 An objective directs students learning towards the
development of clearly described attitudes, skills,
knowledge or understanding.
Types of Objectives
There are two types of objectives:
 General educational objectives
 instructional objectives.
General Educational Objectives

 This describes in broad terms of what is to be

accomplished by teaching a particular subject to
students.
 It reflects concern in education and development at
the local, state or national level. Below are examples
of general educational objectives of teaching Biology:
 To inculcate in the learner scientific skills and
attitudes.
 To help the learner understand himself and parts of
his body.
Instructional Objectives

 Instructional objectives to describe the students’

terminal behaviour after a given unit of instruction.
 It is a statement that describes in behavioural terms
what the student should be able to do, the conditions
under which the task is to be performed, and the
criterion for acceptable performance.
 It describes in behavioural terms what the student
should be able to do after completing a prescribed unit
of instruction.
 To achieve this, we make use of suitable action verbs to
phrase the objectives.
Elements of Instructional Objective
Statement
An instructional objective statement has the following
elements:
 who
 action
 product
 conditions and
 standards for minimum acceptance.
Characteristics of well-stated Instructional
Objectives

 According to Mager (1962), a well-stated learning objective

has the following three characteristics:
 It describes in behavioural terms what the student will be
able to do when the instruction has been completed.
 It describes the conditions or circumstances under which
the learned behaviour will occur. In other words, the
statement must describe the important conditions under
which the learner will be expected to demonstrate
competence.
 It describes the extent to which the specified behaviour can
be expected; in other words, it suggests an acceptable
criterion level for performance.
Examples of Well-Stated Instructional Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

 Demonstrate and play the under arm serve in volleyball
with about 80% accuracy as judged by the teacher.
 Solve accurately at least eight out of ten questions on set
theory.
 Recall without error, the formula for computing the rank
difference correlation coefficient.
 Enumerate without the aid of the notebook, at least six
uses of the ocean basin.
 In thirty minutes or less, the student can discuss at least
three ways the baptism of John differed from that of Jesus
Christ.
Domains of Educational Objectives

Bloom (Sax, 1980) classified educational objectives into

three domains namely:
 Cognitive
 Affective
 Psychomotor
Cognitive Domain

 The cognitive domain includes those objectives, which

deal with processes like knowing, perceiving,
recognising, thinking, conceiving, judging and
reasoning.
 The cognitive domain deals essentially with the
development of intellectual behaviour such as
thinking, reasoning, mental operations and problem
solving.
 Learning in this area aims at developing the child’s
thinking processes to the highest level.
Levels of Cognitive Domain
objectives

Bloom classified the objectives in the cognitive domain

into six groups according to the complexity of thought
process involved. These are:
 Knowledge
 Comprehension
 Application
 Analysis
 Synthesis
 evaluation
Knowledge Level
 This is the lowest level of the cognitive domain.
 Knowledge entails the remembering of previously
learnt material, which involves the recall of facts,
methods, processes, pattern, structures, setting, and
knowledge of universal principles and generalisation.
 It also involves the recall of names of persons, things,
definitions, dates, principles, etc.

Knowledge Level Contd.
 The action verbs for stating instructional objectives at
this level include choose, label, outline, define, list,
reproduce, state, name, identify, enumerate, etc.
Examples of Knowledge Level
Objectives
 List all the characteristics of living things.

