Asset Intelligence Report
A PRIMER ON
RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
MARCH 2023
A Higher Level of Asset Integrity Intelligence
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A Primer on Radiographic Testing [Link] | Page 2
CONTENTS
Overview 4
History and Development 6
Techniques and Methodology 6
Industry Applications 8
Codes, Standards, and Best Practices 8
Certification 8
References 8
A Primer on Radiographic Testing [Link] | Page 3
Overview
constraints, the geometry and size of the asset to be inspected,
Radiographic testing (RT) is commonly used as a volumetric available inspection space, and sensitivity requirements.
nondestructive examination (NDE) technique in the hydrocarbon Film (Conventional) Radiography. Conventional radiography
and petrochemical industries to view or inspect equipment, such uses a sensitive film that consists of an emulsion-gelatin
as pressure vessels, valves, and welded joints. This technique uses containing radiation-sensitive silver halide crystals, such as
short wavelength radiation such as x-ray or gamma rays that pass silver bromide or silver chloride, and a flexible, transparent,
through an object. As the rays pass through, radiation is blue-tinted base. The grains capture a latent (hidden) image of a
differentially absorbed due to differences in thickness, density, or component when exposed to x-rays and gamma rays. Several
the presence of internal flaws in the component. These parameters must be met in order to perform film radiography
differences are then viewed as contrasting features on an image.
successfully. The part to be inspected must be qualified in terms
A major benefit of radiographic technology is its ability to of thickness and density to produce an image that displays
penetrate many types of materials and produce high-quality contrast between the part and internal defects. Additionally, the
images for immediate inspection. With minimal surface intensity of radiation, the size of the focal spot, and the distance
preparation, radiography is capable of detecting surface and from the radiation source to the film affect the image quality
subsurface flaws through coatings and insulation as well as and thus, the ability to interpret the radiographs.
changes in material density and thickness due to damage There are three general techniques when performing film
mechanisms such as corrosion.
radiography. The most common technique is the “single wall
A few general notes:
exposure, single wall view technique.” As the phrase implies,
radiation passes through a single wall of a component, with a
• Radiographic methods can be expensive and time-
single wall visible on the radiograph for interpretation. The
consuming in comparison to other NDE techniques due to
the initial cost of the equipment. Certification and
qualification of inspection personnel requires extensive
training and a high skill level.
• Geometric considerations are a major challenge because
certain flaws cannot be detected if the component or the
radiography equipment is not oriented in a way that can
capture the flaw in the object. For the best image, the crack or
flaw must be parallel to the radiation source.
• For radiography techniques producing 2D images, it is more
difficult to properly assess internal flaws for type, size,
location, and orientation. Additionally, small cracks are
sometimes not visible on the radiograph.
• A general rule of thumb is that the defect must be 2% of the
thickness of the material in order for the radiograph to
produce an image with contrasting features.
There are several different radiographic techniques including film
radiography (commonly referred to as conventional radiography),
digital radiography, real time radiography, computed radiography,
and computed tomography. Each technique operates slightly
differently and has its own advantages and limitations. When
selecting the most appropriate technique, consider time
Figure 1. X-ray image of insulated piping.
A Primer on Radiographic Testing [Link] | Page 4
second technique is the “double wall exposure, single wall view components that are suspected of having damage or defects. The
technique” where the radiation source passes through two walls, component should then be followed up with a higher sensitivity
but only the wall closest to where the film is placed is viewable on technique such as conventional radiography or stripping
the radiograph. This technique could be useful for difficult-to- insulation for visual inspection and NDE, if needed.
access places or when internal access is restricted in cylindrical
Computed Radiography. Computed radiography is a technology
components. The third technique allows inspectors to evaluate
that is categorized between film and digital radiography. Instead
two walls at the same time. This technique is referred to as the
of using film, computed radiography uses a reusable phosphor
“double wall exposure, double wall view technique.” When using
imaging plate. The imaging plate is then exposed to radiation in a
this technique for weld quality imaging, ASME BPV Section V
similar manner as conventional radiography and a latent image is
(Nondestructive Examination) limits the maximum OD to 3.5”.
