- Allotropes are Different structural/crystalline forms of the same element, within the same state.
- Giant molecular structures:
1) Graphite – allotrope of carbon
- Each carbon is covalently bonded with 3 other
carbons
- Consists of layers of hexagonal rings
- London forces are between the layers (they’re
weak)
- Bond angle = 120
- carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized (since all bonds
are the same)
- covalent layer lattice has sigma bonds
- layers (that can slide past each other) make
graphite a good lubricant
- graphite is good electricity conductor (due to
delocalized electrons)
2) Graphene – allotrope of carbon
Structure:
- Each carbon is covalently bonded with 3 other
carbons
- It’s a one-atom thick layer of graphite
- One layer of hexagonal ring/2D honeycomb lattice
- Bond angle = 120
- It’s the strongest and thinnest material to exist
- carbon atoms are sp2 hybridized (since all bonds
are the same)
- It’s light, a semiconductor, and 200 times stronger
than steel
Application: Chemical Properties:
- Mechanical and optical - Most reactive form of carbon
properties will make flexible - Due to its 2D structure, every atom is exposed for
displays for technological chemical reaction from two sides
devices - Burns at low temperatures
- development of graphene– History:
plastic composite materials to
replace metals used in the - 2010: Nobel prize awarded for graphene discovery
aerospace industry because of Electronic Properties:
their low density and high strength
Thermal properties: - Electrons flow through graphene easily and as
fast as 100th of speed of light (like it carries no mass)
- Perfect thermal conductor Mechanical Properties:
(higher than other carbon
structures at room temperature) - Harder than steel and diamond
- 5 times more conductive than - Tensile strength exceeds 1 TPa
graphite - Stretches up to 20% of initial length
- Thermal conductance is isotropic
(same in all directions)
3) Diamond – allotrope of carbon
- Each carbon atom is covalently bonded with 4 other
carbons to form a tetrahedral shape
- Bond angle = 109.5
- Carbon atoms are sp3 hybridized (since bond is the
same strength and length)
Properties:
- It’s exceptionally hard since all bonds are strong
- Doesn’t conduct electricity (all electrons are localized)
- High melting point (since it’s a giant molecular
structure with covalent bonds)
4) Fullerene (C60) – allotrope of carbon
- Also known as “buckyballs” or “buckytubes”
- Consists of C60
- Geodesic spherical carbon molecules
- carbon atoms arranged in hexagons and
pentagons
- Composed of individual molecules with strong
covalent bonds and weak London forces between
the molecules.
- Doesn’t dissolve in water but can dissolve in non-
polar solvents
5) Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Structure:
- known as silica and seen as sand or quartz
- is a giant covalent structure
- Each Si atom is bonded to 4 O atoms, and each O atom is bonded to 2 Si atoms
- Is a tetrahedral
Properties:
- High melting point (approx. 1700) - varies depending on the structure (three possible
structures). Strong silicon-oxygen covalent bonds have to be broken before melting
occurs.
- Hard (due to the need to break very strong covalent bonds)
- Doesn't conduct electricity (no delocalized electrons - All electrons are held tightly
between the atoms)
- Insoluble in water and organic solvents (no attractions between solvent molecules and
the silicon or oxygen could overcome the covalent bonds in the giant structure)
Q(1):Explain why C60 and diamond sublime at different temperatures and pressures because:
1) Diamond is a giant network covalent compound AND sublimes at higher temperature
2) C60 is a molecular compound with London dispersion intermolecular «forces»
Graphite Graphene Diamond C60 fullerene SiO2
Covalent network Covalent network Covalent network Molecular Covalent
solids solids solids network solids
Coordinate number Coordinate number Coordinate number Coordinate Coordinate
=3 =3 =4 number =3 number =4
Layers of Thinnest and Doesn’t conduct Made of clusters known as silica
hexagonal rings strongest material electricity (since all of C60 and C70 and seen as
to exist electrons are (more of C60) sand or quartz
localized)
Layers connected It’s a one-atom- Carbon atoms are There are High boiling
by weak London thick 2D layer of sp3 hybridized (since hexagonal and and melting
forces (allow layers graphite/hexagonal bonds are the same pentagonal point due to
to slide past each rings strength and length) existence of
other) covalent bonds
Good lubricant carbon atoms are Exceptionally hard “buckyballs” or Hard since all