 Without the aid of their note book, enumerate the

different types of bonds.
Comprehension Level
 The key word for comprehension is understanding.
Comprehension involves translating a material from
one form or level to another.
 The students are required to change an information
from one form to another by restating it in their own
words.
Comprehension Level Contd.
 The action verbs for stating the objectives at this level
include convert, discuss, explain, defend, distinguish,
generalise, rewrite, reorder, predict, etc.
 For example, the students should be to explain the
three most important conditions necessary for seed
germination.
Application Level
 Requires the learner to use previously learned material
in new and concrete situations, including the
application of rules, methods, concepts, laws, formulas
and theories.
 The action verbs for stating the behavioural objectives
include change, discover, operate, demonstrate,
produce, relate, solve, compute, modify, calculate,
etc.
Application Level Objectives
 For example, the students should be able to use the pH
scale to test for acidity.
 The students should be able to solve at least four out
of six problems in trigonometry ratio.
Analysis Level
 This is the ability to breakdown given materials or
information into related component parts in order to
understand and interpret its organisational structures,
patterns, and principles.
 Action verbs for stating the objectives at this level
include breakdown, distinguish, deduce, separate,
identify, differentiate, illustrate, infer, point out,
diagram, subdivide, select, etc.
Analysis Level Objectives
 For example, the student should be able to point out
what happens when hydrochloric acid reacts with
magnesium.
Synthesis Level
 This is the ability to put parts of a given material or
information together to form a new whole.
 It involves the process of working with different parts
of a material and arranging them in a new form.
Synthesis Level Contd.
 The action verbs for stating behavioural objectives
include create, generate, rearrange, reconstruct,
reorganise, plan, revise, compile, devise, design,
modify, etc.
 For example, the students should be able to
reconstruct a machine with the given parts.
Evaluation Level
 This is the highest level of the cognitive domain.
 It is the ability to make judgements on the value of
ideas, acts, solutions, and materials, in reference to
some specified criterion.
 Evaluation is also the ability to summarise the
understanding derived from analysis and synthesis
and use it to make judgement about the value of a
material, information or a given process.
Evaluation Level Contd.
 The action verbs for stating the behavioural objectives
at this level include appraise, compare, contrast,
evaluate, decide, discuss, interpret, justify, conclude,
support, relate, discriminate, etc.
 For example, the students should be able to justify the
use of fertilizer in farming.
 The students should be able to compare the
effectiveness of antiseptics and antibiotics in
controlling harmful microorganisms.
Affective Domain

 The affective domain objectives is concerned with

values, beliefs, attitudes, interests, appreciation,
lifestyle, inter-social relationships, as well as
emotional development and adjustment.
Levels of Objectives in Affective
Domain
 The affective domain has five levels beginning from
the lowest.
 These are receiving (attending), responding, valuing,
organisation, and characterisation by a value or value
complex.
Level 1: Receiving (Attending)
 This refers to the student’s willingness to receive the
teacher’s attention.
 Students are able to accept stimuli and attend to it.
 The action verbs for stating objectives at this level
include: ask, choose, describe, follow, give, hold,
identify, locate, point to, select, sit erect, reply, use,
name, etc.
Level 2: Responding
 This involves the active participation on the part of the
student in attending and reacting to a particular
phenomenon.
 This is demonstrated by willingness to participate, for
example, as in obeying rules, participating in class
discussion and doing assignments.
 The action verbs for stating behavioural objectives
include: answer, report, discuss, perform, recite, write,
assist, greet, practice, report, comply, perform,
present, select, conform, label, read, tell, etc.

Example of Level 2 Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:

 Locate and read nature poems at his leisure time.
 Volunteer to read poems in class.
 Do his homework regularly.
Level 3: Valuing
 This is the worth or value a student attaches to a
particular phenomenon.
 The action verbs for stating behavioural objectives
include complete, differentiate, initiate, propose,
share, explain, invite, read, study, etc.
Level 4: Organisation
 Organisation is the beginning of building of a value
system and is concerned with comparing, relating, and
synthesising values.
 The action verbs for the behavioural objectives include
identify, adhere, compare, generalise, order,
synthesise, alter, complete, identify, organise, arrange,
defend, integrate, prepare, combine, explain, modify,
relate, etc.
Example of Level 4 objectives

At the end of the lesson the student will able to:

 Enrol in various arts clubs such as debating society,
dramatic society, press club, etc.
 Write specific poems.
 Visit museums and art galleries.
 Collect various types of artwork.
Level 5: Characterisation by Value
or Value Complex
 This refers to the extent the individual’s behaviour and
lifestyle is governed by the value system.
 The behaviour is consistent, pervasive, and
predictable.
 The action verbs for stating the behavioural objectives
at this level include: act, listen, propose, serve,
discriminate, modify, solve, display, perform, question,
use, influence, practice, revise, verify, etc.
Level 5 Contd.
 Here the individual has built up a value system that
becomes part of his life.
 Apart from a choosing a career from this area, he also
engages in various activities in the related area.
Psychomotor Domain