captured in the phosphor layer. The imaging plate is then
Furthermore, a general rule of thumb for most profile radiography
processed in a scanner equipped with a laser reader that scans and
procedures is to limit the maximum OD to 8” or less.
digitizes the image. The image can then be viewed and enhanced
Digital Radiography. Digital radiography uses a plate that is using software similar to digital radiography.
sensitive to x-rays and gamma rays and converts radiation into a
Computed Tomography. Computed tomography, commonly
digital image that can be processed by a computer instantly.
known as CT Scan, is an advanced radiographic technology that
Instant feedback increases productivity for quicker analysis and
uses a computer to acquire a large number of 2D x-ray images of
turnaround. The digital images can be enhanced using software
numerous cross-sectional areas of a component. Computer
that uses functions such as contrast, sharpen, brighten, zoom,
algorithms then reconstruct the 2D images into a 3D model that
etc. However, special consideration must be taken to make sure
allows inspectors to view the component and inspect for
quality and resolution are not sacrificed for an aesthetic image.
external and internal defects. With traditional 2D radiography,
Compared to conventional radiography, digital radiography is an some defects and discontinuities cannot be accurately
advanced technique that requires shorter radiation exposure
times and produces high-quality images that can be used to
determine the component’s fitness-for-service (FFS). Another
advantage to digital radiography, as with conventional
radiography, is that it can measure remaining wall thickness
through coatings, wrapped repairs, and insulation while on-
stream.
Real-Time Radiography (Field Use). Real-time radiography
(RTR) is an electronic technique similar to digital radiography.
RTR allows personnel to inspect critical areas of a component
for potential damage such as corrosion under insulation,
welding defects, or mechanical damage with a significant
reduction in cycle time. The digital image fluoresces when the
emitted radiation passes through the object and reacts with the
phosphor panel behind the component. This process produces a
real-time image as the part is being inspected. Ergo, as the
radiation source and panel move around the object, inspectors
can examine the component as it is being tested. RTR is also
capable of archiving images to examine at a later time. Although
this technique allows components to be inspected in real time,
inspectors sacrifice image quality and accuracy for time. Thus,
this technique is best used as a preliminary technique to inspect Figure 2. X-ray image of insulated piping.
A Primer on Radiographic Testing [Link] | Page 5
determined if the radiation source and detector are not Conventional Radiographic Testing Parameters
positioned in a manner to optimize inspection.
Film Processing. Conventional radiography is a less complex
Computed tomography can be performed in two fundamental technique compared to digital radiography; therefore, there are
ways: 1) the object can rotate while the radiation beam is fewer processing parameters to alter final images. Special
stationary, or 2) the radiation beam can rotate around a stationary factors must be considered as conventional films are not
component. The advantages of computed tomography include reusable and take a significant amount of time to process. It’s
multiplanar inspection, accuracy, image quality, and automated important to develop a plan that considers sensitivity levels, the
data management.
material type, geometry, and thickness of the component to be
inspected. A typical radiograph processing procedure is outlined
History and Development
below:
X-rays were first discovered in 1895 by German physicist
Wilhelm Röntgen. Prior to 1912, x-rays were primarily used for 1. Developing. The films are placed into a bath filled with
producing small images in the medical and dentistry fields. In developers. Developers are alkaline solutions that convert the
1913, developments in x-ray technology were made that allowed latent image into a viewable radiograph.
radiographic testing to be applied in industrial settings. Over the 2. Stop the Developing. As the phrase implies, this step stops the
next few decades, advancements were made to create reliable development process. The film is transferred from the
radiation sources that could operate with higher voltages in development bath into a water bath or an acid bath.
order to penetrate industrial materials, such as thick steel.
