THIRD EDITION

STRATEGIES FOR READING AND WRITING

IN THE CANADIAN CLASSROOM

Lucia Engkent

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Introduction for the Instructor viii
Organization of the Text ix
Introduction for Students: Developing Study Skills xii
Acknowledgments and About the Author xvii

Unit 1 Writing Skills 3

Distinguishing Spoken and Written Language 3
Addressing Audience and Purpose 4
Achieving Clarity 5
Strengthening Content 7
Organizing Ideas 8
Writing Concisely 8
Striving for Correctness 9
Writing Personally or Impersonally 10
Using Appropriate Style 12
Understanding the Writing Process 16
Understanding Writing Evaluation 18

Unit 2 Vocabulary Skills 21

Leaning Pronunciation 22
Learning Spelling 23
Recognizing Parts of Speech 24
Distinguishing Word Classes 28
Understanding Word Formation 30
Learning Word Families 32
Understanding Word Meaning 35
Understanding Connotation 36
iv CONTENTS

Recognizing Idioms 37
Using Jargon 37
Recognizing Inappropriate Language 38
Dealing with Unfamiliar Words 39
Recognizing Collocation 41
Appreciating Language Change 42
Using Dictionaries 44
Building Vocabulary 47

Unit 3 Sentence Writing Skills 49

Recognizing Basic Sentence Structure 50
Understanding Verb Tense and Aspect 52
Recognizing Different Verb Forms 54
Recognizing Verbals 60
Understanding How Verbs Determine Sentence Structure 62
Using Determiners 67
Using Pronouns 69
Adding Modifiers 71
Using Prepositional Phrases 74
Using Coordinate Conjunctions 76
Writing Noun Clauses 80
Writing Adjective Clauses 81
Writing Adverb Clauses 83
Reducing Clauses to Phrases 86
Connecting Sentences 88
Analyzing Sentence Structure 91
Building Complex Sentences 92
Using Punctuation and Capitalization 93

Unit 4 Paragraph Writing Skills 101

Writing Independent Paragraphs 102
Writing Topic Sentences 104
Making Points 108
Supporting Points 110
Writing Concluding Sentences 117
Achieving Unity 118
Using Transition Signals 119
Achieving Coherence 121
Studying Sample Paragraphs 122

Unit 5 Essay Writing Skills 127

Understanding Essay Structure 127
Planning an Essay 130
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CONTENTS v

Writing a Thesis Statement 137

Writing an Introduction 142
Writing Body Paragraphs 145
Writing a Conclusion 148
Studying Sample Essays 150
Essay-Writing: Practice Topics 155

Unit 6 Rhetorical Skills 157

Explaining and Illustrating 157
Narrating 159
Describing 162
Defining and Classifying 164
Showing Cause and Effect 167
Reviewing 170
Describing Process 171
Making Comparisons 175
Persuading 181

Unit 7 Editing and Correcting Skills 187

Understanding the Process 188
Recognizing Types of Errors 193
Correcting Vocabulary Mistakes 195
Correcting Grammatical Errors 200
Correcting Errors in Punctuation and Capitalization 216
Improving Structure and Style 217
Finding and Correcting Errors 226

Unit 8 Reading Skills 229

Reading Textbooks 230
Reading from Paper and Reading from a Screen 231
Distinguishing Fiction and Non-fiction 231
Identifying the Thesis of an Article 233
Distinguishing Writers' Opinions 234
Recognizing Writers' Techniques 234
Doing Research 235
Referencing Sources 236
Avoiding Plagiarism 238
Quoting 238
Paraphrasing 240
Using Reported Speech 244
Writing a Summary 245
Writing about Readings 249
Building Reading Skills 252
vi CONTENTS

Unit9 Education 255

"Unplug the Digital Classroom," by Doug Mann 255
"Fear Math, Not Numbers," by Peter Martyn 260
"Why Study Liberal Arts?" 266
Additional Topics 267

Unit 10 Work 269

"Lots ofWays to Make Canada Fairer," by Carol Goar 269
"If the Artists Starve, We'll All Go Hungry," by Elizabeth Renzetti 275
"No Tips, Please" 280
Additional Topics 281

Unit 11 Money 283

"Why Pay More? To Be Conspicuous," by Peter Singer 283
"Online Gambling a Way to Rip off the Poor," by Leonard Stern 289
"False Economy" 295
Additional Topics 296

Unit 12 Technology 297

"Turning the Table on Instagram," by Emma Teitel 297
"Maybe It's Time to Rewire and Unplug the Next Generation,"
by Gwyn Morgan 302
"Technology and the Generational Divide" 306
Additional Topics 308

Unit 13 The Environment 309

"The Case against Bottled Water," by Sean Petty and Justin Trudeau 309
"Battle of the Bag," by Peter Shawn Taylor 317
"It's Not Easy Being Green" 323
Additional Topics 324

Unit 14 Citizenship 325

"No Hyphen for Me," by Salim Sachedina 325
"Attention, Dual Citizens: Canada Can No Longer Afford Our Divided
Loyalty," by Rudyard Griffiths 330
"What Makes a Good Voter" 335
Additional Topics 336
 CONTENTS vii

Unit 15 Clothing 339

"White Tops, Grey Bottoms,' by Bev Akerman 339
"Why Arcade Fire Fans Should Rise to the Occasion and SayYes to the
Dress Code," by Robert Everett-Green 345
"The Lure of Costumes" 351
Additional Topics 352

Unit 16 Fiction 353

"Why My Mother Can't Speak English," by Garry Engkent 353
"Soap and Water," by Urs Frei 363
"Tempest in the School Teapot," by L.M. Montgomery 367
"Michael's New Toy," by Linwood Barclay 373

Appendix A Writing Email 379

Appendix B Following Format Guidelines 381
AppendixC Sample Research Essay in MLA Format 382
Appendix 0 Sample Research Essay in APA Format 388

Credits 398

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Introduction

This text is intended for students who need to hone their English writing and
reading skills in order to meet future academic demands. It was developed in a
non-credit college course for students who had not achieved the required read-
ing and writing skills for the credit English course. The students in this course
were of different backgrounds and mixed abilities: some were native speakers of
English who were reluctant readers, some were newly arrived international students
who had university degrees from their native countries, some were mature students
looking for a change in career, and some were immigrants who had spent many
years in the Canadian school system and spoke English fluently. These students were
taking regular college courses in their own discipline at the same time that they
were studying English. In addition, some of the material was tested in English as a
Second Language (ESL) academic preparation classes.
Although some institutions have separate streams for ESL students and native
speakers, at this level the two groups have enough in common that they can be
taught together. Even some of the grammatical errors are similar. Instructors see
incorrect verb forms, article and preposition errors, difficulty with complex sen-
tence structures, and misuse of vocabulary. Reluctant readers struggle with the
more complex vocabulary and structures of academic English.
Skill Set is very much a product of the classroom. It focuses on the problems
generally seen in the writing of students in the developmental English course. The
exercises address problems these students have, such as distinguishing general and
specific points in order to write supporting statements in paragraphs. Some of the
sample paragraphs and essays were generated from student writing assignments.
In addition, many of the sentences used for error correction in Unit 7 were taken
from student writing samples.

Native Speakers and ESL Students

This book has been designed to meet the needs of both native speakers and ESL
students. It is therefore important to start with a few definitions because of the con-
fusion with such terms as first language, second language, and mother tongue.
Native speakers of English speak English as their first language-their strong-
est and dominant language. Native speakers use English fluently and idiomatically.
They speak without a noticeable foreign accent. In Canada, second-generation
 INTRODUCTION ix

immigrants (those born or raised in Canada) generally become native speakers even
if they speak another language at home. Once they start using English at school,
their English gets much stronger than their mother tongue, and English gradually
becomes their dominant language. The Canadian census defines mother tongue as
"language first spoken and still understood."
ESL students are those whose dominant language is not English. First lan,(?ua,(?e
and second language do not refer to the order the languages are acquired-the terms
refer to the relative strength of the language. ESL students are more comfortable in
another language. Some speak several languages, and English may be the language
they learned third or fourth, but they are referred to as English as a second language
students because English is not their first language. ESL students may have studied
English for many years in their native country. Their fluency depends on the type
of instruction they received and whether they actually used the language instead of
just doing language exercises, such as filling in blanks in sentences.
Note that these definitions focus on the spoken language. Writing is an
entirely different matter. Written English should be considered a separate language.
Native speakers of English who do not read much could be called "WESL stu-
dents" because for them written English is a second language, an unfamiliar one.
This explains why students in developmental English classes make similar errors
whether they are native speakers or ESL students. Native speakers often write by
ear and thus drop verb endings that are not pronounced clearly. For example, they
may write "he use to" and "I'm sposta." Both ESL and WESL students have weak
vocabularies and struggle with complex sentence structures and the conventions of
academic English.

Organization of the Text

This book is designed to let instructors move around from section to section as
needed. It is organized so that smaller units (vocabulary and sentences) are discussed
before larger units (paragraphs and essays), but that does not mean units have to be
tackled in that order. The material is organized by skill areas, such as constructing
complex sentences and writing topic sentences, so you can focus on the weaknesses
your students have.
It is important to remember that students do not come to a course like this as
a blank slate. They have been introduced to the writing process and essay structure.
They do not have to master sentence structure before they move on to paragraphs,
and they may even chafe at working on paragraph structure when they want to
write essays.
You may wish to move on to the unit on paragraphs (Unit 4) after a brief
introduction to writing (Unit 1) and then work on vocabulary (Unit 2) and
grammar (Units 3 and 7) in bits as students practise writing paragraphs and then
essays.You can draw from Unit 6, Rhetorical Skills, as you assign different types of
writing tasks.
The reading units in Part 2 offer you a range of choice. Each article and short
story is a self-contained unit and thus can be studied on its own, in any order. The
non-fiction units have two articles on the same theme-you can do both or just

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x INTRODUCTION

one. The variety of topics allows you to pick selections according to the curriculum,
your students' needs, and your own tastes. Moreover, the readings have been chosen
so that there is not a wide range in length or difficulty, which means that they can
be treated equally. Thus, for example, you can assign different readings for summary
assignments or group presentations, and the work load would be fairly divided.You
can also change the readings you present each semester to keep the course fresh.

Paragraphs and Essays

Students are given an opportunity to work on independent paragraphs before
they move to the essay. This allows them to practise their skills in shorter writ-
ing assignments. The focus is on the basic academic skills of making points and
supporting them.
Some educators argue against teaching the five-paragraph essay, since it is so
formulaic and not "real world" writing. However, it is a useful pedagogical structure
that teaches the skills students need for all kinds of writing-the ability to organize
thoughts, present ideas, and support them. Whether they have to write a cover letter
for a job application or a business report, they still have to introduce a topic, divide
their arguments into well-structured body paragraphs, and write a conclusion-just
as they do in an essay. Students who struggle with writing benefit from having a
well-defined structure to follow.

Readings
Reading and writing go hand in hand. It is not enough to add some readings to a
writing text as an afterthought. Students with weak writing skills often have weak
reading skills, and this must be addressed. Good reading comprehension is para-
mount-no instructor would deny that as skills are ranked, understanding the main
idea of a newspaper article is surely more important than being able to fix a comma
splice. Furthermore, to become good writers, students need to read more in order
to learn the written language-its structures and vocabulary.
It is essential to test students' reading ability with comprehension questions,
paraphrasing, and summarizing. Otherwise, it is easy to miss students' reading
problems.
The readings in this text serve several functions. First, they give students an
opportunity to improve their reading skills and their vocabulary. Second, students
are asked to look at sentence, paragraph, and essay structures in the readings so that
they can carryover what they learned about grammar and writing into their read-
ing. They can see different writing styles at work. Third, the readings provide the
students with interesting subjects to discuss and write about.
The non-fiction readings are presented in seven thematic units (Units 9-15).
Each unit includes two articles and a five-paragraph essay on the theme. A wide
range of writing topics is given in the Discussion and Assignment topics for each
article and in the Additional Topics at the end of the unit. Each unit includes both
journalistic and academic writing styles.
 INTRODUCTION xi

The book also contains four fiction readings-three short stories and one
excerpt from a novel. It is important to include fiction in students' reading diet
because students sometimes have difficulty understanding the difference between
fiction and non-fiction. Moreover, reading fiction develops language skills, captures
and exercises the imagination, and even improves social skills.
Besides the typical comprehension questions, discussion topics, and assignment
suggestions, the readings are accompanied by language study and notes on structure
and technique. These elements are intended to make students more conscious of
the language as they read. They can then apply what they learned about vocabulary
and sentence structure to actual words and sentences in the reading.

Vocabulary Study
In developmental English courses, building vocabulary is crucial. Spoken English
uses a fairly small range of words, so reluctant readers have limited exposure to less
common words and need more guidance to learn the patterns that can help them
make connections between words. For that reason, this text has work on colloca-
tions, parts of speech, and common roots and affixes.
Each of the readings is accompanied by a variety of vocabulary exercises.
Students can use the context to find the meaning of the less common, more dif-
ficult words in a matching exercise. The Word Families charts allow students to
figure out the derivatives of some more common words, including words from
the Academic Word List. The lists also draw students' attention to idioms, common
expressions, and collocations. The exercises are designed to make students more
conscious of the words and expressions they come across; they are not simply sup-
plied with the definition and asked to read on.
Interesting and problematic words and expressions (such as toonie and afford)
are explained in the context of the reading, but because these explanations are use-
ful beyond their use in the specific reading, such words and expressions are listed in
the index.

Grammar
Grammar can be a contentious issue. Instructors all agree that grammar instruction
is necessary, but there is so much to learn and practise that the areas to focus on
must be carefully chosen. Most ESL students have been given formal grammar
instruction, whereas native speakers have not. However, native speakers have a bet-
ter sense of the structure of English even if they have trouble with basic labels, such
as noun and verb.
Grammar exercises have little carry-over to actual writing ability; some stu-
dents excel at the exercises but make errors on the same grammar points in their
writing. Error correction and the construction of complex sentences are two areas
that are more like real writing work. Unit 7 focuses on error correction, explaining
the process and highlighting common errors. Most of the sentences used for error
correction are taken from actual student writing.

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xii INTRODUCTION

Grammar labels can be another problem: students are unfamiliar with the
words, and terminology can vary. Therefore, the terms are kept simple and are
defined the first time they are used; the index points to these definitions.

Discussion and Assignment Topics

Assignments are left open-ended so that you can tailor them to your class needs.
For example, if your class is still working on paragraph structure when you do a
particular reading, your assignments will focus on paragraphs. If you are working on
reports or research essays, you can choose a topic for students to explore in such an
assignment. You may want to specify length and format. The discussion topics can
be used as writing topics.

The Third Edition

Instructors who have used earlier versions of Skill Set will find the third edition
quite different. Besides its new readings and rewritten explanations, the book has
been reorganized, and some sections have been moved. For instance, the explan-
ation of the use of you in academic writing can now be found under Correcting
Pronoun Errors in Unit 7.

Teacher's Resource
The online Teacher's Resource offers supplemental material such as sample course
outlines and lesson plans, answers to exercises, and sample quizzes. It also offers
guidance for beginning instructors.

Skill Set is a book that will help you improve your reading and writing skills, but it
cannot do so unless you do your part. It is important to develop good study habits
in order to be successful in college or university.
Passing your English course is not your end goal-improving your reading
and writing skills is.The stronger your literacy skills, the more success you will have
both in your education and in your future career, so it is important to attend class,
participate, do the work required, and strive to improve.

Using the Textbook

A textbook is a valuable resource for any course. Once you have bought your book,
your first step is to familiarize yourself with the contents and organization. Look
over the table of contents and the index. Check out what the appendices have to
offer. Scan the textbook by reading subtitles to identify the different sections. Be
sure to bring your textbook to class.
How the instructor uses the textbook depends on the individual instructor.
Two teachers may have the same book but present very different courses. Whatever
the approach, instructors generally ask you to do homework from the text. Be sure
to do the assigned reading. It is a waste of your time and tuition money to come to
class unprepared.
 INTRODUCTION xiii

Textbooks generally offer more than can be covered in a course, but you can
use the rest of the book as a resource and for reading practice. For example, you can
read the section on Punctuation and Capitalization if punctuation is a particular
weakness you have. Moreover, instead of just covering the assigned reading selec-
tions, you can read the other articles and short stories when you have some free
time.You will be improving your reading skills and your background knowledge.
Unit 8 gives details on how to read the textbook and how to prepare assigned
readings.
The index is a valuable resource for locating topics and for finding definitions
of grammatical and literary terms. For example, if you forget what a transitive verb
is, you can find the term listed in the index with the page reference for the explan-
ation of the meaning. The index will also help you to locate the usage explanation
for words and expressions, such as used to and clothing, from the notes for the reading
selections.

Time Management
One of the biggest changes students face when they make the leap from high school
to post-secondary school is the need for time management skills. In high school,
your time is often managed for you. Much of your work is done in class, and your
assignments may be divided into smaller chunks. In college and university, however,
you may have several weeks to complete an assignment, but how and when you do
it is your responsibility. For every hour spent in class, you are expected to do two or
three hours working on your own.
It is important to use some sort of calendar to organize your semester. Schools
often provide specially printed handbooks or agendas that include important dates
in the school year, such as holidays and exam week. Alternatively, you could use an
electronic format, whether it be on your laptop or on your phone. Enter test and
assignment due dates as you get them. Make daily and weekly "to do" lists, and
use them.
Start assignments as soon as you get them while the instructions are fresh
in your mind. Work on them in manageable chunks. Finish early so that you can
review everything before you hand it in. Getting an assignment done early clears
the way for other work. It also helps you to avoid last-minute problems such as a
malfunctioning computer. (Remember to back up all your work on other sites,
such as your school electronic folders, or other media, such as flash drives.)
Review and study your material as the course goes on. Last-minute cramming
is never as productive as keeping up with the flow.
Your schedule should allow for some flexibility and downtime. Take breaks,
get some fresh air and exercise, and try to get enough sleep.Your mind will function
much better if your body is healthy.

Multi-tasking
Today's technology encourages multi-tasking. Students have multiple windows
open on their computer screen. They send text messages while they walk, talk, and
study. However, the human brain has not evolved to handle more than one task at
xiv INTRODUCTION

a time. It can switch rapidly between tasks, but it cannot do two at once. Studies
show that you lose time and efficiency when you try to multi-task. You will work
more efficiently if you commit to the task at hand and avoid distractions. While
background music can be beneficial, anything that draws your attention away from
your work is a problem.

Active versus Passive Learning

People learn things much better when they are active rather than passive learners.
Active learning requires doing something-taking notes, summarizing material,
asking questions, making comments, and talking about the topic. Passive learning
is just reading or listening. Even telling your roommates or family about what you
studied in class will help you to remember it.
Classroom discussion is an important part of active learning. Good students
are attentive and engaged. They answer the instructor's questions and ask ques-
tions when they need more information. Instructors do not want to lecture for an
hour-they would rather hear their students' opinions. Unfortunately, many stu-
dents today are reluctant to speak up in class.Those who do, however, are rewarded
with better learning.

Taking Notes
College and university instructors expect you to take notes in class. This does not
mean simply copying down what the instructor writes on the board or shows on a
screen.You need to process the information that is being presented to you and write
down the main ideas. Pay attention to what the instructor stresses as important.
Capturing electronic records is not the same as taking notes. An audio
recording of a lecture is more difficult and time-consuming to review than good
handwritten notes. Taking pictures with your smartphone is also no substitute. Even
typing notes on a laptop may not help you to remember as well as handwritten
notes. Muscle memory and the hand-to-brain connection play an important part in
processing and remembering information.
A good strategy is to flesh out the notes soon after class while the information
is still fresh in your mind. For example, you can write down the meanings of the
new vocabulary items you jotted down during class.
Making reading notes is also useful. You can summarize a chapter in a few
notes after you have read it to aid your comprehension and memory. Moreover,
notes are useful when you study for tests and exams.
Keeping a separate vocabulary notebook allows you to create a useful learning
tool, much like your own dictionary. Write down new words and expressions. Add
grammatical information, such as the part of speech. Write down the phrase or sen-
tence that the word appeared in.Jot down the meaning and related words.

Following Instructions
While some people think that following instructions is only for mindless automa-
tons, it is vital in the workplace where failure to do so can result in lost workhours
and added expense or even lead to life-threatening situations. In school, following
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INTRODUCTION xv

instructions is the key to getting good grades. One of the common complaints of
all instructors in any institution is that students often do not do what they have
been asked to do.
Read written instructions carefully, more than once. For example, you can
read them when you first get an assignment, while you are working on the task, and
again as a final check before you hand the work in. Highlight important instruc-
tions you do not want to overlook. Listen to oral instructions carefully, taking notes.
Instructors repeat directions because they are so important and because students
often do not pay enough attention to them.

Developing Language Skills

Students who are learning English as a second language (ESL) should recog-
nize that it takes years to develop the language skills required to function in an
English-speaking academic environment. If their goal is a diploma or a degree from
a Canadian institution, they must work at their language skills all the time-not
just for the duration of English class. They need lots of exposure to both written
and spoken English, so they should read, watch educational television, and surf the
Internet in English.
Students whose native language is English have mastered the spoken language,
but if they do not read much, they may still be considered language learners for
written English. They also need to build their vocabulary and learn about the struc-
tures of academic English.

Learning from Mistakes

Making a mistake creates an opportunity to learn. Indeed, learning would not take
place without mistakes. Of course, errors also mean lower marks, so you should try
to avoid making them. However, for those mistakes you do make, be sure to learn
from them and avoid them in the future.
Writing instructors spend a lot of time marking essays.They write corrections
and comments. Students who take the time to go over their marked essays can see
where they have problems and how they can improve for the next assignment.
Unit 7 guides you in the process of correcting and editing and highlights common
problem areas.

Practice
In his 2008 book Outliers, Malcolm Gladwell explains what leads to success and
shows that talent and skill are not enough. He argues that it takes 10,000 hours of
practice to become a world-class expert at something. Wayne Gretzky undoubt-
edly had a lot of natural talent, but he would not have become "The Great
One" without the hours he spent practising his hockey skills every winter on his
backyard rink.
While you do not have to put in 10,000 hours to become an expert essay
writer, you must recognize that you cannot hope to become a competent writer
without lots of practice. Take advantage of any practice opportunity you are offered.
Some instructors mark practice essays and allow you to rewrite them.
xvi INTRODUCTION

Some students find journal-writing a low-pressure way to practise expressing

ideas in writing. A journal is a notebook that you write in on a regular basis. You
can record your thoughts about almost any thing-a movie you saw, a class you
attended, what you think about a political issue, or your observations of your class-
mates. Keep in mind, though, who might read your writing. If you are keeping a
journal as part of your class work, your audience is your instructor. If the journal is
just for you, you do not have to be as careful about what you say.
Furthermore, writing in a journal and reading a chapter in a novel are good
ways to wind down at the end of the day. Studies show that watching television and
staring at a computer screen immediately before bedtime can interfere with sleep
rhythms.
Reading comprehension and speed also improve with practice. At the end of
Unit 8 are some tips for building reading skills.

Seeking Help
Colleges and universities offer many services to help students succeed. They may
offer a study skills course, for example. The library may have tutors and seminars.
Conversation groups may be arranged for ESL students. Remember that you have
paid for these services in your tuition fees, so take advantage of them.
It is important to ask questions in class when you do not understand some-
thing. Do not be shy about it-chances are that other students are wondering the
same thing. Moreover, the instructor would prefer that such general questions be
asked during the class instead of several students asking the same question immedi-
ately after class.
If you have concerns about the course or your progress in it, be sure to talk
to your instructor before taking a drastic measure such as dropping the course.
Sometimes students give up prematurely, thinking they have no chance of passing
the course when in fact they are making good progress.

Abbreviations and Conventions Used in the Text

n: noun

v: verb

adj: adjective

adv: adverb

tr: transitive (verb)

U: uncountable (noun)

C: countable (noun)

In Part 2, Reading Selections, numbers in square brackets refer to the number of

the paragraph where a vocabulary item can be found.
 INTRODUCTION xvii

Acknowledgments \, :¥~~~"
This material was class-tested at Seneca College in Toronto and at Renison College
at the University ofWaterloo. Many thanks to my students, whose work provided
the base for many of the examples and exercises. In particular, Sharon Nuan-Yu
Liu gave me detailed feedback on the readings from a student's perspective. I would
also like to acknowledge the suggestions and support of my colleagues, especially
Sharon Vignaux, Adriana Neil, and Dara Lane.
Thanks as well to the editors and staff of Oxford University Press Canada for
their hard work and dedication to this project, especially Carolyn Pisani and Jason
Tomassini.
And as always, a big thank you to my family-my husband, Garry, and my
children, David, Susan, and Emily. They contributed their literary criticism, editing,
and writing skills to the cause.

Lucia Engkent

Lucia Engkent has more than 30 years' experience teaching English and writing
instructional materials, (including six textbooks.) She has taught at Seneca College,
the University ofWaterloo,York University, and the University ofAlberta. Her aca-
demic background includes the study of 10 languages, a master's degree in applied
linguistics from the University of Ottawa, and a master's degree in library science
from the University ofToronto.

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PART 1
Writing Skills

Writing is a skill that you develop through practice. Unlike learning to speak a
native language, it does not come naturally or without effort. Moreover, as a school
subject, it is not one you can master by memorizing facts from a textbook. In a
writing course, it is important to come to class and do the work so that you can
take advantage of every opportunity to learn and practise.
Reading and writing go hand in hand. You cannot become a better writer
without reading, because the written language is different from the spoken lan-
guage. Through reading, you expand your vocabulary and learn the conventions of
writing. In addition, avid readers find writing easier because they have more vocab-
ulary and background knowledge to draw on.
Whatever the type of writing, whatever the purpose and audience, writing
is a form of communication, so the qualities of good writing remain the same:
Documents must be legible, clear, concise, and correct. The writing must engage
and inform the reader. The style oflanguage should be appropriate to the situation.
This unit introduces these basic principles of good writing-ones that you
will apply throughout your writing course and throughout your life.

One of the first steps to becoming a good writer is recognizing the difference
between spoken and written language. Even though the written system is funda-
mentally based on spoken language, the differences can be quite marked. Writing is
not just speech written down.
The essential difference between spoken and written English is that the spo-
ken language is simpler in both vocabulary and sentence structure. This is just a
generalization, however, since there are different spoken and written forms. A casual
conversation differs from a formal speech, while a text message is written language
but is more similar to spoken conversation.
In spoken English, you use tone of voice, gestures, and context to get your
meaning across. You can get away with calling something a "thingamajig," for
example, if you can point to the item in question. You can get immediate feedback
if your communication is unsuccessful-ranging from the bewildered look on the
listener's face to direct questions such as "What do you mean?"
 4 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

In written English, you have no such back-up system. Your meaning must be
clear from the outset.You must anticipate what your readers need to know.You have to
use precise vocabulary. Consequently, written English calls upon the huge vocabulary
ofEnglish more than the conversational language does. For example, someone demon-
strating how to transfer photos from a camera to a computer might use a vague term
like "this wire thing here," but the instruction manual might refer to "a USB cable."
You speak mainly in simple sentences, but in writing you use longer, more
complex sentences. You can layer meaning with clauses. Your attention span is
greater when you read than when you listen, and you can go back and check
meaning, so you can handle complexity better in written form. Academic English,
the language of essay writing, is even more sophisticated. For your English course,
you need to be able to produce this level of language, which is also used in both
business and technical writing.

••• • •
Your first job as a writer is to consider why you are writing (your purpose) and
who your readers are (your audience).You may write to inform, persuade, or enter-
tain your readers. The purpose of a technical manual is to give information. A novel
or short story entertains and perhaps along the way informs and enlightens its read-
ers. Academic essays are essentially arguments in a presentation of organized and
supported points.
What you write has to be tailored to your audience, so you need to know
who will be reading your document. Imagine telling someone how to use a new
smartphone app-instructions to your grandparents would be very different from
instructions to your classmate. Recipe directions for an experienced cook would
be different from those for a novice. If you write an essay about traditions in your
native country, you need to say enough to make your essay clear to readers who
have never visited that country or who are not familiar with the traditions.
The information you give and the words you use will vary depending on your
audience and purpose, as in this example:

That patient is suffering from Audience: another psychologist

separation anxiety disorder, but I Purpose: to give information for a
think it is developing into full-fledged treatment program
agoraphobia. I'd like to try cognitive
behavioural therapy.

It's okay, sweetie. Don't cry. Your mama Audience: small child
will be back soon. Purpose: to reassure and calm
the child

Knowing what your audience knows and needs to know is not easy. It can
be especially difficult if your audience is diverse, but keep in mind that you cannot
follow your document around to explain it, so it is better to give too much infor-
mation than too little. Lack of information is one of the most common problems in
student essays.

--
r

UNIT 1: WRITING SKILLS 5

Writing for School

Academic writing-the writing you do for a college or university course-has a
specific audience and purpose. In an English composition class, your primary audi-
ence is your instructor, and your purpose is to show the instructor what you have
learned, how you can connect ideas, and how well you express those ideas. And, of
course, your purpose is also to get a good grade on your assignment.
The writing you do in school is artificial in the sense that it is not communi-
cating new information to your reader. You are writing for a teacher or professor
who may be an expert on the subject. Your essay on sibling rivalry is not going to
tell your psychology professor much that he or she does not know; however, it will
tell the professor how well you have learned the required material, researched the
topic, and expressed your ideas. Sometimes you may be tempted to leave out infor-
mation that you know the professor has, but it may be required for the logical links
in your argument.
Writing courses vary in their requirements, and different instructors vary in
where they put the emphasis. For example, some instructors invite creative, personal
essays while others may want you to produce tightly structured impersonal writing.
You may feel frustrated if your English instructor prefers a style very different from
the one your previous instructor did, but remember that it is the same situation in
the work world: each supervisor wants a job done in a specific way, and this may
require you to adjust how you do the job for a different manager.
The section Understanding Writing Evaluation at the end of this unit lists
some common criteria for writing assignments.

The success of any communication depends on how clear it is to the audience.

Clarity is the most important criterion. When you speak, you have immediate feed-
back for your words because you can interact with your audience and ensure that
everyone understands what you are saying. However, as a writer you cannot follow
your document around to every reader to make sure that it is understood. Your job
is to make your writing clear from the outset. Writing that is not clear does not
succeed as communication and is, therefore, essentially worthless.
To achieve clarity, you must choose your words carefully-You cannot just point
to something if you forget the name of it. You cannot get away with imprecise
words like stuff and whatever. The vocabulary of the written language is much larger
than that of everyday spoken language, and these words are needed to ensure preci-
sion and clarity. You can get by with fewer words in your everyday speech, but for
good writing you need an arsenal of words, words that you can use correctly and
words your audience will understand. Clear, simple language is always preferable to
overly ornate, complicated language.
Clarity depends on more than vocabulary choice. Writers must use proper
grammar and sentence structure to make sure their ideas are clear. Paragraphs
must have coherence-that is, sentences must follow logically (see pages 121-22
for more on coherence). Transition signals, such as for example and in addition, help
readers to see the relationship between ideas. General points need to be supported
 ----
6 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

with specific examples to make them easier to understand. Following conventional

writing patterns also helps readers to follow what you are saying.
Here are some examples of student writing that lacked clarity:

Men do not carry purses because purses This example of student writing
are too big for men to carry without a is unclear because of vocabulary
handbag. Therefore, men have to put problems. The question was "Why
their purses in their clothes bag. don't men use purses?" The student
mixed up the words purse and wallet
and did not know the word pocket.

Carscome in many forms as perceived The essay prompt was "Explain the
by a viewer. In the past century, cars advantages or the disadvantages of
have contributed to many criteria of owning a luxury car." This student's
human development. To view cars as an essay introduction shows that writing
advantage is a benchmark, but to view can follow basic grammar rules and be
them as a disadvantage is a learning technically "correct" yet not be clear.
curve. Owning a luxury car can be an
advantage and disadvantage.

Hover is a problem on both parents and This example shows why students
children because it is related to each are asked to answer "in their own
other. words." The writer picked up the
word hover from the reading but
did not know how to use the word
correctly.

It is difficult for writers to evaluate the clarity of their own writing. They may
not know they are using words incorrectly. They may be relying on references that
may not be clear to their audience. One way to improve clarity is to let a document
sit for a while and come back to it with fresh eyes. Getting a second opinion is also
vital. That is why published works go through several readers and editors.

How to make sure your writing is clear

• Use standard spelling and grammar.

• Do not use words you are unsure of without checking the meaning and usage.
• Support your statements with examples and explanation.
• Be specific; clearly identify what you are talking about.
• Do not overload sentences with too many phrases and clauses.
• Stay on topic; do not wander and include irrelevant information.
• Make sure your timeline is clear so that the sequence of events is not confusing.
• Use transition signals such as moreover and consequently to help the reader
to see the relationship between ideas.
• Attentively reread what you have written-after a bit of time has passed,
if possible.
• Get a second opinion.
 UNIT 1: WRITING SKillS 7

Writing is judged by what it has to say as well as how it is said. In English class, your
essays are evaluated on the strength of your argument-the logic of your conclu-
sions, the support for your points, and the relevance of your examples. Instructors
may disagree with your point of view, but as long as the argument is sound and well
expressed, they will not penalize you.
Writers build on what other writers say. The more you read, the easier you will
find it to come up with ideas for your essays. For example, as you read newspaper
stories about gang violence and the editorials and comments of people discussing
the issue, you will get a better understanding of the complexity of the problem.
When you write an essay suggesting ways to tackle the problem, your ideas will be
founded on this strong understanding.

Answering the Question

Your content is only good if it is on topic.Your ability to answer the topic question
is, after all, a main part of what is being tested in academic writing assignments. If
you order a steak dinner in a restaurant and are given chicken instead, it does not
matter how good the chicken dinner is. Similarly, it does not matter how well writ-
ten an essay is if it does not deliver what was asked for.
Writing assignments start with reading. Your topic may be related to an article
you read in class.You may be given a short passage that leads to an essay prompt. At
the very least, you are given a question or direction that you have to understand in
order to write the essay. For example, the question "What are the factors that deter-
mine student success?" hinges on the word factor. To answer the question, you could
write about factors such as motivation, study habits, and home background but not
about attending class, previewing material, or taking notes, which are activities, not
factors. Throughout the book, you will have a chance to consider writing prompts
and what is required to answer them.
It is important that you understand exactly what the instructor is asking
you to do. Be sure to ask your instructor if you do not understand the assign-
ment. Stay focused on your topic question as you write so that you do not wander
off-topic.

Critical Thinking
Content is built through critical thinking.You develop critical thinking skills as you
read others' opinions, especially opinions you do not agree with. While reading,
you can weigh the strength of the arguments, follow the logic in the reasoning, and
evaluate the validity of the examples. Then you will be able to apply these skills to
your own writing.
An essay is a test of the way you think. Your writing should be logical and
clear. For example, you cannot argue that roadways should be expanded to relieve
traffic congestion and then go on to say that there should also be less construction
on the roads. You should be able to distinguish general and specific statements.
You should be able to recognize statements that say the same thing even if the
8 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

wording is quite different. Be sure not to make contradictory statements. Show the
flow of ideas with transition signals (pages 119-20) to help the reader follow your
argument.

~ ~ !I "I •

Organizing Ideas , :~~,:','~;~~.

Writing is more structured and organized than speech. Readers can more easily
follow ideas when they are presented in a recognizable structure and logical order.
Writers make organization decisions from the sentence level through to the struc-
ture of the whole essay.
While everyday speech is mostly in simple sentences, complex sentences allow
the writer to layer meaning. For instance, subordinate clauses contain information
that is less important to the main idea of the sentence. (See Unit 3 for an explana-
tion of sentence structure and different kinds of clauses.)
Most modern writing has very short paragraphs, often only a couple of sen-
tences. Academic writing, however, still uses more structured, longer paragraphs.
General points are followed up by explanation or by examples to make the points
clear. (See Unit 4 for an explanation of paragraph structure.) Even with shorter
paragraphs, it is important to understand how to connect ideas and provide logical
links with and between paragraphs.
Most college and university writing courses focus on the essay, using the
five-paragraph essay as a base. Even though five-paragraph essays are not generally
found in the "real world;' the organizational patterns that students learn through
essay writing are applicable to other kinds of writing. The standard essay structure
of introduction, body, and conclusion is also used in business reports and technical
writing. Moreover, learning and following the basic structure is one of the easiest
ways you can show improvement in writing skills, thus raising your marks on writ-
ing assignments.

Unless you are writing a novel, conciseness is valued in writing. No one likes to
read more than they have to unless they are reading for pleasure. Business and tech-
nical communication must be short and to the point. The Internet favours brevity,
as shown in a comment used by online posters: "tl.dr" (too long; didn't read).
Wordiness frustrates readers; it not only causes readers to lose interest but also
confuses them. Everyone has had the experience of listening to or reading the
words of someone who repeats ideas, wanders off-topic, and drags out a report or
story with unnecessary details.
Students faced with a required length for an essay assignment may pad their
writing because they do not know what to say. This is always a mistake. Writing
instructors know when you are padding and will find fault with such an essay.
These examples illustrate how writing can be made more economical:
 UNIT 1: WRITING SKILLS 9

-- --

Wordy Concise
--

at this point in time now

------ -----

woman whose husband has died widow

There are many students who had to Many students had to repeat the course.
repeat the course.

Failure helps students learn. For Failure helps students learn. For
example, a student does a homework example, students can use feedback
assignment. He makes some mistakes. from assignments to improve their
His teacher points out the mistakes and writing.
gives the student some advice. The
student takes the advice. He corrects
his work. He does not make the same
mistake the next time he writes an
assignment.

Learning to communicate concisely takes practice but it is worth the trou-

ble. Concise communication is invaluable everywhere, especially in the workplace.
Conciseness is addressed throughout this text. Specific exercises include 7.22 (page
225) and 8.4 (page 248).

How to make your writing concise

• Choose precise vocabulary instead of long descriptive phrases.

• Use pronouns and short phrases to refer back to what you are talking about.
• Eliminate unnecessary repetition of ideas.
• Organize your points logically.
• Use complex sentences instead of many short sentences.
• Eliminate unnecessary points, such as those that are off-topic.

Written work should be correct-that is, free of errors in vocabulary, grammar,

spelling, and punctuation. Some mistakes are serious in that they impede compre-
hension. Some are minor; readers can understand what is meant, but they may get
annoyed, and their impression of the writer's ability and credibility will be nega-
tively affected.
Perfection, however, is impossible to attain, and even professional writers make
slips in language use. Editors and proofreaders work hard to keep publications
mistake-free, but errors seem an inevitable part of the final product.
Moreover, language correctness is not a black and white issue. Languages con-
stantly change and evolve. New words come into use, pronunciation changes over
10 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

time, and grammar "rules" can shift as acceptability of usage evolves. As a result,
even language experts (such as writers, lexicographers, and linguists) have spirited
disagreements over what is "correct." For instance, the word irreoardless makes most
educated English speakers cringe, with many insisting it is not a proper word at all.
However, it is gradually moving into acceptability and being included in dictionaries.
Even though achieving correctness may seem an unattainable goal, it is
important to strive for Standard English. Writers can easily correct many errors
themselves: for example, spelling errors may be caught by using spellcheckers and
dictionaries. But such methods are not sufficient by themselves. You must take time
to check your writing and make the necessary corrections and improvements. (See
Unit 7 for more on editing and correcting errors.)
It is also important not to take the quest for correctness too far. Some students
stick to basic words and simple sentence structures in order to avoid making mis-
takes. This practice can hinder their ability to express sophisticated ideas. To develop
your writing skills, you may need to experiment with language you are not entirely
comfortable with and learn from your mistakes.

A personal voice in writing is important and indeed unavoidable, but many docu-
ments in business and technical writing must be less personal and more objective.
Because of your years of practice with compositions in English class, you may be
able to handle personal writing more easily. You are probably used to personal
assignments like "What I did on my summer vacation" but may have more difficulty
with topics like "Why vacations are necessary for a healthy workforce." Therefore,
as a college student you should practise writing impersonally so that you can be
prepared for the work world, where you might, for example, have to produce a
business report that represents the company viewpoint instead of your own.
Impersonal writing is generally in the third person (he, she, they) instead of the
first person (I). It is also more objective. For example, instead of arguing in an essay
that an increase in tuition fees is wrong because you cannot afford it, you would
write that the government should pay more than its current share because public
spending on post-secondary education is an investment in society.
Students writing essays often struggle with making their writing more formal
and less personal. The most common problem is that they have trouble avoiding the
use of the personal pronouns you and 1. Pronoun usage is explained in Unit 3, pages
69-71, and pronoun errors are addressed in Unit 7, pages 201-07.
When student writers overuse I in their essays, they often come up with
such phrases as "In my opinion, I personally think that .. ." Unless you say other-
wise, your writing is your opinion. If you say, "SUVs are a waste of money," that
is clearly your point of view, and you don't need to say,"I think SUVs are a waste
of money." If you say, "Many people think smoking is a personal, free choice,"
you are distancing yourself from that idea; the reader expects the next sentence to
express a "but" idea that shows your viewpoint: for example, "However, teenagers
start to smoke without a true, rational decision, and they get hooked quickly and
cannot stop."
 UNIT 1: WRITING SKillS 11

Another problem is that "I think" can weaken your writing. From a grammati-
cal point of view, a sentence such as "I think that the college should lower its parking
rates" has the emphasis on the main clause "I think."You can use "I think" and "in
my opinion" in your essay when you need to emphasize that this is your point of
view, but use such expressions sparingly-only when you really need the emphasis.
You need to develop a sense of when personal writing is appropriate.
Instructors will indicate whether an essay should be personal or impersonal by
the assignment question. For example, "Would you want to be married?" is a per-
sonal question, but "Discuss the benefits of marriage" indicates that a less personal
response would be appropriate.
Even in an impersonal essay, you are giving your opinion and speaking from
your experience. You can give personal examples, but be sure that they are appro-
priate and expressed impersonally so that they can apply generally and not to a
specific person. For instance, in an essay arguing for a decrease in tuition fees, you
could illustrate how poor students live:

As a student, I am so poor that I live on uses first person: I, my friend

macaroni and cheese. My friend lives
on his version of "tomato soup," which
is boiled water flavoured with ketchup
from packets collected from fast food
restaurants.

Students can't even afford food. They makes the same points but generalizes
are forced to go to food banks or live on to "students"
macaroni and cheese or boiled water
flavoured with ketchup.

Remember that personal writing is not wrong, but it may be inappropriate for
certain purposes.You need to be able to write both personally and impersonally, but
usually you need more practice in the latter. Notice also that it is a matter of degree;
you can make something more or less personal. Many of the articles in Part 2 start
with a personal reference but move on to general statements. Moreover, it is pos-
sible to take impersonal writing too far. Governments and businesses use this style
when they want to obscure who actually performed an action.
You will read examples of both personal and impersonal writing in this book,
in both sample paragraphs and essays and the reading selections. Study the sample
essays beginning on page 154 for an example of two treatments of the same topic.
Practice in making writing impersonal can be found in Unit 7 (pages 203-05).

How to make writing less personal and more objective

• Use the third person (he, she, they).

• Use the passive voice when you want to emphasize the action rather than the
person who did it (see pages 54-56 for an explanation of the passive voice).
• Make general statements that apply to many people.
 -
12 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Every language has different styles and varieties. In spoken language, dialects and
accents vary considerably. For example, in everyday conversation Australians use a
kind of English very different from the one Canadians use-they might even have
trouble understanding each other because of differences in expressions and pronun-
ciation. However, since written English is more standardized than spoken English,
essays written by Australian students would not differ greatly from those written
by Canadians.
The style oflanguage we use depends on our audience and purpose. We speak
casually to our family and friends in everyday conversation, but we would use a
more formal speaking style as a witness in a trial. Even though it is written lan-
guage, online messaging is in a more conversational style.
It is important that our language is appropriate to the situation, just as we
dress appropriately for an occasion. For instance, a job candidate would not wear
old jeans and a grubby T-shirt to a job interview even if that is typical attire for the
job itself.
The term academic writing refers to the style expected in essays and reports in
college and university. While compositions in high school and ESL classes may be
informal and personal, you need to graduate to the more formal and impersonal
academic style because it is similar to the one used in business and technical writing.
It is also possible to write too formally. However, this is not a common prob-
lem among college and undergraduate students. It is more often seen in the writing
of professionals and academics who use jargon and complex expressions, often
obscuring what they mean, as when the military refers to civilians dying in war as
"collateral damage."
North American society has moved toward greater informality. Casual work
dress has replaced business suits in many occupations. People rarely use a title
and surname, preferring to address business associates by their first name. Written
communication has also seen a lessening in formality. For instance, instead of
using one to refer to people in general, the less formal pronoun you is commonly
used today.

Here is an example of conversational style:

Well,the thing is, the guys did a real This sample of conversational English
good job on that project. They busted contains 67 words. It contains
their butts getting all the info together. conversational expressions (such as
And they figured out all the stuff that Well and let's say) and slang (busted
could come up. Like, let's say, the power their butts). Sorta is not Standard
went out, they'd have this back-up plan English and would only be used to
all set to go. And they made this list imitate speech.
of people to call, you know, if you had
some sorta problem.

b
 UNIT 1: WRITING SKILLS 13

Note how the same activity can be described in academic style:

The team did a commendable job on This sample of academic English

that project. They all worked diligently contains 32 words, less than half of
to assemble the required information. words used in the conversational
They planned for contingencies such sample. The words are longer.
as power blackouts and prepared an
emergency contact list.

The writing styles used in this textbook vary. The explanations are addressed
to the reader directly, so you is used. The sample paragraphs and essays are in a
slightly more formal style-in the academic style usually required for your English
assignments. Many of the readings in the text are in a less formal, journalistic style.
You can learn from reading all kinds of styles. Your instructor will give you direc-
tion as to which type of writing style you are expected to use for assignments.

Conversational English Academic English

regional (different dialects, accents) standardized

mostly spoken but also written to friends mostly written but also in formal
(letters, email, chat messages) and in speeches
dialogue in novels and short stories

immediate feedback so speaker knows writer must anticipate what reader

what listener needs to understand knows and what questions reader
will have

meaning from gestures, tone of voice meaning from punctuation, use of

space
f-- .. ----

use of visuals from situation, scene some use of visuals from pictures,
graphics

personal (use of I and you) less personal, more detached and

objective;
more use of passive voice to
depersonalize
.- ..

you for people in general focus on third person (he, she, they)
--

imprecise words (stuff, thing) precise vocabulary for clarity

--

very limited vocabulary (-2000 words) huge vocabulary in use (-20,000 words)
(basic English has only 800 words)

conversational markers (let's see, well use of transition markers to show

now, you know) relationship of ideas (moreover, however)
... _ - - - . _ -
14 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Conversational English Academic English

short, simple sentences longer, more complicated sentences

use of slang, colloquialisms little idiomatic language

contractions to show speech forms contractions not used

(don't, gonna, would've)

sentences starting with coordinate use of conjunctive adverbs (however,

conjunctions (and, or, but, yet, so) nevertheless, furthermore)

conversations can meander, digress; in long, structured paragraphs; with

ideas may not be fully explained or logical sequence; ideas supported
completed and explained; with introductions and
conclusions

repetition, interruptions more development, less repetition

shorthand among friends, relatives reference to other works of literature,

referring to common experiences film, history, current events

Activity
Generally, a piece of writing stays in one style oflanguage. Academic pieces that use
hip hop slang would be disconcerting to readers, and a newspaper column in an
overly formal tone would sound unfriendly and cold. The following article breaks
this rule to create a humorous effect. The author switches from formal language to
conversational English throughout the piece.
Read the article, and then work together in groups to answer the questions
that follow it.

A GlobalWarming Deal to Do Nothing Still Possible

by Linwood Barclay

If, as it appears,the Kyoto Protocol to reduce global warming is going straight into
the toilet, it's time to consider drafting a new deal that all of the world's nations
can get behind.
Let's face it. The United States isn't signing on to Kyoto. Australia's not on
board. Russia isn't going to ratify the agreement. And our soon-to-be Prime
Minister is kind of waffling about it, too. Soit's finished. It's done. It's over. The deal
to cut greenhouse-gas emissions has gone up in smoke. But that doesn't mean an
agreement regarding global warming is impossible. It just needs to be worded a
bit differently.
Chances are, world leaders like US President George W. Bush and Russian
President Vladimir Putin and even our own Paul Martin would be more likely to
consider an agreement with the following provisions:
"Be it resolved that, given that the worst effects of global warming-
continents disappearing under oceans, skin frying the moment you step outside,
 UNIT 1: WRITING SKillS 15

that kind of thing-aren't likely to happen for another hundred years or so, there's
no sense getting your shorts in a knot about it today. Why not take in a ball game
instead, so long as it's not outside."
"We are united in the belief that it's not our own children, and maybe not
even our children's children, who will be devastated by global warming. In all
likelihood, it will be our children's children's children. And ask yourself this, 'What
have they done for you lately?' Have you seen so much as a thank-you card from
any of them?"
"It is acknowledged, without prejudice, that while massive Hummer-style
SUVs may contribute to the problem of global warming, they're also part of the
solution. Those suckers sit high enough that when the oceans start rising, you'll be
drier longer than that guy in the Neon."
"The people of the nations of the world are in agreement that, well, you've got
to die from something, right? You could spend billions trying to curb emissions,
then cross the street and get hit by a bus."
"We must accept, unreservedly, that it is within the realm of possibility that
maybe we're just plain wrong about how dangerous these greenhouse gases
really are. Isn't it possible the scientists, with their oversized glasses and little
slide rules and pocket protectors, are not only the people we beat up in grade
school but a bunch of naysayers who've got it all wrong? Consider this: Who could
have imagined that not just one but both Matrix movie sequels would suck? If
something like that can happen, anything's possible."
"As responsible nations we are committed to the financial well-being of our
citizens. Strict environmental protection rules stifle economic growth. We believe
strongly in the principle of being able to make as much money as we can and
acquiring really neat things, right up until the moment that we collapse onto the
sidewalk, hacking and wheezing and gagging."
10 "You have to admit, sometimes, when the sun is setting, and the rays hit the
smog clouds just the right way, it can be quite beautiful."
11
"It is hereby affirmed that we, the leaders of the world, must get re-elected
every few years, and that's not going to happen without substantial campaign
donations from the leaders of the business community, and given that it is
the aforementioned business community that has to pay the costs of greater
environmental controls, well, do we have to connect the dots for you here
or what?"
12 "Just for fun, let's go to David Suzuki's place and let the air out of the tires of
his hybrid car."
13 Now there. Isn't that something our world leaders, visionaries everyone,
could sign on to?

[5 December 20031

1. What are the features of conversational English that this article contains? (Use
the chart on page 13 as a reference.) Consider the verb forms, the beginnings
of sentences, and the use of questions. Are these features suitable for use in
an essay?
16 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

2. Find examples of conversational expressions (such as "let's see") that would be

inappropriate in an essay.
3. Find three idioms in the article. (See page 37 if you need an explanation of
idiom.)
4. Find examples of slang. (See page 38 if you need an explanation of slan,e.)
5. Find examples of"legalese"-overly formal language that a lawyer (or politi-
cian) would be likely to use.
6. What one word could be used instead of "children's children" and "children's
children's children" [5J?
7. What are some words you would use to describe "scientists, with their over-
sized glasses and little slide rules and pocket protectors" [81?
8. How does the author create humour in the article? What do you find particu-
larly funny?
9. How do you know that the author is not serious about his opposition to
environmental initiatives, that he is in fact kidding?

How to write in academic style

• Do not use I or you (see pages 203-06 in Unit 7).

• Do not use conversational expressions (such as let's see or right?).
• Do not use slang (see page 38).
• Avoid asking your reader questions.
• Do not start sentences with coordinate conjunctions (and, or, but, so) (see
page 77).
• Use transition signals (see pages 119-20 in Unit 4).
• Write fully developed paragraphs (Unit 4), not one- or two-sentence
paragraphs.
• Avoid vague words like thing and stuff; use precise vocabulary instead.
• Use complex sentences with adjective and adverb clauses to layer meaning
(see Unit 3).

. .

Essentially, there are three stages to the writing process: planning, writing, and
editing. These stages can be broken down into smaller steps. For instance, plan-
ning includes choosing a topic, brainstorming, and outlining. Several drafts may
be written in the second stage. Editing includes making both major revisions and
minor corrections.
Writers do not always progress from one stage to the next in an organized
fashion. Working on a computer allows writers to go back and forth in their writ-
ing, changing their plans and editing as they write, until they are satisfied with the
final product. However, they do still start with planning and end with proofing
and correcting.

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 UNIT 1: WRITING SKILLS 17

Student writers sometimes spend too little time on the first and third stages of
the writing process. They may skimp on the planning stage, not thinking enough
about what they want to say and how they want to say it. They also tend to neglect
the editing stage: they may look for obvious mistakes they have made, but they are
reluctant to toss out or rework full sentences, especially sentences they have sweated
over. However, all three stages are necessary.
Students sometimes do not have the luxury of time for their assignments.
When they have to write an essay in class, they have to get words on paper fast, but
even then they can follow the basic process even if they have only a few minutes to
plan and a few minutes to edit and correct.

Planning
Choosing a topic is generally the first step in the planning process. How much
choice you have depends on your instructor and the nature of the assignment.
Although students sometimes grumble about the choice of topics and say that they
want to choose their own, students given complete freedom to choose a subject
often flounder because of too much choice. They are better off with the instruc-
tor's topic choices because these topics are tailored to the level of the students and
related to the readings and discussions in the course.
You often have to narrow your subject down from the question asked. Most
subjects cover a broad range of ideas. For example, an essay topic might be "Discuss
one of the problems that second-generation immigrants face." Not only do you
have the choice of problem you wish to explain, but you may choose to narrow
this further by writing about one specific ethnic group that you are familiar with.
Often, you are given a choice whether to disagree or agree with a statement or to
write about advantages or disadvantages of something.
If you cannot decide among a selection of topics, do some brainstorming on
two or more of them. If you jot down some ideas in point form, you will be
able to see which issue you have more to say on. Pick the subject you are most
comfortable with.
Sometimes students are asked to show the process in the work they submit.
They may be asked to include the brainstorming, essay outline, and/or drafts with
the final product. Often, instructors evaluate the outline and give feedback that the
students can use to write their essay.
You can read more about brainstorming and outlining in Unit 5.

Writing
The planning stage makes writing the draft easier. It helps to prevent writer's
block-when a writer stares blankly at the screen or paper and does not know
what to say.
It is also easier to write if you just go for it without worrying about perfec-
tion. Remember that you can correct spelling and grammatical errors in the editing
stage. Essentially, you want to get your ideas down in a clear, coherent order with a
logical flow from one idea to the next.
18 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Remember to support your ideas with explanations and examples. Academic

writing is all about making points and supporting them. You can see how this is
done in Units 4, 5, and 6.

Editing
Editing involves making both major changes and minor corrections to your draft.
You may want to revise what you have said, changing parts of the essay around and
taking out sections. Do not hesitate to delete what does not work in your essay-
even if you feel you worked hard to get those sentences written. One important
difference between professional writers and student writers is that professionals
keep revising their wording until they are satisfied with it.
Remember that you have to proofread carefully. It is better if you do this after
the essay sits for a day so that you can view it with fresh eyes. This is impossible to
do with an in-class writing assignment, but you can still reread your work before
you hand it in. It is important not to leave take-home writing assignments until the
last minute so that you can take advantage of the time to revisit your work.
Unit 7 explains the basic principles of editing and correcting and gives you an
opportunity to practise with common errors.

Students may question or even challenge the marks they receive for a writing
assignment. Unlike mathematics and science where right answers usually cannot
be debated, writing is evaluated in a more subjective fashion. However, writing
instructors usually explain what they are looking for and often use a detailed mark-
ing scheme.
Because instructors have likely read thousands of student papers, they can size
up an assignment very quickly and know where it ranks from excellent to unsatis-
factory. Students, on the other hand, may think they deserve a good mark based on
the time and effort they put into the assignment. However, their view of their work
is quite narrow. For instance, some students rarely see how their work compares
with other students' writing.
Here are some questions that writing instructors generally consider when
evaluating an assignment:

Did the student follow the instructions for the assignment?