 The psychomotor domain includes those objectives,

which emphasise motor or manipulative skill area.
 It deals with the development of the various parts of
the body.
 Psychomotor skills are needed at all levels of the
child’s development in the school for handwriting,
physical exercises, art, trades, and technical aptitudes.
Levels of Psychomotor Objectives
Kibler, Baker, and Miles (Gage and Berliner, 1979)
classified the psychomotor domain into four levels:
 gross body movement
 finely co-ordinated movement
 non-verbal communication sets
 speech behaviour.
Level 1:Gross Bodily Movements
 Objectives in this category usually emphasise strength,
speed, or precision in gross movement.
 It involves the movement of upper and lower limbs.
 The action verbs for stating objectives in this category
include throw, catch, jump, match, kick, run, swim,
dive, box, dance, etc.
Level 2: Finely Co-ordinated
Movements
 Objectives in this category deal with sequences or
patterns of co-ordinated movements, usually involving
eye, or ear or body, and usually requiring practice to
obtain proficiency.
 The movements in this category is classified into:
hand-finger co-ordination, hand-eye co-ordination,
hand and ear co-ordination, and hand, eye, foot and
ear co-ordination
Hand-finger movement
 This deals with the ability to recognise objects by
touch (useful in special schools).
 An example of the objective is the ability to
differentiate a square from triangular object by touch.
Hand-eye co-ordination
 The activities here include typing, playing of musical
instruments, painting, writing, weaving, carving,
sewing, and drawing.
 An example of the objective is the ability to type 50
words in five minutes with less than five errors.
Hand and ear co-ordination.
 This calls for ability to relate sound stimuli to hand
movement. The example of the objectives include:
 The ability to take notes at the rate of 150 words per
minute using the Pitman shorthand with less than six
errors per page.
 The ability to reproduce on a piano a note played on a
violin.
 The ability to write in long hand a page dictated by the
teacher with less than five mistakes.
Hand, eye, foot and ear co-
ordination
 The activities here include playing musical
instruments, operating sewing machines, driving a car,
etc.
 The example of objectives include the ability to sit,
read and play a music in an organ with less than three
mistakes; the ability to put a given design on a press
using a foot machine.
Level 3: Non-verbal
Communication Behaviour
 These psychomotor behaviours involve
communication without the use of words.
 These are found in such activities as using the hand
and arms to communicate with the deaf, convey a
given message to a panel by gestures, etc.
Level 4: Speech Behaviour.
 This psychomotor category is concerned with oral
communication.
 Activities in this area are associated with drama,
speech, foreign language, and speech correctional
programmes.
 Objectives include the ability to recite a poem or
produce specified musical note.
DEVELOPING A TEST BLUEPRINT

 Before constructing the test items designed to evaluate

the stated behavioural objectives, there is need to
develop a test blueprint (or table of specifications).
What is Test Blueprint
 The test blueprint is a 2-way table that relates the units
of lesson or content area to the levels of cognitive
domain objectives at which these contents have been
learnt.
 It provides the operational blueprint that guides the
test builder and ensure that he builds a test that will
do what it sets out to do.
 The test blueprint helps to achieve content validity and
provides groundwork for building achievement tests.
Weighting in Test Blueprint
 The blueprint specifies precisely what weight to give
each topic and each instructional objective.
 There is no fixed rule that can be prescribed to the
teacher to use in determining the weights to be
assigned to the various cells in the table of
specifications.
 The assignment of weight depends on the teacher’s
subjective judgement in terms of the relative
importance, time devoted to teaching the topic, and
the relative emphasis used by the teacher when he
taught the subject.
Test Blueprint for Constructing
40-Item Objective Test Items in Economics
Total

Comprehensio

Application
Knowledge

Evaluation
Synthesis
Analysis
S/N Content Weight
(100%)

n
1 Demand and 30% 4 2 2 2 1 1 12
supply
2 Consumer 15% 1 1 3 1 0 0 6
Behaviour
3 Theory of Cost 20% 2 1 1 1 1 2 8
4 International trade 25% 2 2 2 1 1 2 10
5 Price equilibrium 10% 1 1 1 1 0 0 4
Total 100 10 7 9 6 3 5 40
Test Blueprint for Multiple-Choice Objective Test
in Chemistry
Total No.