3. Fixing. The purpose of the fixer bath is to remove unexposed
In 1931, General Electric developed a radiation generator that silver halide crystals from the film emulsion. This makes for
was able to operate at 1,000,000 volts—effective for performing a “cleaner” image for viewing.
large-scale, nondestructive inspections. In that same year, the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) approved 4. Washing. The film is then washed with water to remove all
radiographic testing as a method for inspecting fusion welded artifacts and processing chemicals.
pressure vessels. However, long-term health concerns became 5. Drying. The final step is to simply dry the film before viewing.
more evident over time and were correlated to prolonged
Advanced Radiographic Testing Parameters
exposure. In 1966, the American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT) developed Recommended Practice No. SNT- Building from the conventional radiography techniques,
TC-1A, Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive advanced radiography provides more flexibility to process and
Testing.
modify data. The following outlines key variables to consider for
advanced radiographic testing methods.
Today, radiographic testing has evolved from using slow,
conventional film to producing fast, high-quality, digital images. Process Controls
Radiographic testing has become one of the most widely utilized Calibration. One of the biggest myths in digital radiography is
NDE methods.
that you only need to calibrate the digital detector array once.
Techniques and Methodology
Digital radiography measurement tools need to be calibrated
Radiographic testing methods vary slightly from industry to regularly. Calibration ensures a reliable process that will result
industry and can even differ from facility to facility within the in reproducible and repeatable data. This calibration is typically
same industry. Most owner-operators, manufacturers, and done on-site when needed and includes both a gain and on off-
inspection personnel develop in-house testing procedures that set calibration. Both are typically completed within 5 minutes.
are the most efficient and effective for their facility. Because Construction codes and standards require that dimensional
there are various methods that can be performed, the objective tools used for measuring discontinuities shall be calibrated off
of this section is to outline the fundamental parameters to of an object with a predefined dimension that is placed on or
consider for the application of radiographic testing.
near the area of interest.
A Primer on Radiographic Testing [Link] | Page 6
Equipment and Object Positioning (Digital and Conventional). for specific flaws depending on what they are inspecting. For
There are three elements to consider when preparing for example, if an inspector is evaluating a radiographic image of a
radiographic testing. The elements include:
weld, they may look for cracks, lack of fusion, incomplete weld
penetration, inclusions, voids, shrinkage defects, and porosity.
1. The radiation source, often just referred to as the source
Once a flaw has been identified, inspection personnel should
2. The detector
collect information about the location, size, orientation, and
3. The object to be inspected
nearest defect(s) to evaluate the flaws acceptance to the applicable
code or standard. Manufacturers may restrict acceptance levels
The distances between all three elements, as well as the
based on corrosion or damage mechanism distribution, residual
orientation of the object, have a considerable effect on the
strength, load acceptance, and wall thickness.
outcome of the radiographic image. If the object is not oriented
in a manner that aligns cracks and discontinuities parallel to the Data Management
source, then the flaws may not be detected. Additionally, The American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) has a
magnification should be on the detector side of the object and designated standard that enables digital radiography workflow:
image quality indicators (IQIs) should be calculated or measured ASTM E2339 DICONDE.
on the source side of the area of interest. IQIs, also called
penetrameters, are tools used to measure the sensitivity of the
DICONDE stands for Digital Imaging and Communication in
radiographic testing method to be performed. Greater sensitivity
Nondestructive Evaluation.
leads to higher-quality images.
Most image quality improvement comes from reducing noise in
DICONDE is a vendor-neutral solution for radiography results.
images. Two important ratios exist regarding image quality and
The software addressed past issues with proprietary data formats
noise: 1) the signal-to-noise ratio, and 2) the contrast to noise
which made it difficult to integrate and share data from one
ratio. Common sources of noise are x-ray scatter, electronic
system to another. DICONDE is an efficient software tool that
noise, and background radiation. One of the most difficult
organizes image data. The disadvantage of this tool is that it
challenges is managing x-ray scatter. Scatter can be controlled
requires a large amount of computer storage for its large file size.
by collimating the radiation from the source using an aperture
The reason these files are large is because they contain a
diaphragm or beam shutters. Detector shutters may also be used
substantial amount of information about the inspection that took
to reduce or eliminate backscatter. Collimation directly affects
place. Because of the size, results are usually transmitted through
the x-ray beam field, the quantity of scatter radiation, and the
the passing of digital media and cannot be emailed. Also, due to
radiographic contrast. Collimation is indirectly proportional to
the nature of digital media, some data is lost each time a transfer
the x-ray beam field size and the quantity of scatter radiation.
takes place.