Does the essay answer the topic question?
Does the assignment follow the required structure and format?
Is the work in the required writing style?
Are citations and referencing correct?

How strong is the content?

Does the student use his or her own ideas and not just repeat ideas
from the reading?
Do the statements follow logically?
 UNIT 1: WRITING SKILLS 19

Are arguments organized and supported?

Does the writer stay on topic?

How well are the ideas expressed?

Is the writing clear? Is it easy to understand what the writer is saying?
Is the writing concise, or is it padded with repetition and wordiness?
Does the writing flow from one sentence to the next? Is it easy to
read?

Is the language used correctly?

Are the basic sentence structure and grammar sound?
Are words and expressions used correctly?
Are there very few mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and capitalization?

Does the work show improvement in writing skills?

Has the student worked on error correction for mistakes he or she
consistently makes?
Does the work show that the student has learned the principles taught
in the course?

These are the basic criteria used to evaluate writing assignments. Sometimes they
are listed on a marking rubric, and your assignment is graded on each scale separ-
ately. For example, you may get a mark for content and another for essay structure.
Sometimes instructors give a holistic mark, a grade that encompasses all the criteria.
For example, an A paper is considered excellent-the essay is properly structured
with a clear thesis, the ideas expressed are on topic, and there are few errors in
language use. 13 means very good, C is satisfactory, D may be a bare pass, and F is
given if the basic criteria are not met. Instructors usually explain these criteria at
the beginning of a course and may show sample papers.

How to become a better writer

1. Read more-in order to learn the written language, to develop vocabulary,
and to acquire background knowledge.
2. Think critically-be curious about the world around you, listen to others'
ideas,and develop your own opinions.
3. Practise-writing is a skill that you develop the more you use it.
4. Checkyour work-be critical of what you write, look for mistakes, and check
whatever you are unsure of.
5. Learn from your mistakes-use corrections and comments on your work to
help you improve.
Vocabulary Skills

Words are the building blocks of language. Grammar tells you how the words fit
together in sentences, but without the words there is no meaning and no com-
munication. The most important thing you can do to improve your reading and
writing skills is to increase your vocabulary so that you can more easily compre-
hend what you read and express your own ideas clearly and concisely.
Reading increases vocabulary knowledge because you are exposed to more
words when you read than when you listen to English. Standard Written English
uses-and needs-a lot more words than spoken English does. You can get by in
conversational English with only 2000 or 3000 words, but to read and write at the
post-secondary level, you may need to know 20,000-which is still only a small
number of the estimated 700,000 words in the English lexicon. (This is a rough
estimate based on dictionary entries. Getting the exact number of English words
is an impossible task; much depends on what is counted as a word. Moreover, new
words get added to the lexicon every year.)
Reading is vital to vocabulary learning because that is where you see the
words in action-used in sentences. Through repeated exposure to the words in
context, you develop a sense of what they mean and how they are used.Vocabulary
learning is incremental-you continuously build on your knowledge.
Vocabulary knowledge is not just how many words you know but how well
you know them. A crucial distinction is between passive vocabulary (words you
understand, also called receptive vocabulary) and active vocabulary (words you
use, also called productive vocabulary). Everyone has more words in their passive
vocabulary. As you get to know the words better from seeing them used, you start
to use them yourself, and the words move from passive to active vocabulary.
Word knowledge encompasses several different aspects in addition to under-
standing the meaning of the word in its encountered context:
• other possible meanings of the word
• its part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, or adverb)
• its pronunciation
• its spelling
• what words tend to appear along with the word
• what grammatical structure is required to use the word in a sentence
22 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

• whether a word is positive or negative and how strong that connotation is

• whether the word is limited to a specific group (British vs. American English,
for instance)
• how common the word is
• how that word is distinguished from its synonyms and other related words
These different aspects of vocabulary are explained in this unit. You will learn
how words are formed and how they work. This will increase your word conscious-
ness and help you to increase your vocabulary.
Because word knowledge is complicated, an analogy may help you to under-
stand. In some ways, words are like people.
• They are born (or coined, as we say about words).
• They grow and change over time.
• They have different origins and ethnic backgrounds.
• They have families and relatives.
• They are quirky and often do not make sense.
• They like to hang out with friends (collocation).
• They can be found in specific locations (in a sentence).
• They may behave differently in different contexts.
• You have to meet them several times to remember them and get to know them.
• You might not recognize them in different contexts.

A fundamental part of knowing a word is knowing how to pronounce it, even if

that is not a priority in a reading and writing course. Electronic and online dic-
tionaries often have audio files that can guide you; they are easier to use than the
pronunciation guides found in print dictionaries. Remember that words often have
more than one correct pronunciation. For instance, British pronunciation can be
quite different from the way North Americans say the words.
Make sure you know how different letter combinations are pronounced.
Greek letter combinations can be especially confusing. Because Greek uses a differ-
ent alphabet, some English letter combinations represent Greek letters: ph (from phi,
q:» sounds like "f"; ch (from chi, X) sounds like "k"; and ps (from psi, '!') sounds like
"s"-as in the words philosophy, chaos, and psychology.
Word stress is an important part of pronunciation, especially since unstressed
vowels reduce to the "schwa" sound (an "uh" sound) in English. Words sound very
different if the syllable stress is changed. As an example, compare the pronunciation
of table and vegetable.
Examples of different stress in noun/verb pairs:
The company can produce different versions of the same product. [verb]
They buy their produce in the market. [noun]
The convict was quickly caught. [noun]
They couldn't convict him because of the lack of evidence. [verb]

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 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 23

Because the English language is not written the way it sounds, it is diffi-
cult to figure out how to pronounce a word just from the spelling and to figure
out how to spell a word when you hear it pronounced. Moreover, because the
written language uses a much larger vocabulary than spoken English, avid read-
ers may know the meaning of many words, but they may not know how to
pronounce them.
When you learn new words in your English course, pay attention to how your
instructor pronounces the word. Ask for a repetition if you did not hear the word
properly, and ask questions if you find anything confusing.

Spelling is an important part of word knowledge, but it is particularly difficult

in English. Essentially, English spelling is not phonetic-it does not mirror the
pronunciation.
As English evolved over time, its pronunciation shifted away from its spelling,
with changes such as these:
• Silent letters used to be pronounced. This includes the k and gh in knight and
the e at the end of words like name.
• Vowel sounds are not pronounced as the letters indicate, because unstressed
vowels are reduced in English. (This is why than and then sound the same in a
sentence, for example.)
• English spelling was standardized with the printing press, but printers used dif-
ferent dialects as a base, and the pronunciation of English underwent major
shifts afterwards.
• Words entered English from other languages and introduced non-English letter
combinations, such as the ph from the Greek letter phi (cp), which is pronounced
as an f sound.

Tips for learning spelling

• As you learn new words, pay attention to the spelling. Look for spelling
patterns.
• Use spelling rules (like the "l before e" rhyme) even though there are often
exceptions.
• Use mnemonic devices-tricks to help you remember. (For instance, the
first letters in the phrase "I go home tonight" gives you the -ight spelling
combination.)
• Learn common letter combinations. For instance, -ough is never -uogh
or-ouhg.
• Write and/or type the word out several times because muscle memory plays
an important part in spelling-sometimes your fingers "know" how to spell
a word.
• Make a list of words you tend to misspell. Memorize them.
24 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Note that there can be more than one way to correctly spell a word. For
instance, British spelling is sometimes different from American spelling. Canadian
spelling is somewhere in the middle, sometimes following British conventions (like
colour) and sometimes following American (like or~anize). In these cases, it is import-
ant to be consistent. For example, if you use the -our spelling in colour then you
should also use it in neljhbour and favour and not switch between variations.
When we talk about spelling, we are mainly concerned with avoiding and cor-
recting spelling mistakes. See Unit 7, pages 195-198, for more on spelling mistakes.

. ..
Words belong to different classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are the main
parts of speech we consider when we talk about vocabulary learning. These are
called content words, and the list of content words is infinite because we keep
making new words. The other parts of speech (prepositions, conjunctions, articles,
etc.) are considered function words. This is a closed set of words-it is much
harder to invent a new preposition and have it accepted in the language than it is
to invent a new noun. You can learn all the function words but not all the content
words, so vocabulary learning centres on nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

Nouns
Nouns tell the listener or reader who or what is being talked about. In a sentence,
nouns can be subjects (doing the action) or objects (receiving the action). How
they work in a sentence is explained in Unit 3.
Nouns are essentially the names of persons, places, things, animals, and ideas.
Concrete nouns refer to things you can touch (stone, chair, e~s), while abstract
nouns name emotions and qualities (love, truth, success). Proper nouns are spe-
cific names and are capitalized (Tom, vancouver, the Bible, Saskatchewan, Mr. Smith).
Collective nouns refer to a group of people and things; collective nouns are sin-
gular (staff, team, and herd). Compound nouns are two words that are used together
as a unit (girlfriend, bookcase, boom box, lunch break, slip-knot, mini-bar). The unit may be
written as two separate words, hyphenated words, or one word.
Countable nouns have two forms of the word-singular (one) or plural
(more than one). For most nouns, an -.I is added to the singular to make the plural
form (book/books, holiday/holidays). Nouns that end in an -.I sound (using one of
these: -.I, -sh, -ch, or -x) are spelled with an -es plural ending (box/boxes, bus/buses,
wish/wishes). Nouns that end in -y preceded by a consonant have an -Ies plural
ending (story/stories, spy/spies). Uncountable nouns (such as iniormation.fumiture,
advice) are not made plural.
Many nouns have irregular plurals. Some involve a change of letter (b1ife /
knives) or an added letter (potato/potatoes). Some do not have a different plural form
(e.g., deer, moose), while others are plural with no singular forms (scissors, jeans). A
few words from Latin and Greek have plural forms that follow the form of their
original language (criterion / criteria, phenomenon /phenomena, analysis / analyses). Some
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 2S

common words have plurals that students often write incorrectly (man/men, woman/
women, child/children).
If you are not sure of the plural form of a noun, look up the singular form
in the dictionary. Any irregular plurals or plurals that have spelling changes (like y
to i) will be listed in the main entry for the noun; otherwise, the plural is a regular
-s ending.
Common noun endings Examples
-age breakage, marriage, mileage
-ance, -ence alliance, difference, silence
-er, -or actor, escalator, inventor, teacher
-dom freedom, kingdom, wisdom
-hood knighthood, neighbourhood
-IS111 feminism, heroism, plagiarism, realism
-ist artist, cyclist, finalist, racist, typist
-ity capability, fatality, morality
-ment document, enjoyment, entertainment
-ness goodness, happiness, sadness
-ship friendship, kinship
-sion, -tion celebration, fusion, nation, permission

Verbs
Verbs are words that describe actions (jump, swim, break) or states (be, seem, si/;?nify).
They are crucial to a sentence. This section introduces verbs as vocabulary items.
Verb tenses, forms, and uses are explained in Unit 3 as part of sentence structure.
Common errors made with verb forms and tenses are discussed in Unit 7, page 215.
When we talk about a verb or look it up in a dictionary, we use the base
form, the simplest form of verb, the one without any endings (for example, wait,
listen,fee0. With a to in front of this base form, we have the infinitive form, also
considered a fundamental form (for example, to sleep, to answer). We often give the
infinitive when we talk about verbs because that clearly identifies the word as
a verb.
English has fewer verb endings than other European languages do. An -s end-
ing is used to denote the third-person singular in the simple present tense (he walks,
she lauchs, it makes). For regular verbs, an -ed ending makes the simple past form (he
walked). It also makes the past participle, which is used with have for present tenses
(he has walked). An -in/;? ending is used to make the form used in continuous tenses
(he is walking, she is readinp).
In English, the most common verbs are irregular in their formation. Instead
of just adding an -ed ending to the base form to make the simple past form and
the past participle, you may have verb forms with vowel changes. If you look up
an irregular verb in the dictionary, the entry is the base form of the verb, and the
simple past and the past participle are listed. If the dictionary does not give the past
form and the past participle, you can assume that the verb is regular (that both past
forms are made by adding an -ed ending to the base form).
26 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Principal parts of the verb

Base form Simple past Past participle

Regular verbs: talk talked talked

exist existed existed

Irregular verbs: sing sang sung

take took taken

run ran run

think thought thought

swim swam swum

make made made

go went gone

For almost every verb, knowing these three principal forms will allow you to
make all the tenses and structures you need. For instance, the base form is the same
as the simple present tense, and you use that form to add the -s ending for the third
person (he sings) and to make the -ing form (singing). Of course, as with all endings,
some spelling rules may apply-such as dropping the silent e before adding the
ending (making, dating).
The two most common verbs have even more irregular forms:
to be: being, am, is, are, was, were, been
to have: having, has, had

One tricky part about verbs is that some verb forms can act as other parts of
speech. The -ing form can also work as a noun (called a gerund) or as an adjective
(called a participle).
For example:

She is sleeping right now. verb-present continuous tense

Sleeping is the best way to spend gerund, acting as the subject

Sunday morning.

The sleeping children looked angelic. present participle, acting as an

adjective describing the children

The past participle can also function as an adjective.

The elected officials were sworn in on past participle, acting as an adjective

Friday. describing the officials

t
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 27

The difference between the two participles is that the present participle is
active (doing the action), while the past participle is passive (receiving the action).
See pages 54-56 in Unit 3 for more on the passive.

The woman wearing the crown isthe queen. active participle

That crown is worn on state occasions. passive participle

He found the explanation confusing. active participle

He was confused by the explanation. passive participle

Sometimes a verb is derived from another part of speech (as personalize is

derived from the adjective personal). You can identity verbs by certain beginnings
(prefixes) and endings (suffixes).

Word endings and beginnings that can identify verbs

Prefixes Suffixes Examples

------
be- bejewel, belittle, bewitch
---

en- enable, endanger, enjoy, enlarge

0 _ _ -"-

in-, im- inflame, impassion, impri son

-en blacken, lighten, soften, t oughen

-ate activate, discriminate, mo tivate

.-

-fy, -ify identify, modify, notify, signify

-ize, -ise exercise, idealize, maximi ze, realize

. _._-- 0 _ _ _ - ••

Note that British spelling tends to use -ise (o~,<anise, penalise) whereas North
American spelling favours -ize (organize, penalize).

Adjectives
Essentially, adjectives describe nouns. They usually appear before the noun m
English, as in these examples:
brown dress,tall man, close escape, unparalleled beauty, questionable
actions
They also appear after the verb to be and other verbs that describe the state of
something:
Working in this classroom is difficult. The air feels stuffy. The noise is
annoying.
In many European languages, adjectives have endings to agree with the verb
they modify, but English has no plural adjective forms. The only endings used on
English adjectives are -er for comparative forms and -est for superlative forms.
 pi

28 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

Moreover, these endings are only used on short adjectives (one or two syllable
words). (More and most are used in front oflonger adjectives.)
short, shorter, shortest
pretty, prettier, prettiest
long, longer, longest
expensive, more expensive, most expensive
The use of these adjectives is explained in Adding Modifiers (Unit 3, pages 71-73).

Common adjective endings

Suffix Meaning Examples

-- ..-

-able, -ible able to, suitable acceptable, capable, flexible

for
1 - - - - - - - - .-- -~

-en made of golden, wooden

-_...- --"_.

-ful full of beautiful, grateful, powerful

-,-

-ic, -ical relating to classical, comic, musical, public

1-- -- - --

-ive tending to descriptive, sensitive

--
-less without careless, worthless

-ous, -ose quality, state mountainous, poisonous, verbose

- - ---

-y having, being like funny, sunny, hairy

---- "

Adverbs
Adverbs explain how, when, or where something is done. There are two main kinds
of adverbs. Some are function words (now, there, yesterday), and there is a finite list of
them. As function words, they are not a part of vocabulary learning. The other kind
of adverbs are content words; they are derived from adjectives.
Most adverbs are formed from an adjective by the addition of an -ly ending
(car~fully, quickly, realistically, slowly). If the adjective ends in -able, the adverb form is
made by changing the final e to y (reliable/reliably).
Note that there are a few adjectives that end in -ly (such as friendly, lonely,
miserly); these do not have an adverb form.
The use of adverbs is explained in Adding Modifiers (Unit 3, pages 71-73).

Many students find it difficult to identity the part of speech even for words they
know and use every day. Even if they struggle with the terminology, they should
have a word sense that allows them to separate nouns from verbs. Students who
have had some grammar instruction and who have learned other languages are

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 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 29

usually more successful at classifying words. It is worthwhile to learn the major

word classes because this fundamental knowledge will make both vocabulary learn-
ing and sentence construction easier.
The previous sections have explained the four main word classes of content
words-what nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs essentially are. Each also has a list
of common suffixes, but this list is not foolproof. For instance, -en is both an adjec-
tive suffix and a verb suffix.
Another complication in English is the flexibility in the part of speech cat-
egories. We can use nouns as adjectives and make nouns verbs and verbs nouns. For
instance, the popularity of social media has led to the formation of new words and
new uses of old words. We now accept as verbs the words friend and unfriend (even
though we already had a verb form of friend-bifriend'). Similarly, the verb like has
become a countable noun, as in "it got 300 likes."
To figure out its part of speech, it is easier to think of the word in relation to
other words. For instance, nouns often follow articles like the and a. If you are not
sure whether a word is a verb, say it with to and see if it makes sense as an infinitive.
For example, "to discuss" makes sense whereas "to discussion" does not, so discuss is
the verb.
Here are some simple sentence patterns that can help you:
The NOUN was gone.
It is a NOUN.
He wants to VERB.
It is ADJECTIVE.
They did it ADVERB.

With the word family successlsucceedlsuccesifullsuccesifully, we can see how each word
would fit in the blanks to reveal its part of speech:
The success was gone.
It is a success.
He wants to succeed.
It is successful.
They did it successfully.

Note that the first sentence does not work as well for the meaning, but the struc-
ture can still help you to identity the noun of the group of words.

Exercise 2.1

Decide which type of word goes in each blank-a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb.
(There will be only one word per blank.) After you have labelled each blank
underneath, fill in appropriate words to fit the sentence:

1. A book lay on the , next to the black _

2. The student his homework. He went back to his _

to get it.
30 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

3. The child ~ went back to her _

4. His job was . He wanted to ~ _

5. He said that ~ is a _

Exercise 2.2
In each grouping, find the word that is not the same part of speech as the other
three:

1. a) walk b) slow c) run d) hike

2. a) stare b) glance c) look d) watchfully

3. a) gossip b) chatty c) talkative d) communicative

4. a) friendly b) nicely c) lovely d) lively

5. a) difficulty b) confusing c) dilemma d) complication

6. a) observant b) attention c) watchful d) alert

7. a) oppose b) resist c) contradict d) antagonism

8. a) emotion b) feeling c) excitement d) sentimental

9. a) advantage b) gain c) achieve d) acquire

10. a) quiet b) peaceful c) relax d) tranquil

.. • •
Many words can be divided into identifiable parts. The main part of the word is
the root, also referred to as the "combining form." A group of letters attached to
the beginning of the word is called a prefix. Prefixes include letter combinations
such as in- and un- that make words negative. Suffixes are letter combinations that
are attached to the end of the word. Suffixes such as -hood and -ly show the part of
speech of the word. (Many of them have already been introduced in this unit on
pages 25,27, and 28.) Word endings can also show plurals, possessives, and verb end-
ings (-s, -ed, -inJ?). The word affix is used to refer to both prefixes and suffixes.
Many roots and affixes come from Greek and Latin. For instance, the word
multilingual is an adjective that can refer to someone who speaks several languages.
It comes from the Latin words for many (multi-) and tongue (linJ?ua) and has the
adjective ending -al. Similarly, polyglot is a noun referring to someone who speaks
several languages, but it is based on Greek words: poly (many) and J?lotta (tongue).
Prefixes and suffixes are often given as separate entries in the dictionary. For
example, you can look up ante- and learn that it means bifore, as in anteroom, and that
it is not the same prefix as anti-, which means against.
Another type of word formation is shown in compound nouns, like keyboard,
toothpick, season pass, and mother-in-law. They may be written as one word, hyphen-
ated, or as two words. Check your dictionary if you are not sure which way to

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 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 31

write the word. Often, more than one way is accepted. Sometimes there is a gradual
change over time as the word gets more accepted. For instance, website started out as
two words and is now commonly written as one. Compound adjectives (such as
accident-prone) are usually hyphenated.
Examining the parts of a word can often help you to figure out what unfamil-
iar new words mean. However, this is complicated by the fact that there are so many
affixes and roots to learn-many with the same function and meaning. Moreover, it
can be difficult to ascertain whether a letter combination is actually a prefix or just
the start of the word. For example, in is a negative prefix in inactive but not in interest.
Although word dissection can be a great help in identifying meaning, it can
also sometimes be misleading. There are many inconsistencies. For example, impos-
sible is the opposite of possible, but impertinent is not the opposite of pertinent. If you
are not familiar with the word slaughter, you could be tempted to divide the word
manslaughter as mans-laughter.
Learn some word formation patterns, but keep your eye out for words that do
not make sense.

Negative Prefixes and Suffixes

A number of negative prefixes change words to the opposite meaning. They are
mostly used with adjectives and sometimes verbs. The most common negative pre-
fix is un-: unclean, unaware, uncommon, undo, unlock.
Another common prefix is in-, but it is trickier because it undergoes spelling
changes and has two meanings. The negative prefix i'1- (as in inactive) can also be
spelled il-, im-, and ir-: illocical, impossible, and irregular. It depends on the next sound.
Impossible is easier to say than "inpossible" would be. Also, sometimes in- is not a
negative; it simply means "in," as in inhale, input, and indent.
The prefixes dis-, mis-, mal-, and non- also commonly make negatives: dishonest,
misunderstand, malformed, nonconformist.
The suffix -less shows a lack of something: careless, soulless, worthless. Some of
these words have an opposite formed with -:lui icarejul, soulful-but not wortliful.)
(Note that the word full is spelled with two l's but the suffix only has one I.)
In English, some full words (bad, evil, ill, wrmljt) are used to make hyphenated
compound words that are negative: bad-tempered, evil-doer, ill-advised, wrong-headed.

Exercise 2.3

Use prefixes or suffixes to make the negative forms of these words:

able, appetizing, behave, competent, continue, finite, interesting, literate,

manage, nourished, readable, relevant, sufficient, visible, wise

Common Prefixes
Some prefixes refer to a numeric quantity: uni- (unicycle), mono- (monogamy), bi-
(bilingual), tri- (triangle), dec- (decathlon), cent- (centennial).
Some prefixes refer to size: mini- (minimum), maxi- (maximize), ultra- (ultrasound).
 r
32 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Some prefixes have the same meaning as prepositions, as this chart shows:

Prefix Meaning Example

co- with co-worker

ex- out exit

inter- between intermix

sub- below submarine

syn- with synchronize

trans- across transportation

Here are some other useful prefixes:

cyber- computer cybercrime
neo- new nee-Nazi
re- agam renegotiate, renew

Exercise 2.4

Identify prefixes and suffixes in the words below. Give the part of speech and the
meaning of the root word.

unforgettable inedible

information premarital

irrecoverable malfunction

breakage bilingual

underestimated substandard

Words that have different prefixes and suffixes but the same root and basic meaning
are said to belong to the same family.
Examples of word families:
success, succeed, successful, unsuccessful, successfully, unsuccessfully
development, developer, develop, developmental, developmentally
supervision, supervisor, supervise, supervisory
It is useful to know other words in the same family because:
• It increases your vocabulary.
• You can use the words for paraphrasing and for varying your wording in essays.
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 33

• You can determine the meaning ofless common words in the family by recog-
nizing the relationship.
• You can recognize patterns that can be helpful for spelling or meaning.
Word families are not usually highlighted in the dictionary. You have to look
at neighbouring entries to determine other words in the family. Be sure to check
the meanings to see if the words are actually related. For instance, organ, organism,
organize, and organza all start with the same letters and may have similar origins, but
the words have very different meanings and so would not be put in the same word
family. For negative prefixes, take a guess-for example, whether it is imfficient or
unqficient-and look for the word in the dictionary.

Exercise 2.5

Complete the word families in this chart (the first is completed for you as an
example):

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

richness enrich rich richly

riches

advice

believable
unbelievable

bright

clear

endanger

identification

imaginatively

prove

recognizable

soft

Exercise 2.6

Use words from the chart to fill in the blanks in the following sentences:

1. Security was tight. Everyone had to show to enter

the hall.
 p

34 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

2. Her job is to ~~~ ~~~~~~ students on their course selection.

3. He had changed so much that she didn't ~~~~~~~~him.

4. He walked ~~~~~~~_ close to the edge of the cliff.

5. The~~~~~~~~_ofthe light bothered him.

6. The most important quality of good writing is ~~~~~~~~_
7. When you read a book, you see the characters and setting in your