Comprehension
Of Items

Application
Weight

Knowledge

Evaluation
Content

Synthesis
Analysis
%

Gaseous state and laws 10% 2 1 1 1 1 - 6

Acids, bases and salts 20% 2 2 4 2 1 1 12
Electrolysis and redox 15% 2 2 2 1 1 1 9
reactions
Rates of chemical reactions 30% 2 3 3 4 3 3 18
Energy effects 25% 4 3 2 2 2 2 15
Total 100% 12 11 12 10 8 7 60
CONSTRUCTING OBJECTIVE TESTS

 Objective tests are tests in which every question is set in

such a way as to have only one right answer.
 The opinion of the examiner or marker does not come into
play in judging whether an answer is good or bad,
acceptable or unacceptable, right or wrong.
 The items are constructed in a way as to have one,
predetermined correct answer.
 Objective tests are called objective because similar answers
by different testees are given the same marks, no matter
who did the scoring.
Types of Objective Tests

There are four major types of objective

tests:
a) short-answer,
b) alternate choice,
c) matching, and
d) multiple-choice items.
a) Short-Answer Items

 The short-answer item (also called the supply answer

or completion item) presents a task in a sentence in
which a word, a number, a symbol, or a series of words
has been omitted.
 The items call for only one response for a blank or a
specific series of responses for a series of blanks.
Guidelines for Writing Short-Answer Items

a. Omit only essential or important

words in a sentence.
b. Avoid excessive blanks in a single
item.
c. The teacher should not eliminate so
many elements of a statement that the
item becomes ambiguous and
confusing.
Guidelines for Writing Short-Answer Items

d. The blanks are typically better placed at the end

of a statement rather than the beginning.
e. Make all the blanks the same size regardless of
the answer.
f. To test for the knowledge of definitions and/or
the comprehension of technical terms, use a
direct question in which the term is given and a
definition is asked for.
g. Avoid giving irrelevant clues to the correct
answer in the structure of the item.
b) The Alternate Choice Items

In the alternate choice item, the

students are given two options to
choose one.
Such options include yes-no, true-
false, right-wrong, and correct-
incorrect.
Guidelines for Writing Alternate Choice Items
a) Avoid the use of specific determiners, that is,
words that serve as special clues to the answer.
For example, items phrased with qualifiers such
as never, all and none tend to be false. Similarly,
items phrased with qualifiers such as sometimes,
usually, some, and typically tend to be true.
b) Use simple and clear language.
c) True-false items must be based on statements
that are clearly true or clearly false.
Guidelines for Writing Alternate Choice Items

d) Word the item in such a way that superficial

knowledge will lead to a wrong answer
e) Avoid lifting statements verbatim from the text. Very
few textbook statements, when isolated from
context, are completely and absolutely true.
f) Avoid making true statements consistently longer
than false statements.
g) Have approximately an equal number of true and
false statements.
c) The Matching Items

 The matching item presents two lists usually called the

premises and responses.
 The premises list consists of the questions or problems to
be answered, while the responses list contains the answers.
 Generally, the two lists have things in common; for
example, list of authors and books, inventions and
inventors, historical events and dates, states and capitals,
antonyms and synonyms, words and opposite, etc.
 The students are directed to match each premise with the
corresponding response.
Guidelines for Writing Matching Items

a. All parts of a single matching item should be

homogenous in content, that is, all should refer to
dates, all to names, all to places, and so on.
b. Avoid having an equal number of premises and
responses.
c. Arrange the numbers in systematic fashion such as
alphabetical order, dates and numbers, in either
ascending or descending.
Guidelines for Writing Matching Items

d. Avoid giving extraneous irrelevant clues.

e. Maintain grammatical consistency.
f. Every response in one column should be a
plausible answer to every premise in the
other column.
g. All items and options for a given matching
exercise should be on a single page.
d) The Multiple-choice Items
 The multiple-choice item consists of a
stem and a branch.
 The stem presents the problem as either
an incomplete statement or a question,
while the branch presents a list of
suggested answers (responses or options).
 There are usually four or five options.
 Among the options, only one is the
correct answer (or the key).
d) The Multiple-choice Items Contd.