sp2 hybridized since all bonds are “buckytubes” bonds are
(since all bonds strong strong
are the same)
Trigonal planar – Trigonal planar - Tetrahedral - each Not a planar - Tetrahedral -
each carbon is each carbon is carbon is covalently each carbon is Each Si atom
covalently bonded covalently bonded bonded with 4 other covalently is bonded to 4
with 3 other with 3 other carbons bonded with 3 O atoms, and
carbons carbons other carbons each O atom is
bonded to 2 Si
atoms
Bond angle = 120 Bond angle = 120 Bond angle = 109.5 Bond angle =
109.5
Good electricity Nobel prize in High boiling and Geodesic Doesn’t
conductor ( since it physics in 2010 melting points (since spherical conduct
has delocalized π awarded for the it’s a giant molecular molecule electricity
electrons) discovery structure with composed with (since there’s
covalent bonds) strong covalent no delocalized
bonds and weak electrons)
London forces
Carbon atoms are It’s an excellent Insoluble in all Doesn’t dissolve Insoluble in
sp2 hybridized conductor, and common solvents in water but can water and
(since all bonds stronger and dissolve in non- organic
are the same) harder than steel polar solvents solvents
Covalent layer Perfect thermal Doesn’t conduct
lattice has sigma conductor and electricity (but
bonds isotropic (same in has delocalized
all directions) electrons that
don’t have much
capacity to move)
Electrons easily
and fastly flows
threw it
Tensile strength
exceeds 1 TPa
It’s flexible:
stretches up to
20% of the initial
length
Most reactive form
(since every atom
is exposed to
chemical reaction
from two sides)
Burns at low
temperature
If it’s rolled up:
carbon nanotube
If it’s folded into a
sphere: fullerene
Metallic bonding
- Is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions (cations) and
delocalized electrons
- Delocalized electrons are not associated with a particular nucleus of a metal, but
instead are free to move throughout the entire crystalline lattice forming a “sea”
of mobile electrons
- Factors that affect the strength of a metallic bond:
1) Charge of metal ion
2) Number of valence electrons that become delocalized
3) Ionic radius of the metallic positive ion
- Alloy: a mixture of two or more metals or of a metal combined with an alloying
element composed of one or more non-metals
They have enhanced properties (strength, hardness, durability)
alloy Composition uses
Brass Copper and zinc Windows, screws, door
handles
Steel Iron, carbon, and other Bridges, buildings
metals
Dental amalgam Mercury, silver, tin Teeth fillings
Electrical conductivity:
- Metals are good conductors of electricity because when a potential is applied to
the metal, mobile of electrons can move through metallic structure and carry an
electric current
- However, impurities in metals restrict movement of electrons through the metal
and cause electrical resistance
Malleability:
- Malleability is the ability of a solid to be pounded into a sheet or other shape
without breaking
- Metals are malleable because the positive ions can slide past one another, so
they rearrange the shape of the solid.
- Metallic bond lattice doesn’t have a defined direction, it’s non-directional: they act
in every direction about the fixed immobile cations
- If pressure is applied by pounding, the cations slide past each other but metallic
bonds are not disrupted
Trend in melting points:
- Metallic bonds are strong, so metals often have high melting points
- Melting point of a metal depends on the strength of attractive forces that hold
positive ions within the “sea” of delocalized electrons
1) Element that has more delocalized electrons per atom = higher electrostatic
attraction between the positive ions and the delocalized electrons will be
greater in that element
2) Element with higher charge of metal ion = higher electrostatic attraction
between positive ions and delocalized electrons in that element
3) [section 9] element with smaller ionic radius = delocalized electrons will be
more strongly attracted to that ion
- Down group 1, melting point decreases because ionic radius increases and the
strength of the attractive forces decrease + number of delocalized electrons stays
constant
Properties of alloys in terms of non-directional bonding:
- Greater strength
- Greater resistance to corrosion
- Enhanced magnetic properties
- Greater ductility (a mechanical property that allows a metal to deform under
tensile stress)
- Different atoms present in a network of positive ions is disturbed and it becomes
more difficult for positive ions to slide past each other and change the shape of
metal (= alloy metal is stronger than pure ones)