8. Iwould never have imagined that. Her performance was

~~~~~~~~_ bad.
9. She had to provide ~~~~~~~~~ of her identity.
10. It made a big difference when the screen was ~~~~~~~~_. We

could see more ~~~~~~~~~

Using Different Members of the Word Family

Note the changes in sentence structure that are required when you use a different
part of speech:
He worried that the whales would become extinct. [adj]
He worried about the possible extinction of the whales. [n]
There was no agreement among the committee members. [n]
The committee members did not agree. [v]
The explosion made Eric deaf. Iadj]
The explosion deafened Eric. lvl
Using different parts of speech can help you to vary your expression and sen-
tence structure and make your sentences more concise. For example, given the
writing topic "What is the key to success in college?" students often repeat the
same phrase "the key to success" throughout the essay. One step to varying the
wording is to choose a different "family member" for your sentences. Note the
sentence variety below:
Attendance is the key to success. [n]
Students must attend class to be successful. [adj]
Students who attend class succeed. lvl
You can see more on this subject in the section on Paraphrasing in Unit 8 (pages
240-43).
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 35

Exercise 2.7

Rewrite the following sentences by changing the underlined word to another word
in the same family, as in the examples above.

1. The puppy has so much curiosity that it gets into everything.

2. One student from each class was a participant in the project.
3. I liked that the material was soft.
4. Elizabeth enjoys being solitary.
5. They tried to hide that they were disappointed with the results.
6. Jason only felt more confusion when the teacher explained it again.
7. When all the guests arrived, Tracey made the introductions.
8. There was no verification for the story.
9. When the bomb went off, there was chaos in the city.
10. The committee is waiting for the president's arrival.

Word meaning should never be considered a straightforward equation-that this

word equals that meaning. As in any language, one word can have a range of mean-
ings or several different meanings. The word jerk, for example, can describe a tug on
a rope, a type ofJamaican chicken dish, or a person whom no one likes. It is clear
which meaning is meant by the context.
Synonyms are words that have similar meanings, while antonyms are words
that have opposite meanings. However, it is important to remember that synonyms
are not interchangeable. There may be slight differences of meaning and usage. For
instance, you can tell someone to concentrate or focus on an assignment; the two
words are synonyms in this context. However, concentrate is also used in chemistry to
talk about concentrations in solutions, and focus is used for cameras; in those cases,
the two words are no longer interchangeable.
Thesauruses (dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms) are useful tools for
reminding writers of other possible word choices. Thesauruses are available in book
form, online, and even within many word processing programs. However, you
should not just blindly choose a synonym from a thesaurus. First make sure you
know how the word is used and whether it applies to that context.
Words may have both a literal meaning and a figurative meaning. For
example, the word lion literally refers to an African animal, but it could mean a
leader, as in the phrase "a lion among men." Such metaphorical meanings are com-
mon in written language and are often difficult for students to understand if the
reference is not clear to them. As in all vocabulary learning, reading also helps you
to learn figurative meanings.
36 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 2.8
Replace the underlined words or expressions with other words or expressions that
have similar meanings. Try coming up with a synonym yourself, but use a thesaurus
if you get stuck. You might have to adjust the sentence structure by, for example,
adding prepositions with verbs.
1. He made a rookie error by expecting his ~tClff to ~Qr:r:e~t the problem on
their own.
2. Newspaper articles are constantly warllJr:!g readers about some health
hazard of common foods. It is not surprising that people become skepticill
after a while.
3. The stranger's act of kindness astonished the~, who was accustomed
to abuse.

It is not enough to know the meaning of a word (its denotation); you must know
its connotation-the emotional impact it makes. Essentially, words have a positive
or negative connotation. For instance, a person is complimented when he is called
brave but insulted when he is called reckless even though the words mean essentially
the same. A real estate agent will refer to a house as a home to highlight the positive
connotation. There is also the strength of the emotional content. For example, the
verb murder is much stronger than the verb kill.
The term euphemism refers to a nicer, more polite way of saying something.
It is a word or expression that has a less negative connotation. For instance, some-
one might say,"my grandmother passed away" instead of "my grandmother died."
Instead of asking, "Where is the toilet?" people use a number of different words and
expressions, such as "the ladies' room" or "the facilities."
Words have a lot of power and must be used carefully. Make sure you under-
stand the connotation of the words you use in your writing. As you expand your
vocabulary, pay attention to the connotation of the new words and expressions.

Activity
With a partner, consider the connotation of the following groups of words. Do they
have the same meaning? Which are positive, and which are negative? Which are
stronger?
1. arrogant, confident, bossy, aggressive, argumentative, fearless, self-reliant

2. thrifty, stingy, economical, prudent, miser, Scrooge, cheap, careful

with money

3. secretive, sneaky, uncommunicative, close-mouthed, guarded, trustworthy

4. slender, thin, slim, anorexic.skinny, scrawny, emaciated, svelte, underweight

b
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 37

An idiom is an expression in which the figurative meaning is different from the

literal meaning. Fiourativc means that the whole expression gives a picture that is
different from the meaning of the individual words (the word literal is related to the
word leiter; think of it as letter by letter or word by word). For example, the idiom
let the cat out of the ba,1? does not literally refer to a cat and a bag; it means reveal a
secret. To kick the bucket means to die; this idiom has led to the expression bucket list
(a personal list of things someone wants to do before he or she dies).
Idioms are generally more conversational in style. For example, "Same-sex
marriage is a political hot potato" is more informal than "Same-sex marriage is a
controversial issue."You can use some idioms in formal, academic essays, but select
them carefully and use them judiciously. If there is another, more standard way
to express the same meaning, use that if you want to be more formal. The more
idiomatic language you use, the more conversational your writing becomes. This is
not always appropriate in academic essays.
Idioms are generally explained in dictionaries. It's important to be able to
identify a phrase as an idiom. You can find it in the dictionary under the main
words (usually nouns or verbs). For instance, the idiom it went in one ear and out the
other is probably in your dictionary under the word car.

Activity
With a partner, discuss the following idioms. Do you know what each one means?
Do you both agree on the meaning? Look up the idioms in your dictionary.

to jump the gun

to be caught red-handed

the black sheep of the family

a piece of cake

in hot water

to keep tabs on someone

Activity
In small groups, make a list of 10 idioms that you know. Compare it to the other
groups' lists, looking for common ones. Which ones would be most useful for stu-
dents to learn?

Jargon is technical language, such as medical terminology, legalese, and computer

terms. The word jaroon often has a negative connotation because it is extended to
mean wording that is not clear. Writers are often told to avoid jargon, but it actually
38 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

depends on the audience. If the intended readers or listeners have the right back-
ground to understand the technical language, then jargon is not only appropriate,
it is necessary. It allows professionals within that group to communicate effectively
.and concisely with each other. For example, a doctor can tell another doctor that a
patient has a subcutaneous haematoma but would tell the patient that it is a lump.
Jargon is not always easy to identify. It can include simple, everyday words that
have a more specific meaning in a technical field, such as cookies in computer ter-
minology. Some words start out as jargon and move into common usage. Computer
terms like input and output are now used for non-computer purposes.
Acronyms (like AIDS and NIMBY), initialisms (like CD and USA), and other
short forms are also common in jargon. (Acronyms are pronounced as words, while
initialisms are pronounced as individual letters.) If you must use such an abbrevi-
ation, use the long form first, give the abbreviation in brackets after it, and then
continue by using the abbreviation. (Note that most people just refer to all abbrevi-
ations that consist of initial letters as "acronyms.")
Avoid using jargon if your audience would not understand the words. If it
would be easier to explain your points with the jargon, make sure you explain it for
your readers first.

Activity
Identify the fields these groups of words come from:
1. IV, contusion, ICU, carcinoma, septicemia

2. plaintiff, subpoena, writ, affidavit, pro bono

3. boot, blog, mouseover, CPU, data compression

4. escrow, tenancy in common, lien, title search

5. vehicle trespass, B&E, complaint, disorderly conduct

•• • •• ••
Some words and expressions are not suitable for academic essays and other formal
writing. Academic style is explained in Unit 1.
Colloquialisms are informal, conversational words and expressions.
Dictionary entries may label these words as informal. The word kid, for example,
is not suitable for more formal speaking or writing situations. It would be more
appropriate to use children instead of kids.
Slang is a type of language, common in casual speech, that is generally char-
acteristic of a specific group (such as teenagers or rap musicians) and sounds odd
when used by non-members. For example, middle-aged parents are ridiculed when
they try to sound like their teenaged children: "Yo, bro, 'sup?"
In addition, slang changes over time-it is like fashion. In the 1920s, young
people would have called something really good the eat's pyjamas or the bee's knees. In
the 1950s, they would have described it as neato or swell, then groovy in the sixties.
At the end of the twentieth century, teens used awesome and words like bad, sick, and
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 39

wicked to describe something that was in fact very good. Slang also varies region-
ally:A British teenager is more likely to say, "Brilliant!" whereas a Canadian might
say, "Sweet!"
Obscenity is another kind of language that is more common in spoken
language than in written. Again, attitudes have changed. In 1939, audiences were
shocked when Rhett Butler said to Scarlett O'Hara, "Frankly, my dear, I don't give
a damn" in the film Gone with the Wind. Today, movies and even television shows
are filled with profanity. Newspapers often do not print obscene words; if they have
to quote someone who used a swear word, they print only some of the word (for
example, "f***"). Note, however, that even swear words that do appear in print are
not usually appropriate for academic writing.
Overly formal language is also not appropriate in your writing. A real estate
agent talking about the purveyance of a domicile instead of the sale of a house would
confuse and put off most clients. Remember that the primary purpose of writing is
to give information clearly and concisely to the intended audience. Write to com-
municate, not to impress.

Activity
In small groups, make a list of current slang expressions that would be inappropriate
in an essay, and choose some replacement words or expressions.

Dealing with Unfamiliar Words '": :~:;~\1:·,'·1

" "l.~' ,

As you read, you will come across unfamiliar words. If you stopped to look each
one up in the dictionary, reading would become tedious. It is faster to try to guess
the meaning from the context when possible. If you understand the gist of what
is being said, you can keep reading. If you think the word is vital, look it up. How
you read also depends on the material and the purpose. If you need to know the
material well for your studies, look up the new vocabulary. (See Unit 8 for more on
dealing with different types of reading.)
Readers learn words by seeing them many times and gradually working out
the meaning in their own minds. They use their knowledge of the language and of
the world to help them. The more they read, the more words they learn. And the
more they encounter the words, the more complete their word knowledge becomes.
For example, they will learn about different meanings and uses the words have.

Figuring out Meaning

Looking around the Word
Here are some examples of how context can help you understand words:
As we passed the rotting garbage, we tried covering our noses to keep out
the vile stench.

If you do not know what the words vile and stench mean, you can figure out from
this sentence that they refer to the awful smell of the garbage. And, in fact, vile
means "terrible, really bad," and stench means "bad smell."
40 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

When his father asked, "And where do you think you're going?" the teenager
looked back at him sullenly.

Sullenly is an adverb, describing the way the teenager looked at his father. The father
is challenging his son, so chances are that the son is not too happy. From what you
know about the relationship between teenagers and their parents, you can guess
that it is not a pleasant expression on his face. The adjective sullen means "resentful,
unsociable, and sulky."

Looking inside the Word

Besides looking around the word to the context to figure out its meaning, you can
look inside the word. You can look for familiar prefixes, suffixes, and roots, as in
these examples:

indeterminate
This word has an in- prefix, which is probably negative. The root determine
is recognizable as the verb meaning "to find out the facts about something,"
and the -ate ending is an adjective ending, so indeterminate means "impos-
sible to know exactly."

naysayer [used in "A Global Warming Deal to Do Nothing Still Possible,"

page 15]
has three parts: nay (meaning "no"), say, and -er (a suffix showing someone
who does something), so a naysayer is someone who says no.

When you come across an unfamiliar word, keep reading and see whether the
meaning of the sentence is clear enough. Use context clues and your knowledge of
language to help you figure out the word. Go to the dictionary when you need to.
When you do the Definitions exercises for the reading selections in Part 2, try
to use context clues to match the words with the definitions.

Exercise 2.9
Use context clues and word form to help you figure out the meaning of the
underlined words:
1. It was serendipity that I came across that article. I wasn't even thinking of
my research project when I found it, but it has just what I need.
2. They were at loggerheads over the proposal. In the end, they couldn't work
together and had to submit separate proposals.
3. The leather sofa was comfortable, but it was cumbersome every time he had
to move.
4. They were surprised at his decision to donate the proceeds of the sale
because altruism had never been one of his qualities.
5. Simplified novels are abridged versions of the books that also have changes
in vocabulary and sentence structure to make them easier to read.

h
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 41

6. I am famished. I only had a cup of yogurt for lunch.

7. I love to watch professional soccer because the players have such speed
and~.

8. Ever since I started taking that medication, I feel so listless that I don't get
enough of my work done.
9. She presented some cogent arguments and managed to get the opposition
to back her plan.
10. Unlike his shy sisters, he is very gregarious and makes friends easily.

Some words go together, and some do not. The word collocation (made from co, for
"with," and location) refers to words that tend to be together in the same place-in
other words, probable word combinations. For example, say, speak, talk, and tell have
the same basic meaning but collocate with different words. We can "tell a secret"
but not "speak a secret."We "speak a language" but "say a word." We "talk tough"
but "tell the truth."We "say thank you" but "talk over a problem."
Collocation can include adjectives that go with nouns (antique furniture but
not ancientfurniturei, verbs that go with nouns (to oIfer advice but not to award advice),
prepositions or particles that complete verbs (to depend on someone but not to depend
for someone), and noun combinations (time management but not price manayementi.
Not only do the words go together, they often go together in a specific order.
It would sound odd to hear "a matter of death and life," "through thin and thick"
or "cold and hot."
Even if they have never explicitly learned about the concept of collocation,
native speakers of a language are likely to feel that certain words sound better
together than others. English language learners, however, often use improbable
combinations, especially if they translate from their native language or use a bilin-
gual dictionary that does not explain usage. Some dictionaries list collocations in
their word entries, and the Oxford Collocations Dictionaryfor Students of English spe-
cializes in this feature of English.
To learn collocations, pay attention to how specific words are used, and look
for common word combinations. It is important to get a sense of which words
sound right together. The Language Study notes for the reading selections in this
book contain a list of expressions and collocations in order to draw your attention
to them. You can practise correcting collocation errors in Exercise 7.3.

Exercise 2.10

In the following list of verb + noun combinations, cross out the unlikely ones,
leaving the collocations:

Example: take a course, study a course, I flake a course, pass a course

1. take a test, work a test, follow a test run a test

 42 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

2. ask a request, make a request, want a request, grant a request

3. conduct research, make research, carry out research
4. drop a hint, take a hint, see a hint, have a hint, give a hint
5. get experience, make experience, lack experience, acquire experience
6. run up a debt, make a debt, settle a debt, take a debt
7. do a method, adopt a method, work a method, follow a method
8. follow a reason, give a reason, take a reason, hold a reason
9. show a risk, follow a risk, run a risk, make a risk, take a risk
10. gain support, take support, run support, provide support

Exercise 2.11

From each list of adjectives, choose the ones that collocate with the noun. You are
looking for adjectives that often describe the noun. For example, the adjectives
lengthy and unavoidable could be used to describe the noun delay, but the
adjectives heavy and accidental would not be likely collocations. There may be
more than one good choice in the list.

Adjectives Noun

light, pale, thin, weak tea

alarming, dangerous, hazardous, nasty material

accurate, careful, close, dense examination

bad, firm, good, nasty, ugly rumour

momentary, slight, stopping hesitation

gainful, reasonable, seasonal, trustworthy employment

broken, faulty, healthy, sound reasoning

As you study vocabulary, you may wonder why English is such a crazy language-it
has a huge vocabulary, with many words meaning almost the same thing, and the
spelling and pronunciation can be chaotic. Most of the characteristics of English
are explained by its history. Essentially, English is a mix of languages-like a stew
of different ingredients. As different peoples invaded and settled in England, their
languages affected English. For instance, many synonyms have come from other
languages. In addition, the evolution of the language has caused divergence between
spoken and written forms.
The capsule history below gives you an idea of some of the forces that have
influenced English. If you are interested in learning more, you can search online for

___- - -- L__
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 43

the history of the English language or read a book like The History if the Enf{lish
Language by BrigitViney (Oxford University Press).

A Capsule History of English

• English is a Germanic language that came to Britain from Europe 1500 years
ago (after the Romans left), displacing the old Celtic language. Old English
from this period is called Anglo-Saxon.
• Soon afterwards, Christian missionaries brought the Roman alphabet to
Britain. They also caused church vocabulary to enter the English language from
Latin.
• The Viking raiders in the sixth and seventh centuries settled in the east of
England. Common English words that originated in the Vikings' Norse lan-
guage include skin and thing.
• Then in 1066, the invasion by William the Conqueror brought Norman French
to England. For two centuries, the nobility spoke French, while the common
people spoke English. While the use of French gradually died out, the language
left its mark on the vocabulary of English, practically doubling its size, leaving
English/French pairs of synonyms like help/aid, ask/demand, weddine/marriaoe,
and p(e/pork.
• The printing press in the fifteenth century led to the standardization of spelling
just as the sounds of the language were shifting, so spelling did not reflect the
actual pronunciation.
• The advances of science and technology required new words, and European
scientists and inventors looked to Latin and Greek to make new words like tele-
vision, microscope, and psychology.
• The British Empire spread English all over the globe, and regional varieties
and accents developed. Some countries use English as an official language
instead of one of their native languages and make new varieties such as Singlish
(Singaporean English).
• English has become the world's most useful language. It is the most studied
second language and is often used as a medium of communication between
people who do not share a native language. It is the international language of
air traffic, business, and the media.
English is a flexible language, readily accepting words from other languages
and allowing words to change part of speech or meaning. It's a free-for-all with no
official institution trying to control the language (as there is in French). New words
are coined every day, and lexicographers (dictionary writers) can barely keep up
with the linguistic innovations.

New Words in English

Words enter the language every day. Many are coined by writers (including ad writ-
ers and songwriters). If the words catch on, they eventually enter the language. The
term MiJob (for a menial, low-paying job), for example, was coined by Canadian
writer Douglas Coupland, who also brought Generation X into English. Rap music
has created words like blinf{ and peeps.
44 PART 1: SKill DEVELOPMENT

Some words are blended (called portmanteau words):

brunch: breakfast + lunch
chillax: chill + relax
ginormous: gigantic + enormous
Some words are short forms:
to diss: disrespect
selfie: self-portrait photograph
Brand names become generic:
xerox machine: for any photocopier
to google: to look for information using a search engine on the Internet

Activity
In groups, make a list of five words that you think have entered the language in the
past 30 years. Research the origin of the words to see whether they are as new as
you think they are.

Activity
News organizations, dictionary publishers, and other institutions often choose a
"word of the year." Their choices may be neologisms (new words), existing words
that acquired new meanings, or words that were just very much in the public con-
sciousness that year. For example, the verb vape was chosen as 2014 Word of the Year
by Oxford Dictionaries.
In an online search, find out what words were featured as a Word of the Year
for last year. Which is your favourite? Explain why.
Choose a year in the past, perhaps 10 years ago, and find out which words
featured as a Word of the Year. How have these words fared since then? Are they
established in the English language, or have they died out?

Dictionaries are extremely powerful tools for learning vocabulary. The information
given extends beyond definitions; it includes the part of speech, pronunciation,
different forms of the word, and even the etymology (the word's history-where it
comes from).You can check the different meanings, the spelling, and the usage of a
word you want to write.
Dictionaries speed up the vocabulary learning process. You can learn a new
word without consulting a dictionary, but you need to read it or hear it many times
to learn the meaning from the context. A dictionary provides the information you
need to understand the word and know how to use it.
Many different kinds of dictionaries are available. Second-language learners
often use bilingual dictionaries, which translate words to and from their native
language. While these dictionaries are good for lower levels, advanced students
are usually encouraged to use monolingual (one language) dictionaries because
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 4S
I
" I

translation is a different process from using the language. Dictionaries for lan- II
guage learners, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, guide students in
how to use the words with example sentences and lists of collocations-they are
useful for anyone who wants to increase their word knowledge. A thesaurus is a
dictionary of synonyms and antonyms. It does not replace a regular dictionary, but
it is useful as a secondary reference book-to remind users of words they know.
Students today are likely to use electronic dictionaries in the form of
online dictionaries, phone apps, or dedicated devices. As with any dictionary, they
can vary widely in quality. It is important to watch out for false information online,
especially on wiki sites (those written by contributors). For instance, some students
doing research came back with the plural of moose as meese because of a deliberately
false entry in urbandictionary.com.
Print-form dictionaries are far from dead, however. Many schools allow stu-
dents to use book dictionaries for tests and exams; electronic formats are prohibited
because there is no way to limit them to just a dictionary function. Bibliophiles
(look that word up if you don't know the meaning) love the look and feel of a
beautiful dictionary. Moreover, print dictionaries are often better for browsing: You
can flip through pages and come across words you may never have found otherwise.
Using electronic formats is like looking through a small window, whereas a book
offers you a view of the whole panorama.

How to buy a print-form dictionary

• Don't just pick the cheapest or smallest one. A dictionary is a good investment
-it will last you for years. Mini-dictionaries will not give as much information.
• Shop in your campus bookstore. It usually has selected the better books, and
there may be special deals.
• Ask your instructor for recommendations.
• 'Test drive" the dictionaries by looking up a few words. Look up the same
words in several dictionaries, and compare the entries. Look up common
words that may have many definitions (such as set and like) and more
academic words (enumerate, repatriate).
• Check for the clarity of the definition and how much information is given.
Look for a clear, legible typeface and a format that is easy to handle.
• Check the date of the dictionary to make sure it is a recent edition, not just
a reprint. Check for current slang (words like bling, qeek, and diss) to see
whether the dictionary is up-to-date.

One common question about dictionary use is how to find a word in a dictionary
if you do not know how to spell it. One technique is to concentrate on the beginning
of the word. Even electronic dictionaries that guess at your word work much better if
the first few letters are correct. Get to know possible letter combinations for sounds.
For instance an s sound could be spelled with an s, a c, an sc, or even a ps.
Students who use only electronic dictionary formats may have to learn how to
use a book dictionary. It takes practice.
46 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

What You Can Learn from a Dictionary Entry

This excerpt from the dictionary has four main entries: riot, riot gear, riotous, and
riotously:

riot j'ralat/ noun, verb

«noun 1 [C] a situation in which a group of people behave in
a violent way in a public place, often as a protest: One
prison guard was killed when a riot broke out in the jail. 0
food/race riots 2 [sing.]- of sth (formal) a collection of a
lot of different types of the same thing: The garden was a
riot of colour. 3 a riot [sing.] (old-fashioned, informal) a
person or an event that is very amusing and enjoyable
~ run 'riot 1 (of people) to behave in a way that is vio-
lent and/or not under control mn rampage: They let their
kids run riot. 2 if your imagination, a feeling, etc. runs
riot, you allow it to develop and continue without trying
to control it 3 (of plants) to grow and spread quickly
:) more at READ v.
• verb [I] (of a crowd of people) to behave in a violent way in
a public place, often as a protest ~ riot·ernoun: Rioters set
fire to parked cars. rioting noun [U]: Rioting broke out in
the capital.
'riot gear noun [U] the clothes and equipment used by the
police when they are dealing with riots
riot-ous /'ralatas/ ad}. [usually before noun] 1 (formal or
law) noisy and/or violent, especially in a public place: riot-
ous behaviour 0 The organizers of the march were charged
with assault and riotous assembly. 2 noisy, exciting and
enjoyable in an uncontrolled waymn uproarious: a riot-
ous party 0 riotous laughter
rlot-ouslv /'ralatasli/ adv. extremely: riotously funny

• The entry for the headword riot is subdivided into three sections: one for the
noun, one for the idiom run riot, and one for the verb.
» Noun: The noun riot is designated countable with a [C]. Two of its meanings
(2 and 3) are for its use in the singular-"a riot." Also, the first example sen-
tence shows you the phrase "a riot broke out," so you know that you can use
the phrasal verb break out with the word riot.
» Idiom: The first entry for the idiom run riot includes a synonym for it, ram-
page. The instruction "more at READ v." directs you to the entry for read,
where you can find another idiom to read somebody the riot act.
» Verb: This entry starts with the designation "I," which means that riot is an
intransitive verb. Note that it tells you that the verb is usually applied to the
behaviour of a crowd of people. The entry also gives two nouns, rioter and
rioting, which are derived from the verb.
• In a dictionary, often the adverb form is just given in the adjective entry, but if
it has a different meaning, the adverb gets its own entry. Therefore, riotously is
separate from riotous.

b
 UNIT 2: VOCABULARY SKILLS 47

Activity
In small groups, discuss these entries from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary,
8th edition. Oxford University Press, 2010. First, be sure you understand all the ter-
minology. If your group is not sure of something, ask your instructor. Then discuss
how useful the information is. For example, why do you need to know whether a
noun is countable or uncountable? How would this information help you to write a
grammatical sentence using the word riot?
If group members have different dictionaries in class, compare the entries for
riot. How do the dictionaries differ in the information they give and the way it is
presented? Which dictionary is the most useful? Why?

Although you will not have a chance to look up every unfamiliar word you come
across in your reading, it is a good idea to make a vocabulary list for any reading
you study in class.Write down any words your instructor specifically teaches. Look
up unfamiliar words in the dictionary. Write them in your notebook, along with a
definition and any other useful information (part of speech, irregular forms, usage
label-such as colloquialism, synonyms, collocations). Even if you do not go back
and memorize this information, the fact that you have gone to the effort of writing
it down means that you will remember it better. If you just look up a word in the
dictionary and continue with your reading, you will not retain it as well.

How to expand your vocabulary

• Read a lot to increase your exposure to words and how they are used.
• Read a variety of types of material (newspapers, books, websites), on different
topics, to widen the fields of words you encounter.
• Pay attention to the language when you read. Look out for new words.
• Try to guess the meaning of words from the context.
• Pay attention to how the words are used in a sentence and which words
accompany them.
• Use a dictionary to find out more about unfamiliar words.
• Keep a notebook for vocabulary you encounter. Notes can include grammar
and usage notes, such as the part of speech and the collocation. Write down
the phrase or sentence the word appeared in so that you can put it in context.
• Learn words in small groups. For example, if you use a dictionary to look
up the meaning of an unfamiliar word, check out the derivatives, collocates,
and any synonyms or antonyms given. Make sure you understand differences
in usage.
• Remember that the more you read, the more you will encounter the words,
and then you will get a clearer picture of their meaning and usage.
Sentence Writing Skills

Words are combined to make sentences, and sentences are combined to make para-
graphs. Sentences are the most important structure for meaning. They are the basic
units of grammar because the grammaticality of writing is determined by the cor-
rectness of the sentences.
Essentially, a sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period (or
question mark or exclamation mark). The reader must be able to tell where each
sentence begins and ends. When you are writing by hand, make sentence bound-
aries obvious with clearly formed capital letters and periods. Take care that sentences
in typed documents are also clearly delineated. It is essential that a sentence look
like a sentence.
This unit reviews the major parts of a sentence, starting with the core and
moving through the various elements-such as modifiers and clauses-that can be
added to the sentence. If you need more detail about specific grammatical rules of
English, consult guides such as the Oxford Practice Grammar. Problem areas in sen-
tence structure, such as run-ons and fragments, are dealt with in Unit 7, Editing and
Correcting Skills.

A Note about Grammar Terminology

To explain sentence structure, we must use technical labels for the word forms and
structures. Sometimes the terminology can vary, depending on which grammar
resource you consult. For example, the words progressive and continuous are both used
to label the same aspect of the verb. The technical explanations here have been kept
as simple as possible.
In this unit, many grammatical terms are in boldface when they are first intro-
duced and defined. (You can search for the first uses of the term in the index.)
Knowing the proper terminology is useful if you need to find out more about the
grammar point, but for the most part you can get by on just a few commonly used
words. For instance, you do not need to know the term copula verb to do the work
in this unit, but you do need to understand what a verb is. If the grammar term
is only mentioned once, you can assume it is not important to memorize, but if
the word is used frequently in the unit, you do need to know it. As with any new
vocabulary item, grammar terminology often becomes clear through context.
50 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

•• • •
A sentence needs a subject and a predicate to qualify as a grammatical sentence.
The subject is what you are talking about, and the predicate is what you are say-
ing about it. The subject is essentially a noun or a stand-in for a noun (such as a
pronoun or a noun clause) along with any determiners or modifiers. The predicate
is the verb along with objects, complements, determiners, and modifiers. (A com-
plement completes the verb; for instance, an adjective can complete the verb to be
in a sentence such as "He is tall.") In English sentences, the subject tends to come
before the verb.
Verbs often encompass more than one word because they can include auxil-
iary verbs (also called helping verbs). These auxiliaries are usually forms of the
verbs be, have, and do (which can also stand alone as main verbs). Modal auxilia-
ries (can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would) never stand alone;
they must be completed by a main verb. Phrasal verbs (such as get by and sleep in)
include one or two particles. These verb forms are explained in the next sections.
In the following examples, the bare subject (without determiners and
modifiers) is underlined once, and the verb (without objects and modifiers) is
underlined twice.
The children slept.
The sleeping children looked very peaceful.
The children in the next room woke up at the sound of the alarm.
The -
alarm
-- - the children.
woke
They were disturbed by the noise.
The horrible noise echoed throughout the house.
It was loud.
We-had
- - never heard that noise before.
!! may have been caused by the furnace.
The use of and can make a compound subject or a compound verb:
The children and their parents were invited to a special lunch.
They laughed and sang.
Kelly, Megan, and Annie were all considered for the promotion.
Identifying the verb first can make it easier to determine the subject. Although
English does have some reverse sentences, such as questions, the subject usually
appears before the verb. Remember that verbs are actions or states. The subject is
usually the person or thing doing the action. You can ask a "who/what question"
with the verb to find the subject. (In the example sentences, the subject is under-
lined once; the verb twice.)
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 51

For the sentence ... Consider ...

Eliza saved the drowning boy. Who saved the boy?

Eliza did, so Eliza is the subject.

Swing dancing is a lot of fun. What is a lot of fun?

Swing dancing is the subject.

Kate and I went to the dance together. Who went to the dance?
Kate and I is a compound subject-
two subjects joined by and.

Did the students understand the Who understood (or did not
assignment? understand) the assignment?
The students did (or did not).

Taking that course was a mistake. What was a mistake?

Takin,'S that course is a noun phrase
subject.

There were two raccoons in the tree. What was in the tree?
There is an adverb-it cannot be
the subject. This is a case where the
subject comes after the verb. Notice
that the verb were is plural because it
agrees with the noun raCCOOYIS and not
the word there.

A subject cannot be inside a prepositional phrase (see pages 74-75).

The students in the advanced class The word class is in the phrase starting
were allowed to join the field trip. with the preposition in, so class cannot
be the subject.

One of the students was late. One is the grammatical subject.

Unfortunately, the adorable little Puppies is the grammatical subject.

puppies in the window of the pet store
come from a notorious puppy mill.

Exercise 3.1

Identify the subjects and verbs in the following sentences:

1. Tina baked a pumpkin pie for Thanksgiving dinner.
2. The bird in the tree is a blue jay. Can you hear its distinctive call?
52 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

3. The chess pieces were scattered across the room. The boys were asked to
pick them up.
4. Tomorrow we can go to the museum. There is a new Egyptian exhibit that
I want to see.
5. There is a new student in the class.Her name is Maya.
6. Swimming is my favourite exercise. I find it very relaxing.
7. My cell phone was stolen in Paris even though I was very careful with it.
8. Each of the books was autographed by the author.

Verbs are categorized by tense and aspect. Tense refers to time, essentially past, pres-
ent, and future. The terms continuous and peifect refer to aspect: continuous (also called
progressive) denotes an ongoing action, while peifect refers to a completed action.
Tense and aspect are usually considered together when we categorize the verb
tenses of English:

to walk Present Past Future

Simple she walks she walked she will walk

Continuous she is walking she was walking she will be walking

Perfect she has walked she had walked she will have
walked

Perfect continuous she has been she had been she will have been
walking walking walking

Of these 12 tenses, half of them you will rarely use. The six most important tenses
to learn are the simple tenses, the present and past continuous, and the present
perfect.
Note the formation of these verbs. The simple present and simple past are
formed without any auxiliary verbs. The simple future uses will as an auxiliary. Note
that an -s ending is used in the third person singular (he, she, it) in the simple pres-
ent. Continuous forms are formed with the auxiliary verb to be and the -ing form
of the verb. Perfect verb forms are made with the auxiliary verb to have and the past
participle (which ends in -ed in regular verbs).
The basic uses of the tenses are explained below. Common errors in verb tense
use are explained in Unit 7, page 215.

Present
To express general facts, you use the simple present tense, as in the sentences on the
next page.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 53

The earth is round, and the sky is blue. facts

Astronomers study stars.

I walk to work every day. habit

Students often come late for early
morning classes.

To describe actions that are occurring now, use present continuous (also called
present progressive):

I am studying Japanese as a third activities that are currently going on

language.
She is waiting in the cafeteria.

To express past ideas that are relevant to the present, use the present perfect tense or
present perfect continuous:

Ellen has lived in Edmonton for She still lives in Edmonton.

six years. [If she doesn't live there now, you
would say "Ellen lived in Edmonton
for six years."]

Note this use of the present perfect:

Have you ever been to Paris? The present perfect is used because
the question does not specify a
time. It is referring to the person's
experience up to the present time.

The simple present tense is often used to tell a story. For example, we could
say, "Shakespeare tells the story of two star-crossed lovers in Romeo andJuliet" or "In
the 2012 movie, the Avengers fight aliens in New York City."This use of the present
tense is also heard in sports broadcasts, as in the famous line, "He shoots, he scores."

Past
Actions that happened in the past and are complete are described with the simple
past tense:

They opened the store three years ago, Simple past tense is used because a
but this was the first time they made a specific time period ("three years
profit. ago") is given.

Actions that took place over a period of time are expressed with the past continuous:
Naomi was cleaning up the mess when Cleaning up reflects a continuous
her supervisor walked in. action, while the verb walked in is in
the simple past because it is a definite
past action-not continuous.
54 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Actions that occurred before another past action are in the past perfect:

He had studied Arabic for several years Had studied is in the past perfect to
before he went to Egypt. show that it happened before he went
to Egypt.

The past perfect form is used less frequently today. People tend to use the simple
past for past actions, even if one happened beforehand:
After he washed the car, it rained.
However, in formal writing and for clarity, it is better to use the past perfect.

Future
The simple future (with wil0 can be used for most actions that will take place in the
future:
The band will take the bus to Halifax.

The present continuous and RoinR to also express future actions:

The band is taking the bus to Halifax.
The band is going to take the bus to Halifax.
The difference in meaning is slight, but the will form tends to be used with deci-
sions just made, whereas the other forms refer to already-decided-upon events.
Note that the simple present is sometimes used for future scheduled events,
often regular events:
The bus to Halifax leaves at nine.

•• • • •
As we have seen, English verbs often encompass more than one word. In addi-
tion to the main verb, auxiliary verbs and particles become part of the verb form.
Besides forming continuous verb tenses, the auxiliary verb be is also used to form
the passive voice. Modal verbs are another type of auxiliary. Multi-word verbs
include particles, prepositions, and adverbs. These verb formations are explained
below, followed by a review of the auxiliary verbs. Common verb form errors are
explored in Unit 7 on page 215.

Passive Voice
In an active sentence, the grammatical subject does the action of the verb, while in
the passive, the subject is acted upon. Only transitive verbs (verbs that require a dir-
ect object) can be used in the passive voice because the direct object becomes the
subject of the sentence in the passive.

b
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKillS 55

How to make a sentence passive

• Move the direct object before the verb, making it the subject of the verb.
• Usethe correct form of the auxiliary to be to keep the verb tense and subject-
verb agreement.
• Change the verb form to the past participle (the -ed form).
• Put the original subject in a by phrase if it is necessaryto the meaning of the
sentence.
• Delete the original subject if it is unnecessary.

Here's how it would work with this example sentence:

Anita painted the landscape.
[subject] [verb] [direct object]
1. Move the direct object (landscape) before the verb, making it the subject
of the verb.
2. Usethe correct form of the auxiliary to be (was) to keep the verb tense
and subject-verb agreement.
3. Change the verb form to the past participle (the -ed form) (painted).
4. Put the original subject (Anita) in a by phrase if it is necessary to the
meaning of the sentence.

Here's the sentence in the passive voice:

The landscape was painted by Anita.

Only use the passive voice when you want to emphasize the action itself rather than
who performed the action.

Here are examples of active and passive sentences:

Ivan opened the package. The first sentence is active-Ivan is

The package was opened by Ivan. the subject, doing the action, packaoe
is the direct object.
The second sentence is in the passive
voice; the auxiliary was shows the
past tense.

Someone spilled the wine. We do not know who did the action,
The wine was spilled. so it can be left out in the passive
voice.

They rewrote the report. In the passive voice, the focus is on

The report was rewritten. the report rather than who rewrote it.
 1] I
i
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56 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

For the passive voice, a form of the verb to be is used (is, am, are), and the main verb
is in the past participle form, which ends in -ed for regular verbs. There may also
be modal verbs in the structure (will be, would be, may be) or other verb forms (have
been, is being).
The show will be cancelled if it rains.
The painting could have been forged.
The documents were shredded accidentally.
The exhibit was seen by thousands of people.
The active voice is preferred because it is easier for readers to understand, but the
passive is useful when you want to de-emphasize who or what did the action. It is
therefore common in technical writing. For example, lab reports are often written
in the passive because it does not really matter who did the action.
The water was heated to the boiling point, and the solution was added.
The company was founded in 1845.
The parade was postponed because ofthe accident.
A general guideline is that if you need a" by phrase" to show the actor, the sentence
should probably be in the active voice.

Exercise 3.2

Determine whether the following sentences are active or passive.

1. She bought all her textbooks online.

2. The manager corrected the mistakes and reprimanded the staff.
3. The car bomb exploded, killing five.
4. The interview was scheduled for 11 :15.
5. His story was not believed by anyone.
6. The lawyer advised the client to stay quiet.
7. Finally, the winner was chosen.
8. I can't remember the last time we spoke.
9. Everyone enjoyed the concert.
10. The game was lost by a slim margin.

Go back over the sentences, and decide whether the voice can easily be switched.
If so, make active sentences passive and passive sentences active (you may have to
add an agent doing the action for some of the passive ones).

Modal Auxiliaries
Modals (can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, would) are used as
auxiliary verbs and do not stand alone. They can be tricky because each of them

h
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 57

can be used for more than one purpose-expressing the ideas of permission, ability,
necessity, or possibility. However, the verb forms themselves are simple; modal verbs
have only one form, and they must be followed by a main verb, which is always in
the base form (that is, with no endings).
Here are examples of the most common uses:

Can I borrow your pen? informal request

She cannot swim. ability

When Iwas younger, I could speak past ability

German fluently.

Could I please see you for a minute? formal requests

MayI have Friday off, please?

It may rain tomorrow. possibility

He might be able to help you.

Isent that package last week; it must strong probability

have arrived by now.

You must quit smoking. strong obligation, with speaker having

some authority

You ought to quit smoking. advice

You should read this article-it's really
interesting.

She should be back tomorrow. probability

Hewould go to the cafe every morning. regular action in the past

Would you please stop it? polite request

Phrasal Verbs
English has many two-word verbs and some three-word verbs, commonly referred
to as phrasal or multi-word verbs. These combinations consist of a verb and one
or two particles. The phrasal verb has a different meaning from that of the verb by
itself. For example, to blow up means to explode, and to drop out means to quit school.
Grammarians make a distinction between particles and prepositions even
though they are essentially the same words (at, by,for,from, in, cff, on, to, up, etc.).
How the words are labelled depends on their function in the sentence. A particle
is considered part of the verb-the two words work together both grammatically
(in sentences) and semantically (in meaning). A preposition, on the other hand, is
generally followed by a noun, making a prepositional phrase such as on the bus or
up the street.
58 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Compare the phrasal verbs with the regular verbs in these example sentences:

He had to wake up early. wake up is a phrasal verb

She walked up the staircase slowly. up the staircase is a prepositional

phrase

Hold on a minute. hold Or! is a phrasal verb meaning

to wait

Hold onto this rope. onto this rope is a prepositional phrase

Because some phrasal verbs are transitive (followed by a noun), it can be difficult to
distinguish particles from prepositions:

I can't put up with his behaviour any put up with is a phrasal verb meaning
longer. to tolerate

They have to set up the room for the set up is a phrasal verb; the room is
meeting. the object

They went up the room to collect up the room is a prepositional phrase.

donations.

However, distinguishing particles and prepositions is a grammarian's job, and you do

not have to worry about proper labelling. You just have to know what the phrasal
verbs mean and how to use them correctly in a sentence. Check your dictionary if
you are unsure. Phrasal verbs are often listed along with the entry for the main verb.
Example sentences show the sentence structure as well as make the meaning clear.
It is also worth noting that some phrasal verbs are separable, with the object
coming before the particle:

It is simple to look up the address on Either order is possible here.

the Internet. [However, when a pronoun is used,
It is simple to look the address up on only one order is possible: "to look it
the Internet. up": It is simple to look it up on the
Internet.]

Aggressive drivers often cut people off. While it is possible to say "cut off
people," it does not sound right with
this phrasal verb.

Finally, phrasal verbs tend to be idiomatic and therefore more common In

conversational speech than in academic writing. For instance, your instructor may
ask a student to "hand out the test papers" but may write that someone "distributed
the test papers."
r

UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 59

Review of Auxiliary Verbs

The different auxiliary (helping) verbs were introduced in the previous sec-
tions. To help you with the various uses and corresponding verb forms, here is a
reference chart:

Verb form
Auxiliary verb that follows Uses Examples

be (am, is, are, was, present participle continuous tenses He is reading.

were, being, been) (-ing form) I was cleaning.

be (am, is, are, was, past participle passive voice The decision is
were, being, been) (-edform) made.
The car was stolen.

have (has, had) past participle perfect tenses He has left.

(-edform) They have
stopped.

do (did) base form (no emphasis; She did find it.

endings) negatives; We did not ask.
questions Do you know the
answer?

will base form (no future tenses They will leave on

endings) Friday.

modal verbs (can, base form (no to express ability, They can walk
could, may, might, endings) possibility, etc. there.
should, would, (see pages 56-57) She might be late.
etc.) We should go
now.

The auxiliary verb determines which form of the verb follows it. If the sentence
has several auxiliary verbs in a row, the last verb is the main one (underlined in the
examples below):
He should have been ~ attention in class.
He should have been elected president.

Unlike modal verbs, which can never stand alone, the auxiliary verbs be, have, do,
and will can be the main verb (but will is rarely used in this way):
Richard is a hard worker.
They have $50 to spend on the gift.
He did the dishes right after dinner.
She was exhausted, but she willed her eyes to stay open.
60 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 3.3

Use the verbs in the list to fill in the blanks. Change the verb form to make it fit
the sentence: You may have to add an ending (-5, -ed, -in g) or use an irregular form
of the verb (for example, be, been, is, are), but use only one word for each blank.
Verbs from the list can be used more than once, and not all of them have to be used.

attend pass

be prefer

believe read

figure tell

miss want

1. Students should class regularly in order to

their courses. They also need to punctual so that they do

not anything important.

2. Even when he _ them the truth, they did not

him.

3. Marta to buy a modern house in the suburbs, but Rick

would _ an old fixer-upper close to downtown.

4. He couldn't out how to install the sink, so he finally

_______ the instructions.

5. It hard to catch Ryan in a lie. He _ _ _ a good

poker face.

When is a verb not a verb? Verb forms such as gerunds, participles, and infinitives
never function as the main verb of a sentence or a clause, so they are not really
verbs. Instead, they are referred to as verbals. They function as nouns, adjectives, and
adverbs.

A gerund is the -ing form of the verb acting as a noun:

Seeing is believing.
Understanding English verb forms can be difficult.
I hate shopping for shoes.

~ l
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 61

The present participle is the -in,\? form of the verb acting as an adjective:

Running water does not freeze readily. Runnino is an adjective describing

water.

The boys running around the room are Runnino around the room is a participle
my nephews. phrase describing the boys.

The past participle is the third principal part of the verb, the -ed form for regular
verbs. An -en ending is also common for the past participle (e.g., begun, broken, cho-
sen, written). (You can find the simple past form and the past participle of irregular
verbs in the dictionary.) The past participle is used for the passive voice, and it can
be used as an adjective:
Some politicians would like to see an elected Senate.
I love freshly baked bread.

An infinitive is the bare form of the verb, with or without to, such as (to) eat, (to)
sleep, and (to) understand. It is usually a verb complement following the main verb,
but it can be used as a noun:

To love is to live. To love and to live function as

nouns.

To lose that file after so much work was To lose thatfile afterso much work is
disheartening. the subject of the verb was.

They want to hire more staff. To hire completes the verb want.

To fail is not a disaster. To fail functions as a noun. *

*In modern English, infinitive subjects are not common. Instead, it is preferable to
use a gerund subject or an it structure:
Failing is not a disaster.
It is not a disaster to fail.

It can be difficult to figure out exactly what function a verbal is fulfilling in a sentence.
Do not worry too much about proper labelling. You just need to develop a "sentence
sense"so that you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence and determine
which words work together in phrases.
62 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Here are some example sentences to consider. The main verb is underlined twice
and the subject is underlined once:

The children are skating on the present continuous tense of the verb
backyard rink. to skate
Skating ~ good exercise. Skating is a gerund, the subject of
the sentence.

Their precision skating team won the Skating is an adjective describing the
competition. subject team.

He is trying to make the team. present continuous tense

To make is an infinitive completing
the main verb is trying.

Trying to make the team ~ futile. The gerund trying is part of the
subject. To make is the infinitive form,
also not the main verb. The subject is
trying to make the team.
The first-year students trying to make The verb have is in the present
the team are having trouble. continuous tense; tryinJ? is an adjective
describing the students; to make is an
infinitive completing the verb.

The woman watching the dancers ~ a The participle watching describes the
talent scout. woman.

Watching the dancers ~ a good way to The gerund phrase is the subject.
learn the choreography.

The verb is the most important word in the sentence. A sentence does not exist
without a verb. Moreover, the verb shapes the sentence. Once you choose the verb,
you must use the sentence structure that the verb dictates. The verb determines
the type of object or complement that follows. It can even determine which verb
tenses and aspects can be used.
Some verbs (like buy and spend) are transitive. This means they must be fol-
lowed by an object, which is either a noun or a noun stand-in (pronoun or noun
phrase or clause). Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive voice (pages
54-56).

~_- l
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 63

Hebought a car. Saying "he bought" by itself would

be incomplete and ungrammatical.
Buy is a transitive verb.

Hespent a lot of money. Again, because the verb spend is

transitive, "he spent" by itself would
be illogical to the audience, who
would ask "He spent what?"

Intransitive verbs do not need an object:

She slept.
She walked.

Sometimes a verb can have both transitive and intransitive uses:

He whistled.
He whistled a happy tune.

Dictionary entries label verbs as transitive or intransitive.

With some intransitive verbs, the grammatical subject can be affected by the verb
instead of doing the action. Look at the differences here:

I broke the glass. subject did the action; transitive verb

He ended the relationship.
Alan Turing cracked the code.

The glass broke. subject affected by the action;

The movie ended at six. intransitive verb
The paint cracked.

Some verbs can take an indirect object as well as a direct object:

Shegave them the clothes. direct object = clothes

indirect object = them (to them)

They offered him the job. direct object = job

indirect object = him (to him)

Some verbs have a second direct object, called an objective complement:

They named the baby Lily. two nouns as objects: baby, Lily
64 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

In some verbs describing emotions, the person is the grammatical subject, while in
others the person is the object:

I fear snakes. These two sentences have a similar

Snakesscare me. meaning, but in the first sentence, the
person is the subject of the sentence;
in the second, the object.

I like math. These also have a similar meaning but

Math interests me. a different sentence structure.

Most verbs describe actions, but some actions occur over a period of time, such as
grow and develop, while others describe an accomplishment, such as decide and solve.
The type of action can affect how the verb is used, as shown in these examples:

He was working on the problem, but his The verb work can be continuous.
colleague solved it.

He worked on the problem, but his incorrect:

colleague was solving it. Solve describes an achievement, so it
cannot be used in the continuous aspect.

They decided to take the train. The verb decide describes an

achievement.

They stopped deciding to take the train. incorrect:

The verb decide cannot be used
with stop.

Some verbs are stative-they describe a state, not an action. Stative verbs include
be, seem, and feel. These verbs (also called linking or copula verbs) are followed by
a noun or by an adjective:
Ian is an engineer.
The children were happy.
Elizabeth seemed tired.
Some verbs can be either action or stative verbs, depending on how they are used:
He looked around the room.
He looked angry.

Verbs may require specific prepositions before the noun:

Harry depends on the income from his You can't say depends to or depends by
parents'trust. or use any other preposition.

Immigrants must adapt to a new way Do not get adapt mixed up with the
of life. transitive verb adopt.
They couldn't deal with the new Deal in and deal out both exist but
situation. have very different meanings. (Look
them up.)
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 65

Some verbs are followed by an infinitive form (to + base form) of a second verb,
while others are followed by a gerund (-in,e form of the verb used as a noun):

I enjoy skating. enjoy + gerund.

I enjoy to skate. incorrect

Hewanted to change programs. The verb want is followed by an

infinitive.

He wanted changing programs. incorrect

Some verbs can take both infinitives and gerunds. Sometimes there is a meaning
difference:

I like to swim. Both sentences are possible. Both

I like swimming. mean essentially the same thing.

James stopped to talk. This means that James stopped what

he was doing in order to talk with
someone.
Jamesstopped talking. This means that James was talking,
but then he stopped.

Stephen remembered to leave the key Stephen remembered that he had to

with the concierge. leave the key, and so he did it.
Stephen remembered leaving the key Stephen remembered the action of
with the concierge. doing it.

There is no grammatical rule to explain why some verbs take an infinitive and
others take a gerund. You have to learn the pattern for each verb. Here are a few
common verbs as examples:

Verbs that can be followed by a gerund: avoid, delay, deny, enjoy, keep, miss,
practise, risk, suggest

Verbs that can be followed by an infinitive: afford, appear, choose, decide,

expect, fail, happen, hope, learn, need, pretend, promise, seem, threaten, want

Verbs can be followed by more than one kind of complement, but it is important to
know which structures do not work:

She suggested buying a second car. sugeest + gerund

She suggested (that) they buy a second sugeest + noun clause

car.

She suggested them to buy a second incorrect

car.
66 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Recognizing the characteristics of the verb can help you to distinguish confusing
pairs such as adopt and adapt:

Immigrants adopt many customs from adopt (to take on) is a transitive verb
their new homeland.

Immigrants often find it hard to adapt adapt (to get used to) is often used as
to the cold weather in Canada. an intransitive verb followed by the
preposition to

Native speakers of English do not stop to think about how verbs determine
sentence structure. They speak and write just what sounds right to them because
they have heard and read the verb used many times. However, when they try to use
a verb they are not as familiar with, especially in writing, they may form a faulty
sentence. The same is true for English language learners, but they tend to make
more mistakes because they have not heard and read enough English to develop an
ear for the correct grammar.
It would be impossible to memorize the characteristics of all the verbs in
English. What is possible, however, is to be aware that verbs behave in different ways.
If you make a verb error in a sentence, check the meaning and usage of the verb
in the dictionary. If English is not your first language, avoid translating when you
write, because you are more likely to make such verb errors. An English verb might
have the same basic meaning as a verb in another language, but it is unlikely that
the usage of the two verbs is the same.

If you are having trouble using certain verbs correctly, study the sentence patterns
that commonly go with the verb. Dictionaries like the Oxford Advanced Learner's often
give example sentences. You can also look up lists of verbs (such as "verbs followed
by infinitives") in grammar books or on the Internet to see which category the verb
belongs to.

Exercise 3.4

Rewrite each of the following sentences by substituting the verb in brackets for
the verb underlined in the sentence. Make whatever changes are required in the
sentence. Note that more than one option may be possible, and in some cases no
sentence changes may be required.

Examples:

Original: I don't appreciate having The word d/)l)r('(/,II(' is a transitive

those photos posted online. verb, but dppropc usually takes the
[approve] preposition (If
Rewrite: I don't approve ofthose
photos being posted online.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 67

Origill.!l: Harris said that the funding Thc verb lei! oftcll rcquires a
was running out. Itell] pcrsoll .!s :1 direct object. so then:
Rewrite: Harris told them that the WJS added to the second sentence
funding was running out. (even though the fIrst SCl1tCIlCC
docs nor specify whom Harris W:IS
t.!lkillg to).

1. He anticipated getting the promotion. [hope]

2. They arranged for the delivery to come this afternoon. [order]
3. I regret giving him a recommendation. [be sorry]
4. Patrick depends on his wife's advice. [rely]
5. The orphans were deprived of adequate nourishment. [lack]
6. Richard commented on the errors in the report. [criticize]
7. They trusted his ability to get the job done efficiently. [believe]
8. The manager considered hiring a new assistant. [decide]
9. They looked like they were havinq fun. [seem]
10. Mr. Martinez chose Mrs. Simpson to be chair. [name]

Determiners are words that come before a noun to identify which person, place, or
thing is being talked about. There are different kinds of determiners:
articles: a, an, the

demonstratives: this, that, these, those

possessive pronouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, their

quantifiers: all, any, another, both, few, many, more, several, some, one, first,
double, half (and other words based on numbers)
The articles in English are a, an, and the. A and an are indefinite articles.
They have the sense of "one," so they are not used for plural forms. No article is
used for plural nouns used in an indefinite sense. The is a definite article and is
used with both singular and plurals.

Indefinite Definite

Singular a book the book

a student the student

Plural books the books

students the students
68 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Generally, the first time a noun is introduced, the indefinite article is used, but
once the reader knows which thing is being referred to, a definite article is used to
refer to something specifically:
I picked an apple off the tree. [one apple] The apple was red and juicy.
[specifically, the apple I picked] I like apples. [apples in general] The apples
in my uncle's orchard are especially good. [specific apples]
A is used before consonants, and an is used before vowel sounds. This usage depends
on how the initial sound is pronounced, so both a and an can appear before hand u:
a walk, a school, a book, a car, a dish, a fairy tale, a lovely scene
an article, an elephant, an island, an octopus, an ugly hat
an umbrella, a university, a hero, an hour
a/an herb
Definite articles are generally not used with abstract nouns. When they are used, it
indicates a meaning difference.
It is important to have beauty in our surroundings.
That new car is a beauty.
Truth is important in a relationship.
He needs to tell the truth so we can get this matter cleared up.
While these are the basic rules, article use is one of the most difficult aspects
of English grammar for language learners. Many languages do not have articles, and
even for those that do, the rules of article use in those languages are very different
from those for English. For example, English does not use an article before people's
names or before country names like Canada, England, and China; however, articles
are used with country names that include a word that means "state" in its name, so
we say the United States, the Republic of China, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
For demonstratives, it is important to know that this and that are singular, while
these and those are plural. This and these refer to something closer to the speaker (in
space, time, or reference) than that and those, as in these examples:
Could you please hand me that brochure? The one on the desk over there.
These questions seem difficult. Perhaps we should change them.
For more examples of determiner use, see the note on Jew (page 349) and
Correcting Determiner Errors (page 208).

Exercise 3.5

Fill in the blanks with articles or other determiners where required:

1. They've decided to arrange picnic for park's
anniversary. They are going to hire clowns and _
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKillS 69

magicians. neighbourhood high school band is going to perform

in band shell during afternoon, and local

bands are going to play more modern music in the evening.

____ food vendors will sell everything from hot dogs to

____ ice cream.

2. Wehad _ wonderful trip to Halifax. We visited museum at

____ Pier 21.lt told the story of European immigrants who disembarked

at pier. Many travelled by train to final

destinations. I even found _ name of ship that _

family came to Canada on. We also took trip on Bluenose

replica ship. I love any kind of sailboat, so tall ship was

____ real thrill. We saw display about Titanic at

____ Maritime Museum of Atlantic. Many of Titanic
victims are buried in Halifax. _. story of 1917

Halifax explosion was really astonishing. munitions ship blew up

in harbour, levelling entire downtown area, killing 2000

and injuring 9000.

Pronouns take the place of nouns and refer back to them.

Personal pronouns

first person singular I, me, my, mine, myself

first person plural we, us, our, ours, ourselves

second person you, your, yours, yourself/yourselves

third person singular he, she, it, him, her, his, hers, its, himself,
herself, itself

third person plural they, them, their, theirs, themselves

A pronoun has to have a clear antecedent (the noun that the pronoun refers
to) that agrees in person and number. This means that if you use he,for example, the
70 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

reader must know who you are referring to and that he must refer to a male. Often
the antecedent is a noun in the previous sentence:

Jennifer had to do the assignment Her and she are both pronouns
again. Her computer crashed, and she referring to Jennifer.
had not made a back-up.

The students could not understand the Note that the two uses of them at the
lesson on pronoun reference, so they end could be confusing-the first
asked the instructor to go over it again. them refers to the students; the second
He showed -
-
them
- some errors from their them refers to the errors. However,
essaysand asked them to fix them. because of context, this would be
clear enough for the reader to follow:
the verb .fix would be completed by
errors not students.

While English nouns use the same form for subject and object forms, some per-
sonal pronouns have different forms for subject (1, he, she, they, we) and object (me,
him, her, them, us):

The student is in class. The nouns student and he are the

He is in class. subjects.

They saw the student yesterday. Here, student and him are the objects
They saw him yesterday. of the verb.

T¥hom is the object form of who, but its use is considered formal and is dying out
in English:

To whom do you wish to speak? grammatically correct but considered

Whom did they visit? formal and old-fashioned

Who do you want to talk to? commonly heard

Who did they visit?

It is sometimes difficult to identify exactly who a pronoun refers to. For

instance, we can include the person being addressed-or not. The pronoun you can
refer to one person or many, or it can refer to people in general.
Unlike other European languages, English has to make do with fewer pro-
nouns. The language actually used to have more pronouns, but its evolution
eliminated them. For example, thee and thou were the singular forms of you, but
their use died out. In a similar way, the pronoun they is often now working as a
singular to fill a gap in the language-the lack of a singular pronoun unmarked for
gender-in other words, another way of saying "he or she." (See pages 202-3 for a
more detailed discussion of the issue.)
Personal pronouns have different possessive forms. Some are determiners
and therefore used before nouns (my, our, your, his, her, its, their, whose), and some
stand on their own (mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs).
That is ~ bag. The other one is yours.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 71

Note that the personal possessive pronouns do not have apostrophes. The pro-
noun its is often incorrectly written as it's (which is the abbreviation of it is and it
has) or even its' (a word that does not exist). Similarly, whose is often incorrectly
written as who's.
The use of relative pronouns (that, who, which) is shown in the section on
Writing Adjective Clauses (pages 81-82).
For reflexive pronouns, self is the singular ending and selves is the plural
ending: myse!f, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Reflexive
pronouns refer back to the subject:
My hand slipped, and I cut myself.
She sees herself as a natural leader.
The demonstratives this, that, these, and those work as determiners (pages
67-68), but they can also be used as pronouns. The same basic rules apply: this and
that are singular; these and those are plural; this and these refer to something closer to
the speaker than that and those.
I don't want to start with these problems. Those look easier.
Use this hammer. That one over there is too heavy for you.
Indefinite pronouns include anyone, everyone, no one, and somebody. Unlike
possessive personal pronouns, indefinite pronouns do take an apostrophe for the
possessive form: anyone's, everyone's, etc.
While the basic rule is that pronouns have antecedents, it can appear in struc-
tures where it does not refer to anything specifically, where, therefore, it is not really
a pronoun. This is called a non-referential it or a dummy it.
It is raining.
It's time he got a job.
It surprises me that she did not get the promotion.

See Unit 7, pages 201-07, for explanations and exercises on common errors
made in pronoun use.

Adjectives and adverbs can be added to a sentence to describe nouns and verbs.
Often, they are optional in the sentence structure, except for adjectives used with
stative verbs:

They bought a small house. The word small here is optional.

They bought a house.

The house is small. The word small cannot be left out of

this sentence; it is needed to complete
the verb is.
72 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

More than one adjective can be used to describe one noun. Commas (or and) are
used to separate adjectives that refer to the same quality, such as size:

We lived in the small red brick house on The adjectives small, red, and
the corner. brick refer to different qualities-
size, colour, and material (note
that adjectives have a preferred order,
so that size precedes colour-you
would not say "red brick small
house").

People enjoy the sweet, salty taste of The words sweet and salty both refer
these chocolate pretzels. OR to taste.
People enjoy the sweet and salty taste
of these chocolate pretzels.

Adverbs can describe the action of the verb, but they can also describe adjec-
tives and even a whole sentence. Adverbs generally describe how, when, and where
something was done. Some adverbs are derived from the adjective-by adding -ly.
Other adverbs are function words like yesterday, nearby, and twice. Adverbs are not as
fixed in position as nouns, verbs, and adjectives are:

He closed the door quietly. Quietly is an adverb of manner

describing how the door was
closed.

She was very surprised. Very is an adverb describing the

adjective surprised.

Gradually, they filled the box of Gradually is an adverb describing

donations. how the box was filled-it can be
They gradually filled the box of used in different positions in the
donations. sentences.
They filled the box of donations
gradually.

Hopefully, we will get there on time. Hopefullv describes the whole action
of the sentence. (Note that the use of
hopifully as a sentence adverb is not
accepted by some grammarians, but
it is common usage.)

-~--- L
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 73

Adjective phrases can be used as a unit to describe a noun. They are usually
hyphenated:

The technology is up to date. The phrase up to date is hyphenated

They use up-to-date technology. when it is used as an adjective.

The boy is six years old. When a phrase with a plural noun is
A six-year-old boy made this. converted to an adjective, that noun
is made singular.

They watched the man eating shark. Note the difference in meaning. In
They watched the man-eating shark. the first sentence, it is the man doing
the eating-he is eating shark meat.
In the second, the shark is capable of
eating humans.

They use environmentally friendly A hyphen is not used for an adverb +

products. adjective combination.

The hyphens make it easier to read the sentence because the hyphens make the
adjective phrase one unit. However, do not overuse this structure because it can
make the sentence confusing.
In addition to adjectives, other words can modify nouns, as in the foIIowing
examples:

Nouns: library book, home country, mother tongue, luxury car

Active participles (-inc!!, verbals): welcoming committee, steering wheel, dancing
troupe
Passive participles (-ed verbals): elected representatives, toasted marshmallows, paid