 The incorrect options are called distracters.

 A distracter is a plausible but wrong answer designed
to confuse the student who does not know the correct
answer.
 From the list of responses provided, the student is
required to select the correct one (or best).
Guidelines for Writing Multiple Choice
Items

a. Develop a test blueprint.

b. The blueprint specifies the instructional objectives as
well as the content to be covered by the test items.
c. Provide at least four options but not more than five. Less
than four options increase the chance of guessing the
correct answer, while more than five options create the
problem of getting plausible distracters.
d. There should be one, and only one, correct response. This
alternative should be clearly correct.
e. The question to be answered must emerge clearly from
the stem.
Guidelines for Writing Multiple Choice Items
Contd.

f. All distracters should be plausible and attractive to

students who do not know the correct answer; yet, they
should be incorrect.
g. Distracters can be common misconceptions, frequent
errors, or other plausible but incorrect information.
h. Each item should be independent. One item should not
aid in answering another item on the test.
i. Avoid irrelevant cues to the correct answer provided by
response length, repetition of key words, common
associations, or grammar.
Guidelines for Writing Multiple Choice Items
Contd.

j. The position of the correct options in a series should be

based on a random pattern. Try to scatter the position of
the correct options.
k. The stem and options must be linked grammatically.
l. Positive rather than negative stems ought to be used.
m. Whenever possible, use new situations and examples. Try
to avoid repeating textbook examples and phraseology.
n. Use none of the above as an option only if there is an
absolutely right answer.
o. If an item includes controversial material, cite the
authority whose opinion is used.
CONSTRUCTING ESSAY TESTS
 Essay tests consist of a list of questions for which
the subject (student) is required to write out the
answer.
 An essay item is a question or situation with
instruction, which requires the testee to organise
a complete thought in one or more written
sentences.
 They are best suited for measuring students’
ability to originate and integrate ideas, their
depth of knowledge and understanding, verbal
expression, creativity, and higher thought
processes.
Types of Essay Tests

 Essay questions are subdivided into two major types:

 Restricted and Unrestricted response, depending on
the amount of latitude or freedom given the student to
organise his ideas and write his answer.
Restricted Response Essay Type

 The restricted response essay questions are used to

measure achievement in content subjects. It is
applicable at the lower primary school level.
 The amount of restriction in an essay question
depends on the educational level of the testee and the
type of information required.
 In the restricted response essay question, the student
is more limited in the form and scope of his answer.
Restricted Response Essay Type Contd.

 The teacher directs the pattern as well as limits the

volume of response through the wording of the
questions. For example:
a) Describe any FIVE factors responsible for the fall of
King Solomon.
b) Using two specific examples, evaluate the effectiveness
of O.A.U. in settling disputes among member nations.
Answers will be given in not more than four foolscap
pages.
Unrestricted Response Essay Type

 In the unrestricted (or extended) response type of

essay question, virtually no bounds are placed on the
student as to the point(s) he will discuss and the type
of organisation he will use.
 It is used to measure students’ written expression,
especially in the language arts.
 It is used mostly at senior secondary and higher
institutions of learning.
Unrestricted Response Essay Type Contd.

 The extended response is open-ended and does not

limit the student to the points for discussion, type of
organisation or approach to the proposed task.
 If the testee is left completely free disregarding the
scope, problems could arise during marking.
 To forestall this, some restrictions are included. For
example, discuss the history of Nigeria from 1960 to
1990.
Guidelines for Constructing Essay Tests

a. Keep in mind the specific objectives, which the questions

are to measure.
b. Avoid open-ended questions.
c. Word the questions in such a way that the candidates will
interpret them in the same way.
d. Give a clue as to what you expect from the students to
make for uniformity of responses.
e. Be mindful of time. Attempt answering the questions you
set.
f. The essay items should be of moderate difficulty, not too
easy, but difficult enough to pose a challenge.
Guidelines for Constructing Essay Tests
Contd.