Thus, as collimation increases, field size and the quantity of
scatter radiation decrease and vice versa. When scatter radiation Note: Images can instead be saved as GIF files, which are much
decreases, the image contrast increases. Therefore, as smaller in file size and retain image quality better than DICONDE.
collimation increases, radiographic contrast increases.
Inspection Assessment (Digital and Conventional)
What you do with data for repairs and further testing is critical. It
is the responsibility of the interpreter to document the entire
evaluation process, even if there is a rejectable discontinuity.
Flaws and other damage mechanisms, such as corrosion, may
propagate quickly, influencing the inspectors to increase their
inspection intervals. Accurate inspection analysis greatly depends
Figure 3. Safety is paramount when
on the quality of the data. Radiographic interpreters may also look
dealing with radiography.
A Primer on Radiographic Testing [Link] | Page 7
Industry Applications
3. Das, S., Shah, B.K., 2005, “Uncertainty in Flaw Sizing by
Radiographic testing is broadly used in the aerospace, defense, Radiography Method - A Primer Plus,” Inspectioneering
marine, power generation, automotive, manufacturing, Journal, The Woodlands, TX.
petrochemical, and chemical processing industries. Considering 4. Butz, J., 2012, “The Evolution of Nondestructive Testing,”
the extreme service conditions in the petrochemical industry, Inspectioneering Journal, The Woodlands, TX.
radiography techniques play a key role during in-service
inspections to mitigate unplanned shutdowns. It’s critical that 5. Telesz, S., 2015, “What Questions Should Manufacturers Be
the inspector understands the codes, standards, and best Asking About 3D Computed Tomography?” Inspectioneering
practices that are relevant to the job. Radiography is a popular Journal, The Woodlands, TX.
method of NDE because it requires minimal surface preparation, 6. Inspectioneering-Integripedia, 2017, “Radiography,”
and it is sensitive enough to locate corrosion damage as well as Inspectioneering Journal, The Woodlands, TX.
changes in material thickness. The technology can be used to
7. 2012, “Radiographic Testing,” Trinity NDT.
inspect ferrous, nonferrous, and nonmetallic materials.
8. 2017, “Radiographic Testing,” TWI Global, Cambridge, UK.
Codes, Standards, and Best Practices
Organizations in the oil and gas and chemical processing 9. 2012, “Radiographic Testing,” Iowa State University, NDT
industries are held to a set of standards and practices when Education Resource Center, Ames, IA.
performing NDE, of which all should be aware.
10. 2016, “Scatter Control,” Radiology Key.
ASTM has established ASTM E1742 - Practice for Radiographic 11. Hellier, J.C., 2013, “Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation,”
Examination, which describes the minimum requirements for (Ed.2), McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, Chap. 6.
performing radiographic testing.
12. Black, J.T., Kohser, R. A., 2012, “Degarmo’s Materials and
ASME provides a reference for determining what methods, Processes in Manufacturing,” [PDF], (Ed.11). John Wiley and
techniques, and practices should be employed in ASME Section Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, Chap. 43.
V, Article 2: Radiographic Examination.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has a
catalog of 23 published standards relevant to radiographic testing.
Certification
ASNT has developed a recommended practice that provides
guidelines for employers establishing an in-house certification
program for nondestructive examination. The purpose of this
certification is to ensure a fundamental understanding of NDE
methods. SNT-TC-1A offers three levels of qualification based on a
combination of education, experience, training, and passing the
certification exams. Recertification is required every five years.
References
1. 2016, “Introduction to Nondestructive Testing,” ASNT.
2. Mills, R., Iman, J.T., Sauerschnig, M., 2013, “Digital
Radiography: Advancements in Utilization, Benefits, and
Overall Inspection Reliability: Increased benefits for process
and personal safety,” Inspectioneering Journal, The
Woodlands, TX.
A Primer on Radiographic Testing [Link] | Page 8
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