work

Comparatives and Superlatives

Different forms of the adjective are used to make comparisons. For comparing one
thing to another, the comparative form is used. It is formed by adding an -er ending
to words of one or two syIIables. For longer words, more appears before the adjective:
She is taller than I am, but I have longer legs because I have a shorter torso.
That is the more expensive of the two options.

The superlative form is used when the comparison is between one thing and two or
more. It is formed with the -est ending or the addition of most before the adjective:
He was the brightest child in the class.
Of the three options, that is the most cost-effective.
That is the most ridiculous idea I have ever heard.
Less and least are used as the opposite of more and most:
She is less experienced than I am.
They were the least prepared team in the competition.
74 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 3.6

Fill in the blanks with suitable adjectives or adverbs:

1. The house was and

2. Several children played around the park.

3. The robots completed the work.

4. A hat lay on the ground.

5. A toy was the last item at the

auction.

Prepositional phrases are a frequent add-in to the basic sentence structure. Most
specify time or place (when or where); some show the manner-how something
was done. They are formed with a preposition followed by a noun phrase (a noun
along with any determiners and adjectives required):
in the house on the corner
at school by the church
with the red hat under the sign
in five minutes about the argument
in a sloppy way during the storm
Prepositions:
about, above, across,after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind,
below, beneath, beside, between, by, down, during, except, for, from, in,
inside, into, near, next to, of, off, on, onto, out of, outside, over, past, through,
to, under, until, up, upon, with, within, without
Notice how the prepositional phrases (underlined in the sentences below) add
meaning to the sentence:
The girl threw the ball.
After her brother's taunt, the girl from next door threw the ball into the street.
Jack sat at the back of the bus to avoid the family with the crying baby.
Being able to identify prepositional phrases is important because by eliminating
these phrases from the mix, you can isolate the core of the sentence (the subject and
verb) and check to see whether the sentence is grammatical. A grammatical subject
never appears in a prepositional phrase:

One of the soldiers was killed. The subject is one, not soldiers.

The members of the choir were tired The subject is members, not choir.
after the long rehearsals.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 75

Prepositions themselves pose problems both for people learning English as a

second language and for native speakers. The basic meanings are relatively straight-
forward, but usage can be idiomatic and vary in different varieties of English. For
instance, it is possible to say "he lives on Main Street" and "he lives in Main Street,"
depending on the dialect of English you speak.
Prepositions also combine with verbs in idiomatic combinations. Some verbs
are completed by a specific preposition. For instance, we say to rely on and to contend
with someone or something. In addition, prepositions figure in phrasal verbs (see
pages 57-58), although they are referred to as particles in such combinations. For
example, we say someone is getting by on a reduced income and that someone is
trying to catch up. A good dictionary includes phrasal verbs and gives the preposi-
tions that go with the verbs.

Exercise 3.7

Underline the prepositional phrases in the following sentences, and identify the
main subject and verb of the sentence:

1. Some of the best dinosaur fossils can be found at the Royal Tyrrell Museum
in the Badlands area near Drumheller, Alberta.
2. In Quebec City, you can visit the Plains of Abraham, the site of the 1759
battle where the English forces defeated the French, putting Canada under
the control of the British.
3. The corner of Portage and Main is the downtown heart of Winnipeg and is
considered the windiest intersection in the world.
4. Victoria, the capital of British Columbia, is located on Vancouver Island,
whereas Vancouver is on the mainland and is a much larger city.
5. Niagara Falls is not the highest waterfall in the world, but the Horseshoe
Falls, on the Canadian side of the border, is the world's largest by volume
of water.

Exercise 3.8

Add prepositional phrases to the following sentences, as in this example:

The books were delivered.

The books for the advanced class were delivered on Friday.

1. The house was demolished.

2. The students are studying quietly.
3. The wall needs to be painted.
4. The band performed.
5. The rugby team won the game.
6. The movie is playing.

I
I

.........
 p

76 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

7. The children are running.

8. The man fell.
9. The instructor gave the driving lesson.
10. Anna is taking Japanese classes.

Coordinate conjunctions are used for connecting sentences or parts of sentences.

The term coordinate indicates equality between elements being joined (unlike sub-
ordinate conjunctions, which make one clause less important, or "sub-ordinate").
The elements can be single words, phrases, or clauses. It is important that the two
elements being joined be the same type, however. For instance, you cannot use a
coordinate conjunction to connect a noun and a verb.

Coordinate conjunctions: and, or, but, so, yet, for, nor

Study these example sentences:

Jesse and Kate were putting up new The conjunction and connects two
drywall. nouns Ucsse, Kate).

We arrived tired ~ happy. The conjunction yet connects two

adjectives (tired, happy).

In Ottawa, they visited the Parliament Two verb phrases are connected
Buildings and skated on the Rideau (main verbs are visited and skated).
Canal.

Marcus wanted to take fencing lessons, Two full clauses are connected
but he could not afford the gear. with but.

You could see the Friday show or go to Two verb phrases are connected
the matinee on Wednesday. (main verbs are see and go).

Martha installed a firewall and changed Note the punctuation. A comma is

the passwords. used in the second sentence because
Martha installed a firewall, and Sylvia the and is connecting two clauses
changed the passwords. rather than two phrases.

Rob topped his hamburger with Both sentences are correct. In a list
mustard, ketchup, and relish. of three or more items, the comma
Rob topped his hamburger with before and is often considered
mustard, ketchup and relish. optional. (This is called a serial
comma.)

- ~ ~~~
I
L_ _
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 77

In informal writing, sentences often begin with a coordinate conjunction. (You

can see many examples in the article "A Global Warming Deal to Do Nothing Still
Possible" on pages 14-15.) This usage is conversational style and, technically, not
grammatically correct, especially with a comma after the coordinate conjunction.

Conversational style Academic style

Students taking an online course can Students taking an online course can
study in a homey atmosphere. And they study in a homey atmosphere, and they
can even do their work in their pajamas. can even do their work in their pajamas.

But they do not get the social However, they do not get the social
interaction of the classroom. interaction of the classroom.

And it is hard to discipline themselves to In addition, it is hard to discipline

complete work on time. themselves to complete work on time.

So it is not surprising that many do not Therefore, it is not surprising that many
succeed. do not succeed.

Avoid starting sentences with coordinate conjunctions in formal writing: in essays,

business communication, and technical reports.

Exercise 3.9
Merge the two sentences into one, using coordinate conjunctions, eliminating
unnecessary words, and making whatever other changes are required.

1. Peter had to get the transmission fixed. He had to get the brakes fixed.
2. Zach thought he passed his driver's test. He had to book another one.
3. Kate plays the piano. She plays the guitar.
4. My uncle was killed in a motorcycle accident. My mother won't allow me to
get a motorcycle.
5. Erin's brother is an engineer. Erin's brother-in-law is an engineer.
6. Melissa could go to the University of Calgary. Melissa could go to the
University of Alberta.
7. Ben thought he had a job on the oil rig. The job fell through.
8. We thought of holding my parents' anniversary party on a dinner cruise
boat. We thought of holding my parents' anniversary party in the revolving
restaurant.
9. Christine was supposed to pick Jim up at the train station. She forgot.
10. Suji couldn't understand the formula. She read the chapter again.
78 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Parallel Structure
When using coordinate conjunctions, you must ensure that each sentence part
that you join has essentially the same grammatical structure, whether single words,
phrases, or full clauses. Sometimes the structures are in a series of elements. This is
called parallel structure:

Marta likes dancing and singing. Parallel structure-the and connects

two gerunds.

Marta likes to dance and sing. Parallel structure-the and connects

two infinitives.

Marta likes dancing and to sing. incorrect:

not parallel

Marta likes to dance but hates to sing. Parallel structure-the but connects
two infinitives.

Marta likes to dance, but Dimitry prefers Parallel structure-the but connects
to sit on the side. two clauses.

On their vacation trip, they wanted to incorrect:

sit on a beach, eat great food, and they not parallel
hoped to visit family.

On their vacation trip, they wanted to Parallel structure-the and connects

sit on a beach, eat great food, and visit three verbs (sit, eat, visit), all in the
family. base form.

Ensuring parallelism can be difficult. You have to figure out what parts of the sen-
tence are being linked. Putting the sentence elements in a vertical list can help you
see whether each element has the same structure and fits the sentence:

When Eli lost his keys, he looked incorrect:

under the desk, not parallel-the verb in the third
beside the filing cabinet, and element does not fit
checked under the sofa cushions.

When Eli lost his keys, he looked parallel structure

under the desk,
beside the filing cabinet, and
under the sofa cushions.

Parallel structure is especially important in thesis statements when three elements

are often linked to show the three ideas explored in the body paragraphs. You can
practise parallel structure with thesis statements in Unit 5.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 79

Exercise 3.10

For each list, identify which item is not parallel, and then make it parallel:

Example: washing dishes

setting the table
to pour the drinks [not parallcl~llsc pouring the drinks J

1. a good plot
interesting characters
kept the audience's attention
exciting special effects

2. worried
in a bad mood
tired
frustrated
hungry

3. strolling through the park

running around the track
rollerblading down the path
walk around the block
4. made some appetizers
put the beer in the fridge
set the table
tidying the living room

5. tour the Parliament buildings

the bike paths around the city
visit the National Gallery
shop in ByWard Market

Exercise 3.11

Fill in the blank with a word or phrase that will fit the sentence and have parallel
structure:

1. Marie topped the pizza with tomatoes, sausage, ~_ _~_~, and onions.

2. I was born in Edmonton, raised in Vancouver, and later _~~~~~

3. College students can be high school graduates, mature students, or

4. Her presentation was clear, concise, and _~ _

5. To be successful, college students should attend d1SS, manage their time,

and_~~~~_
80 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

A clause is part of a complex sentence and has both a noun and a verb. Noun
clauses function as a noun would-in other words, as a subject or an object. The
noun clauses are underlined in these example sentences:
The inspector noticed that the handle had broken off.
She asked whether I could come.
They wondered if it would rain.
Who will win the race is a mystery.

Words that may begin noun clauses:

that, if, whether, when, where, what, why, how, who, whom, which, whose

Noun clauses can function as both subjects and objects:

His behaviour was inexcusable. his behaviour is the subject

What he did was inexcusable. what he did is the noun clause

subject

I understood his apology. his apology is the object

I understood that he was sorry. that he was sorry is the noun clause
object

Many noun clauses begin with that (never which), but note that if the clause comes
after the verb, that can be eliminated if the sentence is clear without it:

She realized that he was late. both sentences are acceptable

She realized he was late.

Noun clauses that function as subjects should be relatively short. English doesn't
like top-heavy sentences requiring the reader to wait for a long time to come to
the verb, because these sentences are more difficult to understand. They can be
revised by using an it phrase:

That we could still negotiate a fair awkward but grammatical

deal after so many false starts is
amazing.

It is amazing that we could still better

negotiate a fair deal after so many
false starts.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 81

Be careful with the word order in noun clauses that deal with questions. The ques-
tion structure (using the verb do and inverted word order) is not used:

They asked what time did she finish. incorrect

They asked what time she finished. correct

They wanted to know did she have time incorrect

for another project.

They wanted to know if she had time correct

for another project.

Exercise 3.12

Complete the noun clause to fit the blank:

1. She asked whether _

2. That was disappointing.

3. How was Jane's main concern.

4. He didn't understand why _

5. Whoever is fine with me.

Adjective clauses, also called relative clauses, describe a noun. They usually come
after the noun and begin with relative pronouns. In these example sentences, the
adjective clauses are underlined:
The woman who led that protest march is Jamie's cousin.
The cottage road, which is not paved, is impassable in the winter.
The DVD that he ordered is not available anymore.
The tourist whose luggage was stolen spent hours filling out a report.

Relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, what, which, why, that, when, where

Adding clauses to sentences is a good way to give extra information to a sentence

without changing its main idea or focus. For example, if you want to identify some-
one but you do not want that identification to be the main idea of the sentence,
you can use an adjective clause:
My friend Liz, who went to Europe with me, is travelling to New Zealand this
summer.
As in noun clauses, that can be eliminated if the meaning is clear:
The DVD he ordered is not available anymore.
82 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

The relative pronoun whom is the correct form when the pronoun refers to the
object of the verb or of the preposition. However, as noted earlier, whom is dying
out in English usage. In conversation and informal writing it is almost never used,
but it is more common in academic writing:

The woman whom I met last week is a used in formal English

set designer.

The woman who I met last week is a set commonly heard

designer.

The woman I met last week is a set The pronoun who is often dropped,
designer. especially in informal English.

Punctuation IS Important in sentences that contain adjective clauses. Commas

around the clause signal that the information is extra, that taking out the clause will
not affect the meaning of the sentence. If there are no commas, the clause is essen-
tial to the meaning because it restricts who or what is being spoken about.
The first case is called a non-restrictive (or non-defining) adjective clause,
while the latter case is a restrictive (or defining) adjective clause:

The Class 2B students, who failed the non-restrictive clause showing that all
test, have to attend a tutorial. the students in Class 2B failed

The Class 2B students who failed the restrictive clause-only some of the
test have to attend a tutorial. students in Class 2B failed

The relative pronoun that is used in restrictive relative clauses, while which is used
for non-restrictive clauses:
The course that she wanted to take is already full.
The first year biology course, which is required in many programs, has several
sections.

Exercise 3.13

Identify the relative clause in each of the following sentences. Add commas where
necessary (that is, for the restrictive relative clauses):

1. Nunavut which was created from the Northwest Territories in 1999 has an
Aboriginal government and Inuktitut as an official language.
2. The spot where the cottage will be built has a nice view of the lake.
3. Janice whom I taught last year is planning to be a teacher herself.
4. The company where she worked part-time in high school offered her a
scholarship.
 •

UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 83

5. The president of the college who uses a wheelchair has done much to
improve the accessibility of campus facilities.
6. The apartment which I saw last week is still available.

Exercise 3.14

Combine the following sentences using relative clauses. Change the word order
as necessary:
Example: We got married in the church. The church is being torn down.
The church where we got married is being torn down.

OR
The church that is being torn down is the place where we were
married.

1. I worked at the company part-time as a student. The company offered me

a full-time position when I graduated.
2. The students forgot to do their assignment. Those students had to stay
after class.
3. The singers were trained in Europe. The singers were most familiar with
classical tradition.
4. We are meeting at a restaurant. The restaurant is on campus, next to the
biology buildinq.
5. Children come to the community pool to learn to swim. Their ages range
from seven to twelve.
6. Some people keep exotic pets such as tarantulas, rattlesnakes, and piranhas.
These people want to be different and prefer to live dangerously.

Adverb clauses (often called subordinate clauses) modify whole sentences and,
like adverbs, tell when, where, why, or how something was done. Subordinate con-
junctions allow you to combine two sentences to make one new one:
He studied hard for the test. He didn't get a passing grade.
Although he studied for the test, he didn't get a passing grade.
Marie was late for the interview. The car broke down.
Marie was late for the interview because the car broke down.
Subordinate conjunctions: after, although, as, because, before, even though, if,
since, unless, until, when, where, whereas, whether, while

The adverb clause that begins with the conjunction is also called a subordinate
clause, or dependent clause, and the other half of the sentence is the main
84 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

clause, or independent clause. The clause is dependent because it cannot stand

on its own; it depends on the main clause to make a complete sentence:

Although he studied for the test. incorrect:

incomplete sentence

He didn't get a passing grade. complete sentence

Becausethe car broke down. incorrect:

incomplete sentence

Marie was late for the interview. complete sentence

For most sentences, the subordinate clause can come either before or after the main
clause, but notice that the sentence is punctuated differently for each:

If you remove the cover first, it is easier You need a comma after the
to accessthe parts. subordinate clause in order to signal
the end of the clause to the reader.

It is easier to accessthe parts jf you A comma is unnecessary when the

remove the cover first. subordinate clause comes after the
main clause because the conjunction
signals the beginning of the
subordinate clause.

Although, he was tired of hearing her incorrect:

complaints, he finished the job. There is no comma after the
conjunction.

Often, you have a choice whether to use a coordinate or subordinate conjunction.

Some express the same meaning:

Although Takeshi hates playing golf, he subordinate conjunction used

never misses the company golf day. (although)

Takeshi hates playing golf, but he never coordinate conjunction used (but)
misses the company golf day.

Although Takeshi hates playing golf, but incorrect:

he never misses the company golf day. You cannot use both conjunctions in
a sentence with two clauses.

A sentence with a coordinate conjunction is considered a compound sentence; in

that case, both clauses have the same weight. A sentence constructed with a sub-
ordinate conjunction is considered a complex sentence. It allows you to express
different levels of meaning. What is expressed in the subordinate clause is the less
important (subordinate) idea; the main idea is in the main clause:
Although school uniforms are often hideous, it is comforting to know that
everyone is dressed the same and your style can't be found wanting.

_______l
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 85

The writer is acknowledging the lack of fashion in uniforms but is stressing the
positive side (the idea that is in the main clause).
If the sentence were to be flipped, it could be used in an essay discussing the
disadvantages of uniforms:
Although it can be comforting to know that everyone is dressed the same, it
must be acknowledged that school uniforms are truly hideous.
As can be seen here, althouJ?h can be used for conceding a point (further discussed
on page 184).
You can write a sentence with more than one subordinate clause as long as
you have a main clause to make it a grammatical sentence. But do not overload
your sentence like this:
While he was waiting for the train, wondering if it would ever come, he looked
through a magazine because he was very bored, but even though the articles
were interesting, he could not concentrate on the information given, as his
thoughts kept coming back to the mistakes he had made in the job interview.
Although, even thouoh, and though mean essentially the same thing, but there are slight
differences:

Although he had done his training, he

could not complete the marathon.

Even though he had trained hard for Even though shows a stronger contrast,
months, he could not complete the for something that is surprising.
marathon.

Though he had trained hard for months, Incorrect for academic writing: though
he could not complete the marathon. as a conjunction is informal.

He had trained hard for months. He Here, though is an adverb, not a

could not complete the marathon conjunction.
though.

Remember that even though is always two words.

Conjunctive adverbs (also called adverbial connectives) such as however and there-
fore are often confused with subordinate conjunctions. The differences between the
different kinds of sentence connectors are shown on pages 88-90.

Exercise 3.15

Join the followinq pairs of sentences with a subordinate conjunction (page 83):
Example: I tried to install the wireless router. My system crashed.
When I tried to install the wireless router, my system crashed.
1. Tim Horton had a hand in starting the business that bears his name. Laura
Secord had nothing to do with the candy-making business.

...
86 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

2. The candy store was named after Laura Secord. The founder wanted a
Canadian heroine as a trademark.
3. The Canadian flag is such a recognized symbol today. It did not have an easy
road to design and official acceptance in 1965.
4. The first explorers came to Canada seeking a route to the Orient. They came
back for the valuable fish and furs.
5. British Columbia agreed to join Canada. A railroad would be built to connect
it with the eastern provinces.
6. The Canadian Pacific Railway took many years to complete. It was so difficult
to build through the rock ofthe Canadian Shield in central Canada and the
mountain ranges in British Columbia.
7. The United Empire Loyalists came north to Canada after the American
Revolution. They wanted to remain British subjects.
8. Lacrosse is one of Canada's national sports. It is not very popular, especially
when compared to hockey.
9. Tommy Douglas became a member of Parliament. He wanted to extend
Saskatchewan's medicare program to all of Canada.
10. The Acadians were expelled from Nova Scotia. They settled in Louisiana.

When two clauses have the same subject, one clause can sometimes be reduced to
make a phrase. Study these examples:

Original sentence Reduction Comments

1. While they were While going over the Because they and the
going over the lesson, the students students refer to the
lesson, the students discovered a new same people, the clause
discovered a new problem. can be reduced to a
problem. Going over the lesson, phrase.
the students discovered
a new problem.

2. Gillian, who is the Gillian, the former The adjective clause

former president president of the club, can be changed to
of the club, stayed stayed on to help her an adjective phrase
on to help her successor deal with the because Gillian and who
successor deal with reorganization. both refer to the same
the reorganization. person.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 87

3. While the students While listening to the incorrect:

were listening to the lecture, the lights went The reduction is
lecture, the lights out. ungrammatical because
went out. the two original clauses
have different subjects,
students and lights.
The lights were not
listening to the lecture
when they went out.

4. We ordered the We ordered the meal The reduction works

meal for the group for the group before because we refers to the
before we went to going to the restaurant. same group of people in
the restaurant. both clauses.
Note the change
of wording in the
reduction.

5. The movie was The movie was sold out Note the change
sold out although despite having received of wording in the
it received bad bad reviews. reduction.
reviews.

Exercise 3.16

In the following sentences, identify the adjective and adverb clauses. Then, where
possible, reduce the underlined clauses to phrases, rewording the phrase where
necessary.
1. When he was touring the house, Marc noticed that it needed a lot of work.
2. The house, which was located in a prime downtown area, had large rooms
and original wood panelling that needed to be stripped.
3. The powder room, which was tucked under the stairway, had pink tiles and
1970s fixtures.
4. Because he had worked for his father's construction company, he had the
skills to do most of the work himself.
5. He particularly liked the stained glass, which was almost 100 years old.
6. Elena, who was Marc's wife, was reluctant to take on the project because she
didn't want to live in a construction zone for years.
7. Although she was handy with power tools and a paint brush, she preferred a
place that required less work.
8. Because they both had demanding jobs, she wanted to have relaxing
weekends, not more work.

------------_...----
88 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

9. If they did the work themselves, they could afford to live downtown.
10. After they weighed all the pros and cons, they put in an offer on the house.

It is often necessary to show the logical connection between two sentences. This can
be accomplished through the use of conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs. This sec-
tion has some handy review charts contrasting different ways to connect sentences.

Here is a list of commonly used connectors:

Connector type Function

Coordinate conjunctions can join sentences (and can join

(and, or, but, yet, so, for, nor) parts of sentences with the same
grammatical structure)
[See pages 76-78, Using Coordinate
Conjunctions.J

Subordinate conjunctions include: can join sentences

after, although, as, because, even [See pages 83-85, Writing Adverb
though, if, since, when, whereas Clauses.]

Conjunctive adverbs include: cannot be used as conjunctions

consequently, for example, to make one sentence from two
furthermore, however, in addition, sentences
moreover, nevertheless, then, therefore, [See pages 119-20, Using Transition
thus Signals. I

It is relatively easy to keep these three categories separate. The list of coordinate
conjunctions is complete-there are only seven short words to remember. To
distinguish conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs, it is useful to remember that
conjunctions can only be placed at the beginning of one of the clauses, whereas
adverbs can be placed in different positions, as in this example:

Their initial findings were inconclusive, There is only one possible placement
but another attempt at the experiment for the conjunction but.
was more successful.

Their initial findings were inconclusive. The adverb however can be placed
However, another attempt was more in different locations in the second
successful. sentence.
OR Another attempt, however, was
more successful.
OR Another attempt was more
successful, however.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 89

However, the word so is tricky because it can function as both an adverb and a
conjunction:

They were tired, so they skipped class. So is used as a conjunction.

They were so tired that they skipped So is used as an adverb, modifying the
the class. adjective tired.

They were tired. So they skipped class. This use of so is common in

conversational English. It is not
appropriate for essay writing.

Here is a review of the ways sentences can be connected. Pay attention to the
punctuation and capitalization.

a) The students worked hard. They two grammatical sentences separated

passed the test. by a period

b) The students worked hard they incorrect:

passed the test. run-on sentence (specifically, a fused
sentence)

c) The students worked hard, they incorrect:

passed the test. comma splice (a type of run-on
sentence).
A comma alone cannot be used to
join two sentences.

d) The students worked hard; they two sentences joined by a semicolon

passed the test.

e) The students worked hard, so they two clauses joined by a coordinate

passed the test. conjunction (so)

f) The students passed the test two clauses joined by a subordinate

because they worked hard. conjunction (because)
No comma is necessary between the
clauses.

g) Because the students worked hard, Subordinate conjunctions can also

they passed the test. come at the beginning of the first
clause, but then a comma is needed to
show where the first clause ends.

h) Because, the students worked incorrect:

hard, they passed the test. There should be no comma after a
subordinate conjunction.
90 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

i) Because the students worked hard, incorrect:

so they passed the test. Two conjunctions should not be used
if there are only two sentences being
joined.

j) The students worked hard. two separate sentences

Therefore, they passed the test. Because a conjunctive adverb (such
as therifore) is not a conjunction, it
cannot join two sentences.

k) The students worked hard; The semicolon (not the conjunctive

therefore, they passed the test. adverb) is joining the sentences.

I) The students worked hard, incorrect:

therefore they passed the test. Conjunctive adverbs cannot join
sentences.

m) The students worked hard. They Because therefore is an adverb, it is

therefore passed the test. not restricted to the beginning of the
sentence.

n) The students worked hard. So they incorrect in formal English:

passed the test. This structure is commonly seen
in conversational English, but you
should not use it in essays and other
formal writing.

Exercise 3.17

Connect each pair of sentences given below. Show possible ways the sentences can
be connected. You can switch the order of the two sentences.
1. Several classes had been cancelled. The students did not cover all the course
material.
2. Several classes had been cancelled. The students managed to cover all the
course material.
3. They did not take the proper precautions. An accident occurred.
4. They did not take the proper precautions. The experiment proceeded
without incident.
5. A snowstorm was making driving hazardous. We postponed the meeting.
6. A snowstorm was making driving hazardous. The college did not close.
7. The essay had several errors. It lacked a recognizable thesis.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 91

If you come across a long, complicated sentence in your reading, identifYing the
core (the subject and predicate) can help you to understand it. You can also check
the core of the sentences you have written to make sure they are grammatical.
In this unit, we have reviewed the basics of sentence structure-what makes up
the core and what are the possible modifiers, phrases, and clauses that can be added.
Breaking down a sentence into its component parts is called parsiny. Linguists and
grammarians can go into great detail analyzing sentences and labelling the parts,
but students who want to improve their reading and writing skills do not need to
go into such detail. However, they do need to develop a basic "sentence sense"-
knowing what words go together and what the core of the sentence is.
As you know, sentences are made of groupings of words called phrases
and clauses. When you read or write a sentence, you should be able to identify
which words go together. Because a phrase or clause will work as a unit, one test
for whether a group of words is an actual phrase or clause is to move or delete
the group.
Here are some example sentences from the readings. Each has been analyzed.
Note that the grammatical subject is underlined and the main verb is underlined
twice.
1. "The distaste for true math often begins in high school:' (Martyn, page 261)

abc
The distaste [for true math] [often] begins [in high school].

a) a prepositional phrase describing the noun distaste

b) an adverb modifying the verb beJ<ins
c) a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb, answering the question
"where?"

2. "Widowed for five years now, she lives alone in her own house except for the
occasions when I come home to tidy her household affairs:' (Engkent, page 353)
a b c d
[Widowed for five years now], she lives [alone] [in her own house] [except for the
e
occasions] [when I come home to tidy her household affairs].

a) adjective phrase describing she [widowed is the adjective, and the rest of the
phrase is a prepositional phrase]
b) adverb
c) prepositional phrase
d) prepositional phrase
 p

92 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

e) adverb clause [when = subordinate conjunction, I = subject, come = verb,

home = adverb, to tidy = infinitive complement of the verb come, affairs =
object of the verb tidy]

3. "These companies are taking our tap water, which on average in Canada costs us
less than one-tenth of a cent per litre, filtering it, although it is already perfectly
clean, and selling it back to us at a markup that can be several thousand times its
original price:' (Petty and Trudeau, page 310)
a
These companies are taking our tap water, [which on average in Canada costs us

b
lessthan one-tenth of a cent per litre], filtering it, [although it is already perfectly
c
clean,] and selling it back to us at a markup [that can be several thousand times its
original pricer.-
Note that this sentence has three main verbs in the progressive tense: are taking,
arefilterin,(!" and are selling. The auxiliary verb are is not repeated but is understood.

a) adjective clause describing tap water [which = relative pronoun, costs = main
verb of the clause]
b) adverb clause [although = subordinate conjunction, it = pronoun subject,
is = main verb, clean = adjective complement for the verb]
c) adjective clause describing markup [that = relative pronoun, can be = main
verb]

As you work on specific readings in Units 9-16, you will be asked to do fur-
ther sentence analysis like this. What is important is not that you learn the specific
grammar terminology but that you can group words that go together and identify
the core of the sentence.

Good writing has a variety of sentence structure and length. It is important to

be able to write complex sentences with clauses and phrases. Too many simple
sentences can be tedious to read. Moreover, complex sentences allow you to layer
information, with the main idea in the main clause and additional information in
subordinate clauses. Too many complex sentences, however, can be tiring to read or
too convoluted to follow.
In this unit, we have reviewed the essential elements of a sentence. The core
of a sentence is the subject and predicate. The addition of adjectives, adverbs, and
prepositional phrases modifies the basic nouns and verbs. Adding clauses makes the
sentence complex, as shown on the next page.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 93

Theone-cent coin was eliminated. simple sentence in the passive voice

a) In Canada, the one-cent coin was addition of two prepositional phrases

finally eliminated in February 2013. and an adverb

b) In Canada, the one-cent coin, addition of adjective clause to a)

which was commonly called the
penny, was finally eliminated in
February 2013.

c) Even though many people addition of adverb clause to original

predicted problems, the one-cent sentence
coin was easily eliminated.

Exercise 3.18

Alter the simple sentences below by adding modifiers (including phrases and
clauses). Tryout different structures, as shown in the example sentences above.
You can make alterations to the base sentence, such as changing the article,
when necessary.
1. The students played soccer.
2. A student centre was built.
3. The helicopter crashed.
4. The manager sent a message.
5. The instructor cancelled the class.

Punctuation is an important part of sentence structure. Readers rely on capital

letters and end punctuation to tell them where sentences begin and end. Commas
show the different parts of a sentence. Because sentences in academic English are
more complex, the punctuation is crucial to the reader's ability to follow the sen-
tence. The basic uses of different punctuation marks are introduced here. Correcting
common errors in punctuation is addressed in Unit 7, pages 216-17.

End Punctuation
The end of a sentence is marked by a period, question mark, or exclamation mark.
In essay writing, almost all of your sentences will end with a period; you should
have very few questions and no exclamations at all.
Sentences should not end with three dots (an ellipsis mark). It gives the
impression that the writer is not committed to the sentence and is just trailing off.
(Ellipsis marks are used in academic writing in quotations to show that some words
have been left out.)
94 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Periods are also used with some abbreviations, such as shortened words (Prof.
for Professor) and university degrees (M.B.A.). Initialisms (abbreviations formed
from the first letter of words, such as ESL for English as a Second Language) and
acronyms (like initialisms but pronounced as words, such as AIDS for Acquired
Immune Deficiency Syndrome), rarely have periods between the letters. Check
your dictionary or style guide if you are unsure of the usage.

Space
Space is an element of punctuation because it shows readers where words, sen-
tences, and paragraphs begin and end. Space contributes to the readability of the
document. A text that is too jammed with words is harder to read.Your resume, for
example, should have enough white space to make it attractive and readable.
There should be no space between the end of the word and the punctuation.
A comma, for instance, should never appear at the beginning of the next line.
In the old days of typewriters, typists were taught to leave two spaces at the
end of a sentence. This is no longer the convention now that people use computers
and proportional fonts; one space is sufficient.
Space defines paragraphs. Generally, paragraphs are indented with five spaces,
or a half-inch tab space. Block-style paragraphing uses no indent but rather a blank
line between paragraphs. Readers should be able to easily see where a new para-
graph starts. Avoid sloppy, misleading spacing, such as indenting at the beginning of
a page where there is no new paragraph.
Proper margins are important for all your documents-leave an inch on each
side. Use left justification with a ragged right margin so that you will not have
gaps in your lines of text or have to figure out where to properly split a word with
hyphenation. Double-space assignments so that your instructor has room for cor-
rections and comments.
Do not use full justification for your work, because that creates uneven and
unattractive spaces between words. Some people do not like the ragged right edge
caused by left justification, but documents formatted that way are easier to read.

Commas
Commas are placed in sentences mainly to separate different parts of the sentence.
Commas generally appear:
• after initial adverbs: Thankfully, we hailed the rescue team.
• between items in a list: We ate roast beef, mashed potatoes, green peas, and
squash. OR We ate roast beef, mashed potatoes, green peas and squash.
• after adverb clauses: Because it was raining, we cancelled the picnic.
• before clauses introduced by coordinating conjunctions: I took a nap, and then
we left.
• before and after modifying phrases or clauses: John, who is this year's president,
gave a welcome speech.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 95

The second example in the list above shows the optional use of a serial
comma (also called an Oxford comma), a comma before the and in a list of more
than two items. Use of the serial comma is often just a matter of preference, but it
is mandated in both MLA and APA style (see Unit 8, pages 236-37). Whether you
choose to use the serial comma or not, be consistent.
Commas appear in lists of adjectives where the two adjectives have a similar
function and could be replaced with an and:
She told a strange, sad story about a beautiful Mexican dancer.
A missing comma can change the whole sentence:
Students come to classto learn not to have fun.
Students come to class to learn, not to have fun.
Commas differentiate restrictive and non-restrictive adjective clauses (see page 82).

The band members who did not get only some of the band members
their permission forms signed could not
join the field trip.

The band members, who did not get all the band members
their permission forms signed, could
not join the field trip.

Comma usage is sometimes a matter of style rather than a grammar requirement.

The best general rule to follow is to use a comma when it helps the reader under-
stand the sentence. For example, a comma after an adverb clause helps the reader
separate the two parts of the sentence.

When he was going out to exercise the This sentence is confusing because
dog started barking. the verb exercise can be both
transitive and intransitive, so "to
exercise the dog" makes sense. The
reader does not know where the
clause stops until after he has read
the whole sentence.

When he was going out to exercise, the The comma helps the reader to see
dog started barking. the two separate clauses.

The dog started barking when he was No comma is necessary because the
going out to exercise. conjunction when serves as a sentence
divider.
96 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

Exercise 3.19
Insert periods, commas, and capital letters where needed in the following
paragraph:

cleaning out my grandmother's cluttered musty old house after she

died was a monumental task like many old people who had lived through

unspeakable war and famine she was an incurable hoarder she kept old
newspapers plastic bags and cardboard boxes she did not trash out-of-date
calendars she just tacked up a new one in a different spot on the wall we
found new clothes that had been saved for a special occasion and never
used her husband's clothes still hung in the closet even though he had

passed away a dozen years earlier in the cold cellar were jars of pickled food
that must have been 20 years old two full-size freezers were crammed with
food some of the packages were many years old she felt safe with all her
possessions and never wanted to let anything go

Apostrophes
Essentially, apostrophes are used for contractions and for possessive forms.
A contraction is a shortened form of words, such as he isn't for he is not. In a
contraction, an apostrophe takes the place of dropped letters. For example, in verbs
contracted with not, the apostrophe replaces the 0 (isn't, doesn't, can't). The auxiliary
verbs be, have, and will are sometimes contracted: I'm going, they've noticed, she'll see, I
could've done it. Apostrophes can also show dropped numbers, as in "The radio sta-
tion played hits from the '70s." Apostrophes are not used in non-contracted verbs
(she tries, he listens). Do not confuse the verb form lets ("he lets me take the car")
with the contracted form let's (let us, as in "let's go").
Possessives are words that show that something belongs to something else (for
example,Jim's car, the students' pet rabbit). The possession can be a loose relationship,
as in such phrases as a day's work or a summer's day.
There seems to be an epidemic of apostrophe overuse and misuse today,
not only in students' writing but also on printed signs and even in some pub-
lished works. Some people incorrectly bestow apostrophes on words ending in s
and between nt letter combinations. As a result, we see miswritten words such as
"chair's" and even "he wan't's." A sentence such as "Were in trouble now" can be
impossible to read without the apostrophe in we're.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKILLS 97

An apostrophe can change the meaning of a sentence:

Thedrill sergeant called the recruits In other words, he called them

names. names, mocking them.

The drill sergeant called the recruits' This means that he called out their
names. names.

Apostrophes are not used before most plurals (many ways, two different techniques, a
dozen tomatoes). The very few exceptions are plurals when an -s alone would be
confusing:
He got all A'sand B's on his report card.
She dots her i's with circles.
Sometimes apostrophes are used in plurals of shortened words (for example,
reno's for renovations) and plurals of number and letter combinations, but these are
unnecessary:
He ordered CDs of hits from the 1960s and 1970s.
They booked two limos for transportation to the prom.

Exercise 3.20

Insert apostrophes where needed in the followinq sentences:

1. Susansbrother has been living in his grandfathers house to help take care
of him. Hes missed some classes but hes planning to make them up with
night classes. The universitys online program lets him follow many different
options.
2. Lets go to the Johnsons cottage this weekend. Weve had an open invitation
for ages. III just give them a call to see if its okay. ItII be good to get away, and
if we dont go now, who knows when well be able to get away?
3. James always listens to his teachers instructions because he knows how
important following instructions is to getting good marks.
4. Unlike his siblings, hes willing to take over his fathers business selling
antiques.
5. The students work needed to be completely redone. I dont know why there
were so many mistakes.

I
\
98 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Colons
Colons (:) are used to show illustration of an idea. They can be used to introduce a
sentence or a list. They should not be used after are or such as. Note these examples:

The pizza dough requires few correct:

ingredients: flour, water, sugar, salt, oil, The colon comes after a full sentence
and yeast. and before a list.

Myfavourite sports are: soccer, incorrect:

swimming, and squash. The colon is unnecessary.

There was only one thing left to do: He correct:

had to contact his friend's parents to let The capital on he is optional.
them know what happened.

Semicolons
Semicolons (;) are used between two related sentences and to distinguish items in a
complex list where commas are needed within some of the items in the list:
The soccer game was exciting to watch; the teams had each been previous
champions.
Dave was the strongest member of the team; however, he was let go because
he could not get along with anyone.
Canadian coins show a number of national symbols: the maple leaves on the
penny; the beaver, the animal that brought many Europeans to Canada, on
the nickel; the dime's Bluenose, a famous racing schooner from Nova Scotia;
the caribou on the quarter; the loon on the dollar coin; and the polar bear on
the two-dollar coin.

Quotation Marks
Quotation marks ("..." or '.. .') are used to show that you are using someone's exact
words (North American usage favours double quotation marks instead of single.)
Emma Teitel concludes that we have lost "the art of public confrontation:'
(page 298)
For a quote appearing within a quote, you should use quotation marks different
from the ones you used for the main quote (for example, single quotation marks
instead of double).
Peter Martyn points out that "George Orwell decried his contemporaries'
'lack of precision' in their use of words:' (page 261)
Quotation marks are also used around the titles of short stories and articles, while
the titles of books or newspapers are printed in italics. For example, "If the artists
starve, we'll all go hungry" was one of Elizabeth Renzetti's columns in The Globe
and Mail; it is reprinted in Skill Set.
 UNIT 3: SENTENCE WRITING SKillS 99

Hyphens and Dashes

A hyphen is used within a word (such as co-author and self-discipline), while a dash
is used between words in a sentence. Some words have two accepted spellings-
with a hyphen and without. Sometimes the word loses the hyphen over time. For
instance, the word e-mail is now usually written email. Check your dictionary if you
are not sure of the spelling.
If a word cannot fit on a line, a hyphen is used to break the word into two
parts. The hyphen must appear between syllables (syllable breaks are shown in dic-
tionaries). You will see this use of the hyphen in publications because the text is
written with full justification (both the right and left margins). If words were not
split, there would be annoying white spaces in the lines. You can avoid this use of
the hyphen by simply writing the whole word on the next line. Use only left justi-
fication with a ragged right margin in your documents.
A dash is used to set words off from the rest of the sentence. These words can
be extra information or a comment. The same function can often be met by com-
mas or parentheses (round brackets), which can set off a clause or phrase that is not
part of the main idea-but the dash gives more emphasis. Notice the usage of each
parenthetical dash in this section.
A parenthetical dash is also called an "em dash" (because of typesetting-it is
the same width as the letter M). There should be no space before or after the dash.
While a hyphen can be found on a standard keyboard, dashes are not. Word
processing programs may replace two typed hyphens with a long dash. Otherwise, it
is a symbol that can be inserted, along with the "en dash."The en dash is used with
numbers such as dates (for example, 1947-63) and is the width of the letter N, thus
not as wide as the em dash.

Capitalization
Capital letters appear at the beginning of sentences and on proper nouns (official
names):
Maria is planning a trip to Saskatoon to visit her grandmother.
In 2012, James Burton earned his M.B.A.at the Haskayne School of Business at
the University of Calgary.

The names of school subjects are capitalized if they are official titles but not if they
are general subject names. The names oflanguages, however, are always capitalized.
He wanted to take another biology course, so his advisor recommended BIOl
130, Introduction to Cell Biology. To fulfill his requirement for another English
course, he is taking Creative Writing.
The capital letter has been dropping from such common phrases as "French fries,"
but the word French should be capitalized because it is a proper noun-the name of
a nationality.
The use of capitals in the titles of books or articles depends on the citation
style used. In MLA style, for example, the title of this book would be written Skill
Set, and Emma Teitel's article (page 297) would be "Turning the Dinner Table on
Instagram," with the first and the main words capitalized. In APA style, the titles
100 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

would be Skill set and "Turning the table on Instagram," with the first word and
proper nouns capitalized. Newspaper headlines tend to be written with only the
first word (and proper nouns) capitalized.

Exercise 3.21

Capitalize the words that need capital letters in the following sentences:

1. the marine museum of the atlantic in halifax, nova scotia, has exhibits on the
1917 halifax explosion and the response to the sinking of the titanic in 1912.
2. sainte-marie among the hurons is a recreated seventeenth-century jesuit
mission headquarters in midland, ontario.
3. sir john a. macdonald was canada's first prime minister. his picture is on the
1O-dollar bill.
4. remembrance day honours canada's war dead. two minutes of silence
commemorates the end of world war I at 11 a.m. on november 11.
5. john mccrae wrote the poem "in flanders fields," which is often recited on
remembrance day.

Exercise 3.22

Add capitalization and punctuation where necessary:

1. mr peterson requested the review of the department because of its poor

performance the manager thought it was unnecessary
2. shakespeares play romeo and juliet tells the story of two teenagers in love
in sixteenth century italy its a tragic tale because the lovers are from two
feuding families
3. i dont know what to buy asa gift for joannes baby shower sheshaving twin boys
4. if youre worried about fitting the english course into your schedule why dont
you take it online
5. lets take the train to montreal so we dont have to worry about driving and
parking the citys subway system which is called the metro is an efficient way
to get around town
6. a man who grew up not having to do housework is less likely to help his wife
out around the house
7. to bake a cake you need to assemble the following ingredients butter sugar
eggs flour baking powder salt buttermilk baking soda and vanilla
8. i asked him to leave me a copy of the report but he forgot he finally emailed
it to me and i had to print out a copy
9. we went over every word of the report however we missed several errors so
it didnt look very good when we qave it to the supervisor
10. she asked whether i could take over her shift on saturday night i wanted to
go to jacks party so i said no

l
Paragraph Writing Skills

A paragraph is a unit of discourse, the building block of meaning for documents-

for essays, articles, and business and technical reports. A paragraph is defined by the
space around it-in other words, it has to look like a paragraph to be a paragraph,
no matter what it actually says or what the function of the paragraph is.
Readers depend on the space to see where each paragraph begins and ends.
Usually, a paragraph begins with an indentation and may end in the middle of
a line. In publications, the first paragraph after a title or subtitle is not generally
indented (as in this book). In business writing, block style is common: paragraphs
are not indented, but a blank line appears between paragraphs. Indenting the begin-
ning of paragraphs is the most common style for student writing. Whichever style is
used, it should allow the reader to distinguish the paragraphs easily.
The length of a paragraph depends on the purpose and the format of the
document. Most modern writing tends to be in short paragraphs. Newspapers and
magazines are printed in narrow columns, and long blocks of unbroken text are
difficult to read. Modern novels have a lot of dialogue, and the convention is to start
a new paragraph with each speaker. Websites also avoid long paragraphs because
short blocks of text are easier to read on screen. Moreover, modern readers have a
shorter attention span and so prefer shorter paragraphs. You can see much longer
paragraphs in books published more than 50 years ago.
Academic writing favours longer, more structured paragraphs, as shown in the
sample paragraphs and essays in this book. A single paragraph writing assignment
may be 150 to 200 words, but in an essay the paragraphs tend to be about 100
words each (with the introduction and conclusion slightly shorter than the body
paragraphs). In contrast, the explanation paragraphs you are reading now average
50 to 100 words. Some of the non-fiction reading selections in Part 2 have even
shorter paragraphs because the articles were originally published in newspapers
and magazines.
A paragraph is a unit of meaning, as is a sentence. Each paragraph puts forth
an idea and supports it. What is in a paragraph depends on the function it serves. It
may introduce or conclude an essay or provide a transition between sections of a
long essay. It may be a definition, description, or comparison.
102 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Most academic-style paragraphs start with a topic sentence, which introduces

the main idea. The rest of the paragraph is essentially composed of arguments sup-
porting the idea in the topic sentence, with supporting details supplied to prove
those arguments.
This unit isolates the paragraph as a writing assignment. Many writing courses
focus on paragraph structure first before moving onto essay writing. If your course
focuses on the essay, it is still important to review the basics of paragraph structure
in this unit.

To make sure your paragraphs are identifiable as paragraphs, indent the beginning of
the first sentence by five spaces (half an inch-one default tab space). For handwritten
essays, indent each paragraph about one to two inches.

Sometimes students are required to write single, expository paragraphs for assign-
ments. These independent paragraphs tend to be longer than the paragraphs that
would appear in an essay or report. The stand-alone expository paragraph may have
8 to 12 sentences and range from about 150 to 200 words. These paragraphs begin
with a topic sentence, have two to four supported points, and end with a con-
cluding sentence. In essence, they are a shorter version of an essay, and they allow
students to practise the basics of making arguments and supporting them before
moving on to the complexity of a longer piece of writing.
Here is a typical outline for an independent, developed paragraph:
Topic sentence, giving the main idea
Elaboration of topic sentence (if necessary)
Point 1
Support for Point 1 (explanation, example, illustration)
Point 2
Support for Point 2 (explanation, example, illustration)
Point 3
Support for Point 3 (explanation, example, illustration)
Concluding sentence
This is not the only way to develop an independent paragraph, but it is one
way that will lead you to success and help you to build your essay-writing skills.
This pattern of development can also be applied to body paragraphs of an essay.
Here are examples of developed paragraphs following this pattern. The word
count is included to show you typical length. Note that the first paragraph has
an elaboration sentence and four points. The second and third sample paragraphs
 ;

UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKIllS 103

are different viewpoints on the same subject; note how the opposing arguments
are presented.
Assignment prompt: What isthe value of takingnotes in school?
Students should take notes when they are attending lectures or reading.
Note-taking is a skill they can develop in their high school years and is
especially vital in college and university. First, by the very act of writing, they
are engaging in active, not just passive, learning. Research has shown that
students retain less if they only listen or read, but by writing and talking
about the material, they retain it better because these actions require more
of the brain. Second, note-taking forces students to process the information.
Because they cannot write down every word, they have to choose the most
important points, paraphrase, and summarize information. Even if the
notes are lost, the action of note-taking means that the material is better
understood and more firmly fixed in the brain. In addition, college and
university classes rely on the lecture to transmit information. The professor
might have a different take on the subject from the one offered in the
textbook and only explain it in class. Finally, students can use the notes they
have taken for review for tests and exams. It is easier to reread notes than
to reread the whole textbook. Thus, note-taking is a valuable practice for
students. [202 words J
Assignment prompt: Shouldcursive still be taught in school? {"no" answer]
It is not surprising that handwriting has been dropped from many
elementary school curricula. One reason is that cursive is difficult to master.
Many schoolchildren, especially those who are left-handed, can only
produce a nearly illegible scrawl nowhere near the model handwriting they
are copying. Writing by hand is so torturous that students in the past were
given lines to write as punishment for bad behaviour. Second, learning to
write takes hours of practice. These precious hours of school time could be
used for something else, such as math, reading, and physical education.
Most important, widespread use of computers has displaced most of the
reasons to write by hand. Students can type on a keyboard, or even speak out
loud, and end up with a neat and legible product. With laptops, tablets, and
smartphones, students always have an input device close at hand. Even the
need for a signature is disappearing as biometric data such as thumbprints
will soon be widely used to identify people. Writing by hand is another old-
fashioned skill that has justly met its end. [178 words]
Assignment prompt: Shouldcursive stillbe taught in school? ["yes" answer]
Despite the growing use of communication technology, elementary
school teachers should not give up teaching students to write in cursive.
First, writing by hand is good physical and mental exercise. Children

\
104 PART 1; SKILL DEVELOPMENT

develop fine motor skills by using a pen. It is also a calming exercise-people

doodle to help them think, for instance. Writing by hand fires up different
parts of the brain than typing does. For instance, students develop the
rhythm and muscle memory that helps them to remember the spelling of
words through the flow of one letter to the next. Taking lecture notes by hand
helps people remember the material better. In addition, people have more
of a connection with documents that are produced by hand. Handwriting is
personal, individual, and artistic. These qualities make a handwritten letter
more special than any electronic message. Finally, despite the proliferation
of electronic devices, cursive is still useful. A signature is still called for on
legal documents. Moreover, students often have to write tests and exams by
hand, and cursive is much faster to produce than printing. Students who do
not learn to write handwriting also cannot read it, leaving inaccessible many
documents, both historical and personal ones, such as their grandparents'
letters. For these reasons, handwriting is vital, not a relic that should be
tossed. [216 words]

Writing Topic Sentences ; \ :;·::~~,'l,!:ll'

" "

In academic writing, the topic sentence is generally the first sentence of the para-
graph. A topic sentence states a supportable idea that can be explained and explored
in the rest of the paragraph. All the other sentences in that paragraph relate to the
topic sentence; these sentences are more specific than the topic sentence, which is
quite general.
Topic sentences are particularly important in expository paragraphs that argue
or explain an idea. In essays, they are found in the body paragraphs but not in
the introduction or conclusion. Note too that narrative paragraphs and process
descriptions may open with the first event or step, so they might not have a topic
sentence introducing the paragraph. In an essay, the topic sentences of the body
paragraphs take their cue from the thesis statement. A good topic sentence should
tell the reader what to expect in the paragraph. For example, for a paragraph that
starts, "Editing is an important step in writing an essay;' the reader will expect that
the paragraph shows why editing is so important. The topic sentence also limits
the paragraph-all the sentences should fit under the umbrella of the topic sen-
tence. This is called unity-the paragraph should have one main idea. For example,
"Students should brainstorm their topic first" would not fit in the paragraph
about editing.
It is important to distinguish a topic from a topic sentence. A topic is what
the paragraph is about, such as "living in residence." In a topic sentence, there is a
controlling idea that says what idea the writer is going to explore about living in
residence, such as "living in residence is the best choice for first-year students."
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKillS lOS

Exercise 4.1
Consider these topic sentences, which have a different focus but on are on the same
topic. Discuss how they differ and what each paragraph would say. Note when the
focus is on the parents and when it is on their children.

(Note: Empty nesters are parents whose children have grown up and left home,
and boomerang kids are adults who come back to live in the family home, usually
after college or university graduation.)
1. Boomerang kids must make adjustments to their lifestyle in order to live
with their parents.
2. Adult children who live with their parents should contribute financially to
the household.
3. Adult children who still live at home must take on more responsibility for
household chores.
4. Parents should treat boomerang kids as adults, not children.
5. Many college and university graduates are forced to return to their
parents' home.
6. Empty nesters should downsize their homes once their children leave to
prevent them from returning.

The topic sentence

• should be the first sentence of the paragraph

• gives the main idea of the paragraph
• is a full, grammatical sentence and not a question
• should state a supportable idea that can be explained in one paragraph
• should be in the writer's words (not repeating the wording of a topic
question or quoting)
• should relate to the thesis (if it is the topic sentence of a body paragraph)

A well-written topic sentence serves as a guideline for the writer as well as

the reader, so instructors generally insist that students start with a topic sentence.
Practising writing topic sentences will also help students to write better thesis state-
ments for their essays. The main difference between a thesis statement and a topic
sentence is that a thesis statement gives the main idea of an essay while a topic
sentence introduces just a paragraph.

J
106 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Here are some examples of topic sentences for you to consider:

Assignment Prompt 1: Choose one study skill, and explain why it is important for
student success.

Students should preview textbook correct:

chapters before class. As required by the prompt, this
topic sentence identifies one study
skill. The reader expects the rest of
the paragraph to give reasons why
this action is important. This intent
would be clear even without the
topic question to refer to.

They should preview textbook chapters incorrect:

before class. The word they does not have an
antecedent-that is, we do not
know who they refers to. (Even if
the paragraph is part of an essay, the
topic sentence should not contain
pronouns unless the antecedent is in
the topic sentence itself)

Students should preview textbook incorrect:

chapters and take notes in lectures. A topic sentence should have one
main idea, not two.

I am going to explain the importance of incorrect:

previewing chapters. A topic sentence should not
announce the main argument.

Students can do many things to incorrect:

increase their chances of success in a This is too broad-you are not
course. going to talk about "many things"-
just one.

A student's life is hard. incorrect:

This sentence is too general-it
sounds as though it is introducing
a topic rather than stating a main
idea.
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 107

Assignment Prompt 2: Should fighting be banned in all levels of hockey?

Although many fans enjoy watching the correct:

fisticuffs, fights should not be allowed The topic sentence clearly states the
in hockey games. position and does not repeat the exact
wording of the topic question. (Note
that the first half of the sentence
is a subordinate clause making a
concession. See pages 83-85 and 184.)
Yes, fighting should be banned in incorrect:
hockey. A topic sentence should not begin
with yes or no.
Fighting should be allowed in hockey incorrect:
becausethe fans like it. Avoid using because in the topic
sentence; the rest of your body
paragraph will explain the reasons,
and giving one reason in your topic
sentence may limit your paragraph.
Hockey is the only professional sport incorrect:
that allows its players to fight in a game. This is a fact, not a supportable idea.
Why should fighting be banned in incorrect:
hockey? A topic sentence should answer the
question, not pose one (or repeat the
topic question).
Many people want to stop hockey incorrect:
players from fighting during games. This does not give the writer's
viewpoint.
Hockey is Canada's national game and incorrect:
the fans are passionate about it so they This is an overloaded topic sentence.
like everything, especially when the
players engage in an exciting bout of
fisticuffs, so hockey should stay the way
it is and keep fighting allowed.

Exercise 4.2

Here are three prompts for paragraph-writing assignments. For each prompt.
consider each of the five options given for possible topic sentences. Explain why
each sentence would work or would not work to begin a paragraph answer.
1. How should young adults deal with overprotective parents?
a) There are many ways young adults could try dealing with their
overprotective parents.

-----------------------------------------------_/ --
108 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

b) Young adults need to prove that they are responsible.

c) These days, young adults and parents seem to have many issues.
d) Many parents are too worried about their children and want to protect
them in every situation.
e) No matter the age, parents will always be protective of their children.
2. Why is it important for students to prepare for lectures?
a) It is important for students to prepare for lectures.
b) Students can do many things to prepare for lectures.
c) Students can read ahead to prepare for lectures.
d) Why is it important for students to prepare for lectures?
e) By reading ahead to prepare, students can understand lectures more
easily.
3. Should employees be allowed to bring dogs into the workplace?
a) Dogs are very important to humans.
b) It depends on the workplace.
c) Just as dogs have earned a place in people's homes, dogs should be
welcomed in some workplaces.
d) I think dogs should be allowed in the workplace.
e) No, dogs do not belong in the workplace.

The topic sentence introduces the main idea that is being put forth in the para-
graph. That main idea is argued with several points. In the paragraph below, three
points (marked in boldface) support the idea that teenagers make a profitable
movie audience:
Teenagers are the most desirable market for movie producers. They are
more likely than any other age group to spend their entertainment dollar on
the cinema. First, teenagers go to the movies as their main social activity.
They are old enough to go out on their own but too young for other social
activities such as bar-hopping. They even go to see movies they are not that
interested in simply because their friends are going, and they might see a
movie more than once. Moreover, teenagers prefer the theatre as a more
enjoyable environment for movies. They get out from under their parents'
watchful eyes and appreciate the full effects of a large screen and superior
sound system. Their parents, on the other hand, often prefer to cocoon at
home and wait for the DVD. Finally, teenagers have disposable income to
spend at the cinema. They often have allowances and part-time jobs but do
not have to pay rent or tuition, unlike college and university students. It is not
surprising that so many movies today are aimed at teenagers'tastes.

The points made should relate directly to the topic sentence and should have
the same focus. The points should be supportable yet more specific than the topic
sentence. For example, for the topic sentence "Part-time jobs can be very beneficial
to students," your points should say why part-time jobs are good and should focus
 ...

UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 109

on the students' point of view, not the employers' or the parents'. Here are some
examples of sentences created as points for a topic sentence for you to consider:
Topic sentence: Part-timejobs can be very beneficial to students.

a) Students generally work at low- incorrect:

wage jobs as servers in restaurants. This does not show a benefit for
students.

b) Students can gain many benefits incorrect:

from part-time jobs. This does not make a point; it just
repeats the main idea of the topic
sentence.

c) Employers can pay students less incorrect:

money. This is a benefit for employers, not
students.

d) Students can develop good work correct:

habits. This is a benefit for students.

e) Students have to learn to manage incorrect:

their time efficiently to balance This is a requirement, not a benefit.
both work and school. (Note, however, that a rewording
would give a benefit, using "to
balance both work and school":
"Students learn valuable time
management skills when they have to
balance both work and school.")

f) Part-time jobs are an important correct:

source of income for students. This is a benefit for students.

g) Handling customers is an incorrect:

important part of many entry jobs. Though related to a benefit (students
can learn people skills by handling
customers), it is not the actual benefit.

h) Students eventually have to enter incorrect:

the work world. This does not show the connection to
part-time jobs.

i) Students who work develop useful correct:

skills. This is a benefit for students.

j) It is difficult for students to afford incorrect:

tuition and the cost of living. Though this shows the reason why
students need money, it does not
focus on the benefits of working.
110 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 4.3

For the following topic sentence, choose three sentences that would make the best
points for that paragraph:

Cooking a meal from scratch is a worthwhile skill to acquire.

a) Cooking is a lost skill.
b) Home-cooked meals are more nutritious.
c) People eat too much junk food.
d) Cooking at home is less expensive than eating out.
e) Many prepared foods are available in grocery stores.
f) Cooking is useful for entertaining and impressing guests.
g) Cooking is not very difficult to learn.
h) Cooking at home is very important.

When you make a point, you have to support it. Support means giving the reader
examples or explanations to make that point clear and to convince the reader of
its validity. The supporting sentences are more specific than the point they are sup-
porting. Note that restating a point is not supporting it.
Point: Documents must be written for the intendedaudience.

Supporting Sentence Type of Support

The level of vocabulary and the background given an explanation
should reflect the knowledge the proposed reader has
about the subject.

For example, a computer user manual should have an example

simple instructions with no jargon.

It is important that you give specific support and not make general statements as
shown in the next example:
Assignment prompt: Whatis the best sport to watchin the Winter Olympics?

Hockey is the best sport to watch in the winter This paragraph has weak
Olympics. First, it is very exciting. The action is fast- support because it is too
paced. Fanscan watch what is happening and be general. The statements
very entertained. Second, it is a surprise as to who will could apply to most
win. Fanswatch because the game could have any sports, not just hockey.
outcome. They do not know who will eventually win
the game. Finally, hockey players are athletes playing
at the top of their game. They have trained for many
years,and they have many skills. It is exciting to watch
skilled athletes. For these reasons, hockey is the not-
to-be-missed event of the Olympics.
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 111

Ofall the impressive athletic contests that people This paragraph is better
can watch at the Winter Olympics, hockey is the one that because the support
most deserves viewers' attention. First, hockey is exciting is more specific to
because of its speed. Skaters can move faster than hockey.
runners.Aconstant turnover of players as lines change on
the flymeans that the players are ready to go at full tilt.
Thepuck shot across the ice can travel at 90 kilometres an
hour-as fast as a car going down a highway. The speed
ofthe game also means that players have to have quick
reflexes. The audience has to pay attention to see all the
action.Most important, hockey is a community-building
sport. All Canadians have a patriotic duty to support their
hockeyteam because it is our national sport. Canadians
gather in sports bars, community centres, and schools to
watch their team play. No contest is viewed more than
the gold medal hockey game.

Note how the structure of a paragraph moves from general to specific. The
topic sentence is general, the points are more specific, and the support given is
more specific still. Study this example:
For the topic sentence "Canadians can reduce the amount of garbage going
into landfills," here are three possible points:
1. They can reduce what they bring home.
2. They can find other uses for what they no longer need.
3. They can use recycling facilities.

In a developed paragraph, points such as these generally have from one to three
sentences in support. For this example on the environment, a reader would expect that
each of these three points be followed by statements that explain how Canadians can
do this. Discuss how this is accomplished in the following deconstructed paragraph:
Topic sentence: Environmentally conscious Canadians can reduce the amount of
garbage going into landfills.
Point #1: First, they can shop Wiselyto buy less.
a) They do not need to replace functional electronics, clothing, and
furniture simply because they are not the latest style.
b) They can choose products with less packaging, such as bulk food items.
Point #2: Canadians can also find other uses for what they no longer need.
a) For example, they can donate used clothing to thrift shops.
b) Ifthey are handy, they can refurbish furniture.
Point #3: Finally, Canadians can use recycling facilities offered by their municipality.
a) They can make sure that cans and bottles are placed in designated bins.
b) In addition, they should separate recyclable paper and cardboard in
their garbage collection.
Concluding sentence: All Canadians must do their part to protect the environment.
112 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Activity
In small groups, come up with another supporting statement for each of the three
points in the paragraph outline above.

Exercise 4.4

Below is a topic sentence, followed by three points. After each point is a selection of
sentences (labelled a, b, and c) written to support the point. Choose the sentence or
group of sentences that makes the best support for each point:

I OplC sentence: Punctualityis important to successin college.

1. First, when students arrive on time for class, they create a good
impression.
a) They are less likely to miss important information and tests, and so