g. Gives adequate time and thought to the preparation

of essay questions.
h. The questions should be written so that it will elicit
the type of behaviour you to measure.
i. Phrase the questions with the action verbs
appropriate to the relevant instructional objective in
the cognitive domain.
j. Do not provide optional questions on an essay test.
Guidelines for Constructing Essay Tests Contd.

k) Use a relatively large number of questions requiring

short answers rather than just a few questions
involving long answers.
l) Do not start essay questions with such words as list,
who, what, and whether. These words tend to elicit
responses that require only a regurgitation of factual
information.
m) Adapt the length of the response and the complexity
of the question and answer to the maturity level of
the student.
n) Prepare a marking scheme for scoring the answers.
Marking Objective tests

 Objective tests are very easy to mark. The most

common practice is to mark only the correct answer
(or key).
 Here each item on the test carries equal marks, usually
one point.
 An individual’s total score is the sum of the items
marked right.
 Objective tests can be hand-scored or machine-scored.
Correction for Guessing

 Scores on objective tests are sometimes corrected for

guessing.
 The purpose of such correction is to reduce to zero the
gain in score expected to result from blind guessing.
 A guessing correction is intended to give the student
who guesses blindly on certain questions no
reasonable expectation of advantage in the long run
over the student who omits some questions (Ebel,
1972).
Correction For Guessing contd.
 The examiner must decide how he is going to treat
guessing in his scoring procedure. This decision
should be made known to the examinees.
 If the test user wishes to discourage guessing on the
part of the examinees, a penalty should be applied for
wrong answers.
 The assumption is that the person who does not know
the answer will make a random guess.
Computing Correction For Guessing contd.
 The generalised formula for correcting for guessing is
W
Score  R 
Where: n 1
R = the number of questions answered
correctly;
W = the number of questions answered
incorrectly;
n = the number of answer choices for an
item.
Computing Correction For
Guessing contd.
 Example 1: If a student got 35 items right in a 60 true-
false items test, got 18 wrong, and did not answer 7
items, his score would be 35 minus 18 or 17. Note that
the items omitted by the student do not count in the
formula for guessing.
 Example 2: Suppose a student took a 60-item multiple-
choice test in which each item had 5 possible answers.
If he got 50 questions right and 8 questions wrong
while omitting 2 items, his corrected score would be:
Computing Correction For
Guessing contd.

8 8
50  or 50  = 50  2 = 48
51 4
Marking Essay Questions
 The effectiveness of an essay examination depends
on how well it is graded.
 In grading the essay responses:
a) one must use appropriate methods to minimise biases,
b) pay attention only to the significant and relevant
aspects of the answer,
c) be careful not to let personal idiosyncrasies affect the
grading, and
d) apply uniform standards to all the papers
Approaches To Marking Essay Questions
There are two major approaches to
marking essay questions –
a) General impression, and
b) Point score techniques.
General Impression Method

 As the name implies, this method relies mainly on the

teacher’s impression of the extent a student’s answer
fits the ideal answer in his mind.
 It does not make use of written marking scheme.
 The general impression method is suitable for marking
long essays such as composition.
Assumption for Using General
Impression Method
According to Nwana (1982), this technique assumes
that:
a) There is an accepted body of knowledge which put
together will form the answer to the question.
b) The examiner had a good command of this body of
knowledge and can identify it in the pupil’s answer.
c) The teacher’s impression of the answer is unaffected
by his previous knowledge or lack of it, with
particular reference to the topic under question.
Procedure of General Impression
Method
The general impression method has two
procedures –
a) Impressionistic marking of one
question at a time
b) Sorting or global technique.
a) Impressionistic Marking of One Question at
a Time

 In this procedure, the teacher or examiner reads the

answer to a question, forms a general impression of
how it fits an ideal answer in his mind, and thereafter
awards a mark out of the maximum assigned to that
question.
 There is no written marking scheme, rather the major
points expected in the answer exists in the memory of
the examiner.
b) Impressionistic Marking through the
Sorting Technique