their marks will be higher.
b) They impress the teacher. The teacher will be quite satisfied with the
impression the students make.
c) They show that they are interested in the class and are prepared
to work hard. Teachers are more likely to give breaks to such
hardworking students.
2. In addition, students who are late often miss important information.
a) A lot of important information is given at the beginning of class, and
latecomers will lose out. That will result in a lower mark.
b) For example, they may not get the feedback from the last assignment,
which is often handed back first in class.They will also miss the
explanation for that day's lesson.
c) Sometimes there is a pop quiz at the beginning of class. Latecomers
who miss it will get a mark of zero.
3. Finally, late students miss out on time given for tests and assignments.
a) They show that they don't care about the test, so the instructor is less
likely to take their work seriously.
b) These students get a lower mark if they do not complete a test.
Sometimes they might even miss a test entirely since pop quizzes are
often given at the beginning of class.
c) Tests are very important, and students need to pass these tests to
pass the course. Every test mark counts and can make the difference
between passing and failing the course.
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKillS 113

Exercise 4.5

Academic writing usually moves from general to more specific statements. Pick the
most general from the following statements:

1. a) College students do not have parents shepherding them through their

schedules.
b) College students have to become self-sufficient when they strike out
on their own.
c) College students have to prepare their own meals.
d) College students have to be responsible for rent, utilities, and
transportation.
2. a) She won our neighbourhood Monopoly challenge.
b) She is good at all sorts of games.
c) She cleaned us all out in poker last night.
d) She was always the leader of the children in the playground.
3. a) Smoking impairs your ability to breathe.
b) Smoking is bad for your health.
c) Smoking can lead to lung disease.
d) Smoking makes your breath stink.
4. a) Contract work can lead to abuse of workers.
b) Contract workers often receive no benefits.
c) Contract workers have no job stability.
d) Contract workers get paid less for the same work.
5. a) Some people put clothes on their pets.
b) Some people sleep with their pets.
c) Some people treat their pets like people.
d) Some people pamper pets with spa treatments or doggie daycare.

Exercise 4.6

For the following selection of points, determine whether the choices given are
examples of good support or poor support, and explain why. For instance, an
example or explanation is good support, whereas a repetition of the idea or a
sentence that goes off-topic does not work as support.

1. Some tattoos are memorials.

a) A person may get a tattoo with the name of a friend, family member, or
pet who has died.
b) Some people get a tattoo representing their favourite sports team.
c) Tattoos can be very beautiful artwork.
d) Tattoos are permanent.
114 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

2. One advantage of destination weddings is that the couple and the guests
get a vacation.
a) They could spend a week at a luxury resort on a Caribbean island.
b) Destination weddings also limit the number of guests that can attend.
c) The wedding participants can enjoy a holiday away from home.
d) Some people prefer destination weddings as something different.
3. Improving public transit benefits society as a whole.
a) Less polluting exhaust is produced by buses or trains than by individual
vehicles.
b) Everybody can benefit from more buses and trains.
c) More efficient transit means that people waste less of their workday
sitting in traffic jams.
d) The benefits not only accrue to transit users themselves but also to their
employers and their families and to those who commute by car.
4. Although intern positions are supposed to help young people enter the
workforce in their field, unpaid internships are not as beneficial as they are
considered to be.
a) Many employers take advantage of the system and use interns as unpaid
labour.
b) With so many interns and so few jobs, the odds of getting a paid position
are not good.
c) Many graduates take internships to gain experience in their field.
d) Unpaid internships do not benefit young people even though they are
supposed to be an entry into a good job.

Exercise 4.7
In pairs or small groups, write one or two sentences to support each of these general
statements. Compare your answers with your classmates':

1. Students need good study habits to succeed in college. (What habits?)

2. Job candidates need to prepare for an interview. (How?)
3. Hiking in the wilderness can be dangerous. (Why?)
4. Board games can teach children valuable skills. (What skills?)
5. Students can furnish their first apartment very cheaply. (How?)

Giving Examples
Examples make good support for points because they make it easy for your reader
to see what you mean. However, sometimes students struggle using examples
effectively in paragraphs. Many students have three common problems: not mak-
ing the example specific enough, misusing the words and expressions that indicate
examples, and dragging out an example into a story.
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 115

Specific Examples
A good example is specific, not general. Study these sentences:

Exercise can be incorporated into correct:

everyday activities. For instance, people The second sentence gives an example
can take the stairs instead of the elevator.
of a specific activity-taking the stairs.
The story of Laura Secord warning the correct:
British troops of an American attack The second sentence gives an
includes many myths. For example, one example of a myth-that she led a
version says she led a cow through the cow.
swamp.

SWimming has many physical benefits. incorrect:

For example, swimmers get exercise. This example (getting exercise) is too
general.
SWimming has many physical benefits. correct:
For example, swimmers enjoy full body This example is more specific.
movement without putting pressure on
their joints.

In order to succeed, salespeople must incorrect:

be outgoing. For example, they cannot
Instead of actually giving an example,
be shy.
the sentence repeats the same idea in
different words.

The Languageof Examples

The transition signals for example and for instance are generally used to introduce a
sentence example. The two expressions mean essentially the same thing and so are
usually interchangeable. They usually appear at the beginning of the sentence, but
they can be in the middle or at the end:

People can cut down on unnecessary trips with their vehicles. For example,
they can walk or bicycle to the corner store.

Students can build their reading skills gradually. They can read children's
books, for instance, to develop their abilities with simpler vocabulary and
sentence structure.

Make sure you have a complete sentence:

Children learn many useful skills when incorrect:

they play board games. For example, This is a sentence fragment.
counting skills.

Children learn many useful skills when correct:

they play board games. For example, This is a full sentence.
they practise counting.

-----------------------------------------------
116 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

You can also use example as a noun:

The homeowners came across several setbacks as they were finishing
their basement. One example was the leak they uncovered in the back
of the house.
If you are giving a list of examples within a sentence, use the verb include or the
phrase such as:
My courses this semester include biology, psychology, and chemistry.
I like to play team sports, such as baseball and hockey.
Both include and such as tell the reader that these are only some of the examples,
so do not end the sentence with and so on, etc., or an ellipsis (...). (Note that the
comma appears before such as, not after.)
Finally, do not use abbreviations such as e.g., i.e., and etc. in your paragraphs
and essays. These abbreviations are useful for note-taking but are not suitable in
academic writing.

Avoiding Narrative Examples

A common writing problem among students is launching into a drawn-out story
of a real or hypothetical person when they want to give an example to support a
point. This use of narrative in examples leads to wordiness and distracts from the
main point:

People who live in a messy incorrect:

environment have many problems. Five sentences are used to give the
One of them is wasting time looking for example about Tom-the reader will
things that are misplaced. For example, lose track of the main point.
Tom has ajob interview. As he is getting
ready, he starts looking for a clean
white shirt and a copy of his resume.
He digs through all his stuff at home
but without any success. As a result, he
loses time and arrives at the interview
too late. Thus, he lost a good chance to
get a good job.

People who live in a messy correct:

environment have many problems. This example is given in one
One of them is wasting time looking sentence.
for things that are misplaced. For
example, a job candidate who arrives
late for his interview because he could
not find a clean shirt may lose his
chance at the job.
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 117

To avoid giving narrative examples, try to give your example in one sentence
(usually a complex sentence), and focus on the important information that relates
to the point you are making.
You can practise rewriting narrative examples in Exercise 7.22 on page 225.

If you are writing a single-paragraph writing assignment, your paragraph should

have a concluding sentence to tie it all up. Generally, the concluding sentence
echoes the topic sentence-giving essentially the same main idea but not repeating
it in the same words. (Note that in an essay or report, a body paragraph does not
necessarily need to be wrapped up in a concluding sentence; shorter paragraphs do
not need a concluding sentence because the topic sentence is probably still fresh in
the reader's mind.)
Note the concluding sentence at the end of the following stand-alone paragraph:
Although working part-time can create a serious time crunch, high
school students should consider the many advantages of having a job. The
most important consideration is the money. The cost of such desired items
as a cellphone or designer clothing can exceed a teenager's allowance. More
important, however, many students must start saving for their post-secondary
education. In addition, part-time jobs give students a taste of the working
world. With this taste, they can find out what jobs suit their personality
and talents. For instance, they can learn whether they like dealing with the
public. They also learn how hard it is to work, especially in minimum-wage
jobs. This gives them a greater appreciation for the work itself and for the
education required to get a better job. Finally, in the workplace students gain
valuable skills. These skills include practical ones, such as working with cash
or answering the telephone, and soft skills, such as communication strategies
and working as a team. Therefore, students who can handle the load
should work part-time to reap the many benefits of a job.

Activity
Examine the concluding sentences in the sample paragraphs in this unit. Consider
how they differ from the topic sentences.

Exercise 4.8

Here are six topic sentences, some of which are from previous exercises in this unit.
Write a concluding sentence that could complete the paragraph. Usethe same basic
idea as in the topic sentence, but do not use the same wording.
1. Punctuality is important to success in college.
2. Adult children who live with their parents should contribute financially to
the household.
3. Students should preview textbook chapters before class.
118 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

4. Survival swimming skills should be taught to all children.

5. Cooking a meal from scratch is a worthwhile skill to acquire.
6. The weather is a safe topic of conversation for small talk.

A paragraph should have unity-it should have one main idea. The topic sentence
sets out this main idea, and all the other sentences should fit under the umbrella
of the topic sentence. For example, a paragraph that begins "Part-time jobs can be
very beneficial to students" should only have sentences that explain why part-time
jobs are good for students. It should not contain sentences that give the disadvan-
tages of working or explain how to find a job.

Exercise 4.9

Identify the two sentences that do not fit in this paragraph:

ESL students can benefit from reading children's fairy tales. First, reading
is the best way to improve general language skills because it exposes
students to both language and ideas. The simpler vocabulary and sentence
structure of children's books make them accessible to ESL students and
allow them to build their reading skills gradually. Modern novels are also
good reading practice because students have to follow a complex plot with
a variety of characters. Second, fairy tales are part of the culture, and ESL
students need to be familiar with these stories to understand references
in film and other literature. For example, psychology books may refer to a
person exhibiting a Cinderella complex. The characters are well known and
can appear in movies, in modern novels, or even in newspaper articles. For
instance, a politician's situation might be described as "the emperor's new
clothes," a reference to a story by Hans Christian Andersen. Andersen was a
Dane who had an unhappy childhood but gained a measure of fame with
the stories he wrote. Furthermore, the fantastical worlds of magic, witches,
and elves can be entertaining. The popularity of these tales has survived over
centuries to modern incarnations such as the Harry Potter books. Rather than
dismissing fairy tales as juvenile reading, ESL students should seek them out
as supplemental reading.

Exercise 4.10

Choose which of these 12 sentences would fit under this topic sentence:

.lopic sentence: The economics ofprofessional sport is detrimental to the fan base.
1. Games often start later in the evening so that they can be broadcast in
the more lucrative prime-time spots even though that is often too late for
younger viewers.
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKillS 119

2. Violence should be better controlled in games so that it does not set a bad
example for children.
3. Amateur athletes are struggling to survive on very little money.
4. Free agents switch teams as they chase bigger salaries, so fans have trouble
staying loyal to certain players.
5. Games are paused so that broadcasters can insert commercial breaks.
6. Professional athletes often sign multi-million-dollar endorsement contracts.
7. High salaries of players are often reflected in higher ticket prices.
8. Athletes demand higher salaries not because they need the money but because
it is part of a competition-the best-paid athlete is considered the best athlete.
9. Games are less interesting to watch when the team with all the high-priced
talent is generally the one that wins.
10. Fans of small-market teams are often in danger of losing their teams to
bigger cities.
11. Expansion of leagues requires more players, diluting the talent pool.
12. Only billionaires can afford to buy sports franchises.

Writers need to help readers follow the development of their ideas. To this end,
they use transition markers or signals-words and expressions that introduce a sen-
tence to show how the sentence relates to other sentences.
For example, a phrase such as for example tells readers that the sentence is an
example of the point made in the previous sentence. Just as signals on a car tell
the drivers behind where the driver is going, the signals in a paragraph tell readers
where the ideas are going so they can follow them.

Common transition signals

Addition: also, finally, first, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next, second
Cause and effect: accordingly, as a result, consequently, therefore, thus
Comparison: likewise, similarly
Contrast: however, in contrast, instead, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the
other hand, otherwise
Emphasis or clarity: in fact, indeed, in other words, of course, that is
Special features or examples: for example, for instance, in particular, mainly,
specifically
Summary: in brief, in closing, in conclusion, in short, on the whole, to conclude,
to summarize
Time relations: afterwards, at that time, earlier, in the meantime, lately, later,
meanwhile, now, then
120 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Most of these expressions function as adverbs and are sometimes called con-
junctive adverbs or adverbial connectors. It is important to distinguish them from
conjunctions such as although and but so that you join sentences correctly. (This
grammar point is discussed in Writing Adverb Clauses in Unit 3.)
Here are some examples of transition signals at work. Note that in the follow-
ing pairs of sentences, the second pair includes a transition signal making it easier to
follow the meaning:
1. a) I went through the paper files to scan the older documents into the system.
I weeded out the out-of-date papers and checked the accuracy of the
information in the system.
1. b) I went through the paper files to scan the older documents into the system. At
the same time, I weeded out the out-of-date papers and checked the accuracy
of the information in the system.
2. a) Essay writing helps students to develop their thinking skills. They have to
understand the relationship between a general idea and a specific example.
2. b) Essay writing helps students to develop their thinking skills. For instance, they
have to understand the relationship between a general idea and a specific
example.
3. a) Smokers should have the right to decide whether they poison their own
bodies or not. They cannot make that choice for the others whom they affect
with second-hand smoke.
3. b) Smokers should have the right to decide whether they poison their own
bodies or not. However, they cannot make that choice for the others whom
they affect with second-hand smoke.

Exercise 4.11

Write an appropriate transition signal in each blank:

1. Computer games can give children an opportunity to exercise their problem-

solving skills. r in a strategy game, children have to work

through different scenarios to make the most advantageous move.

2. Many drivers exhibit unnecessary aggressive behaviour on the highway.
Some tailgate trying to make other drivers speed up or move out of the way.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ , some drivers weave in and out of lanes looking for any
space to advance.
3. Disney movies often have "happily ever after" endings even when the source
material is a tragedy. , in the Hans Christian Andersen
story "The Little Mermaid," the mermaid dies at the end, while in the Disney
cartoon she marries the prince.
4. We worked together to paint the room efficiently: Jack used the roller to
cover the large surfaces. I used a brush to cut in around
the trim and the corners.
5. I missed the class when our instructor taught us how to do a summary.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ , I did not do well on the summary test.

----_._-------------........-
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 121

6. The Canadian team was considered a favourite for the championship.

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ , the odds changed when a few of the top players were
injured.
7. The United States is the most powerful country in the world.
, it is understandable that many underdog countries feel
resentment toward Americans.
8. Many parents solve their children's problems, which does not help their
children's self-confidence. , when the children grow up,
they depend on other people to solve their problems.
9. A post-secondary education costs students thousands of dollars.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ , graduates can expect greater income.
10. Reading children's books is good reading practice because the stories have
simpler ideas, structures, and vocabulary. , children's
books teach about the culture.
11. First, he went to the bank to withdraw some cash. he
went to bargain with the person selling the bike.
12. Modern technology is supposed to improve communication between
people. , people tend to email strangers across the world
rather than actually talk to their next-door neighbour.
13. People sleep better if they wind down before they go to bed.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ , instead of watching television or using the computer,
they should read or listen to restful music.
14. In an ice hockey game, five players try to shoot a rubber puck into a goal net
against a goaltender. , ringette has five players on the ice
with a goaltender. , ringette is played with a straight stick
and a rubber ring.

The sentences in a paragraph must fit together in a logical, coherent manner. The
word cohere means "to stick together."
Readers can follow a paragraph better when the ideas are in an order they are
familiar with. For instance, a paragraph describing the history of something would
most likely be in chronological order. Subtopics should be dealt with one at a time.
For example, in the paragraph on the benefits of part-time jobs on page 117, both
financial reasons are dealt with together, at the beginning.
Another way to achieve coherence is through the use of transition signals,
like for example and in addition. The use of these signals was shown in the previous
section.
In addition, pronouns refer to a specific noun and help to link sentences:
Andrew had to get his project approved. It [refers to the project] was an
orientation film in which he [Andrew] needed to interview first-year students.
They [the students] would discuss the problems they had faced.

~--------------------------_ .....
122 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Demonstrative pronouns (such as this and these) also help to link sentences:
Fairy tales, folk tales, and myths are important parts of children's books. These
stories teach a cultural heritage that is built upon in other kinds of literature.

Remember that in English, an indefinite article is usually used the first time some-
thing is mentioned, and then a definite article is used thereafter. This grammatical
structure also helps readers follow the ideas:
We wrote a report at the end of our project. The report summarized our
problems and how we overcame them.
Repeating key words, or using synonyms to refer to them, is another way to ensure
coherence in a paragraph:
Luxury cars are a waste of money. While these vehicles are comfortable and
well made, they are too expensive to purchase, maintain, and insure. Drivers
really just need a car to get them safely from point A to point B.The powerful
engine of a luxury automobile is uselesswhen a driver is stuck in a traffic jam
or restricted by speed limits.

How coherence is achieved

• in the order of the sentences

• by the use of transition signals to show the reader how the ideas connect
• by the use of pronouns to refer back to nouns in a previous sentence
• through the repetition of words and ideas

Examine the paragraphs below, reviewing the features of a good paragraph as you
read. Compare the topic sentence and concluding sentence of each. Identify the
points made to prove the main idea and the specific examples or explanations used
to support the points. Identify transition signals and other methods used to achieve
coherence.

Sample Paragraph: Choosing a College Program

Shouldstudents choose a college programbased on what they liketo do or on what they
think will get them a job?
Students who enrol in college should choose a career path based on
their own interests and talents rather than on a job's earning potential.
One reason is that people spend a large part of their lives at work, and it is
wrong to waste precious hours of life doing something they do not enjoy.
Second, if they choose a career in an area where they are talented, they will
probably achieve more. For example, an accountant who wishes she had
followed her passion for music will probably not be as successful in her job as
someone who actually enjoys working with numbers. Finally, the job market
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 123

is unpredictable. For example, a diploma in computer programming used to

be considered a guaranteed ticket to economic success, but with the high-
tech bust, many programmers found themselves unemployed and forced to
reinvent themselves in other fields. Thus, high school graduates should follow
their passions when they choose a career.

Sample Paragraphs: English Names

The following two paragraphs on English names have different purposes and
styles. The first is cause/effect, explaining reasons. The second is a process para-
graph; it explains how to do something. Note that this paragraph uses you because it
addresses readers directly. It is not a general you referring to all people.
Assignment 1. Why do Chinese students often adopt English nicknames?
Choosing an English nickname is a common practice among Chinese
students. This practice starts as a fun activity in class, often initiated by their
teachers. However, the students may go on to use this name in their dealings
with English-speaking people, whether in business, travel, further studies,
or eventual emigration. While many immigrants are reluctant to anglicize
their names, the Chinese are used to being called by different nicknames
rather than their official given names. Therefore, they do not see adopting
a nickname as losing their identity-just as adopting yet another one.
Moreover, they find an English name practical when they move to countries
such as Canada. English speakers generally find Chinese names more difficult
to pronounce and remember than names from other languages. Chinese
students and immigrants may decide it is easier to adopt a new given name
than to hear their name regularly mangled. It is important, therefore, to make
a wise selection so that the name is suitable for use in the future.
Assignment 2./n a paragraph, give advice to someone choosing an English name.
If you decide to choose an English name, it is important to choose a
suitable one. The most important criterion is the sound of the name. Ideally,
your new name should share some sounds with your actual given name,
such as"Julia"for "Jun-Lu" Most important, the sounds should be ones that
come across clearly when you pronounce them. Avoid difficult sounds in
English, such as the "th" sound. Two-syllable words are easier to hear than
monosyllables, so "Jason"comes across more clearly than "Fred:' Because
the name is supposed to make your life easier, stick to fairly common given
names. Search online baby name sites, which give information such as the
popularity of names over time. For instance, old-fashioned names like Ethel
and Wilbur would sound out of place today. Finally, choose a name for its
practicality. You may be attracted by what the name means or the fact that it
is the name of your favourite movie character, but you may have to say and
answer to your English given name every day. Having a name such as"Money"
and "Bambi" will not make it easier for a person to fit in. Choosing an English
name requires thought and research-and many second opinions, so tryout
your name with English native speakers before you settle on it.
124 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Sample Paragraphs: Family Dinner

The following paragraphs are all on the same topic-the family meal. Read the
paragraphs, and examine the structure and language of each paragraph. Look at the
main idea in the topic sentence, and identify the points made and the supporting
sentences. Determine the approach of each paragraph. For example, is the para-
graph discussing causes, effects, or solutions? Is it descriptive? Is it a comparison?
Does it describe a process? Determine the style of each paragraph-is it personal,
conversational, or academic?
Compare Paragraphs A to F See how the same information can be given dif-
ferently for a different purpose. You can also compare these paragraphs to an essay
on the same topic on pages 150-51.
With a partner or in a small group, write a possible topic question for each
paragraph. You have to imagine what question would have generated the para-
graph-in essence, you are working backwards by extrapolating the question from
the paragraph.

Paragraph A
The shared family meal is yet another casualty of the hectic modern lifestyle. We
do not take the time to sit down to dinner together. One reason is our complicated
schedules. Children's after-school and evening hours are filled with sports and music
lessons.When they reach the teenage years,these activities are replaced by part-time
jobs. Parents not only work long hours, but their return home may be delayed because
of a long commute. As a result, family members often eat separately. Moreover, a
sit-down meal requires time to prepare and to consume. People do not want to devote
that much time to what they consider a simple act of fuelling their bodies. Finally,
many lack the culinary skills to make nutritious and appealing meals. They rely on
restaurant take-out and processed foods from the supermarket. It is not surprising that
suppliers of ready-to-eat food are doing such good business, and it does not look as
though this trend will reverse itself any time soon. Family dining is obviously a thing
of the past.

Paragraph B
As our family sat down to Thanksgiving dinner, I enjoyed the sight of the
gathering of the clan for the traditional meal. The whole extended family, all 17 of us,
came dressed in Sunday best. My grandfather sported his favourite bowtie, and the
younger girl cousins had new dressesto show off. The main table was set with the best
linen, china, and crystal, and the centrepiece of gourds and autumn foliage proclaimed
the season.The children's table was at the end of the formal dining table, but it looked
festive even with the orange polyester tablecloth and everyday dishes. After saying
grace, we passed the dishes around the table. Everyone had contributed to the meal:
Grandma had cooked the turkey, and Grandpa had carved it. Uncle Garth had brought
his special wild cranberry sauce.Aunt Judy's vegetable medley tempted even the
most determined of broccoli haters. My mother's pumpkin pie topped with dollops of
whipped cream was the traditional dessert. It was a scene played out every year, but I
never got tired of it.

l---- ______
 UNIT 4: PARAGRAPH WRITING SKILLS 125

Paragraph C
A shared meal is an important family ritual, worth nurturing and keeping alive
even in the fast-paced lives of the twenty-first century. First, families who take the
time to dine together are generally eating healthier foods. They are not gobbling
down a slice of pizza before running off to a night class or music lesson. Families who
value mealtime usually take care with the food itself-making sure it is nutritious and
tasty.In addition, the family meal is an opportunity for learning. Children can help to
prepare and serve the meal, thus acquiring practical cooking skills. They can also learn
social skills, such as proper table etiquette, that will serve them well in their future
businesslunches. Finally, a family meal is above all a time for family members to touch
baseand talk about what is happening in their daily lives. At the end of the school-
and workday, the family can sit down together and share what happened that day as
they eat their evening meal. Families that eat together have stronger bonds because
the shared meal is a uniting element in family life.

Paragraph 0
Although experts saythat the family meal fosters communication skills and intimacy,
dining together does not work for all families. Some people are just not good cooks.
A pizza pocket heated in the microwave may be better than what can be produced in
the home kitchen. Familiesthat lack cooking skills may also find it stressful to try to
produce edible meals. In addition, having dinner together may not be worth the time
and effort involved. Shopping, meal preparation, and cleaning up all take valuable time.
Coordinating schedules to clear a mealtime for everyone can be impossible. Finally,
many people find eating with their families stressful. Instead of casual conversation,
children may be subjected to grilling-having to explain their failing grades or account
for a call from their teacher. Parents may nag their children about their eating habits or
their manners. The picture of the family dining together is as old-fashioned as a Norman
Rockwell painting, so families should not worry too much if they cannot achieve that ideal.

Paragraph E
Over the past three generations, the eating habits of Canadians have changed
dramatically. In the past, mealtimes were generally regular, and families often sat down
to share a meal together. Today's busy families rarely find the time to eat together;
people grab a bite to eat when they can and often eat alone, sometimes taking their
food to their bedrooms or eating in front of the TV. Instead of home-cooked meals,
Canadians today eat more processed foods and restaurant meals. Supermarkets stock
a variety of prepared foods-from frozen dinners to deli meals. The growth of fast-
food restaurants shows how important they have become to family life. The types of
foods Canadians eat have also changed because of the greater variety of ethnic food
available. They used to have very conservative tastes, sticking to the food they knew
from home. Now Canadians of all ethnic backgrounds consume Italian pasta, Chinese
stir fry, Greek souvlaki, Thai noodles, Tex-Mex tacos, and Middle Eastern hummus.
Moreover, fruits and vegetables are shipped in from all over the world, so Canadians
are not restricted by what is locally in season. Our food and the way we eat it is in line
with the way we prefer to live our lives.
 126 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

Paragraph F
Evenwith today's hectic lifestyle, it is possible to reap the benefits of a shared family
meal. First, it is important to acknowledge the importance of the family dinner and to
schedule time for it. This may mean cutting down on some activities. At the very least,
Sunday dinner should be set aside as family time. Second, if the meal is planned ahead of
time, it will go more smoothly. The menu should be decided on, and groceries should be
bought beforehand. In addition, the work should be shared. If it is up to only one person to
do all the preparation, the meal does become more of a chore. Children can start helping
with food preparation at a very young age-washing vegetables, for example. Working
together not only lessens the workload, it allows family members to talk together and to
acquire cooking skills. Furthermore, for the meal to be an important part of family life, it
must be acknowledged as a time for discussion. Parentsshould be careful not to nag but
to listen to their children's concerns.Talk about political and social issues can passon moral
values and increaseawarenessof current events. Proper table etiquette can be taught at
the same time. Finally,the family should share cleanup responsibilities. By working, talking,
and eating together, families can forge strong bonds and foster communication.

Activity
Here are some suggestions for paragraph-writing topics. Narrow your topic so that it will
be workable in 150-200 words. Be sure to make your focus clear in your topic sentence.
1. Boomerang children (you can use the ideas from the topic sentences on
page 105 or use a different focus).
2. Should children be paid for household chores? Support your answer.
3. How should adult children deal with overprotective parents?
4. Choose a skill, and explain why it is useful or why it is not. Here are some
skills you could write about: playing a musical instrument, changing a tire,
touch typing, mending clothing, driving a car, skating, painting walls. You
can refer to the paragraphs on cursive writing (pages 103-4) as examples.
5. Choose one specific sport, and explain why it is a good sport to
participate in or why it is good to watch.
6. What are the advantages or disadvantages of living in a campus residence?
7. Is shopping a good leisure activity, or is it just a chore that has to be done?

Writing a developed paragraph

• Start with a topic sentence that clearly delineates the main idea of your paragraph.
• Give two to four arguments for that main idea.
• Support each argument with explanation or examples.
• Use transition signals to show the relationship between ideas.
• Write a concluding sentence for your paragraph.
• Make sure your paragraph has unity (one main idea).
• Make sure your paragraph has coherence (all the ideas flow logically from
one sentence to the next).
• Check your paragraph for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and style.

~~==~------------------_.--.
Essay Writing Skills

Essays are essentially arguments. The word essay comes from the French word mean-
ing to try. The writer tries to show or prove something to the reader. The audience
for students' essays is their professor or teacher. The purpose is purely academic;
instead of giving new information (the purpose of most written communication),
student essay-writers are charged with the task of showing what they have learned,
synthesizing information, and explaining the thesis in a way that shows their under-
standing of the subject. Students are being tested on both their thinking and their
communication skills, so essay-writing requires logical organization of ideas.

Even though students may never be asked to write essays outside school, the skills
that are developed in essay-writing are applicable to most work communication
tasks-communicating clearly, organizing ideas, and giving relevant arguments.

The essay structure often taught in school is the five-paragraph essay of about 500
words in length. It has an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
Even though this type of essay is rarely seen outside the classroom, the form is
adaptable to other kinds of writing. Business reports, for example, are longer than
five paragraphs, but they too have an introduction, a body divided into different
ideas, and a conclusion. Moreover, the five-paragraph essay model can be expanded
by simply adding paragraphs to the three basic sections.
In a five-paragraph essay, the first paragraph is the introduction. It provides
background for the reader, gets the reader's attention, and prepares the way for the
thesis statement. The thesis gives the main argument of the essay and comes at the
end of the introduction.
The thesis statement is supported in the body paragraphs. The arguments
are divided so that each paragraph has a different main idea. The body paragraphs
start with a topic sentence giving the main idea of that paragraph. A good body
paragraph has support for the points made, has unity (only one main idea), is coher-
ent (the sentences flow and follow logically), and has transition markers (to signal
the relationship between ideas).These features are explained in Unit 4.
128 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

The conclusion generally starts with a restatement of the thesis and goes on
to present a "so what?" idea to lead the reader back out of the essay. The conclusion
should not provide new ideas to support the thesis. In a short essay, the conclusion
should not summarize the essay: that would be too repetitive.
Sometimes this type of essay is referred to as a "hamburger essay," with the intro-
duction and conclusion serving as the bun holding the meat of the essay (the body)
together. This analogy simply tells students that the introduction and conclusion hold
everything together and that the body of the essay is the most important part.

Comparison of the Paragraph and the Essay

Unit 4 focuses on the structure of a paragraph. An independent, developed para-
graph is like a mini-essay. Instructors often start by having students write paragraphs
to practise the important skills of making points and supporting them before
moving on to full essays. Moreover, this type of paragraph is similar to the body
paragraph of an essay, so what students learn from writing a developed paragraph
can be applied to essay writing.
A developed paragraph can be expanded to essay length. You need to expand
on the ideas and write introductory and concluding paragraphs. Compare the
independent paragraph below and the five-paragraph essay on the same topic that
follows (the word counts are supplied to give you an idea of comparative length).You
can consider the questions and examples that follow the essay to guide your analysis.
Topic question: In the modern world, is cooking still an important skill?
Even with the wide variety of prepared foods available today, cooking
is a worthwhile skill for anyone to have. The most important reason is that
home-cooked foods are more nutritious than processed foods, which contain
high amounts of salt, sugar, and fat. People who cook at home have control
over the ingredients. They can tailor the dishes to their family's tastes and
avoid allergens. Second, being able to cook is a useful social skill. Inviting
friends over for dinner is a time-honoured way to entertain. In Canada,
home-cooking has an added dimension when immigrants can share food
from their native country with people of a different ethnic background. For
example, many Canadians would enjoy trying home-cooked Chinese food,
especially if all they know is the food-court version. Finally, knowing how to
cook is important for self-sufficiency. As much as possible, people should be
able to take care of themselves and not have to rely on others. It costs money
to have others do the work, and cooking is not that difficult. People should
start learning to cook when they are children, but it is never too late to start
acquiring the skills required. [193 words]

The Value of Home-Cooking

Withthe modern busy lifestyle, people seek to save time in meal preparation. They
often eat out, whether at fast-food places or upscale restaurants. They buy prepared
foods from the deli counter of the supermarket or frozen meals that just have to be
warmed up in the microwave. Today it is possible to survive without knowing one end
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKILLS 129

of a chef's knife from the other, so cooking is becoming a lost skill. However, the ability
to prepare a home-cooked meal is a valuable skill.
The most obvious benefit of home-cooking is the ability to control the quality of
the food. Processed foods contain high amounts of sugar, salt, and additives, while fast
food is high in fat. Cooks choose their own raw ingredients and control the seasonings,
so they can ensure freshness and make the dishes to their taste. This is especially
important for people with allergies or restricted diets. Furthermore, cooks supply their
own labour and can thus spend their food budget on superior ingredients. The same
quality of food would not be found in most affordable restaurants.
Cooking is also a valuable social skill. Hosting a dinner party is a time-honoured
method of entertaining guests. Even for casual get-togethers, it is gratifying to be
able to serve food that is homemade. In the dating game, moreover, cooking is useful.
It is said that the way to a man's heart is through his stomach, and women also find
competence in the kitchen an attractive quality. Parents may also expect their adult
children to cook well enough to contribute to holiday dinners and to carryon their
family traditions. For immigrant families, preparing ethnic foods is a way to keep their
native culture alive.
In addition to the social rewards, cooking has psychological benefits. People can
feel personal satisfaction when they produce a delicious meal. Self-sufficiency is a goal
in itself because it is humiliating to have to admit to an inability to provide the basic
necessities of life. Cooks can also exercise their creativity: They can tweak recipes and
even develop new flavour combinations. The simple tasks of working with food can be
pleasurable, especially when people avoid modern gadgets in favour of working by
hand. For example, kneading bread dough and whipping cream can relieve stress as
well as give muscles a workout.
These many benefits of cooking show that it is still an important skill despite the
proliferation of restaurants. Even people who grew up in homes devoid of the heady
aroma of home-cooking are turning to the kitchen. The popularity of cooking shows
on television, how-to videos on YouTube, and expensive, illustrated cookbooks shows
that cooking is not entirely disappearing from modern life. If foodies can convert more
people to the benefits of home-cooking, everyone will live better.

[462 words]

Analyzing Essay Structure

1. Consider the thesis statement: "the ability to prepare a home-cooked meal is a
valuable skill."
Note that the thesis is the last sentence of the introduction. It is a full
sentence.
The adverb however at the beginning of the sentence links the thesis to the
rest of the introduction.
The thesis answers the topic question ("In the modern world, is cook-
ing still an important skiIl?"). The answer is essentially yes, and the essay
explains why cooking is important. (For a yes-or-no essay question, you
must choose one answer and explain the reasons for your choice.)
130 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

• Note that the thesis is similar to the topic sentence of the developed para-
graph ("Even with the wide variety of prepared foods available today,
cooking is a worthwhile skill for anyone to have."). A topic sentence is
essentially a thesis for a paragraph, but we use the term topic sentence when
we are discussing paragraphs.
2. Examine the introductory paragraph. It gives background for the reader by
explaining why the topic is an issue at all. A hundred years ago, no one would
have asked this question, because cooking was vital to everyday life.You could
not readily order pizza delivery or buy frozen meals in the supermarket.
3. Note that the topic sentence of each body paragraph also answers the question,
giving one reason. The topic sentence is fairly general. It tells the reader what
the main idea of that particular body paragraph is. The third topic sentence
("In addition to the social rewards, cooking has psychological benefits.") starts
with a transition referring to the argument of the second body paragraph (the
social rewards).
4. Each body paragraph expands on the main idea given in its topic sentence. For
instance, the first body paragraph explains the different nutritional benefits of
home-cooking.
5. The conclusion starts with a restatement of the thesis. It goes on to consider
the future by saying that the skill is being kept alive in society.

An essay requires more planning than an independent paragraph. Writers must

make sure that the essay is well balanced. For example, the three body paragraphs
should be approximately the same length. Each paragraph should have different
ideas with no repetition or overlap.
Writing is generally a three-stage process: planning, drafting, and editing. The
planning stage includes researching, thinking about the topic, brainstorming ideas,
and putting together an outline. The drafting stage is when the actual writing is
done. The final stage involves rereading the draft, revising, editing, proofreading, and
correcting. However, writing does not always proceed in such a clear-cut way. For
instance, writers may revisit the outline once they start writing because they think
of a better way to organize it. People who compose on a computer may find they
move between the three stages, adding ideas and editing as they write.
Students often spend too little time in the first and third stages; they rush to
get words on paper without thinking about how they want to develop their ideas,
and they are too easily satisfied with what they have written, reluctant to delete
sections that do not work or to proofread carefully to catch mistakes. Granted, stu-
dents are often put into writing situations in which they do not have the luxury of
time to plan or edit. If they are required to write a SaO-word essay in an hour, they
must concentrate on getting words down as quickly as possible. However, if they
have practised writing an essay with the three stages, they can work more efficiently
when they are under tight time constraints.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKILLS 131

Choosing a Topic
The first step is choosing a topic. Usually, teachers give their class a choice of top-
ics, perhaps related to assigned readings or current events. Often, the topics are
discussed in class before students have to write about them. Some topics focus on
general knowledge, while some require background reading and research.
Students should pick the topic they are most comfortable with. They probably
have choice within the topic, such as agreeing or disagreeing with a statement (for
example, "Assisted suicide should be made legal in Canada. Agree or disagree").
They may have to narrow down the topic, perhaps talking about a specific immi-
grant group in Canada instead of immigrants in general.
Sometimes students are asked to come up with their own topic, but this is
usually done as part of a process, not out of thin air. For instance, students may start
with a subject they are interested in, do some background reading, and then consult
with their instructor to narrow in on a topic.

Activity
In groups, make a list of essay topics you would like to write about. Exchange your
list for another group's, and rate the other group's list as to which topics you would
want to write about. Discuss different possible approaches to the topics and ways
they could be narrowed.

Understanding the Essay Question

It is important to understand what the topic is asking you to do. Essay prompts can
be in different forms.
Yes-or-no essay questions (such as "In the modern world, is cooking still
an important skil1?" or "Should religious schools be funded in Canada?") require
you to choose one side and give reasons to support that position. It is important not
to waffle or sit on the fence. You need a clear position to argue from.
Sometimes essay prompts require some set-up, so they might begin with a
few sentences of explanation before the actual topic question or direction:

A secondary school education is the This essay prompt explains what

minimum requirement in today's world. the problem is; your job is to offer
Even for physical labour, workers may solutions.
need a high school diploma. However,
many students do not finish secondary
school. They drop out because of a lack
of motivation, poor grades, or personal
problems. Educators try to keep such at-
risk students in school long enough to
graduate. What changes can they make
to keep such students in school?
132 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Sometimes instructors give a quote from a reading and ask you for your take
on it. This makes for a more difficult topic because it is open-ended.

Peter Singer quotes Andrew Carnegie's In this essay, you need to take
dictum: "The man who dies rich dies a position and support it. If you
disgraced." Agree or disagree with this agree, you would argue in favour
statement. of philanthropy, that the rich need
to give to charity. If you disagree,
you would probably say that the rich
deserve to keep their money.

Peter Martyn says, "Words matter. This topic hinges on finding good
They indelibly colour our perceptions." examples of the power oflanguage.
Discuss. It is not a topic you can actually
disagree with.

As mentioned in Unit 1, most academic essays are impersonal. Essay topic

questions will generally show whether a more personal response is required:

What are the benefits of doing Here you can talk about the benefits
volunteer work? that anyone can experience, with
examples of specific kinds of
volunteer jobs.

What have you learned from doing This question is asking you to recount
volunteer work? your own expenence.

A standard five-paragraph essay is about 500 words. Some topics are wide in
scope-too wide to be adequately treated in an essay. Instructors usually leave room
for students to narrow a topic to focus on what they are comfortable discussing.
For instance, an international student writing about high school students preparing
for college can write about students in his or her native country-this focus would
be made clear in the introduction and thesis. An essay question may ask, "What
support should parents give children who are in college or university?" but instead
of using unwieldy phrases such as "college or university" or "post-secondary edu-
cation," a college student can just write about college and a university student can
just write about university.
For the question "What are the advantages or disadvantages of online courses?"
you are being asked to take one position in your essay-either for or against online
courses. However, you could easily narrow this topic down further by looking at
it either from the students' point of view or the administration's. Thus, you could
focus your essay on the advantages of such courses for the school or the disadvan-
tages for students. These are just two of the possible approaches. If you wanted to
talk about advantages for the school, you could even focus on the administration or
on the instructor.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKillS 133

Activity
In small groups, look over a list of essay topics, and discuss what you would write
to answer the question. You can use the list you generated in the Activity in the
previous section, Choosing a Topic (the list of questions for Essay-Writing: Practice
Topics on page 155), or another list you may have. For instance, you can search
"essay topics" online and get lists of sample questions from standardized tests like
the TOEFL test.

Generating Ideas
Before you start writing your essay, be sure you have enough to say. We use the term
brainstorming to refer to the act of coming up with ideas. Brainstorming involves
writing down preliminary thoughts about the topic. It can be accomplished alone,
in consultation with an instructor, or in a group with other students.
One of the best ways to brainstorm is just to jot down point-form ideas about
your topic:
What should parents teach teenagers to prepare them for living on their own?
- budgeting
- cooking nutritious meals
- keeping track of their bank balance and credit card purchases
- saving money on food purchases
- cleaning rooms (bathroom, kitchen, living areas)
- doing their own laundry
- dealing with utilities (hydro, gas, cable)
- dealing with emergencies in their home, such as toilets flooding and
power failures
- using basic tools (hammer, screwdriver, paint brush)
- performing first aid
- taking care of a car

With the ideas you have generated in your brainstorming, you have the raw
material for your essay. Without the brainstorming, you might write your essay on
the first three ideas that come to your mind, but it would be difficult to write a
whole paragraph on just doing laundry, for instance. However, once you have many
ideas listed, you can see what goes together and organize the ideas in paragraphs
(as shown in the next section). For example, a paragraph on household chores
can include cooking and cleaning tasks; laundry would be just one example in
the paragraph.
If you have a controversial issue that has two sides, the topic question usually
asks you to choose one. However, it is best to brainstorm for both sides. One reason
is that it helps you to generate more ideas; coming up with one argument often
reminds you of the counterargument. Moreover, you can actually write your essay
for the side for which you have more to say.
134 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Whatarethe advantages or disadvantages of online courses?

Advantages Disadvantages

- no commuting time for students and -lack of human contact

teachers - no real socialization with other
- no transportation costs students
- can do the work on their own schedule - hard for students to motivate
(especially good for parents and themselves without regular classroom
disabled students) routine
- convenience - high failure rate
- cost-effective for administration- - easier to discuss course material in
no classroom required person than to write in discussion
- course could be cheaper boards
- more students in one class - some students do not have the
- with fewer instructors, more equipment or the knowledge to use
standardization of course delivery and online material
examination - students might find it difficult to work
at home because of distractions
- some students may lack the reading
skills required
- easier to have someone else do the
work for the student (cheating)

Brainstorming in this manner is an efficient way to start your essay-writing

process, but there are other ways of generating ideas. People who think visually
may use bubble diagrams for their points with lines to connect related ideas. Free-
writing is a method in which students just write what comes into their heads and
then look through the writing for an argument they can develop. Some writers ask
themselves questions about a topic ("Why does this happen?" "What can this lead
to?" "Who is affected?") to generate ideas. Asking questions can also be used within
the other methods.
You may need to experiment to find out what works for you. Whichever
method you use, it's important to think about the topic thoroughly to generate
enough ideas to choose from and not just use the first three arguments that come to
mind. Effective brainstorming requires critical thinking about the subject. Consider
the topic from different viewpoints. For instance, if you are asked to come up with
a solution to a problem, make sure you spend enough time considering the prob-
lem itself and the different ramifications.
In brainstorming, there is no such thing as a bad idea. You do not have to
worry about using every idea you come up with. You do not have to worry about
correct grammar or spelling. It is just a matter of getting ideas on paper or on the
screen. However, if you find you do not have enough to say on one topic after you
have brainstormed using the suggestions mentioned, then it is a good idea to go
back to the topic choices and consider doing a different one.
 UNIT S: ESSAY WRITING SKILLS 135

Activity
With your instructor and classmates, discuss the techniques you have found helpful
for getting started with an essay or for getting past writer's block. Consider different
ways of brainstorming.

Organizing Ideas
Once you have enough ideas to work with, you need to organize your ideas into
paragraphs. Think of it as packing belongings in boxes. You want to put the items
that fit together in one box and then label the box. The box is like a paragraph, and
the label is the topic sentence.
Consider this example:
How can at-risk students be encouraged not to drop out of high school?
a) tutoring for students who are failing
b) alternatives to regular courses (co-op, independent study)
c) visits to post-secondary schools, work sites
d) speakersfrom the work world, former drop-outs
e) counselling
f) arts courses (music, drama, art)
g) variety of courses, both academic and hands-on
h) extracurricular activities to engage the students
i) mentaring with graduates who have gone on to post-secondary
education
j) financial support so they will not have to work long hours part-time

First, look for ideas that go together. For instance, points a), e), and i) all deal with
offering personal support with academics. Points f) and h) focus on offering other
activities in the school to attract students.
Just as there is not one right way to pack your belongings, there are different
ways to organize ideas. For example, point i), mentoring, could go with tutoring
and counselling, but it could also fit with c) and d) in a paragraph on how students
need inspiration from others. It would depend on how you want to develop your
ideas.
Furthermore, you do not have to use all your generated ideas. Some good
ideas may just not fit in your essay. Therefore, just as you may have to abandon a
piece of furniture that would not fit in your new apartment, you may have to leave
out some of the ideas from your brainstorming.

Activity
Choose one of the three examples of brainstorming given in this section and the
previous one (on preparation for living alone, online courses, or at-risk students).
With a partner, discuss possible ways to organize an essay from the point-form ideas.

Writing a Title
A title is not always necessary, but writing one can help you start your essay. It gives
you a perspective and helps you to limit the scope of your paper. If you need a title
136 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

for your essay, make sure it is appropriate and relatively short. Do not just put the
essay topic question on your cover page.
Generally, titles are phrases, not full sentences or questions. For example, a
story in this book is called "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" rather than
"Why Can't My Mother Speak English?"
Newspaper articles have headlines rather than titles. They generally give the
main idea. Short forms are common to save space. Often a telegraphic style is used,
leaving out grammatical words such as articles and auxiliary verbs. The only words
capitalized are the first word and proper nouns. This style is not appropriate for
essay titles.

Activity
In small groups, look over the titles of the sample essays in Units 5 and 6. In addi-
tion, look at the titles of the readings in Part 2 as listed in the table of contents.
Discuss the titles. Which ones give you a good idea of the contents of the essay or
article, and which do not?

Exercise 5.1

Write some appropriate essay titles for the following topics (you may have different
titles for one topic, depending on the point of view of the essay):

1. Would self-drivinq cars make the roads safer?

2. Should religious schools be funded by the government?
3. Why do people get tattoos?
4. What can people do in their everyday lives to lessen environmental damage?
5. What kind of adjustments do adult children and their parents have to make
when the children move back home after college or university?

Writing an Outline
An outline is a plan for an essay. Following the plan keeps you on track as you write.
An outline can be very detailed or very simple. It can be written in full sentences or
in point form. A basic outline for a five-paragraph essay would give the thesis and
the three topic sentences; these sentences could be revised as you write the draft.
You can also include the supporting points in your outline.
Instructors may ask you to complete an outline and submit it for feedback
before you write your essay. Sometimes they prescribe a format, with a specific
numbering system. They may give you a printed sheet to fill out. They may assign
part of your essay grade to the outline.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKillS 137

Here is an example of an outline for the essay "The Value of Home-Cooking"

(pages 128-29):
Topic question: In the modern world, is cooking still an important skill?
Thesis: The ability to prepare a home-cooked meal is valuable.
1. food quality
a) processed foods contain sugar, salt, fat
b) cook chooses raw ingredients
c) avoid allergens
d) cheaper
2. social skill
a) hosting dinner parties
b) attracting opposite sex
c) keeping immigrant cultures alive
3. psychological benefits
a) personal satisfaction
b) self-sufficiency
c) creativity
d) satisfying physical activity

An outline is a map for you to follow. It makes writing the essay easier. However, it
does not have to be set in stone.You can revise your outline as you write.

Activity
Choose one of the sample essays at the end of this unit. With a partner, write the
outline for the essay.

• ."0 ~, ~

Writing a Thesis Statement './>~,~l.~J\ e

The thesis statement is the most important sentence in the essay.

A thesis statement should

• answer the topic question

• be a supportable idea, not just a fact
• show the point of view of the writer
• be one sentence
• be a statement, not a question
• be the last sentence of the introduction
• be concise
• have parallel structure

~----------------------------_...:
138 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

Study these examples of poor and good thesis statements:

Topic question: Should exotic pets be banned in Canada?

Many people keep exotic pets such as poor thesis:

monkeys, pythons, and tigers. This is a fact, not a supportable idea.

Exotic pets should be banned in poor thesis:

Canada. This just repeats the wording of the
topic question.

In this essay, I will talk about exotic poor thesis:

animals as pets in Canada. This is called an announcement thesis
-one that uses 1 and the word essay.

Should we be able to keep exotic pets poor thesis:

in Canada? A thesis should answer the question,
not ask one.

I like my pet tarantula. poor thesis:

While this is an opinion, it cannot be
argued; it is also too narrow.

Pets are important to human life. poor thesis: too broad

Exotic animals make dangerous pets. poor thesis: too narrow; gives one
reason

All jurisdictions in Canada should have good thesis: clearly states the
rules severely restricting the keeping of position (Note that the word should
exotic animals. indicates an opinion. Without this
modal verb, this statement would be
a fact, not an opinion.)

Canadian law should allow people to good thesis: clearly states the
keep exotic animals as pets. position

Writing a Three-Pronged Thesis Statement

For a five-paragraph essay, students may be asked to write a focused thesis statement
that lists the three arguments that will be explored in the essay. This type of three-
pronged thesis only works for short essays; the statement would become unwieldy if
it had to include more than three arguments. Moreover, this kind of thesis statement
can be difficult to write because it has to be concise and have parallel structure.
However, some instructors prefer that students use a three-pronged thesis statement.
To see how the three-pronged thesis statement works, we can revisit the essay
"The Value of Home-Cooking" (pages 128-29):
Thesis statement: However, the ability to prepare a home-cooked meal is a valuable skill.
Topic sentence #1: The most obvious benefit of home-cooking is the ability to control
the quality of the food.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKillS 139

Topic sentence #2: Cooking is also a valuable social skill.

Topic sentence #3: In addition to the social rewards, cooking has psychological benefits.
To write a three-pronged thesis, you need to incorporate the ideas of the three
body paragraphs into the thesis:

The ability to prepare a home-cooked first draft of a thesis: We can see

meal is a valuable skill because it
that this thesis statement, while
gives the cook the ability to control
grammatical, is long and hard to
the quality of the food, because it is a follow; moreover, the words skill and
valuable social skill, and because it has valuable are repeated.
psychological benefits.

Cooking is a valuable skill because it

second draft: The repetition of
gives the cook the ability to control the "valuable skill" has been eliminated
quality of the food and because it has
and the words social and psychological
social and psychological benefits. have been linked because they
are both adjectives referring to an
advantage.
Cooking is a valuable skill because it has third draft: By paraphrasing the idea
nutritional, social, and psychological
in the first topic sentence, we can find
benefits.
an adjective that is applied to food
quality and balances with "social and
psychological benefits"

Sometimes students write a four-sentence thesis. This should be revised to make

one statement:

SWimming pools in school are a incorrect:

good investment for three reasons.
A thesis statement should be one
First, SWimming is so important that sentence.
all children should learn how to
swim. Second, havinq pools on-site
is very convenient for lessons. Third,
the community can use the pool
after school hours, making it more
economical.

SWimming pools in school are a good correct:

investment because of the need for Note that this thesis is one
basic swimming skills, the convenience sentence with parallel structure:
ofthe on-site facility, and the potential
because if connects the three nouns
for community use.
need, convenience, and potential
(which are each completed by a
prepositional phrase).
140 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

A thesis statement may have to be revised to ensure that it is concise, with parallel
structure:

The family meal means that people can incorrect:

share food, spending time together, The structure is not parallel.
and good behaviour can be learned at
the table.

The family meal provides people correct:

with an opportunity to share food, The parallel structure here can
spend time together, and learn good be seen in the series of verbs in
behaviour at the table. the infinitive form: share, spend,
and learn.

In a five-paragraph essay, the thesis statement may state the three main ideas to be
discussed in the body, but in a longer essay this is not practical and a less specific
thesis is presented:

Teenagers often conflict with their This is a three-pronged thesis

parents on their social life, appearance, statement; it's good for a five-
and household responsibilities. paragraph essay.

Teenagers' relationship with their This is a more general thesis

parents is often full of conflict. statement; it works for a longer
essay.

Whether you use a focused thesis statement or a more general one depends
on the topic, the length of the essay, your personal preference, and the assignment
instructions. For instance, if the topic question asks "why?" it is often better to give
your three reasons in the thesis:
Topic question: Whydo people eat fast food?

People eat fast food for many reasons. incorrect:

"for many reasons" is the type of
vague phrase that should not be used
in a thesis.

People eat fast food because of its taste, correct:

price, and convenience. This three-pronged thesis gives a
clear idea of what the essay will
argue.

If you do use a thesis statement that gives the three arguments, keep the same order
of presentation of arguments in the body of the essay.
Study the sample essays at the end of this unit. Identify the thesis statement.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKillS 141

Exercise 5.2

topic, choose which sentence would work best as a thesis statement.

Explain why. Look for the statements that actually answer the question. Discuss why
the statement is appropriate or not for a thesis.

1. Topic: What factors determine how readily immigrants assimilate into

Canadian society?
a) Canada is a country of immigrants.
b) Immigrants should learn the language, participate in social activities, and
learn about their new country.
c) Some immigrants do not assimilate into Canadian society because they
are too shy, too attached to their native culture, and too busy working.
d) How well immigrants settle into life in Canada depends on their
background, their environment, and their personality.
e) Immigration is a difficult process.
2. Topic: What support should parents give children who are in college or
university?
a) Parents are very important to the learning process.
b) Parents of university students should help with finances, give general
academic advice, and provide moral support.
c) This essay explains the role of parents of college students.
d) Parents should let their children make their own decisions about college
or university.
e) Students should choose a good program, establish a network of friends,
and enjoy the experience to succeed in college.
3. Topic: In Canada, single adults now outnumber married ones. There is less
pressure to get legally married today. Women are not financially dependent
on men, and religious and social pressure to marry has diminished. Can
marriage survive as a vital social institution?
a) Today people do not get married or stay married long.
b) In this essay, I will show that marriage can survive as a vital social
institution.
c) Despite its usefulness, marriage is unlikely to continue to be essential in
Canadian life.
d) Marriage is a social institution in Canada.
e) People get divorced because they fall out of love, they change their
outlook on life, or they get tired of staying with one person.
f) Today there is no reason to get legally married in North American society.
g) People get married because of financial, social, and religious reasons.
h) Marriage will remain important in Canadian society because of tradition,
legal incentives, and the human desire to mark life events.
i) People do not have to get married anymore because our society accepts
unmarried couples.
142 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 5.3
Here are incorrect four-sentence theses. Rewrite each into one concise, grammatical
thesis statement. Make the sentence concise by deleting any information that can
be explained in the body paragraphs.
1. For students who are at a loss during a teachers' strike, these are things they
can do. They can read their textbook and review their notes. They should
complete any assignments given before the strike so they will be up-to-date
and maybe even ahead when the strike is over. They could do extra reading
on the subject material to truly master it.
2. There are three main reasons for leasing a car. First, the monthly payments
are lower. Second, you can always drive a new car after the three-year lease
is over. Third, I don't have to worry about breakdowns as usually everything
is covered under warranty.
3. There are several basic types of TV commercial. One is the lifestyle ad where
advertisers want consumers to think they will have the kind of life depicted
in the commercial if they use the product. Another kind is the humorous
commercial that tries to make the consumer laugh and therefore remember
the product. Third, there are straight information commercials that tell the
consumer what he needs to know.
4. The transportation system can be fixed if everyone co-operates. First, the
public transit system needs to be improved to make it more convenient
to use. Second, more goods need to be shipped by rail instead of by truck.
Finally, use of personal vehicles needs to be controlled with fines or incentive
programs.

The function of an introduction is, of course, to introduce the topic to the reader.
In a five-paragraph essay, the first paragraph is the introduction, while in a longer
essay or report, the introduction may extend to several paragraphs or a whole sec-
tion or unit. The introduction leads the reader gradually to the thesis, provides any
background information the reader may need, and narrows the topic. In an essay,
the introduction generally ends with the thesis statement.
What is actually in the introduction depends on the topic. For instance, an
essay discussing solutions to a problem should have an introduction that explains
the problem for the reader. In an essay discussing one side of a controversial issue,
the main opposing arguments can be mentioned briefly in the introduction as a
lead-in. If a reading (for example, a book, a story, an article) is a point of departure
for the essay, the point of view of the reading's author may be mentioned before the
essay writer goes into his or her own thesis.
In addition to examining the sample introductions in this section, you should
look at the full essays in this book and in other essay resources you may be consult-
ing. Look at the introductions you like, and think about why they work.
 ...

UNIT S: ESSAY WRITING SKILLS 143

Sample Introductions
Sample A. In an essay that discusses the effects of overwork, it would be appropriate
to explain the causes first:
Although it was once predicted that technology would result in too much
leisure time for workers, the opposite seems to have happened. Instead of
working fewer hours, we are working harder than ever. Downsizing has put
pressure on surviving employees. Smartphones keep workers in contact
with clients and their work at all times. As a result, stressed-out workers are
showing signs of physical, mental, and social problems.
Sample B. In an essay in favour of euthanasia, the main arguments against it could
be mentioned in the introduction:
Even though euthanasia is already practised in Canadian hospitals, many
people do not want the procedure legalized and controlled. They fear that it
would lead to the "murder" of the terminally ill, the elderly, and the disabled.
They think that life and death should be in the hands of God. However, mercy
killing can mean a more humane way of dying, a return to a naturallifecycle,
and a measure of control for those whose life spans are at an end.

Sample C. This introduction establishes that starting college is both exciting and
challenging, before explaining the difficulties:
Graduating from high school and going off to college is an exciting time.
Students look forward to being on their own and pursuing the studies that
will lead them to a career. However, many find that this is not as easy as they
thought it would be. First-year students may even drop out when they find
they cannot make the transition to college successfully. College students
have to adjust to living on their own, being responsible for their studies, and
coping with financial limitations.
Sample D. In an essay that responds to a reading, it is useful to recap the author's
arguments:
In "If the Artists Starve, We'll All Go Hungry;' Elizabeth Renzetti points out
how artists are suffering in the new economy. The Internet has created an
environment where people expect to get videos, music, and books for free. It
is not surprising that artists are giving up creative work, knowing they cannot
make a decent living from it. However, the work they produce is vital to our
economy and the health of our society. In order to save it, we have to devise a
whole new way of paying artists for their work.
Students often struggle writing the introduction. It is helpful to remember
that an introduction does not have to be written first-it appears first in the essay,
but it might be easier to write it when the body of the essay is drafted, as long as
the writer has a thesis as a beginning point. Because the introduction and con-
clusion often contain ideas that do not fit the body, writing the introduction later
can work. Moreover, writers who are blocked at the introduction might find that
drafting the body can cure this block.
144 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

One common mistake is starting the introduction with the thesis-this leaves
no room to do anything else but proceed to the arguments of the essay. Here is an
example for the topic "What are the benefits of studying abroad?"

When it comes to the benefits This introduction lacks a linear

of studying abroad, it is often said progression of ideas; it zigzags, giving
that people who have an opportunity an advantage of studying abroad, then
to study abroad will have a new life explaining that the phenomenon is
and a bright future. Becauseof the increasing, and then going back to
development ofthe global economy advantages. Note also that the writer
and education, an increasing number keeps repeating the phrase "studying
of students choose to study abroad. abroad."
This phenomenon has become more
common than it was 30 years ago.
Studying abroad can help students to
learn a new culture, have friends from
different countries, and acquire an
advanced education.

Choosing to take a university year This improved introduction ends

in another country is an increasingly with the thesis statement. It uses
popular option. Even though it can synonyms for "studying abroad." It
be expensive and difficult to arrange, starts with a general fact about the
many students take advantage of the phenomenon before moving to the