 In the sorting technique (sometimes called the global

method), the examiner does not have to read every section
or main ideas before arriving at how many marks the
student is to received in a question, rather he reads the
entire questions and estimates the overall quality of the
answers.
 The answer scripts are placed or sorted into grade piles
according to the varying qualities of the responses and the
levels of discrimination needed.
 After the scripts are initially sorted, there is need to re-read
those scripts in each pile to ensure homogeneity.
 As a final check, a third reading is undertaken to ensure
that the scripts in each pile are all at the same level.
b) Impressionistic Marking through the Sorting
Technique contd.

 At this stage, a script may be moved up or down as the case

may be.
 The purpose is to sort in such a way as to maximise the
differences between groups and minimise the differences
within each group.
 After the marker is satisfied that the scripts are properly
sorted (or categorised), he then proceeds to award the final
mark by assigning the same grade to every script in a pile.
 For example, the scripts in pile A are awarded an A grade,
while those in the second pile are awarded a B grade and so
on.
Point Score Technique

 In the point score technique (sometimes called the

analytic method), the examiner writes out a detailed
list of major points to be covered by the answer.
 Thereafter, he assigns marks in proportion to these
points.
 The ideal or model answer is broken into specific
points.
 The students’ score is based upon the number of
points contained in his answer.
Stages Of Point-score Technique
The point score technique has
three major stages:
a) Developing a marking scheme,
b) Marking proper
c) Totalling of points.
a) Developing a marking scheme
 The marking scheme consists of the model answer,
that is, the essential points to each question.
 As much as possible, the major points relevant to the
question should be included in the marking scheme.
 Also contained in the marking scheme is the relative
number of marks to be awarded to each point.
 The examiner should decide in advance on what marks
(if any) to be award to such factors as grammar,
spelling, punctuation, neatness, presentation and
handwriting. Allowance should also be made for
originality, that is, relevant points given by the
candidates, which are not contained in the model
answer.
b) Marking proper

 The examiner begins by marking one question at a time for

all those that attempted that question using the marking
scheme as a guide.
 Thereafter, he marks the remaining question, one at a time.
 Marking one question at a time increases its objectivity and
enables the examiner to maintain a consistent mental set
about the relevant points in the model answer to that
question.
 The examiner is expected to cover the student’s name
before marking his script.
 In addition, the examiner should try not to look at the
scores of previously marked questions when evaluating the
remaining questions
c) Totalling the points

 At this final stage, the examiner totals the points

awarded to each answer script.
Advantages of the Point Score Method

1) The point score technique is based on a definite

marking scheme and therefore defensible.
2) It improves the consistency of marking as the
marking of one question at a time helps to sustain
the mental set.
3) Boredom and fatigue can be minimised by having
short marking sessions per question, with periods of
relaxation in between.
4) An external examiner easily moderates the marking.
5) It is generally more reliable.
Disadvantages of Point Score
Method

1) The point score method is more time

consuming and painstaking.
2) When the number of scripts is very
large, this technique can be laborious.
ITEM ANALYSIS

 Item analysis is the process of

examining the students’ responses to
each test item in order to judge the
quality of the items.
 It is a statistical technique of reviewing
every item on the test with a view to
refining the whole test.
ITEM ANALYSIS contd

 The technique helps us to not only to identify poor

items, but also to decide why an item is not
functioning as one had planned.
 Items can be analysed qualitatively, in terms of their
content and form, and quantitatively, in terms of their
statistical properties.
 Qualitative analysis includes the consideration of
content validity, and the evaluation of items in terms
of effective item-writing procedures.
Key Questions In Item Analysis
Item analysis helps us to answer such questions as the
following for each item:
a) How hard is the item?
b) Does it distinguish between the better and poorer
students?
c) Do all the options attract responses, or are there some
that are so unattractive that they might as well not be
included?
Things Considered in Item Analysis
Three things are considered in
item analysis, namely:
a) item difficulty,
b) discriminating ability of the
item; and
c) Effectiveness of the distracters.
Item Difficulty
 The item difficulty pertains to the easiness of the item.
 A good item should be neither too easy nor too difficult.
 The difficulty index of an item is the proportion of the
testees who got the item right.
 The difficulty index ranges from zero to one (or from zero
to 100%).
 Items whose difficulty index ranges from 20 to 80 percent
are acceptable.
 The best difficulty index is 0.5.
 An item should not be too difficult that almost all the
testees missed it or too easy that every testee got it right.
Computing Item Difficulty
The formula for item difficulty (P) is:
U  L 100
P x
Where: N 1
P = the difficulty index for a given item.
U = number of students in the upper group who got
the item right.
L = number of students in the lower group who got
the item right.
N = number of students in the item analysis group.
Item Discriminating Power

 The discriminating power of an item is the extent to

which each item distinguishes between those who
scored low or high in the test.
 It measures how well a test item contributes to
separating the upper and lower group.
 Item discrimination tells us if an item is showing the
differences between capable and less capable students.
 A good discriminating item is one in which a greater
number of students who scored highly gets right and
few of the students who scored very low gets right.
Item Discriminating Power contd.

 The discriminating index (D) can take values ranging

from –1.00 to +1.00. The higher the D values the better
the item discrimination.
 Any item that has a D value of +.40 and above is
considered very effective. However, D values that range
between +.20 and +.39 are considered satisfactory.
 Any item that has negative value should be discarded.
Computing Item Discrimination Power
The formula for the item discrimination power is:
U L
D
1 N
2
Where:
D = item discrimination power
U = number of students in the upper group who got
the item right.
L = number of students in the lower group who got
the item right.
N = number of students in the item analysis group
Effectiveness of Distracters
 After identifying the poor test items, such as items that are
too easy, too difficult, or those with zero and negative
discrimination, there is need to ascertain what is wrong with
these items.
 Analysing the effectiveness of distracters entails a comparison
of the responses of students in upper and lower groups.
 In doing this, the following points should kept in mind:
a) Each distracter should be selected by about equal
number of the lower group.
b) Substantially more students in the upper than lower
group should respond to the correct alternative.
c) Substantially more students in the lower group should
respond to the distracter. If a distracter confuses only the
upper group, it is likely faulty.
Steps in Item Analysis

1) Administer the test, score the items and arrange the

students’ scores in order of merit (highest to lowest).
2) Select the item analysis group (N). This is made up
of:
a. The upper group (best 30% or so).
b. The lower group (last 30% or so).
3) Beginning with item number one, count how many
students in the upper group (U) that got it right.
Thereafter, count how many students in the lower
group (L) that got the item right.
Steps in Item Analysis
contd.
4) Repeat step 3 for other items.
5) For each item, compute the item difficulty.
6) For each item, compute the item discrimination
power.
7) Identify the poor items and analyse their item
choices or the effectiveness of the distracters.
Example of Item Analysis
 Items 1,2,3,4,5……………..48, 49 and 50 on a
Mathematics achievement test were passed by the
following number of "upper" and "lower"
students:
 Obtain the item difficulty and item discriminating
power per item and comment.
Item no 1 2 3 4 5 ….. 48 49 50
20 "Upper" 18 14 5 20 14 8 12 10
Students
20 "Lower" 16 9 2 20 11 16 10 5
Students
Item Upper Lower U L 100 U L Remarks
P x D
No (U) (L) N 1 1 N
2
20 20

1 18 16 34 100 2 Too easy

x  85%  0.10 (Reject)
40 1 20

2 14 9 23 100 5 Good
x  57.5%  0.25
(Accept)
40 1 20

3 5 2 7 100 3 Too difficult

x  17.5%  0.15 (Reject)
40 1 20

4 20 20 40 100 0 Too easy

x  100%  0
40 1 20 (Reject)

5 14 11 25 100 3 Good
x  62.5%  0.15
40 1 20 (Accept)

48 8 16 24 100 8 Negative
x  60%   0.40
40 1 20 Discrimination
Reject

49 12 10 22 100 2 Good
x  55%  0.10
40 1 20 (Accept)

50 10 5 15 100 5 Fair
x  37.5%  0.25
40 1 20 (Accept)