opportunity to study overseas.They benefits.
realize that the benefits are worth
the effort. Studying abroad can help
students to learn a new culture, make
friends from different countries, and
acquire an advanced education.

Study these examples-two unsuccessful introductions followed by a third one that

works better:

Technology has advanced This introduction starts with too

greatly through the years. We rely on broad an idea because "technology"
technology. We cannot live without it. can refer to anything from a pencil to
Banning cell phone use in class is unfair. a supersonic jet.

Smartphones are vital to everyday While this introduction starts with a

life. They are much more than a narrower topic, it is also unsuccessful
phone. Students can use them to because it gives the reasons that the
communicate, to find information, ban is unfair. In other words, it starts
and to take notes. Therefore, a ban on arguing the thesis before the body of
cellphone use in class is unfair. the essay.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKillS 145

Smartphones have come under This is a better introduction because I !

a lot of criticism from educators, who it prepares the reader for the essay by
say that students are addicted to the giving background information-that
devices, that they use them to cheat educators want to ban the phones and
on tests, and that the phones distract why. Now the writer is set to argue
them from the real world. Therefore, against this.
teacherswant to ban them in class.
The ban is short-sighted, however,
because the phones are useful in the
education process.

Another problem students sometimes have with introductions is that they try
to say too much. For instance, they want to give the whole history of the subject as
background. However, an introduction should not be too long; it should be shorter
than a body paragraph. It should catch the readers' attention and prepare them for
the essay, and that is enough.
Examine the introduction paragraphs for the sample essays at the end of this
unit. What kind of background information is given? How does the introduction
lead to the thesis?

An introduction should

• gradually lead the reader to your thesis, which is the last sentence of the
introduction
• give background information to the reader or prepare the way for your thesis
• not mention arguments in support of your thesis (i.e., it should not repeat
statements that are in your body paragraphs)
• not be longer than a body paragraph, in most cases

Body paragraphs in an essay are similar to the developed paragraphs discussed in

Unit 4. Each starts with a topic sentence giving the main idea. The rest of the para-
graph explains that idea with supporting points (usually two to four points). A body
paragraph, however, is generally shorter than an independent paragraph, and it does
not require a concluding sentence.
In an essay, the topic sentences of the body paragraphs take their cue from the
thesis statement. In other words, they should relate to the thesis by taking the same
general idea but narrowing it down for the focus of the paragraph. The wording
should be different so that the sentences are not repetitive. If the three arguments
are listed in the thesis, the body paragraphs should be in the same order.
146 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Study this example:

Thesis statement: Public transit is a worthwhile investment because it is good for citizens'
health finances, and quality of life.

Topic sentence #1: Public transit leads to health benefits for the whole population.
[health]
Topic sentence #2: Investing in a better transit infrastructure ultimately saves money
for everyone. [finances]

Topic sentence #3: Citizens' quality of life improves as more people use public transit and
the number of cars on the roads decreases. [quality of life]

A common problem found in essays is the use of a topic sentence that does not
focus on the arguments of the thesis:

Carsproduce a lot of pollution. This topic sentence does not directly

state a reason why public transit is
worthwhile. Instead, it mentions a
problem. This sentence could work
inside the body paragraph as part of
the explanation, but it is not a good
topic sentence because it does not
relate directly to the thesis.

Public transit leads to health benefits Note that this topic sentence directly
for the whole population. states an advantage, giving a reason
why transit is worthwhile.

One of the problems students have when they are writing a body paragraph is
that they write an introduction of one or two sentences before they give the topic
sentence:

Carsproduce a lot of pollution. Their The topic sentence idea is actually

exhaust is made up oftoxic gasesthat the third sentence here. Moreover,
lead to respiratory problems. Therefore, the idea that cars cause pollution is
cutting car use by increasing public well known and does not need to be
transit makes a healthier environment. stated.

The topic sentence of each body paragraph should be clear on its own. Use
nouns, not pronouns, in the first sentence of a paragraph. For example, Topic sen-
tence #1 above cannot read "It leads to health benefits for the whole population"
because the "it" cannot refer back to a noun (public transit) in the previous para-
graph. Each paragraph is a new beginning, so nouns should be clearly identified.
The topic sentence sometimes links to the previous paragraph. For example, an
alternate topic sentence for the second body paragraph of the essay outlined above
could be, "In addition to health benefits, public transit has financial advantages."
Do not overload your topic sentence. Remember that you have a whole body
paragraph to explain the idea.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKILLS 147

A successful life is one that also This body paragraph is from the
makesa mark on society. People can essay "The Definition of Success" on
do this through their work but also pages 151-52. The topic sentence is
through other achievements, such as relatively short. It introduces the idea,
participating in political movements or but does not try to explain the idea-
doing volunteer work. Raising children that job is left to the body paragraph.
to become valued members of society
is a way of making a difference in the
world. Having friends and helping
those in need are important aspects of
human existence. Human beings are
social animals above all else, so lives
spent in isolation cannot be viewed as
valuable as those that involve reaching
out to people.

Body paragraphs in an essay do not need concluding sentences, especially conclud-

ing sentences that just repeat the topic sentence. However, you can use a concluding
sentence in the paragraph if it is necessary and works well, as in this example:

The skills I learned in the food This is the beginning and end of
service industry carryover to everyday a body paragraph from "What
life.... These may not be skills vital to McJobs Have Taught Me" (page
my existence, but I take pride in them. 154). Note that this body paragraph
does have a concluding sentence, but
it does not just repeat what was said
in the topic sentence-it adds the
idea of pride.

Explore the sample essays at the end of this unit. Analyze the structure of the
body paragraphs. See how the topic sentences relate to the thesis. Identify which
topic sentences have links to the previous body paragraph. Determine which body
paragraphs have concluding sentences.

A body paragraph should

• begin with a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement and
introduces the main argument of the paragraph
• give two to four points in support of that main argument
• have each point explained and/or illustrated with examples
• have coherence and use transition signals to logically connect ideas
• have one main idea that supports the thesis (in other words, it should have
unity and not go off topic.)
• have a concluding statement only when necessary to .add something to the
general idea
148 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 5.4

Here is an introduction with a thesis statement. For each possible body paragraph
that could follow, choose the best topic sentence of the four choices given. Explain
your choice.
Personal vehicles have long been recognized as major sources of
pollution. While it is relatively easy to give up driving a car in major cities that
are well served by public transit and have other initiatives such as car-sharing,
a personal vehicle is a necessity for most Canadians. Even if they must drive,
however, they can reduce the harm caused by their car by changing what,
when, and how they drive.
1. a) Bigger vehicles such as suvs burn more gas and therefore emit more
toxic gas.
b) Canadians should choose a more fuel-efficient vehicle.
c) All Canadians should buy hybrid cars because they produce less
pollution.
d) People should take public transit instead of driving.
2. a) Most Canadians can reduce the number of trips they take by car.
b) Car-pooling is a good method to reduce the use of personal vehicles.
c) The government should improve the public transit system.
d) When should people use a car?
3. a) Most people drive too fast and too far, so they burn too much gas.
b) In addition to using public transit, Canadians should walk and cycle more.
c) Using a GPS system can prevent getting lost and driving too much.
d) Good driving habits can also lead to a reduction in the polluting effects
of cars.

Exercise 5.5

Write three topic sentences for each of the following thesis statements:
1. Students should pick a post-secondary program based on their interests,
their skills, and the job prospects.
2. History courses are important because they teach critical thinking skills,
explore life lessons, and inform students about their heritage.
3. How easily immigrants adapt to their new country depends on their
educational background, their language skills, and their personality.

Conclusion paragraphs are similar to introductions in that they are not developed
as body paragraphs are. Like an introduction, a conclusion should not contain ideas
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKillS 149

that support the thesis. Essentially, a conclusion is like an upside-down introduction,

starting with a restatement of the thesis and then moving on to broader ideas.
A conclusion can give the "so what?" idea, showing the significance of what
has been argued in the essay. It can offer suggestions for improvement or predict
the future. It is the last thing said to the reader, so the conclusion should have a
memorable idea.
Here are sample conclusions for the same topics as the sample introductions
on page 143:
Conclusion A
With all these harmful effects of working long hours, we should make a
change in our work habits. Even though cutting hours would result in lower pay,
we have to value our health above anything else.We need to make sure we lead a
balanced life and not work ourselves to death.
Conclusion B
Euthanasia must be considered now that life and death is no longer a simple
matter. Society must come to grips with the issue,and people must acknowledge
that it already happens. Physicians play an important role, as does technology.
We cannot turn back the clock, so we must accept dealing with a complex issue
in a complex world.
Conclusion C
If students can make these adjustments to college life, they will be successful
in school. Moreover, they will have gained maturity and learned to deal with
responsibility. This will be as valuable as their education in their future life.
Conclusion D
These different ways of paying artists will have to be combined. It should
not be left to one sector of the economy to insure that artists have enough to
live on. With a stable income, artists can focus on creative work and not have
to worry about the commercial value of what they produce. In this way, we will
gain symphonies rather than jingles and public art installations rather than
company logos.
The conclusion starts with a restatement of the thesis, but that is the only rep-
etition, and it should not be in the same words.
In longer essays,you can write a short summary in a conclusion, but this is not
advisable in short essays because it is too repetitive. Similar to the introduction, the
conclusion should be shorter than the body paragraphs.
A conclusion should not suddenly reveal a preference or point of view to the
reader, because this should have been clear in the thesis statement. A conclusion
should not apologize for brevity (for example, "These are only some of the prob-
lems teenagers face") or make new points to support the thesis.
Study the conclusions in the sample essays in this book.
150 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

A conclusion should

• start with a restatement of the thesis statement-one sentence

• go on to give aliso what?" idea-showing the relevance of what has been
proved, predicting what will happen in the future, or suggesting a plan of
action, for instance
• not mention arguments in support of the thesis (it should not repeat
statements that are in the body paragraphs)
• not be longer than a body paragraph, in most cases

Read the following sample essays, examining the structure. For each, identify the
thesis statement, and see how the topic sentences relate to it. Look at the support
given for the points made in the essay. Examine the introductions and conclusions.
You can also make a point-form outline of the essay to help you see the structure.
Other sample essays to study can be found in Unit 6, at the end of each
non-fiction reading unit (Units 9-15), and in Appendices C and D.

Essay 1 Prompt: Why is dining together as a family so important for children's development?

The Family Meal

In today's hectic lifestyle, many meals have become little more than pit stops.
People grab something on the run, often fast food or processed foods, and rarely take
the time to sit down and enjoy a meal together with the most important people in their
lives-their families. However busy their lives become, people should take the time
to gather together for meals. The family meal provides people with an opportunity to
share food, learn good behaviour, and spend time together.
Because a meal is primarily about the food, a shared dinner offers many health
benefits. The food is generally more nutritious, since it is more likely to be home-
cooked. It is usually consumed more slowly-which is also good for the digestive
system. In addition, children are introduced to foods they might not eat if they are
accustomed to having individual meals. Shared dinners often feature food that is
traditional to the family and its ethnic culture. Moreover, children may learn how to
appreciate and prepare such foods.
The family meal also offers opportunities to learn good behaviour. Children can
practise proper table etiquette when they share a relaxed meal at home rather than
grabbing a burger at a drive-through. These good manners will serve them well later
when they are attending business lunches or wedding receptions. The meal also offers
a good opportunity for family members to share the chores of preparing and serving
the meal and cleaning up afterwards. Children who have learned to work together in
this way grow up to be more considerate and less likely to sit around expecting to be
waited on.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKillS 151

Finally, dinnertime is an occasion for enjoyable, relaxed conversation. Because

the meal is at the end of the day, everyone will have news to share, so it is the best
time for conversation. Children can describe what they learned at school, and parents
can relate events from their workday. They can discuss current events and exchange
opinions. They can even discuss problems and find solutions. Not only will they practise
communication skills but also problem-solving techniques. With everyone leading such
busy lives, a shared meal is a uniting element, giving family members an opportunity to
communicate with one another.
The benefits of a shared family meal are so profound that people should not
eliminate it from their lives, no matter how busy they get. Modern families must take
a good hard look at their schedules and take some time off from business meetings,
extracurricular activities, and clubs to spend time together as a family sharing a meal.
Even if they find it impossible to arrange to eat together every evening, they should
schedule a family meal once a week at the very least.

(You can compare this essay to Paragraph C on page 125.)

Essay 2 Prompt: What is the meaning ofsuccess?

The Definition of Success

Many people equate success with wealth. They think that if someone has a
mansion and a fleet of luxury cars,that person must be successful. However, few people
ever attain that degree of affluence. Nevertheless, many people can look proudly upon
their many achievements. Success means making worthwhile contributions in work,
finding a place in society, and gaining contentment in life.
Because work is so important in human life, people need to do a worthwhile job
to be considered successful. It does not matter whether the job is running a global
corporation or cleaning the streets; all work contributes something to society and
needs doing. Some work may not pay very well, such as artistic endeavours, but it
should still be recognized as valuable. Artists contribute memorable performances,
written works to educate and entertain, and sculptures and paintings to satisfy the
aesthetic needs of their audiences. People need to take pride in their work and do it to
the best of their ability to be deemed a success.
A successful life is one that also makes a mark on society. People can do this
through their work but also through other achievements, such as participating in
political movements or doing volunteer work. Raising children to become valued
members of society is a way of making a difference in the world. Having friends and
helping those in need are important aspects of human existence. Human beings are
social animals above all else, so lives spent in isolation cannot be viewed as valuable as
those that involve reaching out to people.
Aside from what they contribute to society, people are not successful if they have
not achieved some measure of contentment in their own lives. This may not involve
vast sums of money or numerous possessions but enough to have their basic needs
met, such as a home and a family. Studies have shown that people in poorer countries
actually have more joy in their lives than those in rich Western countries. Moreover,
152 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

people who gripe and complain about every facet of their existence must be judged
as failures.
When people want to evaluate the success of their lives, they must look at what
they have accomplished through work, through their contributions to society, and in
their individual existence. A life well-lived is one that has made a mark as well as one
that satisfies the person living it. People only get one chance at life-they must do
what they can with the time they are given.

Essay 3 Prompt: Why do people get tattoos?

Body Art
Human beings have been tattooing their skin for thousands of years, mainly as a
tribal practice. In North America during most of the twentieth century, tattoos were
sported only by rebels, such as bikers and criminals. A sailor might get inked at the end
of a night of drinking and carousing. Tattoos had an element of freak show to them, and
they were viewed as not quite respectable. Today, however, tattoos are everywhere-
on lawyers, teachers, and grandmothers. The reasons that body art is so popular stem
from artistic pursuits, personal expression, and group affiliation.
Tattoos can simply be viewed as another form of human decoration, one that is
permanently inscribed on the skin. Body art has its place beside makeup, hairstyles,
jewellery, and fashion-ways that people enhance their physical attributes. Tattoos can
be elaborate works of art, such as dragons breathing colourful flames stretching over
the back. On a smaller scale,an inked hummingbird on an ankle can be considered just
a pretty picture. Tattoos draw attention to the body, something people have sought to
do since prehistoric times.
Some people get tattoos to express their personal interests and attachments. For
example, a tattoo can show the name and image of a loved one who has passed away
and thus serve as a permanent memorial. A chef might have an image of his favourite
food inked on his forearm. People can get tattoos to show their hobby or their favourite
rock band. On a more spiritual side, Chinese characters are popular tattoos, usually
ones that express a concept the person admires, such as "joy" or "wisdom." The tattoo
shows what the person believes in.
Tattoos can also show group membership. This is probably the most traditional
of reasons to get inked. Certain tribes or religious groups would have specific symbols
that branded members. Biker gangs and criminal groups sported tattoos that showed
permanent affiliation. A marine might get the motto "Semper Fi" inscribed on his arm.
Even teenagers rebelling against their parents or trying to look cool are showing that
they are part of their peer group.
The motivations behind tattoos vary, but they are currently very much in style
with no signs ofthe fad waning. However, anyone contemplating a tattoo should think
long and hard about it. Many people later regret getting their tattoos. Their body art
may not look as crisp with the passage of time, or their interests and passions may
change. Removal is a complicated, expensive, and often painful process, and anyone
who invents a simpler way to accomplish it can look forward to booming business.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKILLS 153

Essay 4 Prompt: How are reality television shows made?

Reality, Manipulated

Unscripted television is dominating the program schedule for many networks.

Lifestyle shows give lessons on cooking, decorating, or buying real estate. Competition
shows have contestants battling it out using their wits, athletic ability, or performance
talents. Some of these programs are informative time-wasters that fill up the daytime
schedule for networks, while other shows carve out high ratings in prime-time spots.
No matter what the format, unscripted shows have to succeed as good television. Even
though these programs are called "reality television," the reality they portray has been
staged and manipulated through the casting, filming, and editing process.
The first step in creating reality television is casting. The participants in the
program have to be telegenic, as do the locations. The audience wants eye candy-
to watch attractive people on lush tropical beaches. Good television also depends on
conflict. For instance, the survivors on the island have to be a mix of characters that are
naturally going to butt heads. The researchers casting the show go through hours of
video of prospective participants, looking for those who are good-looking, articulate,
and unreserved. A good back-story also makes for good television. A contestant who
has overcome trauma is someone the audience can root for.
Even though the participants have no script to read from, they are manipulated
during the filming process.The director stages situations to get the reactions he needs.
For example, he may delay part of a participant's home renovation to see how the
participant copes. In addition, participants often do confessionals during which they
talk directly to the camera to explain what has been happening in the action part of the
show. In these confessionals they are answering leading questions from the director,
who is off camera. For instance, the director will try to extract negative statements
about the other participants. All of this is to try to get emotional reactions to make the
story more dramatic.
Editing is an essential part of making reality television. The producers go through
transcripts and hours of video to put together a few minutes of television. They have
to find a story to tell and make sure that all the elements needed to tell that story have
actually been captured by the camera. The editors cut together the footage, choosing
the best shots to illustrate the story, and show reactions from the participants. The end
product has to tell a clear, entertaining story that fits the time limits.
The process of making reality television shows how much the programs are
crafted-unlike real life, television reality does not just happen. Even though critics
deride such programming as cheap television, they are the result of many hours of work
by skilled artists. Moreover, there is no sign that the popularity of such shows is waning.

Personal and Impersonal Essays

Some instructors assign personal topics to their students in an effort to engage
them more in their writing. Others want students to practise writing objectively
and impersonally as training for the work world.You should be able to handle both
kinds of essays and know what is called for. The topic question usually indicates
whether it requires a personal response.
154 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Here are two essays on the same topic, the first personal and the second imper-
sonal. See pages 10-11 for more on writing impersonally.

Essay 5 Prompt: "McJob" is the term coined by author Douglas Coupland to refer to
low-paying, often menial jobs that frequently involve serving the public, based on the
model of working at McDonald's. What have you learned from working at McJobs?

What McJobs Have Taught Me

As a high school and then university student, I had my share of McJobs.1 worked as
a waitress, a cashier, and tour guide. Although some of my friends sneered at my jobs
and chose to get into debt with student loans instead, I found that working like this
was a good experience. My jobs taught me valuable skills in time management, food
and drink preparation, and speaking to the public.
My work experience taught me how to use my time and energy profitably. Not
only did I have to balance my studies, work hours, and social life, I learned how to
get the most out of my work hours. In the restaurant, I never went anywhere empty-
handed; I had enough miles to walk without having to do them twice. If I took plates
of food or drinks to the tables, I went back to the kitchen with empty plates from other
tables. Even today, as I clean house, I find that I work as efficiently as I did in my days as
a server, making sure I am carrying something both coming and going.
The skills I learned in the food service industry carryover to everyday life.
Sometimes I had to mix drinks, so I picked up some bartending skills that still come in
handy at parties. At times I had to help the kitchen staff, so I learned to cook and plate
food. I did not even know how to cook eggs before I had to help prepare breakfast at
a truck stop restaurant where I worked. When we have large family dinners, my skill
at balancing plates is impressive and useful. As a cashier, I became adept at handling
money for everyday transactions. These may not be skills vital to my existence, but I
take pride in them.
Probably the most important skills I acquired were people skills. As a waitress, I had
to deal with rude and picky customers. Serving food for a catering company took me to
formal functions at embassies and government buildings where I had to contend with
a demanding clientele including celebrities and dignitaries such as the prime minister.
As a tour guide, I learned to project my voice and keep my audience interested-skills
that later helped in my career as a teacher. Because I worked in Ottawa, I had to be
bilingual, so my fluency in French increased.
Even though working part-time made it difficult to spend enough time on my
school work, I do not regret the hours I worked because of all I learned. I probably
would have wasted more time if I had not had those jobs, and my marks would not
have been much better. Moreover, I gained much more than just the income.
 UNIT 5: ESSAY WRITING SKILLS 155

Essay 6 Prompt: "McJob" is the term coined by author Douglas Coupland to refer to
low-paying, often menial jobs that frequently involve serving the public, based on the II
model of working at McDonald's. What can students/earn from working in such jobs
part-time and during the summers?

The Benefits of McJobs

Students often work at part-time or summer jobs to pay their way through school.
These positions are usually "McJobs"-low-paying labour, often involving serving the
public. While many people disdain such menial work, students can actually benefit
from such jobs in more than monetary terms. Students can learn time management,
practical skills,and personal skills.
By working part-time, students learn to manage their precious time. First,
they have to balance their school and work responsibilities. They know they cannot
procrastinate with their academic assignments because they have little time to waste.
They cannot spend free time on video games. Moreover, students learn to be punctual
because bosses are less accepting of tardiness than teachers are. Finally, they learn to
get their work done efficiently and use their time productively. McJobs often require
that a number of tasks be accomplished even during downtime. For example, servers
have side duties cleaning equipment, stocking supplies, and preparing plates, so they
are busy even when the restaurant is almost empty.
Students can acquire a wide range of practical skills on the job. These skills can be
carried over to other jobs or even to everyday household chores. For example, students
who work as landscapers will be able to take care of their own yard and garden when
they become homeowners. Restaurant cooks learn how to run a kitchen and can serve
their future families good meals. Cashiers become adept at handling money and learn
the physics of packing groceries into bags or boxes. Even if such abilities are not used
in future careers, no skill is useless.
Since so many McJobs involve dealing with the public, student workers develop
valuable people skills. They learn how to be polite and cheerful and how to listen to
a complaint without losing their temper. Because they deal with such a wide range
of people, they have a better understanding of humanity. For example, a cashier in
a fast-food restaurant will see people struggling to come up with a few dollars to
pay for a meal. Camp counsellors learn how children develop and learn. As a result,
students develop the compassion and emotional intelligence that will serve them well
throughout life.
Part-time and summer jobs allow students to grow and acquire skills. Students
have to make sure that they do not take on too many hours, because their school work
is still the priority. However, learning does not stop at the classroom door, and students
should be open to these experiences that they may not have a chance at again.

I
156 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Essay-writing, of course, requires practice. All the reading selections in Part 2

have Discussion questions and Assignment topics that can be used as a base for
essay-writing. Here are some general essay topics, some of which you may have
already done some work on in this unit:

1. Write an essay on one of the topics your group generated in the Activity
Choosing a Topic on page 131.
2. What are the benefits of doing volunteer work?
3. Would self-driving cars make the roads safer?
4. Should religious schools be funded by the government?
5. What kind of adjustments do adult children and their parents have to make
when the children move back home after college or university?
6. Should textbooks be replaced bye-books?
7. Why should students study history?
8. What are the advantages or disadvantages of being famous? (Note: Focus on
fame alone, not wealth.)

Essaychecklist

• A five-paragraph essay has an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a

conclusion.
• The introduction provides background information and leads the reader to
the thesis.
• The thesis statement is the last sentence of the introduction. It is one
sentence. It states the main argument, which is a supportable idea. It can be a
general thesis, or it can give the three arguments of the essay(concisely and
in parallel structure).
• Each body paragraph starts with a topic sentence that relates directly to the
thesis and gives the main focus of that paragraph.
• Each body paragraph contains points that are supported by specific
examples or explanation.
The arguments in support of the thesis are only in the body paragraphs-not
in the introduction or conclusion.
• The conclusion starts with a restatement of the thesis. For a short essay, this
restatement is the only summary required.
• The conclusion ends with a "so what?" idea, explaining the relevance of
the argument or taking the idea to a possible future but not giving more
arguments in support of the thesis.
Rhetorical Skills

Rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing to make an argument or impress someone.

Communicating effectively involves knowing the structures of language---the way
words, sentences, paragraphs, and essays are put together-and the way language is
manipulated to have an effect on the reader. As always, what is said depends on the
audience and the purpose of the document.
Writing instructors generally speak of different rhetorical forms, such as narra-
tion and comparison. Each form has its particular use in communicating ideas. For
example, if you are asked to tell a story, you will use the narrative form to tell what
happened. If you are asked to explain a word or idea, your rhetoric technique is
definition to explain what something is.
While you may be called upon to write an essay in one specific mode, most
writing is a mix. For instance, an author might start with a short narrative and then
proceed to argumentation. Of course, there may be an emphasis of one form over
another. Most essay-writing fits under the general umbrella of exposition-making
points and supporting them.
This unit deals with the specific modes of writing. Each is explained and illus-
trated with sample paragraphs and short essays.

Essay topics assigned to students in college or university often require the writer to
show and tell. This is the essence of illustrating as a rhetorical form. Instructors want
the students to be able to explain an idea, a concept, a thought. Illustrating then is
the ideal mode. Often, merely stating something is not enough; it requires showing.
All essays require explanation and illustration. We may label an essay an illus-
trative essay when its main purpose is to explain something without a pronounced
argument. Examples of illustrative essays in this book include: "Body Art" (page
152), "What Mc]obs Have Taught Me" (page 154), "The Benefits of Mc]obs" (page
155), and "The Lure of Costumes" (pages 351-52).
Here is an example of an illustrative paragraph, followed by an illustrative essay:
Excessive hoarding is a psychological disorder. Hoarders are obsessive
about collecting things. Some of these items might be quite useless. For
example, some people keep every flyer that is delivered to their house or
every plastic bag they bring home from shopping. In addition, hoarders
158 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

cannot bear to throw things out. They are emotionally attached to their
collections. Attempts to clear out items make them feel like a part of them
is being ripped away. Finally, hoarding is clearly an illness because sufferers
cannot live normal lives. Their homes become huge messes that are
unsanitary and unsafe. One famous hoarder, Langley Collyer, died in 1947
when some of the mountains of junk in his home fell on top of him. It took a
month to find him because literally tons of stuff had to be removed from the
house to clear the way. Most people do not understand the complexity of the
hoarding mentality and do not perceive it as a serious illness.

The Hazards ofTree Planting

Every summer, thousands of Canadian university and college students head north
to plant trees. Logging companies reforest a certain percentage of their cut land, so
they subcontract to tree-planting companies. The goal of a tree planter is simple: plant
as many trees as possible. Tree planters are paid per tree, so their fortunes rely on the
speed with which they can put seedlings into the ground. It seems, however, that
every aspect of the job-the weather, the animal life, and the rough living and working
conditions-is designed to slow the planter's pace.
Planters work in the rain, during thunderstorms, and even in snow at the beginning
of the tree-planting season. At the end of the day, home is a thin nylon tent, which can
be crushed in a spring snowstorm. Later in the season, they have to endure the kind of
searing heat that sparks forest fires. A clear-cut has no place for hiding from the sun,
and the pace that kept planters warm in May can bring heat exhaustion in June.
The bug situation is like a video game in which increasing levels of difficulty
bring new enemies to fight. Levell would be early May, easy and relatively bug-free.
Level 2 would introduce the blackflies, a few at first and then a psychotic swarm of
tiny, persistent flies getting into the planter's eyes, ears, and nose. Level 3 would be
blackflies and mosquitoes. After mosquitoes come other bugs, such as friendly flies,
deer flies, sandflies, and horseflies. Each has their own deadly weapon and method of
attack. Unlucky planters have even found wasp nests with the thrust of their shovel.
It's not enough to be suffering from the bites themselves; every planter is in constant
danger of self-inflicted bug-swatting-related injuries.
In addition to bugs, tree planters have larger threats from the animal world. For
instance, bears are attracted to the food and garbage around camp and become
a terrifying nuisance. Hungry bears, undeterred by such defensive systems as noise-
makers and flares, sometimes come right into the camp. On the job, planters must make
enough noise to warn off any bears that happen upon their assigned planting plot.
Dirt is a constant companion in the bush. it is inhaled, eaten, and ground into a tree
planter's flesh. A planter's hands will not be completely free of dirt until a few weeks
after the return to civilization. Locals in "day-off" towns know how to spot a planter: A
planter's shovel hand has rough calluses that become havens for dirt and sand. Tree
planters generally go into town once a week to get a decent shower, do laundry, and
pour a couple of beers down their throat to chase all that dirt they swallowed.
The job itself entails bending over to put a seedling in the ground 2000 times a
day, scrambling over obstacles and unfriendly terrain. Trees cannot be haphazardly
shoved into the ground; quality is of the greatest concern to the crew boss. The plug
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKIllS 159

must remain unbent and completely in mineral soil, while the tree itself must be
straight, at the proper depth and spacing. A planter has to satisfy several tree checkers
as well as his or her crew boss. In a j O-hour day, allowing for breaks and bag-up times,
2000 trees means a tree planted every 10 seconds. Good planters often plant three
or four thousand a day, working quickly because the money earned depends on how
many trees get planted. At eight to 10 cents a tree (depending on the terrain), a planter
can make $250 a day and earn enough for tuition in the first month.
Because of the repetitive and high-impact nature of the work, planters are prone
to injuries. For example, tendonitis strikes ankles, knees, elbows, and wrists. Kicking
the ground to expose soil causes a numbness in the toes that can last for months after
planting. Bruises and scrapes are inevitable in the rocky, "slash"-covered landscape.
A nasty spill is often the consequence of moving at the necessary speed. Rainy or icy
conditions are especially hazardous. The weight of three to four hundred seedlings in a
planter's tree-bags makes every step an awkward balancing act.
Tree planting is no summer vacation. It is hard, miserable,competitive work, and those
who enjoy it are certifiably insane.Do not go for the experience, to savethe environment,
or to make money. In fact, do not go at all. Asfor me, I will be there again next year.

(Note: This student essay has a little personal twist at the end, with a humorous
effect. Therefore, it is not a pure academic essay.)

The Language of Explanation and Illustration

Because the concept of explaining and illustrating is so fundamental to essay-
writing, the expressions used in this mode of writing have already been covered.
See Giving Examples in Unit 4 (pages 114-17).

Writing Assignments
1. Choose a current fad or fashion, and explain its popularity.
2. W rite an essay explaining the duties in a job that you have held.

Storytelling is the most ancient of human arts, serving as both entertainment and a
teaching tool. Researchers have shown that facts are remembered better if they are
delivered in the context of a story. In other words, you may recall the facts of events
better if you read them in a historical novel rather than in a history textbook.
Narration is simply telling a story, saying what happened, whether it be a true
story or a fictional one. How much detail is in the story, however, depends on the
audience and purpose. You may be spinning out a story of something funny that
happened to you, perhaps even exaggerating for effect. You may be writing a fantas-
tical children's story to entertain your young nephew. Or you may be relating what
happened in a traffic accident for a police report, as in the following account:
I was driving northbound on Chapel Road, going through an intersection
that had no traffic lights or stop sign. A car in the southbound side was in the
left turn lane. The car turned left before I cleared the intersection and hit the
front of my car, on the driver's side. It pushed my car up onto the snow bank.
160 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Here is another simple narrative:

My tree-planting crew members all know the dangers of bears. I've told
them to make a lot of noise when they are out in the bush. Many of them
sing as they plant trees. This bear, however, came upon me suddenly. I was
unloading the seedlings from the back of the truck. The other crew boss had
gone to check on one of her planters. This black bear came around a thicket.
I don't know who was more surprised-the bear or me. After a moment's
hesitation, it charged at me, knocking me down. It bit on my steel-toed boot
but didn't break through to my foot. With my free foot, I kicked it in the snout,
and I yelled at it. It backed off and then charged again. I kicked it again, and it
turned back and loped off into the bush. Fortunately, I wasn't really hurt.

Some people are gifted storytellers, enthralling listeners and keeping their
attention. Others have trouble telling a story, confusing their audience by skipping
back and forth relating the events that happened or boring their audience with too
many unnecessary details.
It is important to keep your audience and purpose in mind. A story for enter-
tainment is generally longer and more detailed. A narrative that simply states the
facts of the events would be used in a business report. In addition, how much infor-
mation you give depends on what your audience already knows. For example, if
you are telling what happened to Uncle Joe when he was fishing, you do not need
to give as much information to your family members, who already know Uncle
Joe, as you need to give to your friends, who may not know the personal quirks of
your extended family.
Narratives can be found in many types of writing. Journalistic essays often
start with a narrative-an account of something that happened to the author or
someone else. The author uses the narrative to get the reader's attention and to
serve as an introduction to the topic. This is the technique used in "White Tops,
Grey Bottoms" (pages 339-40). Some essays, such as "No Hyphen for Me" (pages
325-26), use narrative as the primary mode. Stories are told in fiction, so the read-
ing selections in Unit 16 are all examples of narrative.
Be sure to make the point of your narrative clear. For example, if you are writ-
ing a complaint letter to a company and are telling a long, involved story of what
happened, you should have an introductory paragraph that succinctly tells what your
complaint is and what action you want. The narrative can then support your point.
Sequence is an important consideration in narration. An audience can follow
a story better if it is told in chronological order (with the events in the order that
they occurred). Use time transition signals such as then and as a result.
Here are two versions of the same story, a well-known Aesop's fable. The first
uses dialogue to spin the story out. The second is a simple reporting of events.

The North Wind and the Sun

The North Wind was a boisterous and blustering fellow. His breath blew cold
and strong, and he liked to shake leaves from trees and push the waters of the sea
into billowing whitecaps. In particular, he liked to wreak havoc on the people below.
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 161

He would send their hats flying off their heads, tie their laundry into knots on the
clothesline, and scatter important papers acrossthe yard.
"I own the sky, and I rule the Earth," he boasted.
One fall day, as the North Wind was up to his usual mischief, he came upon the
Sun, who was covered behind some clouds. The North Wind blew them away so that
he could seethe Sun clearly.
The Sun smiled. 'Thank you, North Wind. I'm sure the people down there
appreciate what you have done too."
The North Wind sensed that the Sun was making fun of him with his easy smiles.
And he didn't like it. "I'm stronger than you are, you know."
The Sun smiled again. "I'm sure you are, North Wind."
The Wind looked below and saw a traveller walking along the road. The man wore
a heavy cloak and a wide-brimmed hat.
"We should have a competition. Do you see that man below? The one who can
take his cloak off will be considered the stronger. Do you want to go first?"
"No, you can have the first go at it."
The North Wind came behind the traveller and suddenly burst forth a wintry blast.
He caught the traveller unawares-momentarily. Then the man grabbed his cloak and
hat tightly against his tiny frame. The North Wind twirled about and sent a powerful
gust in front of the man. More determined than ever, the traveller wrapped his clothing
about him.
Now, this went on for quite a while, but no matter which way the wind blew, the
traveller held onto the hat and cloak for dear life. Finally, the North Wind exhausted all
his tricks and withdrew.
When it was the Sun'sturn, he merely kept beaming brightly, and soon the traveller
felt not only the warmth but the heat of the day. The man began to remove his clothing:
first his hat and then his heavy cloak. Pretty soon he was loosening his other garments.
"Sometimes," the Sun said, "gentle persuasion works better than force."

Note that in this version of the story, the present tense is used:
One day the North Wind and the Sun decide to have a competition to see
who is the strongest. They spy a traveller below and agree that the one who
is able to get the man's cloak off will be deemed the winner. The Wind blows
harder and harder, but the man holds on to his cloak very tightly. Then it is the
Sun's turn. As the rays of the Sun beat down on the traveller, he grows very
warm and takes off his cloak. The moral is that sometimes gentle persuasion
works where force does not.

Exercise 6.1

Here is another Aesop's fable, told in the past tense. Rewrite it, changing it to the
present tense. Or rewrite it adding details to expand the story:

There once was a hare who wanted to racewith a tortoise. He believed

it would be an easy win since the tortoise crawled on all fours and carried
his home on his back. The hare had powerful hind legs, and he could spring
162 PART 1: SKILL DEVElOPMENT

forth in great leaps and bounds. The race was unfair, of course. Surprisingly,
though, the tortoise said yes to this competition. So on the day of the race,
both hare and tortoise agreed that the first to reach the pond across the
meadow would be the winner. The hare graciously gave his competitor (l
head start. In two hops, the hare caught up with the tortoise and in another
two leaps he was far ahead, so far ahead that he decided to rest and take
a nap. The tortoise, however, steadily plodded on, one leg after another,
until he passed the sleeping hare. By the time the hare woke up, the tortoise
had reached the pond. The moral of this story is that slow and steady
wins the race.

The Language of Narrative

Traditional storytelling has some standard expressions, such as the opening "Once
upon a time" and the ending "and they lived happily ever after." Native speakers of
English have generally grown up hearing fairy tales, Aesop's fables, and the stories
of Greek myths, so the language of narrative is familiar to them. English language
learners may wish to check out books of these stories; not only are they a way to
improve language skills, but they are also a way to learn about cultural references.

Verb Tense: The Narrative Present

When you relate a story, it is important to keep verb tense in mind. In English, the
simple present tense is often used to tell a story since it makes it more immediate.
For example, even though Shakespeare has been dead for 400 years, you could say,
"Shakespeare tells the story of two lovers in Romeo and juliet." The past tense is also
used for narration. It is important, however, not to mix the two tenses unneces-
sarily. Whether you decide to tell your story in the present tense or in the past, do
not switch.
In Unit 16, "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" is told in the present
tense, while the other stories in the unit are told in the past tense.

Writing Assignments
1. Write a one-paragraph account of something interesting that happened to
you recently.
2. Write the story of a folk tale or fairy tale that you know. Add dialogue to
make the story more detailed.
3. In small groups of two to four students, each group should start a short story,
writing the first sentence. The paper should then be handed to another group
to continue the story. Afterwards, the whole story can be shared with the class.
The stories can be read aloud or projected onto a screen.

Description paints a picture in the reader's mind. Sometimes you need to add
description to clarify what you are talking about. Sometimes you want your audi-
ence to practically feel and sense it themselves. You may not be called upon to
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 163

write a descriptive essay, but you may have to include description in other forms of
writing. Remember your audience and purpose. For instance, the amount of detail
you include will vary, depending on whether you are trying to entertain your audi-
ence with a story or just trying to make something clear on the way to explaining
something else.
Here are three examples of descriptive paragraphs:

Everybody needs a private place to think, dream, and just escape life.
When I was younger, I spent a lot of the summer at our family cottage. It was a
chalet-style building, and my bedroom was under the roof. Outside my room
was a little balcony, which had a ramp that led to the rocky hill right next
to our cottage. The ramp meant that I could leave my room without going
through the main door of the cottage and alerting the whole family to my
movements. That balcony exit was my personal escape. I didn't really get into
mischief, but I liked to go out and climb to the top of the hill. It was mostly
rock, but there was an indentation that provided a not-too-uncomfortable
seating area. I could look down at the roof of the cottage to one side, deep
into the woods on the other, and in front of me was the lake, which I could
see between the trees. I often did not see any other people even though I was
onlya few feet from our neighbour's lot. I loved to sit there and smell the pine,
feel the warm sunshine and the cooling breeze, and hear the lapping of the
waves. It was my little piece of heaven.

My roommate's brother Ammar is a giant. He's not just tall; he's also
as broad as a linebacker. He tends to wear clothes two sizes too big for him
in a style generally seen in a rap video. His unkempt hair and perennial five
o'clock shadow add to his unfriendly giant appearance. If you saw him coming
down the street, you'd probably surreptitiously get a better grip on your purse
or cross the road outright. However, if instead of doing either of those things,
you offered him some ice cream, you'd probably end up being best friends
forever and have play dates to watch Disney movies. He once came over
specifically to watch Finding Nemo with me, while his sister rolled her eyes and
stayed in her room. I don't think she appreciates his particular charms.

Sao Paolo, founded in 1554 by Jesuits, remained relatively unimportant

until it became the key port for the export of coffee in the late nineteenth
century. Today it is the financial and industrial capital of Brazil. Growth has
been accompanied by distinct spatial expressions of class. Working-class areas
arose close to industrial sites, while elite areas developed on higher ground;
in some cases elite areas are enclosed by security fences and patrolled by
guards. Squatter settlements, known as fave/as, are common on the city's
outskirts. About one-third of the fave/as are on riverbanks and subject to
flooding; one-third are on steep slopes and may be subject to landslides and
erosion; and about one-tenth are located on waste dumps or landfill sites.

Excerpted from Human C;cof:raphy. 7th edition, by William Norton, Oxford, 2()(),), p. 546

- - - - .. _---
164 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Look for descriptive passages in the readings in Part 2. For instance, Peter
Singer describes different watches in "Why Pay More? To Be Conspicuous" (pages
284-85), and Salim Sachedina describes the Toronto of the 1960s in "No Hyphen
for Me" (pages 325-26). Discuss the techniques the authors use for description.

Some pointers to keep in mind for description

• As with all writing, clarity is vital.

• Organize your details so that your reader can follow you.
• Keep in mind your audience and purpose.
• Use adjectives and adverbs, but don't overload your sentences with them.

Writing Assignments
1. Write a one-paragraph description of your favourite place in your hometown.
2. Write a description of an interesting person you know.
3. Describe an object (such as a can-opener) for someone who has never seen
one.You can pretend you are describing it for an alien from another planet.

Sometimes in your writing you have to explain the meaning of a term. You might
have to write a short paragraph to define a technical term in a report, or you might
have to write a whole essay, such as "The Definition of Success" (pages 151-52).
Classification involves defining something using various categories. For example, you
might write about the kinds of customers you have as a server in a restaurant or dif-
ferent types of marketing approaches that can be used with a product. Another kind
of classification is division in which the different parts of one thing are described.
For instance, you could write about the main components of a 3-D printer.
Dictionary definitions can be used effectively in an essay. Peter Martyn offers
an Oxford English Dictionary definition in his essay "Fear Math, Not Numbers"
(Unit 9, pages 260-61). He is using the authority to make a point, and the dictio-
nary definition is only a small part of this explanation of the difference between
mathematics and arithmetic. Less skilled writers sometimes fall back on a dictionary
definition to fill up space or to provide an introduction when they are at a loss;
sometimes the definition is unnecessary because the word is clear on its own.
Here is an example of a definition paragraph:
Narcissism is defined as self-love. The word comes from Narcissus, a
character in Greek mythology who was handsome and vain. He fell in love
with his own reflection in a pond, staring at it for hours, while the lovesick
nymph Echo looked on and tried to call out to him. His name was later given
to the flower that tends to grow by lakes and ponds. Narcissistscan be vain,
like Narcissus. Mainly they think they are special and privileged and no one
else in the world matters. For instance, students who interrupt the class to
demand attention to their needs may be showing this kind of behaviour. Many
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKillS 165

narcissists are charming and attractive, so they get away with lording it over
others. They generally have an exaggerated view of their abilities. For example,
some contestants on televised talent shows often react with disbelief when
informed that they have no talent. Unfortunately, narcissism has been fostered
in modern society with its emphasis on individual wants and needs.

Here is an example of a classification essay:

Three Kinds of Bad Drivers

Driving to work or school is one of the most risky activities people undertake in
their daily lives. The possibility of getting hurt or killed in a traffic accident is actually
higher than getting killed by a terrorist, but people do not take the dangers of the road
seriously enough, whether they are pedestrians, cyclists, or drivers. Much of the danger
on the roads is caused by poor driving habits. Three of the worst kinds of drivers are
those who are overcautious, distracted, or aggressive.
Some drivers are so afraid of driving that, ironically, they create more hazards
trying to be careful. Overcautious drivers insist on going very slowly. They may go
down the highway below the speed limit or below the speed of traffic. It would not be
as dangerous if they restricted their movements to the slow lane, but sometimes they
take the middle lane to avoid the truck traffic or even clog up the fast lane. If they do
not know where they are going, they may crawl down a street looking at street signs,
or even reverse if they miss their turn. Overly careful drivers delay making left turns,
waiting for the road to be completely clear, thus causing the drivers behind them to
become impatient and perhaps even do something rash, such as pulling around them.
Other bad drivers are those who try to do two things at once. The most common
transgression today is using a cellphone while driving. Even using a hands-free set does
not prevent a driver from being distracted. Cellphone users often weave in their lane
or drive more slowly because they are concentrating on their call. Some drivers try to
consult a map while they are actually moving. Some use traffic jams to catch up on
their reading, even when the traffic is stop-and-go. Other activities include eating or
personal grooming, such as putting on makeup. Any of these actions distract the driver
from the most important task-driving. Preoccupied drivers put everyone at risk since
it takes only a split second to cause a crash.
Aggressive drivers are probably the worst kind of driver. They drive quickly and
take risks because they are always in a hurry. They think the speed limit is for wusses,
and they tailgate drivers in the fast lane on the expressway, even if those drivers are
driving 120 kilometres per hour in a 1DO-kilometre zone. Aggressive drivers are also
annoying because they follow so closely that they have to hit the brake lights often,
confusing drivers behind, who think there is a traffic slowdown. These drivers have
Type A personalities-they are competitive and do not want to be behind anyone.
They weave in and out of lanes and take chances. It is only luck and the attentiveness of
other drivers that save them from more accidents.
The most dangerous hazards on the road are other drivers, so careful drivers have
to watch out for those who are overly cautious, preoccupied, or aggressive. All drivers
have to understand the characteristics of bad drivers in order to be able to predict their
behaviour on the road, and they have to be vigilant for signs of these driving behaviours.

--------------------------------------------------
166 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

The Language of Definition and Classification

Writers have different techniques available to add information to help readers
understand what something is.

lilt worked well for the baby boom In this case, just giving the birth years
generation (1946-1965). But their in brackets is enough to define the
children (born 1972 to 1992) entered generation.
a very different labour market." (Goar,
page 270)
"... ways of spending money that Here, Singer gives the definition
had no other objective than the before giving the term itself Note
display of wealth itself. He termed this that he uses the verb form of term-
'conspicuous consumption.'" (Singer, the word is more commonly used as
page 284) a noun.

"When asked what he thought about Teitel sets the definition off between
'food instagramming'-photographing parenthetical dashes (see page 99 on
your meal at a restaurant and uploading Punctuation) .
the pictures onto social media-he
explained that while he does this 'all the
time: he isn't particularly fond of the
practice." (Teitel, page 297)

"But this month, the United Nations A common practice is to give the
Environmental Programme (UNEP) full name of an organization and
released a major report on marine waste then the short form in brackets. After
which cited garbage cleanups along the the first mention in the document,
Mediterranean Sea showing plastic bags the organization is referred to by its
accounted for just 8.5 per cent of total short form.
marine litter." (Taylor, page 318)

"... she cannot understand that you In his short story, Engkent uses
don't give government officials tai-shi, Chinese words and expression that
the traditional Chinese money-gift he knows his audience is not familiar
given to persons who do things for with. In this quote, he explains what
you." (Engkent, page 354) lai-shi is. Note that non-English
words are in italics and that the
definition comes after the comma.

"You didn't live long enough in han For the two Chinese terms here,
san, the sweet land, to understand the Engkent gives the translation instead
fears of the old. You can't expect the of a definition. From the context, the
elderly to renounce all attachments reader knows that han san refers to
to China for the ways of the fan gwei, China and that Jan gwei refers to non-
white devils. How old is she, 70 now? Chinese. Note the use of commas to
Much harder.'" (Engkent, page 354) set off the translations.
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 167

Writing Assignments
1. Write a paragraph defining an abstract term, such as beauty, heroism, intellioence,
or leadership.
2. New words are coined every day; many come from developments in technol-
ogy. Write a paragraph defining a new word or expression (such as phishing,
se(fie, phablet). Include information on how these words were developed.
3. What is a Canadian? Write a definition paragraph or an essay.
4. Write a classification essay on three kinds of people you encounter in your
everyday life. For example, if you work as a salesclerk or restaurant server, you
can describe three different kinds of customers or three kinds of supervisor.

Academic essays often explain the causes or effects of something. Sometimes an

essay can discuss both causes and effects, especially if there is a domino effect or a
chain reaction in which one event leads to another, which in turn leads to another.
For example, you could explain how trying a drug could lead to addiction and how
addiction may lead eventually to crime.
You can read many examples of cause and effect writing in this book. In Unit
4, Paragraph A (page 124) discusses the reasons that the family meal has become less
common, and Paragraph C (page 125) explains the effects of having a regular meal
together. The essay "Body Art" (page 152) explains causes (reasons for getting tat-
toos), while "False Economy" (pages 295-96) focuses on the effects of cheapness in
our society. "White Top, Grey Bottoms" (pages 339-40) mentions both the reasons
for choosing school uniforms and the effects of having them, and "The Case against
Bottled Water" (pages 309-11) explains results of buying bottled water.

Study these examples of cause/effect writing:

Prompt: Explain the effects ofdriving while using a eel/phone.
Even though many drivers claim that they can use a eel/phone safely
while behind the wheel, the effects of using a eel/phone, even a hands-free
device, while driving can clearly be seen. Researchers have found that the
effect is equivalent to driving under the influence of alcohol, while talking to
a passenger or listening to the radio does not have the same effects. Talking
on a phone takes the attention away from the road, even when the driver has
both eyes on the road and both hands on the wheel. This often results in a
driver slowing down or weaving. Most important, eel/phone users are prone
to "inattentional blindness" whereby people do not process what they are
seeing. This effect has been amply shown in tests like the goril/a test in which
observers fail to see something in the picture when they are concentrating
on something else.The human brain cannot multi-task, and laws prohibiting
eel/phone use while driving should include hands-free devices.
168 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Here is an other example of cause/effect writing:

Causes of Modern Incivility

Complaining about other people's behaviour is nothing new in any society.

Ancient Greek writings show that even in those times, people were concerned that
teenagers were disrespectful and impolite. Today, people point to such phenomena
as road rage, the lack of formal manners, and vulgarity on television to make their
claim that incivility is on the rise. Whether people are in fact ruder today than before is
debatable. However, changes in technology, politics, and society in the late twentieth
century have influenced human behaviour, making people less considerate of others.
The use of new technologies such as computers is the most obvious influence
on behaviour. While technology does open up new ways of communicating with our
fellow beings, it also cuts us off from real human interaction. It is much easier to be rude
sitting in a car or at a keyboard than it is face-to-face. In road rage incidents, aggression
and violence escalate between drivers, acts ranging from cutting other drivers off to
obscene gestures to even physical confrontation between drivers who get out of their
cars to fight. Psychologists say people feel dehumanized in their vehicles and therefore
freer to act aggressively. Similarly, Internet users can send angry, obscene messages
because they feel anonymous and not responsible for their actions.
Another problem is that new gadgets usually come into widespread use before the
social rules for using them can develop. Cellphones offer convenience but also intrude
on public space as people talk loudly on their phones in restaurants and let them ring
in the middle of a lecture. Sometimes the use of a technology affects behaviour in other
situations. People used to chatting with their family while they watch a movie at home
sometimes behave the same way in a theatre.
Technology has also sped up our world, making us lessconsiderate of others. With
instantaneous communication possible, people do not take the time to reflect on their
words. Moreover, this hurry-up world causes stress. People have a lot of information
to digest and deal with-and little time to do it. Thus, it is not surprising that the
courtesies people generally pay each other have fallen by the wayside.
The late twentieth century also brought a political shift that indicates a change in
attitude that fosters selfishness. The right-wing conservative viewpoint preaches lower
taxes, fewer social programs, and the rightful dominance of the marketplace. This is,
in effect, an every-man-for-himself philosophy. People have to be ruthless to succeed,
and they cannot consider others' welfare. Consequently, they behave inconsiderately.
The emphasis on individual needs has many manifestations in behaviour. The
1980s was called the "me" decade. Education became child-centred, and self-esteem
was promoted. Parents and teachers were encouraged to praise children so that they
could grow up to be confident and content; even poor results were given good marks
for effort. However, this overemphasis on self-esteem resulted in a false sense of
entitlement. People educated in this way may think too highly of themselves and may
figure that they deserve special treatment, that what they want is more important than
anyone else's needs.
In addition, deference to authority is less than it used to be. In traditional families,
ideal children were those who were seen but not heard, because parental authority
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 169

was absolute. Not only do present-day parents get less respect, but other authority
figures, such as doctors, politicians, supervisors, and teachers, are also frequently
challenged. Some of this is due to the media revealing the weaknesses of such figures.
This lessening of deference to authority can be positive because it leads to such actions
as questioning doctors and not just accepting everything they say, but it has also led
to increased incivility, as protestors smack cream pies into the faces of prime ministers
and teachers are harassed.
The media can, of course, be blamed for some of this rudeness and vulgarity. Bad
behaviour gets featured on the news-whether it be politicians heckling each other in
Question Period, hockey players beating each other to a pulp, or drunken celebrities
landing in jail. People get a taste of fame and want to hold onto it. They crave the
publicity-even if it is negative. Reality television stars find their 15 minutes of fame is
not enough and cook up media stunts, such as pretending a child is aloft in a balloon,
to extend the media coverage. While we pretend to be horrified, it is our appetite for
celebrity news that feeds the paparazzi and schlock TV.
Although we can find many reasons why people behave with less consideration
for others today, we should not be too quick to conclude that society today is
uncivil. We have to recognize other truths. First, social rules are cultural. As our world
brings people with different values together, some adjustments have to be made,
leading to new standards of behaviour. We must also be careful to distinguish between
casual and rude. A few decades ago, people dressed up to go on an airplane trip and
never called an older person by a first name. Does this mean a decline of civility or
merely a more relaxed style of behaviour? Finally, our society has made improvements
in the way we treat those who have lesser status. Overt racism is less accepted today,
and we make fewer classdistinctions. Women are no longer considered the possessions
of their husbands and relatives. In those respects, we can say modern behaviour
is better.

The Language of Cause and Effect

Here are some words and expressions used to show cause/effect relationships:
Causes
because, since, as, for, to result from, to be the result of, due to, due to the
fact that, because of, the effect of, the consequence of, as a result of, as a
consequence of, one reason that, caused by, attributed to, on account of,
owing to

Effects
so, as a result, as a consequence, therefore, thus, consequently, hence, to
result in, to cause, to have an effect on, to affect, the cause of, the reason for,
thereby, cause of

Watch out for the different prepositions used. Affect is a transitive verb (it has
an object), so there is no preposition afterwards; however, the preposition on often
follows the noun ~ffcct. Both in and from can follow the verb result, but the noun
result is generally followed by of Because is followed by a clause; because qfis followed
by a noun or a noun phrase.

----------------------------------------------
170 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Analyze the following sentences. Identify the causes and the effects in each
sentence and the words that point to this:
1. In Canada, education is under provincial jurisdiction. Consequently, the
school system varies from province to province.
2. Because students in humanities courses have to write more essays, they
develop their critical thinking skills more than students in the sciences.
3. Due to the changes in the curriculum, students have fewer electives to
choose from.
4. Because ofthe construction of the school addition, noise was a distraction
during tests.
5. The inclusion of arts and sports programs affects the drop-out rate as
more students stay in school to participate in these activities.
6. One reason why the course has such a high success rate is the strong
motivation of the students.
7. Their quick progress had a negative effect on the other teams, who had to
scramble to catch up and so became careless.
8. Following up on the cases with nurses' visits results in fewer
rehospitalizations.
9. This medication can have serious side effects. It can trigger migraine
headaches.
10. Doctors looking into the causes of cancer have found that lifestyle can
affect some rates of the disease.

Writing Assignments
1. In a paragraph, explain how the poor choice of a given name can affect a
child.
2. In an essay, explain the reasons that young people start smoking.
3. In an essay, explain how traffic jams affect our society.

When you write a review, you evaluate and give your opinion of a work.You could
review a book, a movie, a CD, a concert, or a product. Your review might include
comparisons to similar works. You can summarize the story, but remember that
your audience might not yet have seen or read it, so do not reveal too much of the
plot-especially the ending. Everyone is entitled to his or her own opinion, but this
opinion should be clearly and logically supported.
Reviewing is also a base for critical analysis. The word review means to look
over or look at something again. In short, reviewing is a critical evaluation or the
close examination of materials. From an academic point of view, reviewing is not
just a synopsis of what has been said or written, but rather it gives a perspective, or
expresses an opinion, on the content. In a book review, for instance, you state the
reasons for liking or for not recommending it and then back those reasons up with
relevant details.
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 171

Here is an informal movie review:

In the winter of 2009, movie audiences raved about James Cameron's
Avatar, entranced by the flashy and innovative special effects but sadly blind
to the movie's shortcomings. First is tragically mundane dialogue: The "I see
you" line is supposed to pass for something both romantic and profound. It's
amazing that with such a high budget, none of it could be put toward finding
a decent screenwriter. Second, not only is the plot utterly predictable, it is a
rip-off of Disney's Pocahontas, or Dances with Wolves, or any story in which
our hero finds love with an exotic yet sympathetic native girl and learns
to renounce his wicked ways and embrace the environment. With all the
hype over the amazing technology used to make the film, it's impossible to
avoid the conclusion that Cameron came up with the software first and then
decided that blue cat people were a great way to showcase it. Avatar is yet
another example of technology being deployed for the sake of, "Look how
cool this is!"rather than to service a story.

Reviewing readings and writing personal responses is covered in Writing about

Readings in Unit 8 (pages 249-52).

Writing Assignments
1. Collect some reviews from the local newspaper or the Internet. It is easy to
find reviews of movies, concerts, plays, books, and restaurants. Look at the
techniques used. Choose two different reviews about something you are fam-
iliar with, such as a movie you have seen. Write a paragraph on how effective
the reviews are. Would they have influenced your decision to see that movie?
2. Write a brief review (about 150 words) of a book, movie, computer game,
concert, or CD.

Process description is often found in technical writing. It is generally "how to"

writing, common in instruction manuals. There are two basic kinds of process writ-
ing-instructional and descriptive. Instructions can be written in a list or in prose
paragraphs. They are directed at the reader, so they use you and command sentences.
The other kind simply describes the process objectively, without giving instruc-
tions. For example, if you explain to a gardener how to plant a flower, you are
giving instructions. If you give an account of how a plant grows, you are writing a
process description without being instructional.
Good process writing is clear and concise. You have to give enough inforrna-
tion for your reader to understand the process being described but not too much
information. You have to know your audience. If you are describing a technical
process, much will depend on how comfortable the reader is with the jargon of the
particular field.
It is important to break the process down into the different steps. Sometimes
you will have to subdivide, with some general phases of the process broken down
172 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

into various steps. For example, the planning stage of essay writing includes research-
ing and thinking about the topic,jotting down ideas, and preparing an outline.
Paragraph F on the family dinner (page 126) describes process, as does the
essay "Reality, Manipulated" (page 153).

The following examples show different kinds of process writing.

1. Instructions:
How to take notes:
1. Prepare for classahead of time-do the assigned homework and preview
textbook chapters.
2. Come to classon time with your tools-whether they are traditional
(pen, paper) or electronic (laptop or tablet).
3. Choose a seat where you can hear the lecturer and seethe board or screen.
4. Listen carefully to the lecturer, paying close attention.
5. Write down, in point form, the main points of the lecture.
6. Listen for cues, when the lecturer stresses specific points.
7. Use short forms for common words and the terms of the field.
8. After class, review notes, completing any missing sections to make sure
they will be clear later.

2. Instructional Process Paragraph:

Note-taking is one of the skills you must learn in college or university,
especially if you did not master it in high school. First, you have to come to
class prepared, having read whatever chapters are required for that lecture.
You need to bring your note-taking tools-your pens and notebook or, if you
prefer, a laptop or tablet. Choose your seat so that you can hear the lecturer
and see the board and screen. Listen carefully and pay attention to everything
the lecturer says. Your goal is to write down the main points. To do that, you
have to follow the lecturer's cues. For example, if the professor sayssomething
like "most important;' you know that she is stressing something. Similarly, you
can ignore any small talk, like the chat with students about the movies they
saw on the weekend. To be efficient, use point-form notes and abbreviations.
In addition to the standard short forms, you can develop your own system.
Be sure to have short forms for the technical terms that are often repeated in
that subject area. After class, go over your notes. If the notes are not clear, add
information or rewrite illegible bits while the lecture is still fresh in your mind.
If you take notes faithfully, you will remember your lectures better and have
study notes ready.

3. Descriptive Process Paragraph:

Note-taking is one of the skills college students must learn since it
is not usually taught in high school. The first step is proper preparation.
Students need to have done the assigned reading. They must bring their
note-taking tools, whether they prefer the tried and true pen and paper or

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 - -::511I

UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 173

use an electronic device. They should choose a seat where they can hear
and see everything. Once the lecture begins, careful attention is required.
Professors usually stress the important points. Students need to develop their
own system of point-form notes, including abbreviations for technical terms
common in their field. The last step is one that many students neglect. Notes
have to be cleaned up and added to after class to make sure they are legible
even after the material of the lecture is no longer fresh in the mind. The act
of note-taking helps students retain the information better, and good notes
serve as useful study quldes.
Process description is also found in the description of biological or geological processes:

Tsunamis 101
by Jan Dutkiewicz
Say tsunami and up pops a mental image of a single, giant wave rising out of
the ocean to swallow cities whole. In reality, tsunamis (meaning "harbour wave" in
Japanese) are a series of waves that start small and grow as they approach land. They
are the result of oceans attempting to smooth out their surface after a disturbance.
Tsunamis are triggered by any phenomenon that causes a large part of the water's
surface to rise or drop relative to normal sea level. These events are usually the result
of earthquakes occurring along undersea fault lines, the cracks in the Earth's crust
between tectonic plates. When these plates collide or grind against each other, they
can elevate, lower, or tilt major sections of the ocean floor, suddenly offsetting the level
of water at the surface. The displaced water then rushes to level out, ca using a tsunami.
The waves travel outward in all directions from the place where the earthquake
occurred, just like the ripples created when a stone is thrown into a lake.
Tsunamis can also be caused by undersea volcanic eruptions, landslides, or
explosions on the surface, such as the 1917 Halifax harbour explosion that sent
1O-metre-high waves crashing into the city. It has also been suggested that asteroids or
other extraterrestrial bodies could cause tsunamis if they plummet into large bodies of
water, but there have been no examples of this in recent history.
A popular misconception is that tsunamis are monstrous waves that scour the
ocean destroying everything in their path. The displacements caused by earthquakes
and other cataclysms move huge masses of water, but they do not dramatically shift
the surface level. Tsunami waves travelling in the open ocean can travel hundreds of
kilometres per hour, but they are usually less than one metre high, and their crests
can be up to 100 kilometres apart. They can be virtually invisible from the air and, for
ships, be indistinguishable from the normal movement of the ocean. It is when these
waves make landfall that they achieve their destructive potential. There are stories of
fishermen who had no idea that a tsunami had struck their Villages because they were
too far out in the ocean to see or feel any waves at all.
As the ocean becomes shallower near the coast, tsunami waves slow down,
compressing and directing their energy and volume upward, some rising to amplitudes
of over 50 metres and annihilating whatever they encounter. Depending on the depth
and slope of the coastline, it is also possible for the tsunami waves to wash over the

\
174 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

shore like a flood or rapid current, as they did in the widely televised video footage
taken in Thailand during the recent disaster in Southeast Asia.
Generally, coasts and islands with steep fringes or surrounded by barrier reefs
are safer than those with gradually rising fringes or those that are exposed to open
ocean. This is because reefs can absorb much of the oncoming waves' impact and deep
coastlines do not allow tsunamis to slow down and grow into deadly towers of water.

© 2005, Canadian Geographic Enterprises http://www.cangeo.ca/tsullallli/tsullalllis 101.asp.

Describing how to find a job is normally instructional, but the essay below shows how
it can be written as a process description (in third person, avoiding the use of you).

Looking for a Job

The job hunt is a formidable task that everyone has to face many times. Not only
is one's livelihood dependent on the outcome, but the hunt can be frustrating and
demoralizing. There is no avoiding it, however, and it can be more easily tackled as
a step-by-step procedure. Finding a job requires preparing documents, searching for
openings, and contacting employers.
The first step is writing the documents required for the job search. The most
important one is the resume, which defines the potential employee. Job seekers must
summarize their education, experience, and skills. They have to write a search objective
that encapsulates what they are looking for in a position. Second, cover letters need to
be drafted. They are important because they can bring the resume to life and can be
tweaked for specific job requirements. A third useful document is a list of references
to present at interviews. While the list itself is not difficult to assemble, it does take
time to contact the people listed and ask them whether they will serve as references.
Applicants may also need to make copies of their credentials such as degrees and
certificates.
Once the required documents are assembled, job hunters must start looking
for possible openings. The first step is networking. They must let friends, family, and
acquaintances know that they are looking for work because more jobs are found
through contacts than through actual advertising. Using connections may gain them a
foothold they might not otherwise be able to get. Then, employment ads in all media
need to be scoured for suitable positions. Job seekers must also identify companies that
they would like to work for even if there are no positions currently advertised. A visit
to a campus or community employment centre can also prove helpful in identifying
potential jobs.
All this preparation leads to actually contacting and meeting potential employers.
Applicants need to send in their cover letters and resumes to the employers and
perhaps follow up with a phone call. When they are called in for an interview, they
move on to another step in the job-hunting process. Applicants must prepare for the
interview by practising answers to possible questions and by researching the company.
They must also give attention to their appearance so that they make a good impression.
Following these steps will make the job hunt a manageable task. Looking for a job
is never easy, but with a positive attitude and good preparation, job seekers should be
able to find work that suits their qualifications and provides them with a livelihood.
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 175

Writing Assignments
1. Find a process description in a textbook for one of your core courses. Look for
an example of point-form instructions, prose instructions, and a prose passage
that describes how something happens or is done. Jot down notes comparing
the three.
2. Write a process description of a task that you are familiar with. For example,
you can write about painting a room, cleaning a kitchen, making a pizza, or
taking an inventory.
3. In a paragraph, describe the process of getting a driver's licence.

Comparison is an important technique in writing. Sometimes writers must com-

pare two things to show which is preferable. Sometimes they use an analogy, a type
of comparison, to explain something. The word compare itself is problematic because
it actually means to show similarity. Writing teachers refer to "compare/contrast
essays" in order to be precise, but common usage is just to talk about comparison
with the understanding that it refers to both similarities and differences, with the
stress on differences.
There is a common expression in English that says you cannot compare apples
and oranges, which means you cannot compare two very different things. The two
things you are writing about in a comparison essay should have some basis for
comparison. It would not be logical to write an essay comparing a sock to a tree,
for instance. Often, a comparison essay shows a preference for one or the other. For
example, in an essay comparing life in a big city to life in a small town, you would
probably take a stand that one is better than the other.
It is also important to remember that in an essay,the writer does the work. It is
the writer's job to make the comparison clear; the reader should not have to infer it.
For example, you cannot write an essay talking about one movie and then another
and then say to your reader, "As you can see, these two movies are very different."
You need to show how they are different. For instance, you could say something
like "The new film shows the director's growth. He uses fewer cheesy special effects
and instead relies on character development."
Four-paragraph comparison essays are not recommended because they
usually end up as two separate descriptions with little explicit comparison. In a
five-paragraph essay, in contrast, each body paragraph gives a different point of
comparison and refers to both things being compared.
Comparison paragraphs are tricky to structure. You have to make sure that
your reader can follow the points without getting confused. In block form com-
parison paragraphs, you talk about one item, then the other, keeping the elements
in the same order. In a point-by-point comparison, however, you go back and forth
like a ping pong ball, but you make sure that you maintain order. In an essay, you
can have both kinds of paragraphs. However, instructors may prefer that you use the
block style since the point-by-point can be tricky.

\
176 PART 1: SKill DEVELOPMENT

Here is an example of the point-by-point style of comparison paragraph:

When Canadian students graduate from high school, they have the
choice of two different kinds of post-secondary institution: university or
community college. Colleges are vocational, preparing students for specific
careers.Graduates may work as aestheticians, computer technicians,
paramedics, or videographers. University studies are more academic,
with undergraduates studying in such fields as history, mathematics, and
philosophy. These studies may lead to a profession, such as law, medicine, or
engineering. Moreover, colleges give more practical, hands-on instruction.
Future paramedics can be seen practising CPR on fellow students in the
hallway, while other students are creating window displays or building
models. In contrast, university students are more likely to be found at their
computers, hunting for references for essays. Finally, college and university
require different investments, with different results. College students have
shorter programs, pay lower tuition, and usually study closer to home. In
one to three years,they graduate with a diploma or certificate. University
students, on the other hand, go to school longer, pay higher tuition fees, and
sometimes have the additional costs of living far from home. However, their
degree ultimately has more earning potential than a college diploma. While
these are the traditional differences between colleges and universities, both
institutions are changing, and the distinction is blurring: colleges are forming
partnerships with universities, and some even offer degree programs.
Point 1 - orientation - college (A)
- university (8)
Point 2 - instruction - college (A)
- university (8)
Point 3 - value - college (A)
- university (8)

Compare it to this block style of comparison paragraph:

When Canadian students graduate from high school, they have the
choice of two different kinds of post-secondary institution: university or
community college. Colleges are vocational, preparing students for specific
careers. Graduates may work as aestheticians, computer technicians,
paramedics, or videographers. Consequently, colleges give more practical,
hands-on instruction. Future paramedics can be seen practising CPR on fellow
students in the hallway, while other students are creating window displays
or building models. In addition, college students have shorter programs,
pay lower tuition, and usually study closer to home. In one to three years,
they graduate with a diploma or certificate. In contrast, university studies
are more academic, with undergraduates studying in such fields as history,
mathematics, and philosophy. These studies may lead to a profession, such
as law, medicine, or engineering. On campus, university students are more
likely to be found at their computers, hunting for references for essays.
Finally, university students go to school longer, pay higher tuition fees, and
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 177

sometimes have the additional costs of living far from home. However, their
degree ultimately has more earning potential than a college diploma. While
these are the traditional differences between colleges and universities, both
institutions are changing, and the distinction is blurring: colleges are forming
partnerships with universities, and some even offer degree programs.

A) college - orientation (Point 1)

- instruction (Point 2)
- value (Point 3)
B) university - orientation (Point 1)
- instruction (Point 2)
- value (Point 3)

In the comparison paragraphs and essay below, examine and identify the structure
of each paragraph.
Destination weddings offer couples something different from traditional
weddings. A destination wedding takes place in an exotic location such as
a tropical resort. A couple can have a romantic ceremony on a beach. The
style is casual, to fit the environment. The wedding is usually small because
only the couple's closest family and friends attend. Costs are also kept down
because resorts often offer special package deals for the ceremony and
reception. The destination wedding is also a vacation for the guests (who
pay their own way) as well as a honeymoon for the couple. In contrast,
traditional weddings take place in the couple's hometown, with the ceremony
in a church and the reception in a hall. While these weddings can be casual,
many are very formal, with the bride in an elaborate gown and the groom
in a tuxedo. The size of the reception often gets out of hand as more guests
get invited to fulfill social obligations. Therefore, the price can skyrocket to
the $50,000 range, and that is before the honeymoon costs figure in. When
couples consider these differences, they see the advantages of going away, so
it is not surprising that destination weddings have become a popular trend.

The Disney Version

In recent years, fairy tales have changed considerably. Children today are more
familiar with the sanitized version, the Disney version, than with the raw tellings of the
Brothers Grimm or Hans Christian Andersen. The classic tales of Beauty and the Beast,
Sleeping Beauty, SnowWhite, Cinderella,and the Little Mermaid have been transformed
into politically correct, cutesy renderings. The hard edge in the originals has been so
softened that they have become cotton candy. The three dramatic differences can be
found in fairy tale animals, in the level of violence, and in plot resolution.
Animals, big and little, populate the world of the fairy tale and contribute to the
plot, but the cartoon versions are softer and more pet-like. For example, in Disney's
Beauty and the Beast, the "beast" prince is a cute rendering of an animal. He has a
bad temper, but his bark is worse than his bite. In the classic Brothers Grimm version,
however, the petulant prince is transformed by a witch into a raging, ugly beast
with little compassion for Beauty. Similarly, the little animals such as cute mice and

"'"'--------------------------------------------------- ~
178 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

twittering birdies become helpful domestic servants in the cartoons, helping Cinderella
sew a dress and Snow White to clean the house. In the classic version, Cinderella has
no use for mice, and the birds that separate the lentils from the sand are spiritual
manifestations of her dead mother.
The original fairy tales are much more violent than the cartoon versions. Characters
are asked to sever limbs, serve up pulsating hearts of virgins, and commit other gory
acts. For example, Cinderella's stepsisters each cut off part of their foot to make the
glass slipper fit. At the wedding ceremony, their eyes were pecked out by avenging
birds befriended by Cinderella. In the Hans Christian Andersen version, the mermaid
had to actually cut out her tongue to make herself mute. Moreover, she plotted to
murder the prince's bride. The cartoon versions lack this type of violent act. There is no
blood spilled in Cinderella, and the stepmother is not even very wicked. While the sea
witch in The Little Mermaid is menacing, she does not actually kill anyone.
Finally, the story lines are softer in the new cartoon versions of the old stories.
Sometimes the ending is even changed. Andersen's Little Mermaid kills herself at the
end of the story, while Disney's mermaid has a happily-ever-after wedding with the
prince. Cinderella's stepsisters are maimed in the original, just jealous and unhappy in
the cartoon. Sleeping Beauty was raped by the prince in the Grimm version but awoken
with a kiss in later stories. In the story of the three little pigs, the first two pigs are eaten,
and the wolf gets his due in a pot of boiling water, while modified versions have no one
getting killed.
Fairytales have changed a lot over the years. Sometimes, change is good to keep in
tune with the times, but in fairy tales, politically correct retellings have made the stories
insipid. The desire to keep young viewers safe from the realities of life has emasculated
the power of the classicstories.

Analogy
An analogy is a comparison in which a situation is compared to something well-
known in order to make it clear. In the following excerpt, see how the writer uses
an analogy to help you understand an abstract concept:
Canada has been described as a patchwork quilt of cultures, religions,
etc., and is justly praised for making this work. But to continue the analogy, a
patchwork quilt needs a backing to hold it together, and our public schools
play part of this role. They provide all of our children the opportunity to
interact with people from very different religious and cultural backgrounds,
thus providlnq an opportunity to develop tolerance and understanding.

Excerpted from "The Religious Schools Dilemma," by Wayne Cook, '/;",,,,10 Slar 20 January 2005, p. A20

The basic analogy here is that a quilt is stitched together with separate pieces of
fabric,just as Canada is a country of different ethnic groups. In a quilt, you can see
the individual pieces. Canada has also been compared to a mosaic in which individ-
ual pieces are also visible. In comparison, the United States has been referred to as a
"melting pot" because its ethnic groups have been all stirred together and come out
as one entity-American. Discuss these comparisons. Are they valid today?
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKillS 179

Here is another analogy:

The English language is like a huge pot of stew. Old English, or Anglo-Saxon
as it is known, is the base, a Germanic language. To this base many ingredients
have been added. Words from Old Norse were brought to England by the Viking
invaders. When William the Conqueror won the Battle of Hastings in 1066, he
became the first of many kings of England who did not speak English. Their
language, Norman French, gradually blended in with English, changing some of
its structures and practically doubling its vocabulary. Another ingredient added
to this stew was the huge vocabulary based on Latin and Greek words, used
mainly for scientific and technical terms. As these ingredients cook in the stew,
they become less distinct, and the flavours blend together.

The Language of Comparison

An important thing to remember is that the comparison must be clear. For instance,
if you use the word more in a sentence, the reader has to understand what compar-
ison is being made.

Comparatives and Superlatives

The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs are used in com-
parison writing. The comparison form is used when two people or things are
being compared; the superlative form is used when one is compared to all the rest.
Comparative forms are formed with the addition of -er for adjectives of one or
two syllables; more is used with longer words. Superlative forms are formed with
the addition of -est for adjectives of one or two syllables; most is used with longer
words. One-syllable adverbs have -er and -est endings; the rest use more and most.

Positive form Comparative form Superlative form

1- or 2-syllable cheap cheaper cheapest

adjectives and fast faster fastest
adverbs sleepy sleepier sleepiest

longer adjectives expensive more expensive most expensive

and adverbs successful more successful most successful

irregular forms good better best

bad worse worst
less lesser least

Note the use of comparative and superlative forms in the following sentences:
Jane is taller than her brother.
The more expensive model has a lot of bells and whistles.
He works better when the background music is better.
That is the best falafel I have ever eaten.
He is one of the most successful jazz musicians in North America.
Of the three options, this one is the least practical.
 p

180 PART 1: SKILL DEVElOPMENT

The Verb compare

The prepositions to and with are often used with the transitive verb compare. A fre-
quent error is using the active participle comparing instead of the passive participle
compared. Comparing has to refer to whomever or whatever is making the compari-
son, while compared refers to what is actually in the comparison.
They compared the options available. In order to make a valid comparison,
they had to look at the manufacturer's specifications.
Compared to the deluxe model, this one is a better buy. Those features are
unnecessary.
She put together a chart comparing the features of the two cars.
Comparing the prices, she found the upgrades were not worth the cost.

Making Comparisons: Examples

Here are some excerpts from the readings that illustrate words and expressions used
to make comparisons:

"throwaway plastic bags might simply Do not confuse than (used in

be better than the alternatives" (Taylor, comparisons) with then (an adverb
page 318) of time)-the two words sound the
same in sentences.
"Wouldn't you laugh ... at someone Note the use of as much as.
who pays more than 200 times as much
as you do" (Singer, page 283)

"a new study was released showing that The word likely can be confusing
manual labourers and the unemployed for English language learners. It is
are significantly more likely to play the an adjective (despite the -ly ending)
national lottery" (Stern, page 290) which means probable.
"One Canadian study found that the Note the use of the superlative form
highest rates of compulsive gambling h(~hest. The definite article the must
show up in aboriginal communities" be used with the superlative.
(Stern, page 290)

"one of modern life's most common Here are two examples of superlative
social practices, or ... one of its biggest forms: most common, b(f?gest. Instead
transgressions" (Teitel, page 297) of a definite article, possessive
determiners (life's, its) are used.

"if more and more of its Canadian-born N ate that the use of "more and
citizens ..." (Griffiths, page 330) more" is informal style. Some students
overuse the structure, so use it only
when you need to show progression.
"When clothing started to become less Note the use of less and more.
formalized ... dress codes started to seem
more like the universal dad's way of spoiling
the fun" (Everett-Green, page 345)
 q

UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKillS 181

Writing Assignments
Write a paragraph or an essay comparing:
• two places you have lived in or visited
• two schools or two education systems
• two vehicles, two computers, or two items you have contemplated purchasing
• two people you know

Most essays are a type of argument because you are putting forth ideas and sup-
porting them, but when you are arguing a controversial issue, you need a persuasive
argument. Unlike a quarrel, in which you have an emotional dispute with some-
one, a persuasive essay offers reasoning. You try to make someone understand your
point of view or to move someone to an action that you recommend. You must be
objective, logical, and forthright to win your case. You must connect and support
your ideas.
Most of the essays in the reading section (Part 2) argue for a point of view. As
you read the essays, pay attention to the author's thesis, and see how it is argued.
For example, "The Case against Bottled Water" (pages 3()l)-11) is a strong argument
essay that presents three main arguments. Here are two more persuasive essays for
you to examine:

Why We Need to Pay Taxes

Canadians often grumble about paying taxes. They think the government is
picking their pockets and wasting their money. They maintain that they pay too much
and look longingly south of the border at the lower tax rates. They claim businesses
are better run than the government-even when shown evidence of corruption and
wastefulness in large corporations. They ignore the fact that Canada is an expensive
country to run because it is a huge area with a small population. Most important,
however, they do not realize that the services Canadians get with their tax money are a
necessary and sound investment.
Taxes fund vital social services such as health, education, and welfare that all
people benefit from, either directly or indirectly. For example, higher education levels
mean better trained workers for the whole society. Schools train our doctors, architects,
plumbers, and barbers. Business costs are reduced when graduates have the skills to
do the job and do not need extensive training. Welfare for the less fortunate lessens the
gap between the rich and the poor, an inequity that can lead to social problems such
as crime. Governments that invest in recreation services for children will have a fitter
populace and therefore save money on health care.
Second, taxes mean that the costs are shared by society and are therefore not an
unreasonable burden for individuals. In the past, when individual citizens paid doctor
and hospital bills, not only did Canadians have a lower health standard but also a
terrible debt load. The few dollars contributed in a tax bill to pay for medical care eases
a burden that could bankrupt an individual. Moreover, many families would not be
able to send their children to school if they had to pay thousands of dollars a year for
182 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

their education. In addition, the cost is borne by those who can most afford it, since
taxes are generally tied to income.
Furthermore, systems that are funded by taxes rather than user fees have lower
administrative costs. Privately run agencies have overhead costs. For example, they
have to compete with other companies for the business and thus need to spend on
advertising. User fees require middlemen and collection services. For example, in the
American system of health insurance from employers, billions of dollars are wasted
in administration. Governments just have to worry about covering costs, not about
making profits to satisfy investors.
Canadians should realize just how costly the alternatives are and pay their tax bill
without so much grumbling. Of course,this doesn't mean allowing government spending
to get out of hand. Canadians need to be informed voters just asthey need to be informed
consumers.They need to make sure they get good value from their tax dollars.

Here is the second example of a persuasive essay:

Technology and Children

Technology devotees are not satisfied with having made adults hooked on
technology; now they are marketing their products to younger and younger consumers.
Television programs have been designed for small babies. Children start playing video
games and computer programs as preschoolers. Elementary schoolchildren have
smartphones. Although parents today are eager to buy their children the latest in
electronic gadgetry, they should stop and think about the ramifications. A dependence
on technology can prevent children from developing properly.
The more time children spend with electronic gadgets, the less healthy they are. If
they go outside after school, they play, run, and jump. They get fresh air and sunshine
and lots of exercise. They get the exposure to nature that the brain needs to refresh
itself. If they plunk themselves down in front of a TV or computer screen, they are
straining their eyes and not exercising their bodies. Moreover, TV watching may be
accompanied by snacking on junk food. In addition, kids plugged into personal music
players are destroying their hearing. Cellphone radiation may harm developing brains.
Children's creativity is also restricted by television and computers. While a reader
has to exercise his or her brain to imagine the world described in a book, a television
watcher is passive. Artwork done on a computer is limited by the restrictions of the
program. Children need to get physical with their creations-to feel the clay between
their fingers, to hold the pencil or paint brush. Today's children "interact" with
electronic toys that "talk" and move, while in the past they would have built a fort from
a cardboard box and acted out scenes with handmade puppets. Children today rely on
their toys to entertain them instead of making their own entertainment.
Social development is also retarded in our electronic world. Even though
the Internet and cell phones are supposed to make communication easier, they
actually replace face-to-face interaction. Children do not play with children in the
neighbourhood; they send email to strangers around the world. They are busy text
messaging instead oftalking to the person they are sitting next to. Their portable music
players transport them to another space, not the one they are physically in. Today's
 UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS 183

children are growing up less able to communicate with people directly; they cannot
read facial expressionsand body language.
Even though technology is supposed to be making this a better world, it is hurting
our children. While it is impossible to stop the technological advances, wise parents
should limit the time their children spend with electronic gadgetry. It is important to
let them experience the real world first. Then they will appreciate and understand their
technology better.

Logical Fallacies
In argument, the term logical fallacy is used to explain a mistake in reasoning.
Sometimes a fallacy is an unfair or improper method of arguing. Other times, it is a
flaw in the process. Here are some common logical fallacies with examples:

Example Type of Logical Fallacy

You shouldn't listen to such an idiot. Against the person:

Even using all his fingers, he can't count Instead of focusing on the idea, the
to 10. writer mocks the person.

This idea is good because it is fitting. Circular argument:

There's nothing bad about a good idea The writer goes in circles rather than
when you know it is right. advancing the reasoning.

If you know what's good for you, do as Appeal to force:

I say. I have a third-degree black belt in The writer becomes angry and
karate. threatens the opponent with harm.

Don't expand the welfare system. I Hasty generalization:

know a panhandler downtown making The writer uses only one piece
$100 a day. These people are making a of evidence and draws a grand
decent living off the streets. conclusion.

Sir, I broke my arm in a fall when I Appeal to pity:

helped my sick grandmother to the The writer makes the opponent feel
hospital for emergency surgery today, sorry for him.
so can I have an extension on my essay
that was due yesterday?

His grades started slipping when he Faulty chronological reasoning:

moved to the new apartment. The writer draws a relation between
one incident and another illogically.

Instead of frowning all the time, smiling Non sequitur:

wins friends. Many people are afraid of One idea does not logically follow
the dentist. another.

Make sure that your arguments are sound when you are writing a persuasive essay.
Do not fall into any of the traps oflogical fallacy.
184 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

Conceding a Point
In spoken language, when you are having a discussion over an issue or arguing
points of view, you often agree with the other person's arguments but add a coun-
terargument. It is a "yes, but" strategy. Writers do the same thing when they concede
a point but focus on what they perceive to be a stronger argument.
One reason that writing is so difficult is that you have to see your work from
the reader's point of view and imagine what is going on in your reader's head.
What you are saying may be perfectly obvious to you, but it may not be clear to
the reader, so it is important that your arguments follow logically. Moreover, if
there is a strong argument against your point of view, it is like the elephant in the
room-there is no sense ignoring it. Your persuasive essay can become stronger if
you anticipate and acknowledge some of the obvious counterarguments.
One of the easiest ways to make a concession in your argument is to use an
although statement:

Although computers have many main argument is against computer

educational benefits, they stifle use by children
children's creativity.

Although computers may limit main argument is in favour of

children's interaction with their computer use by children
immediate surroundings, they open up
the whole world for their exploration.

The main idea is in the main clause. By using a subordinate clause, you are
saying that the statement in the subordinate clause is less important (therefore
subordinate) to the idea in the main clause. Make sure that the idea you want to
emphasize is in the main clause.
A concession can appear right at the beginning of a paragraph. Note these
examples of topic sentences from paragraphs in Unit 4:
"Although working part-time can create a serious time crunch, high school
students should consider the many advantages of having a job:' (page 117)
"Although experts say that the family meal fosters communication skills and
intimacy, dining together does not work for all families:' (page 125)
You do not have to mention all the counterarguments in your essay, but if there is
one that stands out as an obvious choice, concede it.

Qualifying Statements
A good argument has to be reasonable, so it must acknowledge that the world is not
black or white, all or nothing. When you write an essay, you have to choose your
words with care so as not to alienate your readers. You do not want to overstate
your case.
 ----------g
UNIT 6: RHETORICAL SKILLS
185

Readers can accept qualified statements better than absolute statements. In the
following pairs of statements, the first is absolute while the second is qualified and
therefore easier to accept:

Women do well at language-related

tasks while men are good at spatial
The addition o(f.?enerally and the
tasks. aspect of comparison makes the
Women generally do better at second statement more acceptable.
language-related tasks while men tend
to perform better on spatial tasks.

All teenagers work part-time.

Many teenagers work part-time. Avoid using words like all, always, and
never. They are rarely true. Instead,
use often, some, and many.
All smokers develop lung cancer.
Smokers have a higher risk of The expression "have a higher risk"
developing lung cancer. shows that not all smokers get cancer.

Sheis the best film editor in the world.

She may be the best film editor in the
Modal verbs (e.g., may, might, could)
world. are another way to qualify statements.

He has no knowledge of physics.

He seems to lack knowledge of physics.
Verbs such as seem and tend can also
make statements less absolute.
Remember also that the simple present tense expresses the idea of a general state-
ment, so it does not need additions to express the idea of a common Occurrence.
Students sometimes try to show the idea of generality by using a future tense or
adding always:

First-year students always find it

This statement is not true.
difficult to make the adjustment from
high school.

First-year students will find it difficult to

This statement uses a future tense,
make the adjustment from high school.
which does not show generality.
First-year students find it difficult to
make the adjustment from high school.
This statement has the simple present
tense, so it is the best choice to show
a general tendency.
Be careful not to overuse qualifying statements.You still have to take a stand.You do
not want to appear wishy-washy and uncommitted.

Writing Assignment

Write a persuasive essay on one of the current issues in the news. For example, take
a stand on safe injection sites for drug users, year-round schooling, or the right-to-
die movement.
Editing and
Correcting Skills

Perfection in writing is a lofty goal, one that is difficult to attain. Even professional
writers have editors to catch their slips and errors-ones that they missed even after
they have carefully proofread and edited their work. While some errors are based
on a lack of knowledge (such as the misuse of a word), others are careless slips (like
typographical errors). Some are major errors (those that can cause communication
problems) while others are relatively minor. Sometimes what looks like a minor
error can have major consequences-one misplaced comma in a contract famously
cost Rogers Communications more than a million dollars.
Checking what you write is important. You should develop the habit of
quickly proofreading your work before you press Send or Print. Even a simple
text message can be transformed by quirky software, so casting an eye over it is
important.
Why error-free is better:
• Sending out documents full of mistakes can cause miscommunication.
• Error-filled documents create a bad impression, indicating that you do not care
about your work.
• If the organization you work for has to have your documents corrected and
edited by someone else, you are a less valuable employee than you could be.
Unit 1 introduces the basic principles of good writing, such as clarity and
conciseness, and of academic writing, such as answering the question and using the
appropriate style. This unit focuses on the editing and correcting processes required
to fulfill these requirements. Units 2 and 3 go over the basics of vocabulary use and
sentence structure that you need to apply when editing and correcting. While this
unit contains exercises to help you understand the specific points being explained,
the real editing and correcting that you have to do is with your own writing. Doing
a grammar exercise is much easier than fixing your own work-but it is correcting
your own writing that is ultimately the most valuable exercise.
188 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Correcting your work involves looking for errors like spelling mistakes and punc-
tuation errors and fixing them. Editing is a more involved process: you have to
take a critical look at what you have written to see where it can be improved in
structure, style, or expression. This distinction, of course, is not absolute; correcting
and editing overlap. Proofreading is the final step-when you read over what you
have written to check for mistakes.
When you read your work, you are not just looking for errors to fix, you are
looking for ways to improve the way you express your ideas. All writers need to
strive for clarity and conciseness. Writers hate deleting chunks of text they have
toiled over, but that is what editing may require. Professional writers spend most of
their time rereading, checking, and changing what they write.
Here are some examples of what you can accomplish with careful editing:
• cutting out repetitious phrases and sentences
• ensuring that your writing is in the appropriate style (no conversational expres-
sions in an academic essay, for instance)
• varying your vocabulary
• varying your sentence structure
• adding specific examples to clarify your points
For in-class writing tests and exams, you often have very little time to go over
your work, but you should give it at least a quick reread. For writing assignments,
on the other hand, you may have several weeks to complete the work, so you
should take advantage of the time to improve it. It is best to let a piece of writing sit
for a day or two and then go over it with a fresh eye.
The only one who can actually improve your writing skills is you. While you
can have your documents cleaned up by someone else, the goal is to make fewer
errors in the first place. Therefore, you need to learn from the correcting process.
Your instructor can show you where you need to improve and explain any prob-
lems you do not understand, but you must be motivated to fix the errors. Spending
time on correcting and editing improves your writing skills, so what you write next
time should have fewer errors in the first draft.

Learning from Your Marked Work

People learn more from failure than from success. Even if your paper comes back
to you covered in circles and comments, view it as valuable feedback you can use to
improve. Some students only look at the grade they achieved and spend little time
going over the paper. Some get frustrated and treat every marked error as a personal
slight. However, even professional writers get their work edited and corrected, so
you need to accept correction as part of the writing process.
Just as students have different ways of looking at their returned assignments,
instructors have different ways of marking papers. Some write very few comments
on the essay except for the grade itself; this often leaves students wondering why
they received that particular grade. Some instructors mark only the specific mis-
takes they want the student to focus on correcting. While some instructors circle or
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 189

underline errors and expect students to take the time to figure out what is wrong,
other instructors actually correct the mistakes. Some instructors may use a rubric
to break down the grades, with a point system for individual requirements such as
proper essay structure and language use.
You should also take into consideration the time restrictions that instructors
have-they cannot write detailed, explanatory comments on each paper. Moreover,
they may be reluctant to do this because many students do not read them. However,
instructors are generally willing to go over papers with you in person to explain
anything that you do not understand.
Take the time to read over your instructor's comments. If you still cannot
understand why something is wrong, ask the instructor or a tutor. Be an active
learner. For instance, if you do not understand what a "run-on sentence" is, look it
up. (For example, you can find run-ons listed in the index of this book.You can also
do an Internet search for more explanations, examples, and even exercises.)

Making Your Own Checklist

In order to improve your writing, you need to know where you tend to make
mistakes. You can make a list of your own problem areas by looking at the feedback
your instructor gives you from your assignments. Most students have a good under-
standing of their strengths and weaknesses. You can write down a reminder list of
what you should check before you hand in an assignment. Focus on mistakes you
can tackle.
For in-class assignments, you have to rely on a mental checklist rather than a
written one. Commit to memory a few crucial items to check before you hand in
your work.
Sample checklist:

What to look for:

- make sure thesis is at the end of the introduction

- check for parallel structure in the thesis
- check that words have not been accidentally shortened (the for they, for instance)
- check spelling of to/too/two
- check singular and plural references

You can gradually eliminate items from your list as you learn to fix the prob-
lem. At first, the mistake will be one you have to carefully check for in your work.
Gradually, you will learn to catch the error as you write without interrupting
the flow of your ideas. For example, if you tend to misspell there/their/they're, you
should check every use of those words before you hand in your work. You can also
briefly pause before you write one of the words and do a quick review of the rules
in your head to see which one you need. Mnemonic devices can help: think of the
expression "here and there" to help you spell the adverb thm~just add a t to here,
but don't confuse here with hear (which is something you do with your ear). You
can also replace they're with they are to reduce one potential error.Your writing will
improve as you tackle individual problems that you have.
190 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Using a Dictionary Effective\y

Your dictionary gives more than definitions. You can check for spelling and other
word forms. A good dictionary, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary,
gives example sentences that allow you to see how the word typically works in a
sentence, along with common accompanying words such as prepositions. (See pages
44-47 in Unit 2 for more on using a dictionary.)
When you are working on an assignment at home, you have the time to check
words as you write your draft. For instance, you can verify whether a verb like expect
is transitive and requires a direct object. Dictionary checks should not interrupt the
flow of ideas; use the natural pauses in the writing process for such investigations.
Dictionary use is different for in-class tests and assignments. If you are allowed
to use a dictionary, you are probably not allowed electronic formats. Using a book-
form dictionary can be time-consuming if you are not used to it, so you must use it
judiciously. For example, look up any unfamiliar words in the test questions-they
are crucial. Otherwise, check your spelling and word use after you have finished
your writing.

Using Computer Tools

Word processing software has spelling and grammar checkers. These tools have
improved over the years, but they are not perfect. They can even make mistakes
worse when they "guess" at what word you want. To use the tools effectively, you
need to understand what the program is suggesting and why.
Auto-correct will usually catch typographical errors as you make them, but
you should still run a spelling and grammar check of your document when you are
finished. Be careful not to just automatically take the program's suggestions-con-
sider each one. You must also proofread your work afterwards-don't rely on the
program to fix all your mistakes. Spell checkers often verify that you have correctly
spelled words but not that the words are the ones you actually wanted to use. Even
though they are not perfect, you should use these tools for your documents.

Proofreading tips

1. Let your work sit for a day or two. Look at it with fresh eyes.
2. Make sure that you have finished your editing and that you are satisfied with
the content and the expression of your ideas.
3. Give the work your full attention. Turn off music. Close other applications on
your computer. Put your phone on mute. Avoid distractions.
4. Work from a print-out. It will look different from the way it looks on the screen.
5. Read slowly, paying attention to each word.
6. Try reading your work aloud to see if it sounds right.
7. Block out sentence by sentence to focus your attention on each word.
S. Have your personal checklist ready. You can check for each error individually.
9. Usethe computer's Find function to look for words you may have trouble with.
10. Use the spell check function in your word processor, but do not accept its
suggestions blindly. Use your dictionary to check anything you are unsure of.
11. Double-check details, like the spelling of an author's name or a date.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 191

Submitting Drafts and Rewrites

In some English courses, you are given the opportunity to hand in multiple versions
of an essay. You may have to hand in an outline before you write your first draft.
You may write an essay in class and then be asked to rewrite it at home. Sometimes
the assignment will ask you to build on what you have, adding references or other
elements. Often instructors assign grades for each stage of the work. They give you
feedback that you can use to improve your essay in the next stage.
Some students do only minimal corrections for rewrite assignments, but it is
better to spend the time to go over all your errors carefully. Make sure you under-
stand all your instructor's comments. Take advantage of the learning opportunity
afforded by the assignment.

Activity
Go over your previous writing assignments to see what kind of errors you tend to
make. Correct the errors.You can get help from a classmate, a tutor, or your instruc-
tor. Make your own checklist to use for your next assignment.

Examples of Correction and Revision

1. Original sentence: There are more than 7000 students in China choose to study
in a foreign country in 2009.

There were more than 7000 students in Corrections: The verb tenses are
China who chose to study in a foreign aligned; the missing relative pronoun
country in 2009. is supplied.

In 2009, more than 7000 Chinese Revision is clearer and more concise.
students chose to study abroad.

2. Original sentence: The employers blame the graduates do not have the right skill
to find the job they are looking for.

The employers blame the graduates for Corrections:

not haVing the right skills for the job The verb blame is completed with the
they are looking for. preposition for and a gerund; note that
the original "right skill to find the
job" talks about the job search rather
than doing the job itself

The employers blame the graduates for Revision is clearer and more concise.
not being qualified for the jobs.

3. Original thesis statement: Some positive effects that divorce may have on the
lives of children whose parents choose not to stay married are children become
more mature, less stressful, and more freedom.
192 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Some positive effects that divorce may Corrections:

have on the lives of children whose The parallel structure is fixed; there is
parents choose not to stay married are a vocabulary change-a person can be
that children become more mature, less stressed, but an activity is stressjui; the
stressed, and freer. addition of that makes the sentence
easier to follow.

Some positive effects that divorce Revision:

may have on the lives of children are An unnecessary phrase is removed.
that they become more mature, less
stressed, and freer.
Divorce can have a positive effect on Revision:
children by making them more mature, The sentence keeps the sense of the
relaxed, and independent. original but uses adjectives that can
have the same form; it's now more
concise (shorter by six words)

4. Original essay introduction: How come some teen don't attend school? Does
the child lack support/understanding/motivation needed to attend school, or is it
fear? But then again should society really force child to school if he/she don't want
too. During this essay I'll like to talk about why or why not, its a good idea to force
a child to attend school.

Why do some teenagers not attend Corrections:

school? Do they lack the support, The grammar errors and verb forms
understanding, or motivation to attend are fixed; the plural and singular
school? Are they afraid? However, forms are aligned (some teen becomes
should society really force children to some teenagers).
go to school ifthey don't want to go? It is not correct to use slashes
In this essay, Iwould like to discuss why between words-this shows a lack
or why not children should be forced to of commitment to a specific word,
attend school. especially when they are synonyms.
"But then again" is removed-it is a
conversational sentence opener.

Students may choose to skip class Revision:

for many reasons. Some lack the The original introduction has too
motivation to learn, while others need many questions; the focus of an essay
additional support to cope with the should be on answering questions, not
demands of the courses. Some students just posing them. Most important, the
suffer social problems such as bullying, writer does not have a clear thesis-he
making them afraid to attend school. or she does not commit to one point of
With so many underlying problems, it is view; moreover, it is an announcement
a mistake to force high school students thesis. Because many statements are left
to stay in school. unclear in the original, the revision has
to be a bit of guesswork as to what the
writer is trying to say.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 193

"' ~" ~lii\

Recognizing Types of Errors ,,' ":<':~~\lf~' ",

«

In order to improve your writing, it is useful to know the different categories of

errors. If you can understand what they are and why you are making them, you can
learn how to deal with them. You should be able to identity the different types of
errors when you look at your returned assignments.
When you know the right spelling, but your fingers just hit the wrong keys,
you make typographical errors ("typos"). The computer may auto-correct
them before you even realize you made them. If you do not use or do not have
an auto-correct feature, be sure to use the spell checker. Although you cannot rely
on a word processor's spell checker to find all the errors, it does provide one of the
easiest ways to find typos. (And if you are using an auto-correct feature, make sure
it does not make changes you do not want.)
Careless slips are common. For handwritten work, you may drop the end-
ings of words, turning they into the, for example. When you edit on the computer,
you may accidentally leave a part of the first version of the sentence in the new
sentence, making it ungrammatical and sometimes incomprehensible. The only fix
is careful proofreading. When you are cutting and pasting or deleting sections, be
sure to reread the whole sentence to make sure the change fits. Knowing what
types of slips you commonly make allows you to find them more easily and may
even prevent you from making them in the first place.
Copying errors are the ones that are easiest to avoid. Pay attention. Make
sure you have written names, dates, numbers, and titles correctly. Imagine how your
resume would be received if you misspelled the name of the recipient.
Everyone makes spelling mistakes. The English language is a minefield of
potential spelling errors, so spelling is addressed in a separate section in this unit (see
pages 195-97).
Grammatical errors cover a wide range of different kinds ofmistakes, including:
• singular/plural agreement
• pronoun use
• verb forms
• use of verb tenses
• parts of speech
• article use
• possessive forms
• sentence fragments and run-on sentences
• phrase and clause structure
• misplaced modifiers
The basics of sentence structure are dealt with in Unit 3, and some grammatical
errors are further explained in this unit.
If you make punctuation mistakes, review the section on individual punc-
tuation marks at the end of Unit 3. Make sure you know how to form and position
punctuation marks correctly-whether you are writing by hand or using a key-
board. Different languages have different punctuation. For example, some languages
begin quotation marks at the bottom of the line of text.
194 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Vocabulary errors (also called errors in diction) include using the wrong
word for the meaning you wish to express or using a word incorrectly in a sen-
tence. They are often more serious than grammatical errors because they are more
likely to cause misunderstanding. For example, in a sentence such as "He use a teeth
stick daily," the incorrect verb form (use instead of uses) does not cause problems,
but the term teeth stick will make the reader stop and wonder what was meant (the
student was looking for the word toothpick).
Avoid vocabulary errors by expressing your ideas with words you know well
and checking the words you are not sure of. Developing writing skills requires
extending those skills, so it is important that you experiment a bit with vocabulary,
but you can do most of your experimentation when the stakes are lower, as in prac-
tice writing assignments or essay drafts that you expect to revise.
If English is your second language, you may have trouble learning some of the
features of English if they are completely different from the way your language works.
Using the rules of your own language may result in language interference errors.
Articles (the, a, an), prepositions, and verb forms often give ESL learners problems. The
way certain words are used can be different in two languages. For example, the words
easy and hard are generally used to describe tasks, not people, in English; a common
ESL error is to say something like, "He is easy to learn English." Usually, students learn
the trouble spots early on, but sometimes these errors become fossilized (see below).
Fossilized errors are essentially bad habits that are hard to break. Although
the term fossilized expresses the idea that they are set in stone, they are not impos-
sible to fix. You must be motivated to tackle them, however. The best way to deal
with fossilized errors is to concentrate on one area at a time.
Often, writers recognize the fossilized errors they make and may even know
how to fix them, but they make them anyway. They can fix them in a grammar
exercise but not in their own writing. Common fossilized errors are subject-verb
agreement (for example, writing "people thinks"). One student had a habit of put-
ting a comma before every and that he used; even after he was taught about comma
use, he still made the mistake consistently. Teaching does not fix fossilized errors; the
writer has to consciously work to break the habit.
People who do not read enough are not as comfortable with the forms of
Standard Written English, so they use spoken English to guide their writing. They
make "writing by ear" mistakes because they try to write down what they
commonly hear. Unfortunately, the English language is not written phonetically,
so it is very hard to figure out the spelling of a word from the way it sounds. In
speech, sounds are slurred together or dropped entirely. Unstressed vowels sound
the same-like an "uh" sound, a sound called "schwa."
Here are some examples of"writing by ear" errors:
• sposta rsupposed to]
• firstable [first of all]
• right from the gecko rright from the get go]
• madder-a fact [matter of fact]
These kinds of mistakes show the importance of regular reading in order to become
familiar with spelling and written forms.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 195

Activity
Go over your previous writing assignments to see what type of errors you made.
To categorize the errors, you have to determine why you made the mistake. For
example, if you can easily correct the mistake, it may be just a careless slip or it may
be a fossilized error-one that you make by habit.

Mistakes at the word level can include spelling mistakes, part-of-speech errors, and
word choice errors. Unit 2 reviews some basics of word use and form. Remember
that word choice goes beyond knowing what a word means-you also have to con-
sider how it is used in a sentence.

Correcting Spelling Mistakes

English spelling is difficult. Even avid readers can be bad spellers. For some people,
spelling is a problem that is part of a learning disability. However, anyone can
become a better speller-it just takes work.
Check your spelling before you hand in your work. Make it a habit to run
your eyes over anything you have written, looking for obvious errors. Know your
weak spots, and look out for words you have problems with.
Use the tools you have, such as a dictionary and the spell checker built into
the writing program you are using.
When you get an assignment back, correct the spelling mistakes you made,
and write out the correct word several times. Muscle memory (from handwriting
or typing) can help you to learn the word.

Why you should work on your spelling

• Just because English spelling is difficult, it is not acceptable to throw up your

hands in defeat. Your spelling may not be perfect, but it can get better.
• Like it or not, you will be judged on your spelling. If you hand in a resume
with spelling mistakes, it will be rejected.
• Spelling mistakes are the most obvious writing errors and so make a bad
first impression. Improving your spelling is one of the easier ways to improve
your writing.

Words Often Confused

Here are some words that are often misspelled because they are mixed up with
another word, usually a homophone (a word that sounds the same):
accept (to receive, get), except (but not)

advice (noun), advise (verb)

affect (usually a verb), effect (usually a noun)

cite (to reference),sight (ability to seeor something you see), site (place, location)
196 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

desert (arid land), dessert (something sweet at the end of a meal)

hear (to listen), here (not there)

its (belonging to it-possessive form), it's (contraction of it is or it has)

loose (not tight), lose (be unable to find something you had)
passed (to have gone by), past (previous time)

principal (most important), principle (basic rule)

quiet (little or no noise), quite (rather)
right (correct), rite (ceremony), write (compose messages or documents)

than (comparative), then (adverb of time)

their (belonging to them), there (adverb of place), they're (they are)

to (preposition), too (also), two (the second number)

wear (to have clothes on), were (past tense of to be), we're (we are)
weather (climate), whether (if)

who's (who is, who has), whose (belonging to it-possessive form)

woman (singular), women (plural)
you're (you are), your (belonging to you)

Words That Are Commonly Misspelled

accommodate emphasize preference
acknowledge environment prejudice
analyze especially proceed
argument exaggerate professor
athlete exercise pronunciation
beginning fascinate receive
believe February recommend
business foreign relevant
changeable government repetition
chosen grammar restaurant
committee height rhythm
competitive immediately schedule
convenience knowledge secretary
criticism marriage separate
definitely necessary sincerely
dependent noticeable studying
descendant occasion succeed
develop occur surprise
development occurred technique
embarrassed parallel tragedy
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 197

Word Boundaries
When we speak, there are no spaces between words. Speech flows from one sound
to another, so it is hard to separate out individual words just from the sound of a
sentence. As a result, some people often make spelling mistakes in which one word
is written as two or two words are written as one.
Words that are often written incorrectly as one word:
alot
each other
even though
in front

Words that are often incorrectly written as two or three words:

nowadays
nevertheless

Some words have different meanings if they are written as one word or two. Here
are some examples:

She has always been a part of the This means that she does belong to
group. the group.

She has always been apart from the This means that she does not belong
group. to the group. Note the preposition
from.
Maybe he would prefer to work Maybe is written as one word when
somewhere else. it means "perhaps" and as two words
It may be that he does not really want when it is the modal verb plus the
the job. verb be.

He wants to be left alone. Alone is an adverb; a lone is a

A lone man was walking down the determiner and an adjective
street. that needs to be completed with
a noun.

He already packed the books. Already is an adverb describing the

He had the books all ready. verb packed. In the second sentence,
all refers to the books.

Activity
Look through your last marked assignments, and make a list of the spelling mis-
takes you made. Correct the mistakes. Write out each word 10 times, spelling it to
yourself.
198 PART 1: SKill DEVElOPMENT

Exercise 7.1

Correct the spelling errors in the following sentences:

1. Excercise should be apart of everyday life. Even a walk a round the
neighbourhood can be benefisial.
2. Cloths that are not longer warn should be recycled as donations to
chairity.
3. The imigrants' education level often determines weather or not they
adopt to their new life easilly.
4. The police pulled him over for wreckless driving. He had ran a red lite
and almost hit a cyclist.
5. Ifthe punishmint were more sever, may be fewer people would drive
while texting on there smartphones.
6. After the acident, the car was a right-off. With the insuranse money, he
bought a com pac car so that he could save on gass.
7. Jill and her twin sister look alot a like, but its not hard to tell them
apart. Jill smiles more then her sister.
8. They should definately contact the administration office to see if they
can get an extention. They do not want to loose their chance at bidding
for the projekt.
9. Employees prefer to higher collage graduates with some work
exprience.

Correcting Part-of-Speech Errors

Using the wrong part of speech in a sentence is a common mistake, especially for
English language learners. The mistakes can be attributed either to a lack of know-
ledge about the word itself (not knowing the different forms used for different
parts of speech) or to a lack of sentence sense (not knowing which part of speech is
called for in that position in the sentence). In the first case, it is a lexical error, in the
second, a grammatical one. This distinction is not evident to the reader, but if you
often use the wrong part of speech in a sentence, it is useful to understand why you
made the error so that you can work on that weakness, either with a dictionary or
a grammar book.

Activity
Look at the examples of such errors on the next page, and discuss different ways to
rewrite the phrases.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 199

In the nowadays, with the a) The word nowadays is an adverb-the

progressive of economic and prepositional phrase requires a noun in
society ... that position.
b) The word progressive is an adjective-it
does not fit with the preposition with and
the determiner the.
c) The word economic is an adjective-what
is the noun form?

In additional, optimistic in daily a) The word additional is an adjective, so

life can also bring ~. it does not work after the preposition
in. It could be replaced by the noun
form, or the whole prepositional phrase
could be replaced by the adverb form of
additional. Correct this phrase in these two
different ways.
b) The word optimistic is an adjective-what
part of speech is needed in this phrase?
c) The word happy is an adjective-what part
of speech is needed in this phrase?

Exercise 7.2

Fix any errors in the parts of speech in the following sentences:

1. Although Canada is a safety country and the criminal rate is dropping, many
people seem worry about dangerous on the streets.
2. Talk on the phone with their parents can decrease international students'
homesick.
3. The team loss the game because of their star player's absent.
4. More trees and flowers can beauty our city. It's importance to develop more
parks.
5. Technology abies people to get connected easy.
6. The most commonly use of cellphones is text messaging with people send
hundreds of messages a day.
7. Parents' overprotective may cause their children to rebellion and get into
trouble.
8. Becausethey want to success, they have to proceed very careful.
9. Immigrants might have to change their customs and believes to fit in with
the cultural.
10. Students can improve their reading comprehend by practice more. They will
become more confidence.
200 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Correcting Word Choice Errors

Choosing the correct words to express your ideas can be difficult. Sometimes
two words express almost the same basic idea, but they are used differently. See
Recognizing Collocation in Unit 2, page 41.

Exercise 7.3

Correct the sentences below by changing the underlined words. You may have
to make other adjustments to the sentence.

1. If the passport is lost or robbed, it is important to communicate the

embassy.
2. She was so angry that she hit the door shut, but then she felt shameful
about her outburst.
3. People who visit hockey games come to the ice stadium not only to see
skating and goals but also fighting.
4. After she heard about the stealing in the neighbourhood, she got new
locks established.
5. He is not very true; he will ~ the secret to someone.
6. He was caught making a crime and had to do community service.
7. His friend is planning to make a bachelor party for him.
8. He went to ~ the accident to the police. It took him hours to accomplish
all the forms.
9. The committee voted to disagree the plan.
10. While the girls were jumping in the schoolyard, most of the boys were
doing soccer.
11. The young generation today is far too reliable on cell phones.
12. None of the tellers in the clothing store approached me offering help.
13. This assignment was uneasy at first.
14. People who choose luxurious cars often just want to show off their
richness.
15. The author narrated a story of his youth, when he fell in love.
16. The problems we faced made the whole trip unjoyable.

•
Each sentence contains many elements that can trip up writers. Determiners and
prepositions, the smallest of words, are especially difficult for ESL learners, but they
can also cause problems for native speakers. In everyday speech, an incorrect verb
ending can slide by unnoticed, but in writing, more care must be taken to use cor-
rect forms. This section highlights some common problem areas.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 201

Correcting Pronoun Errors

Pronouns stand in for nouns in sentences. They are among the smallest and most
common words in English sentences-and yet they give writers no end of trouble.
Both native speakers and ESL learners often make errors in pronoun use. Sometimes
students try to avoid making the errors by repeating the noun-which can make
sentences long and awkward.
The basics of pronoun use are explained in Unit 3, pages 69-71. This section
highlights some problem areas.

Pronoun Reference and Agreement

As explained in Unit 3, pronouns should have a clear antecedent (a noun that the
pronoun refers to).
Here are some examples of common problems:

EmmaTeitel explains the problems of The author is female; the pronoun

using Instagram. He says that it can be should be she.
annoying.

The company issued a recall. They Neither they nor it has a clear
claimed l! was an easy problem to fix. antecedent. They is commonly used
to refer to an institution, but this
usage is grammatically incorrect. The
institution is an it.
Each item requires their own catalogue The possessive pronoun its should be
number.
used instead of their because each item
is singular.
Sara told Rose that she had to attend It is unclear whether it is Sara or
the training session. Rose that has to attend; she can refer
to either of the women.
We have to attend the Friday meeting. The pronoun we can be inclusive
or exclusive. In other words, for
this sentence, the listener would not
know whether he or she was included
in the meeting or not.
You cannot expect to pass the course if The reference for you can be
lQ..l:! do not put in the effort. confusing because the pronoun can
refer to one person or several. It can
also refer just to the audience or to
people in general.
Dan told his brother that he had found The reference is ambiguous because
his keys.
his keys could belong to either Dan or
his brother.
202 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Pronoun Shift
One of the most common writing mistakes is pronoun shift in which the writer
switches person using several pronouns in one paragraph, as in these examples:
Parents should always continue to tell them how happy you are that he/she
have made it this far, and that you believe in them and that you as parents is
very proud of the accomplishments they made and that they can do anything
he/she puts their mind to.

Parents should always remember to tell their child that no matter what
problems arise during their studies you will always be proud of the child
because they have made it thus far.
In addition, in order for a student to succeed, he or she must be persistent
and patient. One must not give up when, for example, a failing mark hits
them square in the face. Life is full of ups and downs. It's just reality, get over
it and move on. Observe your mistakes and try not to do them again. No one
is perfect.
Pronoun shifts are confusing to the reader. It can be unclear whether two different
pronouns are referring to the same antecedent or to different ones.

Singular they
English lacks a gender-neutral third person singular pronoun. Even though the
pronoun they is grammatically plural, it is often used instead of he or she when the
gender is not known. This widespread usage of singular they is technically ungram-
matical, but it is common in spoken English and informal written English because
it avoids the he/she problem, as shown in these example sentences:

If a student misses a test, he needs incorrect (unless referring only to

to provide a valid excuse and male students):
documentation in order to write a He used to be accepted as a standard
make-up. all-purpose pronoun, but it is now
considered sexist.

If a student misses a test, she needs incorrect (unless referring only to

to provide a valid excuse and female students)
documentation in order to write a
make-up.

If a student misses a test, he or she correct, but awkward usage:

needs to provide a valid excuse and He or she can be used for a single
documentation in order to write a reference, but it becomes unwieldy
make-up. when used repeatedly.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 203

If a student misses a test, he/she incorrect:

needsto provide a valid excuse and Alternative words separated by slashes
documentation in order to write a are unacceptable in academic English.
make-up.

If a student misses a test, they grammatically incorrect (but

need to provide a valid excuse and commonly used):
documentation in order to write a This is a pronoun agreement error: a
make-up. student is singular, but they is plural.
If students miss a test, they need correct:
to provide a valid excuse and Both students and they are plural.
documentation in order to write a
make-up.

The use of singular they is so widespread that it is even used when the gender is
known:

The winner will get a contract with a Since this is a reference to an

modelling agency, and they will get a all-female competition, the pronoun
chance to travel all over the world. she should be used instead of they.

Using they as a gender-neutral, singular pronoun is gradually becoming accept-

able in Standard Written English. Many writers and linguists argue that it should be
accepted for historical and practical reasons:
o English needs such a pronoun-there is no way to express the idea of "he or
she" concisely and elegantly.
o It is already in common usage, so English speakers are comfortable with it.
o Attempts to make up a new pronoun (such as s/he) have been unsuccessful and
awkward.
o The usage has literary precedence-it has been used by such celebrated writers
such as Charles Dickens and Jane Austen.
o It has grammatical precedence-the pronoun you used to be only used for the
plural, but it is now used for both singular and plural.
o Singular they is the pronoun of choice in the transgender community.
However, the best advice for academic English is to avoid using singular they
in your writing, unless you know your instructor approves of the usage. It will usu-
ally be marked as a grammar mistake.

Use of I and We
Refer to the section on Writing Personally or Impersonally (Unit 1, pages 10-11)
to review the differences in types of essays. If you are writing a personal essay, you
can use I. However, most academic essays tend to be impersonal, so do not use I.
This general guideline also depends on your instructor's essay requirements; some
teachers have strict rules on using I and w(~ask if you are unsure.
204 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

In most cases, I is unnecessary. You do not need to say "I think" or "in my
opinion" because the ideas expressed in your essay should be your own, unless they
are someone else's opinion, and then you should attribute them to that person.

Akerman saysthat schools are too strict This statement summarizes Bev
with dress requirements. Akerman's opinion (in "White
Tops, Grey Bottoms," pages
339-40). It is clear that this is
Akerman's opinion.

In my opinion, high school students The phrase "in my opinion" is

should wear uniforms because of unnecessary for this thesis statement.
practicality, appearance, and security. It is understood that in an essay,
the opinion expressed is that of
the writer. The thesis statement
can stand on its own without this
opening phrase.

Once in a while, for purposes of emphasis and clarity, the use of I can work,
but most students tend to overuse it. Sometimes they even overemphasize with a
phrase like "in my opinion, I personally think that ..."
Do not try to get around the use of I with phrases like "the author of this
essay" to refer to yourself. This is awkward and ugly.
Do not use we in an essay when you mean yourself. Only the Queen can get
away with that-it's called a "royal we."
VVe can sometimes be used in an essay-judiciously. It should refer to a group
of which you are part-like students or Canadians. However, the we can be confus-
ing as to whom it includes, and some instructors do not want to see it in academic
essays at all, so it may be best to avoid it.
Keep your writing in the third person plural by using nouns such as people,
students, and Canadians and following with the corresponding pronouns (they, them,
their), and thus you can avoid using I and we.

Use of You
Most European languages have more than one second person pronoun-they dis-
tinguish between singular and plural and sometimes between formal and informal.
English now has only you as a second person pronoun. (English did have thee and
thou for singular you, but those words have fallen out of use. You might come
across them in older literature, such as the King James Bible and Shakespeare's
plays.) Furthermore, you has replaced one to refer to people in general, as in "In
that neighbourhood, you can hear the sound of airplanes flying into the air-
port." These different uses of you can make it confusing as to whom the pronoun
actually refers.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 205

Sometimes students run into problems with the you form because they switch
references:

When those children grow up, they will These sentences are confusing because
be very surprised to see that life is hard the you in the first sentence refers
and you have to do things for yourself. to the children but the you in the
If you don't baby your child, they will second sentence refers to the parents.
grow up to be adults who can think for Moreover, the writer switches
themselves. between you and they for the same
people.

The use of you has become common in many forms of writing, such as
newspaper and magazine articles, where it gives a more casual, friendlier tone. In
textbooks like this one, you is used to address the readers-the students-directly.
Because writing today is generally less formal, you is used frequently.
Command sentences, also known as imperatives, are also considered to be you
sentences. A statement like "Consider the differences between these two types of
students" actually has an implied subject you, the person doing the action.
The use of you is considered inappropriate in academic writing, so students
are asked to avoid it in their essays. Academic writing is impersonal, formal, and
precise-three characteristics that do not allow for the use of you.
Students find it difficult to avoid you. One technique is to choose a noun that
represents the group being discussed and to use the third person plural, as in these
examples:

Informal style (with you) Academic style (without you)

--+-----------~.---

When you are looking for a job, you Job hunters should network and exploit
should network and exploit your their contacts.
contacts.
f----------- --------+-------.--.---------1
You should look both ways before you It is important to look both ways before
cross the street. crossing the street.
Pedestrians should look both ways
before they cross the street.
-~._-----------

When you do use you in some of your other writing, make sure that the pronoun
reference is clear and consistent.

Exercise 7.4
Rewrite the following sentences to eliminate you:
Example: You need to see the student advisor to change your timetable.
Possible rewrites: Timetable changes must be approved by the student advisor.
Students should see their advisor to change their timetable.

'--'~
206 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

1. The smallest problem with a luxury car will cost you a lot of money because
the parts are harder to find and you have to pay the person for his or her time.
2. In order to pass the test, you must memorize the rules and road signs in the
driver's handbook.
3. You can be successful at college if you attend class, pay attention to the
instructor, and do your homework.
4. You could spend hours watching TV and YouTube videos and waste your
whole day.
5. You do not have to include references on your resume, but you should
have a list of names and contact information prepared for when you get
asked for it.
Why you should avoid using you in academic writing:
• It can be confusing as to who is being referred to.
• It is informal, conversational style.
• It is personal.
• Its use often involves pronoun reference shifts.

Use afOne
The pronoun one is used in formal English to refer to people in general. However,
this use of one is considered very formal; you is generally used instead, in spoken
English and in informal writing.

One should read the chapter before overly formal

class.

You should read the chapter before informal; commonly used in speech
class. and writing

Students should read the chapter the use of the third person is suitable
before class. for academic writing

Another problem with using one is that it is difficult to maintain throughout

the paragraph, so many students end up shifting to different pronouns.

One should take notes in class in incorrect pronoun shifts

order to learn more efficiently. When
we come back from class,one should
review our notes to help uS remember
them better.

One should take notes in class in correct but awkward

order to learn more efficiently. When
one comes back from class,one
should review one's notes to help one
remember them better.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 207

Avoid using one in your writing. Use a plural noun, such as people, students,
Canadians, so that the pronoun they works.

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns can be difficult to use correctly:

Hesent the package to myself. incorrect:

He and myself represent different
people, so this is not reflexive.

He sent the package to me. correct uses of pronouns

1sent the package to myself.
She bought herself a new laptop with
her bonus money.

They wanted to do the work themself. incorrect:

The reflexive for they is themselves.
Note that themself, them selves (as two
words), and theirselves are all incorrect
forms of the reflexive.

Activity
Go through a piece of writing that you have recently done in class. Highlight each
pronoun. Check to see whether each pronoun has a clear antecedent and reference.
Check for pronoun shifts. Look for any errors you have made.

Correct any errors in pronoun use or form:

1. The student achievement awards were presented at the assembly. They

deserved to be congratulated because they had worked so hard.
2. The zombies were attacking the armed survivors. They didn't stand a chance.
3. John and me worked on the project together. I was pleased that they turned
out well.
4. The awards committee deliberated a long time. It was a surprise when they
presented the trophy to myself.
5. The mayor rejected the solution that the committee had forwarded it. She
preferred the old plan.
6. They say that you should not text and walk across the street. It can be
dangerous forthem. A car can hit one.
7. The Stockholm Syndrome is a term to explain how you can start to
sympathize with your captors when they are put in an enclosed space for a
long period of time.
208 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

8. When parents make sure that their children learn how to cook and do
household chores, they are better equipped to look after theirselves when
they live on their own.
9. Whoever completes the assignment first he can help the other students with
his work.
10. John gave the flyers to Emily and I. He did not want to distribute them, but I
did not mind doing the work.

Correcting Determiner Errors

Review Using Determiners in Unit 3 on pages 67-68. ESL students often use the
wrong article with a noun. Even if their native language uses articles, the rules of
usage would not be the same as in English.

Exercise 7.6

Correct the determiner errors:

1. Marilyn Bell was a first person to swim across the Lake Ontario.
2. There are many ways to access information through Internet.
3. Many of students enrolled in the College English have trouble writing
an essays. They need to take it one step at the time.
4. Pete is considering going to University of British Columbia or Simon
Fraser University.
5. Princess Diana was a most popular and famous woman in the world
in 1980s.
6. Meaning of a gift can be misinterpreted and can cause problems in
relationship.
7. He could be success if he took program seriously.
8. The honesty is one of most important traits she is looking for in an partner.
9. James wants to be doctor, but he is discouraged because it requires many
years of a study.
10. The book on a table belongs to the student who usually comes in late.
11. I need to buy a umbrella. Mine broke in this huge storm we had iast week.
12. A meeting has been rescheduled. Instead of starting a hour from now, we
will have to meet these afternoon.

Distinguishing Countable and Uncountable Nouns

As mentioned in Unit 2, page 24, nouns can be classed as countable or uncountable.
Uncountable nouns often cause problems for ESL students; they may put them in
plural forms or use indefinite articles (a, an) with them.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 209

Here are examples and explanations of the use of uncountable nouns:

I need some water. Liquids (water, milk, Ras) are generally

Dieticians disagree on the value of uncountable.
drinking milk.
Hestopped for gas before getting on
the highway.

Would you like to go for a coffee? These sentences (in informal English)
Instead of a soft drink, I'd like a water. show an ellipsis (a shortened form).
Here, the speakers mean "a cup of
coffee" and "a bottle of water."
Sheneeds to cut down on salt. Things that are in small grains (salt,
The sand on the beach is very coarse. sand,flour) are uncountable.
I need to buy more flour.

I need to buy some bread. A small Bread itself is uncountable, but loaf
loaf will do. I only eat a slice or two at and slice are countable.
breakfast.

We need to buy some luggage. The LuggaRe and bagiZaRe are uncountable
airline has new restrictions on carry-on nouns; bag, suitcase, and backpack (and
bags. other specific items ofluggage) are
countable.
They are shopping for furniture. They Furniture is an uncountable noun;
need a new sofa and a dresser. specific items of furniture (such as
sofas, dressers, beds, and chairs) are
countable.
Sheasked for advice, but she didn't take Advice and information are uncountable;
it. She said she found the information you could say "a piece of advice" or
she needed on the Internet. "a piece of information" to refer to a
specific point.
They need more time to complete the The noun time is uncountable when
project. They had to redo the specs it is in a general sense but countable
three times. when it refers to specific instances.
He has a lot of work to do this month. Work is almost always uncountable;
He has to find more works for the the exception is when it refers to
gallery. something like works of art.
Honesty is important in a relationship. Abstract nouns are generally
There was no truth in what he said. uncountable, but some of them have
Graduates have to accept hard truths uses that are countable.
about the current job market.

'------------------------------- -
210 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 7.7

Correct any errors in the use of determiners with countable and uncountable
nouns:

1. I gave him an advice, but he refused to take it. He went ahead and bought
the furnitures on delayed payments.
2. They suffered several setbacks in their plans. They didn't have the
informations they needed at the start.
3. The teacher gave us many homeworks to do, but I got a head start on
learning my vocabularies.
4. I bought new luggages for the trip-two suitcases and a rolling duffle bag.
5. She did not return the money but instead used them.
6. He restored the car. It's a real beauty now, but it took him a lot of time
to do.
1. Many people who live on the street are addicted to alcohols and drugs.
8. The rehabilitation program gave them happiness and hopes.
9. Now that she has finished her assignment, she has another work to do.
10. I don't have the time or money to take on that project.
11. Students were having troubles with their reading and writing tasks.
12. Tattoos are like makeups, clothes, and jewelleries; they decorate the
body.
13. I need to stop at the grocery store. I have to buy bread, a milk, a cheese,
and some fishes.
14. The graduate students do many researches. The studies are often funded
by pharmaceutical companies.
15. I asked him for an information package about the company.

Correcting Singular and Plural Errors

Both verb and noun forms are determined by the concept of singular (showing
one thing or one person) and plural (more than one). This sounds like a straight-
forward concept, but in practice singular/plural distinctions can cause problems.
For instance, for subject-verb agreement, it is important to correctly identify the
subject of the verb.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 211

Here are some examples of common mistakes:

The computers in the fourth floor lab ~ incorrect:

down because of a virus. Computers is the subject and therefore
requires a plural verb form (it should
be are down). Lab is not the subject
because it is in the prepositional
phrase in thefourth.fioorlab.
Jennifer walk to school every day. incorrect:
The verb should be walks because the
third person singular verb form has an
-s ending.
We should just save that problem for incorrect:
another days.
Another is singular and should be
followed by day.
Everybody have to do the work. incorrect:
Everybody is singular and should be
followed by has.
Researches show that teenagers do not incorrect:
function well in the morning. Research is an uncountable noun. This
should be "Research shows ... "
The childrens are waiting to go to the incorrect:
park.
The plural of child is children.

Exercise 7.8

Correct any grammar errors in the following sentences:

1. One of the band members are from Australia. He play the trumpet.
2. Working with John and Jane were a pleasure. They are very talented actor.
3. Anton was behaving like a six-years-old. I couldn't take it for another minutes.
4. Every day, the mother goose, along with its five goslings, go across the
highway. The drivers all seems to be watching out for the geese.
5. Many people leaves the city on long weekends. The resulting traffic jams are
an ordeal.
6. Each tool has their own place in the case.The compartments is very well
organized.

7. Surveillance cameras does not help to make society secure. It only helps to
capture criminals after the fact.
212 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

8. The number of candidates for the November elections have risen to 20. It
should make for an interesting campaigns.
9. If any documents are misplaced, it can be found easily if the information are
stored on computers. The search functions allow quick retrieval.
10. You should buy that laptop next week. They will probably go on sale.
11. The books in the hallway is donations for the charity books sale.
12. Emma take dance lessons every Tuesdays. She study Latin dancing.

Showing Possession
Possession means that something belongs to someone or something. Nouns and
pronouns have possessive forms. For nouns, an apostrophe with an s shows posses-
sion, as in these examples:

John's car was stolen. The apostrophe plus s is the possessive

form ofJohn. John owns the car.

The instructor's lesson plans had to be The lesson plans belong to the
revised. instructor.

The instructors' lesson plans had to be In this case, the lesson plans belong
revised. to more one instructor. The plural
form of instructor, instructors, has an
apostrophe after the s to show that
the possessive is on a plural noun.

The Greens' house burned down. Greens refers to the whole family-
more than one Green. The apostrophe
therefore comes after the s.

Students sometimes confuse plurals and possessives and have trouble placing
the apostrophe. For more examples and information, see the next section, Sorting
out -s Endings (page 213), and the section Apostrophes in Unit 3 (pages 96-97).
Pronouns also have possessive forms (explained in Unit 3, Using Pronouns, pages
69-71). It is important not to confuse possessive pronouns that occur with nouns (my,
your, his, her, its, our, their, whose) and the forms that are not used before nouns (mine,
yours, his, hers, ours, theirs). Note that none of these possessives has an apostrophe.

This is not my bike. That one over there My is the form used with the noun
is mine. bike, while mine is used when there is
no noun afterwards.

They paid off their mortgage, so the Similarly, this sentence shows their
house is now officially theirs. with a noun and theirs without a noun.

Whose shoes are these? I thought they VVhose means belonging to whom.
were yours. Yours is used instead of your because
there is no noun following the word.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 213

Be careful not to mix up it's and its. The two words sound the same, but it's
is a contracted form of it is or it has, while its is the possessive pronoun. Similarly,
who's is a contraction of who is or who has, and whose is the possessive pronoun. Since
contractions are generally not used in academic writing, you can avoid using it's and
who's and thus avoid the mix-up.

Exercise 7.9
Correct any errors:

1. I couldn't find out who's keys these are, so I took them down to the
Security's Department.
2. Erin lent me her keys to the storage room's because I misplaced mines.
3. Her glasses broke when Tims brother stepped on them.
4. I didn't have a dictionary, so I borrowed Ron's. I had to go find mine later.
5. The childrens' babysitter needs a ride home if she babysits after midnight.
6. The Wilson's house was broken into last week. They're whole place was trashed.
7. I've been sitting here watching the puppy try to chase its tail. Who's dog is
it anyway?
8. Helen and Andy left there backpacks near the bandshell's.
9. Sallys car was broken into, and her CDs were stolen.
10. If you don't have you're textbook, you can borrow Elizabeths, but make sure
you don't mark it up because she is very fussy about her things.

Sorting out -5 Endings

Compared to most European languages, English does not have many word endings.
However, many of them are multi-purpose. The -5 ending, in particular, can be
confusing, especially since apostrophes also playa part.

Here is a recap of the uses of -5 endings:

1. Plural forms of nouns:

They collected all the books, toys, and puzzles and put them into different boxes.

2. Third person singular verbs in the simple present tense:

Peter likes to walk in the park. He tries to do it every day.
She never lets her children watch television before they do their homework.

3. Possessive forms (with apostrophes):

Elizabeth's car was stolen.
The driver's side of the car was crushed.

Remember that possessive pronouns (his, hers, its, theirs, yours, whose) do not
have apostrophes.
214 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

4. Contractions (with apostrophes):

He's reorganizing the department.
Let's go to the park. [contraction of "let us"-do not confuse this with the
verb form lets shown in the second example sentence for #2 above]
Who's coming with us? ["who is"-do not confuse with whose (belonging
to whom)]

In most contractions, the '5 stands for is, but it can also stand for has and was.
5. Combining plural and possessive -s endings:
The boys' books were ruined in the rain.
The students'timetables were not ready on time.
In these cases, the -s ending forms the plural, but only an apostrophe is added to
show the possessive form (not an apostrophe plus s).
Remember that the possessive form of irregular plural nouns is similar to
those of singular nouns: the children's toys, the women's washroom, the men'5 clothing store.

Exercise 7.10
For each use of the -s endings underlined in the following sentences, determine
which usage is being shown (Cases 1-5, as explained above). The first one is done
here for you as an example:

Nasir's teacher sorts the students' work into piles before she begins.
[3] [2] [5] [1] [2]

1. Peter's going to take over Jenny's cases while she's on vacation. The clients'
businesses will be in good hands. Peter always does a good job because he's
so conscientious.
2. The Johnsons' house is for sale.!.r2 going to sell fast. Joanne's putting in an
offer. She thinks she can get a good deal, but I think it's going to go for big
bucks. And the renovations are going to be expensive too. Jason's mother's
house would have been a better purchase.
3. The research studies showed that children's attention spans were suffering
because of too much exposure to media. Stephen's trying to get his kids to
read more books.

Exercise 7.11
Correct any errors by adding, deleting, or changing any incorrect -s endings and
apostrophes:

1. The student's want to delays the test. Simons going to talk to the instructor.
2. Its time to clean out that room. She need to get rid of those newspaper and
magazines.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 215

3. Its her boyfriends' fault. Hes so possessive that he never let's her go out with
her friend's.
4. She want to change the reports conclusion. Its' not clear enough.
5. The boy's boat started sinking, but they made it to shore. They even rescued
their belonging's.
6. A long time ago peoples had large families, but nowaday's people have
fewer childrens.
7. There were many videos, CDs,and DVDs at Megans garage sale, but no one
wanted to buy them.
8. On Tuesdays the instructors meet for lunch and discuss the students
progress.

Correcting Verb Tenses and Forms

The section Recognizing Different Verb Forms in Unit 3 (pages 54-59) explains
the basic verb tenses and forms.

Here are some common errors to watch out for:

Error example Explanation of error

He walk to work every day. leaving the -s ending off third person
singular verb forms (should be walks)

They have took the wrong train. incorrect past participle form (should
be taken)

The manager could not running the incorrect verb form after modal
machines at all. auxiliaries (should be run)

The mistake is happened because he putting intransitive verbs in the

was not paying attention. passive voice (should be happened
without is)

Polar bears will eat seals. using the future tense instead of the
simple present tense to express facts or
general tendencies (should be eat)

He enjoys to ski in the winter. using the wrong complement after a

verb (should be the gerund skiinf!.)

The team hopes advancing to the using the wrong complement after
quarter finals at least. a verb (should be the infinitive to
advance)
216 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 7.12
Correct any verb form errors in the following sentences:

1. Laptops are seemed to be useful in class, but they can being distracting.
2. The tour guide recommended to take the river route to getting a better
view of the city.
3. Jack happened to see Eliza in the marketplace, so he will invited her to join
us for dinner.
4. Many people enjoys travelling to other countries. Seeing historical sites can
very interested.
5. Paulina has made the necessary changes last week. The program should
works better now.
6. Jamie is used to work for his family. His family own a house renovation
business. Jamie liked the work, but he wants to finished his business
degree first.
7. The teachers in the promotion committee are concern about Marta's lack
of progress. She is not able to concentrate on her work.
8. He keep telling me to invest more money in stocks, but I don't think I can
afford taking the risk.
9. I have never been to Paris, but I am understanding it is a beautiful city.
10. The committee decides to postpone to repaint the clubhouse until after
some much-needed renovations has been done.

•
The basics of using punctuation and capitalization are explained on pages 93-100.
Here are some common errors:

The lifeguard's have a meeting before incorrect:

each shift. Do not use apostrophes for plurals.
(See Sorting out -s Endings,
pages 213-14, if you have trouble
distinguishing possessives and
plurals.)

Every spring he want's to clean out the incorrect:

basement, but it never get's done. Do not use apostrophes in
uncontracted verbs.

They bought apples, peaches. incorrect:

Do not use a comma as a substitute
for and.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 217

Although, the whales are social incorrect:

creatures, they were removed from Do not use a comma after althouoh,
their family groups.

They wanted to make several incorrect:

improvements to the park such as, ])0 not use a comma after such as.
adding more seating and flower
gardens.

That it was his turn to be president, was incorrect:

totally forgotten. Do not use a comma between a
subject and a verb.

Exercise 7.13

Correct the punctuation and capitalization errors in the following sentences:

1. All student's entering huron college of applied art's and technology, must
take the introductory writing course college english 101!
2. Although many students do not think they need a writing course College
English prepares them to write research essays,and serves as a bridge to
technical, and business writing.
3. Critical thinking skills are also developed, in writing courses, because
essay-writing requires students to formulate a thesis organize idea's and
support arguments.
4. Language course's are also popular at the college because students
understand the value of speaking another language, courses are offered
in french spanish mandarin and russian.
5. Language courses help students improve their Communication skills;
something that employers' value.

In addition to dealing with individual elements in a sentence, you may have to fix
the structure of the sentence itself or edit it to be clearer and more concise. You may
also have to consider the sentence in relation to the other sentences in the paragraph.

Correcting Fragments and Run-on Sentences

Two of the most common types of sentence structure errors are fragments (incom-
plete sentences) and run-on sentences. Run-on sentences are commonly divided
into categories according to different kinds of errors, such as comma splices (two
sentences incorrectly separated by a comma), but they essentially have the same prob-
lem-they do not stop where they are supposed to stop. Fragments have too little in
the sentence, and run-ons have too much. Fragments sound incomplete when you
218 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

read them. Fragments and run-ons are sometimes used for effect in informal writing,
but in academic writing, they are generally considered to be grammatical errors.

To fix a sentence fragment, you need to find out what is missing and supply it:

Whale-watching off Vancouver Island. fragment:

There's no main verb (whale-watching
is a gerund).

Whale-watching off Vancouver Island correction:

was an incredible experience. The sentence now has a complete idea.

When he saw the dinosaur bones in the fragment:

Alberta Badlands. The word when is a subordinate
conjunction, so this is a subordinate
clause with no main clause.

When he saw the dinosaur bones correction:

in the Alberta Badlands, he relived The sentence now has a main clause.
his childhood dream of being a
paleontologist.

The actor who was chosen for the lead fragment:

role. The word who is a subordinate
conjunction, so this is a subordinate
clause with no main clause.

The actor who was chosen for the lead correction:

role had to leave the production. The sentence now has a main clause.

The small red brick house down the fragment:

street. This fragment lacks a predicate

The small red brick house down the correction:

street is for sale. This sentence now has a predicate
(a verb and whatever it needs to
complete it).

A run-on sentence, on the other hand, is essentially too much sentence:

Graduates take entry-level jobs to get run-on sentence:

their foot in the door they do not want There is no punctuation or connector
to be stuck there for years. between the two sentences (the
second one starts with they).

Polar bears live in the Arctic, they need run-on sentence:

the ice to live on. This specific type of run-on is a
comma splice in which a comma
incorrectly divides the sentences.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 219

When the waitress took the orders, run-on sentence:

which was difficult to do because of This sentence is actually grammatical,
the noise ofthe hockey game, which but it is considered a run-on because
was the final game of the season, so it is overloaded with clauses.
the hockey fans were out in full force
and full voice, she misunderstood the
customers' orders, and the kitchen
prepared the wrong food, so the
customers were angry and complained
to the manager, who blamed the kitchen
staff, but the waitress admitted she
could not hear the order very well, so
new meals were prepared on the house.

There are three basic ways to fix run-on sentences: make two sentences, use a semi-
colon, or add a conjunction:

The play had sold out its run was run-on sentence:
extended. two full sentences with no connector
The play had sold out, its run was run-on sentence:
extended. comma splice

The play had sold out. Its run was correct:

extended. two separate, complete sentences
The play had sold out; its run was correct:
extended. semicolon connects the sentences
The play had sold out, so its run was correct:
extended. The coordinate conjunction so is used
to connect the sentences.
Becausethe play had sold out, its run correct:
was extended. The subordinate conjunction because
is used to connect the sentences.
The play had sold out, therefore its run run-on sentence:
was extended. The word therefore is a conjunctive
adverb and cannot join two sentences
on its own.
The play had sold out; therefore, its run correct:
was extended. A semicolon connects the sentences.

The section Connecting Sentences on pages 88-90 in Unit 3 reviews sentence

connectors that you can use to fix run-ons.
220 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Exercise 7.14
Decide whether the following sentences are fragments, run-oris, or correct
sentences. Fix the fragments and run-oris:

1. Watching a soccer game on Sunday afternoon.

2. The goalkeeper came out to handle the ball the attacker managed to get
a kick in to score a goal.
3. They managed another goal on a penalty kick, however the game was
already lost.
4. Although they had been division champions. They could not get past the
powerhouse teams.
S. Ilike to watch the young children play soccer. Because they all travel in a
bunch following the ball.
6. She has become addicted to reality shows on television, she especially likes
the ones where she can vote on who is the most talented.
7. Eating snacks in front of the television set and not exercising.
8. My children love to watch nature documentaries, which are a lot better than
a steady diet of cartoons and music videos.
9. Infomercials, usually shown in the middle ofthe night, advertising a useless
array of products.
10. Those infomercials, however, attract a large number of customers who
cannot resist the sales pitch.

Exercise 7.15

Fix the sentence structure errors to eliminate fragments and run-on sentences:

1. She's pretending to work. But she is just playing solitaire on the computer.
And time is running out.
2. Including a list of references in the resume. It is not necessary. Can be left for
the job interview.
3. She lets Jake use the car whenever he asks. Even thuugh he's a terrible driver.
Last year he had three accidents.
4. We studied all the readings in class, however many of the students had
trouble remembering the material for the test.
5. It's not hard to see what the problem is, the machine won't start because this
piece is jamming it.
6. Because he had accumulated so much stuff in residence. He borrowed his
parents' van when he was moving out.
7. Advantages of self-employment. Being your own boss and not having to
answer to anyone. Choosing your own work hours.
8. I had to go to the bank. Before I could pay him back. Being in debt makes me
uncomfortable.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKillS 221

9. He lets his employees have a say in the decision-making process, therefore

their job satisfaction is high. Few of them moving on to other jobs.
10. Because of his success with the last project. He was promoted to assistant
manager. After a while he was making much more money. So he asked his
girlfriend to marry him.

Correcting Parallel Structure

The basics of parallel structure are explained in Unit 3, page 78. Writing a Thesis
Statement in Unit 5 (pages 137-40) explains the importance of parallel structure in
three-pronged thesis statements.

Exercise 7.16

Correct the errors in parallel structure in the following sentences:

1. Although many people think of Canada as being cold and snow, summer
days can be hot and humidity.
2. Winter can be more enjoyable if people take up activities such as skiing,
snowshoeing, or they could learn to skate.
3. First comes the thunder, and then it rained.
4. The flash flood damaged basements and causing sinkholes in the roads.
5. Potholes form in the spring due to the frequent changes in the weather. The
pavement freezes and then cracked, stressing the asphalt.
6. Before the snow falls, we have to rake the leaves, plant some bulbs, and the
mulch has to be spread.
7. At the cottage, Martin spends time on the lake canoeing, in his sailboat and
waterskiing.
8. An ideal job would have good financial compensation, a good work
environment, and the co-workers have to be friendly.
9. For the make-over, her hair was coloured, cut, and a straightener was used.
10. The movie was R-rated because of excessive violence, the characters swore
a lot, and nudity.

Exercise 7.17

Rewrite these thesis statements 50 that they are concise and grammatical, with
parallel structure:

1. The government should encourage young people to vote by teaching them

about politics in schools, showing political news on television shows geared
to them, and how easy voting is.

lo.....- _
222 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

2. By reducing the workweek, the unemployment rate would be lower with

more people working, productivity would go up, and more time for families
and to enjoy life.
3. Parents can help their children go off to college by giving them money for
tuition and living expenses, help them choose a school and program, and to
encourage them when they are feeling discouraged.
4. The advantages of shopping online are that buyers can choose from a wide
array of items, many of which may not be available in local stores, and they
can do this shopping at home which is more convenient than going to the
mall, and compare prices and read reviews before they buy.
5. Companies save on labour costs by hiring contract workers, they move
production offshore, and customers have to do use automated and online
ordering systems.

Correcting Sentence Structure Errors

Unit 3 explained the various types of possible additions to basic sentence structure
and showed how to add modifiers, phrases, and clauses. With more complex sen-
tences, it is easy to make errors in sentence structure.

Exercise 7.18

Correct the sentence structure errors:

1. Although running is a good way to keep fit, but it is hard on the knees.
2. By walking every day, it is a good way to keep healthy.
3. The team was the defending champions, however they failed to defeat a
much weaker team.
4. Heading the ball into the open net, a goal was scored.
5. Even she was tired, she stayed late to help out.
6. What I do not understand is why are the plates broken but not the cups.
7. Amrita couldn't decide whether continue seeing him or not.
8. If he will take the bus he will be late.
9. After he had checked out everything in the store, and the clerk being no help
to him at all. He left without make a purchase.
10. Children are overprotect by their parents grow up to being unable to take
care of themselves.

Editing to Improve Style

Good writing is clear and concise. It should be in an appropriate style; for academic
writing, the style should be impersonal and formal. Editing for style requires rewriting
the work, not just correcting errors. To eliminate wordiness, you must use precise
vocabulary and delete repetitious phrases. If you need more explanation and examples,
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 223

review Unit 1, especially the sections on Writing Concisely (pages 8-9), Writing
Personally or Impersonally (pages 10-11), and Using Appropriate Style (pages 12-16).

Rewrite the following passages in a more academic style, and correct errors:

1. Look at residence for example. Residence is a licence to have fun, drink lots,
and meet new people; basically a licence to party. Sounds like fun, but there
are a few problems.
2. Well, in college it's a big difference. Now students have to budget their
money well or they can get really screwed over. Which is the most important
part of being on your own.
3. Parents should give help to their children when they asked you to.
Otherwise, they will just yell at you for not giving them space. Sometimes
they will say you're annoying and stuff like that.
4. No longer can you come home and have Moms home-cooking. Welcome
to fast TV dinners and a life of Kraft dinner. Now that balanced diet has been
thrown out the window to provide more time for homework and studying.
5. The rich people now-a-days have mommy and daddy's money pit to fall back
on if they screw up once in university. But when poor students get in they
know if they don't do well they'll be poor for years to come.

Exercise 7.20

Rewrite the following personal statements to make them impersonal. You will have
to generalize:
Example: Now that my children have left home and I am approaching
retirement, I would prefer to move to a bungalow. It would be easier
to keep a smaller house, and I would not have to subject my arthritic
knees to stair-climbing.

For empty-nesters approaching retirement, a bungalow is a good

choice of house. The smaller size makes it easier to keep clean, and the
lack of stairs makes it kinder to arthritic knees.

1. Ilike driving on four-lane highways. I don't have to worry about so many

distractions. The traffic is all travelling in the same direction, so I only have to
worry about lane-changers and the occasional traffic jam.
2. My friend wants a tattoo, but I think it's a mistake. She'll regret it when she
gets older. She may no longer have the same interests, and the tattoo may
not look as good later when the ink fades and her skin changes with age.
224 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

3. To cut down on my food preparation time, I often cook big batches of food
on the weekend and freeze it. My family particularly enjoys the chilli, stews,
and spaghetti sauce. I find that some soups also freeze well.
4. When I went to college, I decided to give up my car and rely on public transit.
I would have good bus service from my apartment to the campus. By not
having to pay for gas, insurance, parking, and maintenance, I could also save
money from my meagre student budget. Finally, I could go partying without
worrying about driving home.

Exercise 7.21
Rewrite the following sentences to make them concise by eliminating repetition and
unnecessary words:
Example: When large factories are built, they invariably increase road traffic,
which makes neighbourhoods far more dangerous places than they
were before. 121 words]
Large factories invariably increase road traffic, making
neighbourhoods more dangerous. II() words]
1. Canadian streets and public spaces should have more surveillance cameras.
Having more surveillance cameras can help police.
2. The key to successor the most important factor of success in college courses
is time management. Managing time in a proper and effective way is the
key to successat every part of life. Students allover the world in numerous
colleges are facing the same problem of not coping with time.
3. I was shopping alongside with a friend of mine.
4. In college, students waste time on socializing and being with friends and
waste their time on unnecessary things, such as talking on the phone, sitting
in a cafe for hours, and lots of other things which affect their time.
5. I went to the mall that was close to where I reside. I walked into a store. It
was a store only for watches. I was hoping I would definitely find what I was
looking for because I spotted a store for watches.
6. What I would do next time would probably be to maybe start my research
earlier so I would have extra time to spare if I ran into problems finding the
resources needed to complete a complete research assignment.
7. Factors such as work, school, and other activities determine how much time
and effort one can really put toward a relationship. To begin with, work
can determine how much time someone can put into a relationship. For
example, a couple where both people work a lot, less time would be put into
the relationship but more effort should be put in to make up for the time.
8. In our modern-day society that we live in, it is understandable that
materialism is equated with happiness because people are happy with
material goods.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 225

9. Grades should reflect actual student achievement. Giving students a grade

that they do not deserve does not help them later in life. When students
receive a grade, it should be earned and not given to them as a favour
because it is not good for their future. Students need to learn how to earn a
grade, rather than receiving a grade that they do not earn. The grade they
receive should reflect their actual achievement and skilileve!. Marks should
not be given to students who do not earn them. Later on in life it will not
do any good for them due to the fact that they just received a mark instead
of actually earning one. Marks should not be given to students just to do a
favour for them because they would get credit for something they did not
work for. Achievement should be the reason for receiving a good grade, not
just being given one as a favour.

Exercise 7.22
Some students launch into rambling narratives when they give examples in their
academic paragraphs and essays. An anecdote can make something interesting, but
it can also distract from the main task at hand-proving the points made. Rewrite
each of the following examples, preferably in one sentence (see Giving Examples in
Unit 4, pages 114-17):

1. Some people get a tattoo to remember someone or somebody. For

example, a person showed his tattoo to me. He told me this tattoo means his
girlfriend's name. When he and his girlfriend fell in love, he got the tattoo.
Now they broke up, but he told me he would never erase the tattoo and
forget his girlfriend because this is his first love.
2. People can edit their work faster and easier. For example, a student finishes
an essay. He finds some mistakes and wants to edit it. If he writes his essay by
hand, he needs to write it again. If the essay is in the computer, he can edit it
using the cut and paste function.
3. Students should take advantage of their free time and seize the moment
while they can. For example, the teacher has just assigned homework. At
the end of the class, they know that they have a spare period next. Instead
of taking the right step and completing that work, they waste time on
something less important.
4. People will choose public transit if it is made more convenient and faster
than driving. For example, a businessman has to get to work. There are traffic
jams on the highway. The driving is all stop and go. But a train bypasses
all the traffic. It moves more quickly. Moreover, the man can do work on
the train.
5. Staying in contact with the professor and with the other students is crucial
for students. For example, you missed a class and you want to know what
you missed you can email your professor or your classmate to have them
inform what you have missed and what you can do to make up for that class.
226 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

• •• •
It is easier to do grammar correction exercises when you are looking for a specific
error. These exercises test your ability to spot and fix a variety of errors.

Exercise 7.23

Correct the errors in the following sentences. Make minimal changes (adding,
changing, or deleting words):

1. The student's completed the assignment quick, so they leave the class early.
2. The television is broke. I'll have to watching that episode online because, I
want to know who was the killer.
3. Because he had took the wrong road. He was late for the meeting and miss
the important details.
4. In winter, the children go skiing, skating. They don't mind the cold weather
as long as their dressed proper for it.
5. I should not of change the date of the meeting the first one was more better.
6. When she reads slow and carefully, she can understand better and making
less mistakes.
7. My purse is full of stuffs I don't need even I clean it out regular.
8. Each of projects have a difference advantage choosing one will be difficulty.
9. He is train to be a electrician. When he graduate, he will work for his uncle
whom renovates and sell old house's.
10. The students had to redo there work because they're were to many mistake.
11. I find this grammar point very confused. May be the teacher could explaining
it again.
12. Sylvia rather let Mike runs the workshops. So she can concentrate to the
reorganization.
13. For every cases, the detective write's an official report for his client.
14. Even she disagrees about the decision, she try's to support the work the staff
is done.
15. The programmers checked the code, ran some test case, and finally they find
the problem.
16. The students' asked there teacher whether it was possible to schedule
the tutorial for another days. They did not want to missing the career day
presentation.
17. Maya didn't like the suggestion which Eric made it. She wanted to get more
informations firstly.
 UNIT 7: EDITING AND CORRECTING SKILLS 227

Exercise 7.24

With a partner, correct the vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure errors in the
following sentences:

1. Parents should understand that college students feel pressured everyday.

But giving advices to them can make a differences.
2. He was expecting her to speak something good about his works.
3. Chinese culture emphasis on the importance of marriage life.
4. Not attending classes can be due to anything from bullying, unmotivated,
distracted, lazy, etc.
5. Many people will consider getting a tutor for an extra help but now with
technology there are many online websites and videos teaching almost
every single course for free so students can successed.
6. Teenagers often brag each other with their smartphone, and compete on
who gets first the latest smartphone in stores.
7. The huge different between Chinese and Canadian education system makes
students going abroad be successful hardly.
8. Studying as a group it can be helpful to improve students knowledge
through sharing ideas and debating on a topic.
9. Successful people have a schedule which let know exactly what time should
do what.
10. Until now, I still like to playing piano very much, and music has become one
of my favourite habits.
Reading Skills

The importance of good reading skills cannot be overstated even in the modern
world of emoji messages and online videos. It is impossible to become a good
writer if you do not read a lot. Written English is different from the spoken var-
iety of the language, so people who do not read much are not as familiar with
the language-they are not comfortable with the complex sentence structures,
the more sophisticated vocabulary, or the conventions such as using punctuation
marks correctly.
Because students are often not sufficiently tested on their reading comprehen-
sion skills, some poor readers do not even realize that they have weak reading skills.
After all, they kn~w how to "read" the words, yet they may find it difficult to figure
out the writer's main point or to detect tone, such as sarcasm and humour. Their
vocabulary is limited, so they misunderstand what the writer is saying. They may
read slowly and laboriously.
Reading skills, like all skills, are built gradually. The more you read, the easier
it becomes. If you rarely open a book, it will be a chore when you do have to read
something. With practice, you can increase your reading speed and level of compre-
hension. You will learn more words and be exposed to more new ideas. The more
familiar you are with a subject, the easier it is to understand stories and articles on
that topic.
Your choice of reading material also determines your comprehension and
reading speed. Material is judged to be at a lower reading level if the words used
are more common vocabulary and the sentence structure is relatively simple. For
instance, newspaper stories are generally aimed at a high school reading level. The
topic is also important-people are more comfortable with material on a subject
they are familiar with even if the reading level is higher than they are used to.
How you read a text depends on why you are reading it. When you read a
chapter of your textbook, you highlight important sections and make notes. When
you read a novel for pleasure, you just read through it. You scan a newspaper, read-
ing headlines, looking at pictures, and choosing interesting articles to read. You can
skim a chapter in a textbook to get the gist of what is said. If you need to study a
story or an article for school, you should do a more careful reading-making notes,
highlighting important points, and looking up unfamiliar words in the dictionary.
230 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

This unit introduces some of the basics of reading. You can practise and build
your skills with the readings in Part 2 of this book. You may also wish to review
Dealing with Unfamiliar Words in Unit 2 (pages 39-40).

A good way to start any course is to become familiar with the course textbook
as soon as you acquire it. Look over the table of contents to learn what the book
covers. Read the introduction. Check out what the appendices have to offer. Look
at the index, and be prepared to use it to find specific information.
Learn to navigate your textbook so that you can locate information quickly.
Use the table of contents, page headers, and the index.You can bookmark any pages
you might want to reference often.
A textbook makes a much better study tool if you mark it up as you read it.
You can annotate the textbook with margin notes. Use highlighting judiciously-
to emphasize only important sentences, not big chunks of text. Highlighting is used
to draw your attention to something you might not easily find again, so you do not
need it for tip boxes or lists that already summarize information for you.
If the textbook is borrowed or if you are planning to resell it, you probably
want to keep the book itself fairly clean. You can use sticky notes for your annota-
tions and bookmark important reference pages.
It is important to take notes as you read because you will remember the
material better if you do so. Write notes summarizing each section of the book.
This is more effective than simply underlining or highlighting because you have to
process the information to paraphrase and summarize.

Doing Assigned Readings

Students are often assigned reading to do before class. It could be an article, a
story, or a chapter of the textbook. The instructor then organizes the class on the
presumption that students have done the required reading. Students who come
unprepared find themselves sitting in class not understanding what is being said.
It is a waste of their time and money because they are not getting the value out
of class that they have paid for in their tuition. The class discussion also suffers
when students have not read the material to be discussed. Instead of having a lively
discussion of the issues raised in the reading, students must endure listening to the
instructor lecture for a long stretch.
If you have been asked to read an article or story from this text, you should
spend time going over it as often as necessary for you to understand it. Some exer-
cises may be assigned as homework, but even if they are not, you should read the
notes, do the vocabulary exercises, and be prepared to answer comprehension ques-
tions and discuss the reading.
As you read, you may come across words and concepts that you are not fam-
iliar with. With the wealth of online information available at your fingertips, there
is no excuse for not looking up these references. Many dictionaries have online
 UNIT 8: READING SKillS 231

versions. Proper names of people and places and historical references can easily be
found with a search engine such as Google. A good student is a curious student.

It .. If • •

As textbooks go electronic and more people buy e-books, educators have been
examining the differences between reading on paper and reading on the screen.
E-books are convenient. They can be read on a tablet or a smartphone, devices
people often carry around, so there is no need to carry heavy books as well. They
are generally less expensive than paper versions. The information can be elec-
tronically searched, and notes on vocabulary and references can be accessed easily.
E-books can also be annotated with margin notes.
Despite the convenience, reading from a screen has drawbacks. Studies show
that readers remember more of what they have read from a traditional book than
from an e-book. One reason is that people use spatial memory and can remember
the location of information on a page. Another disadvantage is that reading from a
screen can be more tiring for the eyes. The light from a screen can interfere with
sleep preparation. Some people just prefer working with paper formats.
Most people probably use both electronic and paper reading materials. They
may have a novel loaded on their phone to read on the bus and a paperback novel
handy to read on the beach. Public libraries offer both electronic and paper books
that can be borrowed. Whatever format you use, it is important to keep reading and
to use your reading materials effectively.

When you walk into any bookstore or library, you will find that the main division
between books is fiction and non-fiction-in other words, between made-up stor-
ies and true stories. Even though this distinction becomes blurred when it comes
to works such as autobiographical fiction, it is important to differentiate these two
kinds of writing. Sometimes students get confused and refer to readings incorrectly.
For example, they may refer to the actions in a non-fiction essay as happening to a
character instead of to the author.
Even in the "real world" outside school, this distinction becomes important.
Theologians and historians have argued about the fantastical theories presented
in The Da Vinci Code, even though it is a novel, a work of fiction. Author James
Frey was censured in the media because he fabricated part of his memoir (his life
story); readers were expecting a "true" story. Journalists occasionally write about
composite characters, combining characteristics of real people sometimes to con-
ceal identities. We operate on this distinction between fiction and non-fiction even
though "truth" is never as clear-cut as we would like. History, for instance, is subject
to the interpretation of the writer, so different accounts about the same event can
differ wildly.

.....
232 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Fiction Non-fiction

"made-up" stories "true" stories

short stories, novels articles, essays, columns, news stories

I:j:: author I = author

I = narrator (usually a character in the
story)

We use the terms short story and novel to refer to works of fiction. Short stor-
ies can be anywhere from 500 to 5000 words. There are three short stories in Unit
16. Novels are usually 300 to WOO pages. Sometimes books are made up of linked
short stories-stories that share characters or place or both. Autobiographical fic-
tion tells the life story of the author, but it is told in a narrative style, the events are
not exactly as they happened, and the dialogue does not represent the actual words
the participants used. Movies are usually works of fiction even if they are "based on
a true story." Documentaries are non-fiction. Docudramas blur the line between
fiction and non-fiction because actual events are dramatized. For instance, the film
United 93 recreates the hijacked flight on 11 September 2001 that ended in a field
in Pennsylvania; the recreation is based on transcripts of cellphone calls and other
recordings, but much of it is conjecture because no one on the plane survived to
tell the true story.
It is best to have both fiction and non-fiction in your reading diet. One rea-
son is that you will be able to distinguish between the two types of writing more
easily. Fiction is sometimes dismissed because it is not "real." However, studies show
that reading fiction has academic, mental, and social benefits. These advantages are
explained in the essay "The Benefits of Reading Fiction" (pages 382-85).

Referring to an Author
If I appears in the piece of writing (not in quotations), the identity of that person
depends on what kind of writing it is-whether it is fiction or non-fiction. An I in
a work of non-fiction refers to the author himself or herself. Thus, for example, for
the article "No Hyphen for Me," you can say,"Salim Sachedina refers to his early
days in Toronto in the 1960s." However, "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" is
a short story based on true events; in other words, it is autobiographical fiction. You
cannot say,"Garry Engkent's mother blamed her husband." Because the mother and
the son have not been given names in the story, you have to refer to them as the
mother and the son. They are characters, not real people.You can also refer to the son
as the narrator.
Note that you can refer to fictional characters by their first or last names,
depending on what they are called in the short story or novel. When you are dis-
cussing a non-fiction reading, however, you should refer to the author by his or her
family name, or surname. For instance, in a research essay, you could say,"Trudeau
and Petty explain why bottled water is not good for the environment." Sometimes
 UNIT 8: READING SKillS 233

the full name of the person is given for the first mention, and then the person is
referred to by surname alone.

Activity
Scan through some of the reading selections in Part 2, looking for mentions of
other writers. Note how the author refers to them. For example, Emma Teitel refers
to the words ofAnthony Bourdain; she calls him by his full name in the first refer-
ence and then just "Bourdain" (page 297). Compare this to Peter Singer's references
(pages 283-84); because his article was printed in The Globe and Mail, it uses a
different style.

Most essays have one main idea that the author is trying to communicate to his
or her audience. Sometimes the idea is stated directly, and sometimes it is not. The
reader may have to infer the thesis. If the thesis is not immediately obvious to you,
look at the organization of the reading. Remember that you are looking for the
most general idea that is supported in the essay. Do not confuse the topic with the
main idea. For example, "White Tops, Grey Bottoms" is about school uniforms (that
is the topic), but the main idea is that schools are putting too much emphasis on
dress codes.
One of the best ways to figure out the main idea of a non-fiction reading is
to look at the title. This especially holds true for newspaper stories and columns
because their titles are actually headlines, which are sentences with some of the
function words (such as determiners) taken out. Take a look at the table of contents
of this book, and read the titles of the readings in Part 2. The non-fiction articles
are mostly from newspapers; most of the titles tell you clearly what the thesis is. For
example, "The Case against Bottled Water" clearly shows the position of the auth-
ors. Compare these titles to the fiction pieces. It is not as obvious what "Soap and
Water" is about.
A common organizational pattern for non-fiction writing, especially in news-
papers and magazines, is to start with an anecdote-a story of something that
happened to the author or to someone he knows. For example, Bev Akerman starts
with a specific incident before she gives her arguments about school uniforms. The
anecdotal introduction catches readers' attention because it is personal, something
they can relate to.
Remember that in an academic essay, the thesis comes at the end of the intro-
duction. This pattern is also sometimes used in journalistic essays and articles, except
that the introduction may be several paragraphs long instead of the one-paragraph
introduction you are used to writing for your essays. (Keep in mind that newspaper
and magazine articles have many short paragraphs because they are written in nar-
row columns.)
In specific sentences, the main idea will be in the main clause. Look at the
transitions the author uses. For example, expressions such as however and it is vital to
remember point the way to main points.
234 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Remember that the main idea will be supported by examples and explana-
tions.When you read such specific statements, look for the point that is being made.

When you read essays and columns in newspapers and magazines, you have to be
sure to follow different people's arguments. Often, authors mention some popular
views before coming to their own. They start by relating these other views and then
emphasize their own with a word like however or a phrase like the truth is ...
Here are some things to watch for:
• expressions like people think, which automatically distance that view from the
author's view
• words in quotation marks or expressions such as so-called, which show that the
author does not agree with the word of expression
• verbs like suppose, claim, purport
• conjunctions such as althouph and but that show contrast
• transition signals such as however and more important, which show a shift in
emphasis
• use of personal pronouns (I, me) to emphasize the author's point of view
Here are some examples:

"an anonymous poster claiming to be a In this quotation (from page 297),

Manhattan restaurateur" Teitel uses the word claim, showing
that she does not really accept what
the poster is saying.

"Now, the received wisdom is quite In this quotation (from page 339),
different: uniforms are supposed to Akerman refers to a commonly
'create an environment conducive to held opinion (she calls it "received
learning' and a sense of 'community wisdom"). She uses quotation marks
among students.' Fair enough, I around phrases that are commonly
suppose, given the intense, competitive used, although she does not reference
consumerism and cliquishness that a specific source for the words. Note
plague many schools today." that she gives a grudging acceptance
of this view with the phrases "Fair
enough" and "I suppose."

The reading selections in this text have comprehension and discussion ques-
tions that ask you about the author's viewpoint. As you read the selections, look for
the cues to the author's point of view, and discuss them in class.

••
Writing is a craft. Writers use a variety of techniques to get their message across to
their readers. Each word they put down is chosen from a vast array of possibilities.
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 235

The way they structure their paragraphs and sentences is part of their craft. They
keep in mind their audience and purpose. They want to make sure that everything
is clear to the readers. They try to entertain, inform, and convince readers.
The reading selections in Part 2 have notes on the authors' techniques. You
can discuss structure and language as you take up the reading in class. Consider the
decisions the author made. Look at the connotation of words. Consider how the
topic is introduced and concluded. Are you caught up in the story the author tells?
Are you convinced by the arguments? Reading attentively will make you a better
reader, but do not forget that sometimes you can just sit back and enjoy the ride the
author takes you on.

Some of your reading will be research for your writing. You may be doing just
general background reading to help you understand a topic, or you may be doing
specific research for a paper.
Like most students today, you probably rely on the Internet for all your
research. However, it is often difficult to tell where online information originates.
Respected print newspapers, magazines, and professional journals often post articles
online, and this material is reviewed, checked, and edited. Moreover, such publica-
tions stand by their work because they value their reputation. However, everything
you read on the Internet does not go through that type of formal review. Anyone
can start a website on any subject-he or she does not have to be an expert on that
subject. Moreover, Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia, is open to editing by users
and has misinformation deliberately posted in its entries. Even sites from reputa-
ble organizations can be hacked. Misinformation from one site can be copied to
another and can go viral, infecting even reliable news sources.
You should try to authenticate any information you get from the Internet. See
whether it fits what you already know. Take anything that sounds odd with a grain
of salt. Look for independent sources that give the same information. Look at trad-
itional print sources. Check where the websites are based. For instance, an edu at the
end of the URL, or Internet address, usually denotes a school, and information on
the official sites should be reliable-unless it is from student project pages.
The Internet is rife with information that is inadequate, incorrect, or even
deliberately inflammatory (such as posts from trolls). Watch out for red flags that
point to something wrong with the site. For example, some of the Urban Dictionary
entries for meese as the plural of moose warn the reader not to trust English teachers
and dictionaries and that meese is the only correct plural. (You can do a web search
for "meese" to read these entries yourself.) Urban Dictionary is a wiki site-which
means that anyone can post entries, even if they are not experts on the subject.
After you have researched your topic, you may use the information you have
found in your writing. When you incorporate information from another writer into
your essay, you need to cite it with a reference to the source of the information.
General knowledge and historical facts do not have to be cited, but an author's inter-
pretation of facts has to be cited. Any time you copy phrases and sentences from
 236 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

another writer, you must use quotation marks to show the copied words, and you
must include a citation to show your reader where these words came from.Your essay
should be essentially your ideas and words, with support from other writers' work.

Referencing is essentially two different acts-using in-text citation and putting

together the bibliography. The fundamental idea is that the in-text citation is a
short form of the reference that points the reader to the full source information on
the bibliography page. An in-text citation is essentially the author's name in brackets
after the quote or paraphrase. The bibliography is usually the last page of the essay.
The model essays in Appendices C and D show how to use and format references.
There are three common styles of referencing:
• Chicago Manual style (with a student version called Turabian style) is distin-
guished by its use of footnotes and endnotes instead of bracketed references.
• Modern Language Association (MLA) style is generally used for human-
ities subjects, such as English, in universities and colleges.
• American Psychological Association (APA) style is usually found in the
sciences and social sciences.
The different citation styles can be confusing, and you may use different styles in
different schools and even for different courses. Follow whichever guidelines your
instructor gives you for research assignments. If your instructor does not specify a
style, ask for one. Some instructors give detailed handouts with assignments, some
direct you to your school library's information on citation style, and some point to an
online reference site such as Purdue University's OWL (Online Writing Lab) website.

The basic elements of referencing

• If you use the exact words of another author in your essay, you show that
these are not your words by the use of quotation marks (or by using an
indented block for a longer quote).
• You identify the author of these words-either with the author's surname in
brackets or with a number leading to a footnote or an endnote that names
the author. You must make it clear who said the words.
• If you include paraphrased ideas from another author in your essay, you
show that these ideas are not yours in the same way that you would with a
quotation, by stating the author's name and referencing the source.
• The in-text citation, whatever format you use, is a short form of the full
reference on the bibliography page.
• The bibliography page is a separate page at the end of your assignment. It
may be called "References" (in APA) or "Works Cited" (in MLA).
• Article and story titles are usually written between quotation marks, while the
names of books, newspapers, and magazines are generally written in italics.
• The bibliography contains full source information so that the reader can
locate the same resource you used.

l-----------------.. .
 """""

UNIT 8: READING SKillS 237

Citations must refer to the source you actually used. An article may appear in
print form in a newspaper, be online on the newspaper's website, get reprinted in a
textbook or anthology, be reposted on another website, or appear in your school's
library databases. Each of these citations would be slightly different. The title may
also be different. In MLA style, the word Print is used to show that you read the
print copy, and the word mb shows that you read an electronic copy, as shown in
these examples:

Mann, Doug. "Unplug the Digital for the reading from this textbook
Classroom." Skill Set: Strategies for
Readingand Writing in the Canadian
Classroom. By Lucia Engkent. 3rd ed.
Don Mills: Oxford UP, 2016. 255-56.
Print.

Mann, Doug. "Unplug the Digital for the original article in the print
Classroom." Toronto Star. 06 Oct. 2012. version of the Toronto Star newspaper
A.1? Print.

Mann, Doug. "Let's Unplug the Digital for the article online, in the Toronto
Classroom." Toronto Star. 06 Oct. 2012. Star's website (read on May 12,
Web. 12 May 2015. 2(15); note the difference in title

Mann, Doug. "Unplug the Digital for the article online, in a school
Classroom." Toronto Star. O? Oct. 2012. library's database (read on May 12,
A.1? Canadian Newsstand. Web. 2015); note the difference in date of
12 May 2015. publication

Note that in MLA style, the references would appear double-spaced, with a hang-
ing indent, and in alphabetical order. For websites, an access date is given at the end
of the citation to show the date you looked at the site.
In contrast, here is what a reference to the Mann article (from this book)
would look like in APA style:
Mann, D. (2016). Unplug the digital classroom. In L. Engkent, Skill set: Strategies
for reading and writing in the Canadian classroom (pp. 55-56). Don Mills,
ON: Oxford UP.
Note that APA puts more emphasis on the date of publication: it appears for in-text
citations (see the sample essay in Appendix D, pages 386-87), and it is more prom-
inent in the reference list. APA does not use quotation marks for article and story
titles, and only the first word of titles is capitalized.
Remember that citation is all about attention to detail. Be sure to copy infor-
mation correctly. Proofread your work carefully.
238 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Plagiarism is copying someone else's words or ideas and claiming them as your own.
(Plagiarism also includes submitting your own work twice for different courses.) It
is considered cheating or academic dishonesty. Usually, the punishment gets worse
with each offence. For example, a first offence may mean a grade of zero on the
paper and a notation on the student record. A second offence may mean failing the
whole course, while the third may result in expulsion from the school.
Plagiarism is relatively easy to spot. Instructors get to know their students'
writing styles and know what they are capable of. Generally, there is a noticeable
difference between a student's writing style and a published author's. With modern
technology, it is easy to cut and paste from other writers' works, but the same tech-
nology also makes the original sources easy to find.
Be careful when you take notes. Make sure you mark quotes accurately and
keep references clear. It is also helpful to write your paper without constant consul-
tation of your notes and sources so that you do not copy the wording. Make your
points, and use your research to support those points. Quote only when necessary,
and be sure to use quotation marks and include the reference. Follow the tech-
niques for paraphrasing explained on pages 240-43.
Remember that a writing course is testing your ability to write, not to copy.
It is dishonest to claim that the words on the page originated in your brain if they
did not. In some cultures, writing does include copying phrases of well-known
writers, but in Canadian schools, any such copying must be clearly shown with
quotation marks and references. If not referenced otherwise, the words in the essay
are assumed to have originated with the student writing the paper.

When you report what someone says, you put that person's words between quota-
tion marks, but only if you are quoting the exact words used. Note the differences
in these examples:

Rhett Butler said, "Frankly, my dear, I This is a direct quote from the movie
don't give a damn." Gone with the Wind.

Rhett Butler said he didn't give a damn. This is reported speech (also called
"indirect speech"). It is not a full
paraphrase of what the character said,
and no quotation marks are used.

Rhett Butler exclaimed that he didn't This is a paraphrase of what was

care. actually said.

Take note of the punctuation for a direct quote. The quotation marks curl around the
quote and are found at the top of the line. A comma may separate the quote from the
rest of the sentence. The period of the sentence comes before the quotation mark.
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 239

In research papers, you use two kinds of quotations. In one, you incorporate
the words of the speaker in your sentences and show the exact words with quota-
tion marks. Longer quotes are set off, separate from your paragraph and indented
from the left margin. Both forms require a footnote or a parenthetical citation (the
author's name and the page number in round brackets) to show where the refer-
ence comes from.
You can see examples of quotations in the two sample research essays in
Appendices C and D. The first essay shows MLA style, and the second is APA style.
Note how the quotations are integrated into the essay. They should not interrupt
the flow of the writing.
Be sure to choose quotes wisely. Do not quote facts or straightforward, simple
sentences. Instead, give such information in your own words. Choose quotes that
express something in a unique manner.You should use quotes for impact, not to fill
up space. They should fit your sentences smoothly.

Using quotations in essays

• Use quotations sparingly and Wisely-don't quote to fill up your essay, and
don't quote material that could be easily paraphrased.
• Do not quote factual statements. You can state the facts in your own words.
• Quotations should be integrated into your essay so that the ideas and
sentences flow smoothly. (Do not introduce a quotation with an obvious
phrase such as "Here is a quote from ....")
• Short quotations are set off with quotation marks and are inserted into the
sentences you write.
• Long quotations (more than three lines) are usually indented in a block with
no quotation marks.
• Use an ellipsis (...) to show left-out words if you have made the quotation
shorter.
• If the author has not been mentioned in a signal phrase in the sentence,
put the name of the author and the page number in parentheses after the
quotation.
• If the article you are quoting from has no author, you can use the beginning
part of the title in the reference after the quotation (but you can avoid this by
mentioning the article in a signal phrase in your sentence).
• If you have paraphrased information from a source, indicate the author for
the reference just as if it were a quotation.
• Be careful with your referencing if you are quoting a quotation; you need to
use single quotation marks inside double ones to show this-make sure it is
clear who said what.

Activity
Scan through some of the non-fiction reading selections in Part 2, looking for quo-
tations. Note how the authors incorporate quotations in their writing.You can also
check the referencing in the essays in Appendices C and D.
240 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Paraphrasing is the art of reporting what has been said by someone else. You must
use different wording from what was used in the original. You express in a clearer,
shorter, or different way what someone else has said or written. To be able to para-
phrase well, you need a strong vocabulary and a good understanding of the original
text, so paraphrasing is a test of reading comprehension.
The ability to paraphrase well is a skill that is often practised and tested in
English courses. It is both a reading and writing skill. You will be called upon to
paraphrase in reading comprehension tests, summaries, and essays. Some students
have trouble accepting why they are asked to answer "in their own words" and are
given no marks for copying the words from a reading in a test. Copying does not
show understanding or a command of the language. Even people who know very
little English can copy correctly. In addition, students have to paraphrase their own
writing when they write an essay-they cannot repeat the same phrasing through-
out the essay.
What does "in your own words" mean?
• words you "own"-part of your active vocabulary-words you would nor-
mally use
• not words that you came across for the first time in the article
• not phrasing that is unique to the author
Students sometimes ask what words from the original they can use in their
paraphrase. You can use the same basic English words if they have no handy syn-
onym. For example, you cannot avoid words like language and immigrant. You can
also use expressions if they are Standard English, such as the phrase supply and
demand. One test is that the words you use should be the ones you would normally
use to say the same thing.

How to paraphrase well

• Make sure you understand what is being said. (Look up the words you don't
know.)
• Make sure you understand the context of the sentence(s) you are asked
to paraphrase. (For example, if you have to paraphrase a quotation from a
reading, read what comes before and after that quotation.)
• Before paraphrasing, put the reading aside for a minute, and think about the
passage.
• Try to express the idea your own way, without looking at the original.
• Once you have used your own words, check the original wording to see if you
missed any important parts.
• Use synonyms and different parts of speech, staying with words you know
how to use in a sentence.
• Use a sentence structure different from the structure in the original
quotation.
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 241

Imagine you were given this writing topic: "What is the key to success in
college?"you would want to write about attendance, but you would want to avoid
using the same wording as the question and repeating the same phrase throughout
your essay. Here are different ways of saying the same idea. These examples illustrate
some of the techniques used in paraphrasing.

Attendance is the key to success in This sentence uses the phrasing of

college. the question, so it should be avoided
in the essay. Instead, it should be
paraphrased.
Attending class is important in college. Just changing a part of speech can be
a first step in paraphrasing. Here the
gerund attendino is used instead of the
noun attendance.
Students need to come to class in order A paraphrase can be expressed in
to pass their courses. simple words completely different
Students who come to class do well in from the original. What is important
their courses. is that the words express the same
idea. Students are not specifically
mentioned in the original topic
question, but it is clear that the
question is asking about student
behaviour.
To achieve success, students must Note how members of the same
attend their classes. word family can be used to vary
Attendance is essential for students the sentences: success (n), succeed (v),
who want to succeed. successful (adj).
Successful students attend class.

Absenteeism leads to failure.

To add further variety, negatives can
Students who are often absent are in be used. However, it is important to
danger of failing their courses. make sure this does not change the
Students who skip class may fail their meaning too much.
courses.

What not to do in paraphrasing:

• Do not just manipulate the sentences by moving phrases around.

• Do not just copy the structure and swap words for synonyms or dictionary
definitions.
• Do not use quotation marks around your paraphrase. (Once you put it in your
words, it is no longer a quotation.)
• Do not use I in a paraphrase. Instead, refer to the author or speaker in the third
person.
242 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Study the good and bad examples of paraphrasing that follow.

1. In a reading test, students are often asked to explain a statement from a reading:

"Divorce can make children feel like original words of the statement from
damaged goods." the test question

This is saying that they are the goods poor paraphrase:

that are damaged as a result of their The student's attempt to explain
parents'divorce. the statement is just a switch in the
wording.

After a divorce, the children may feel good paraphrase:

worthless. It explains the expression "damaged
goods."

2. Reading question: In the story "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" in Unit 16,
what is the main reason the mother does not learn English?

"For thirty-some years, my mother did original quote from page 357,
not learn the English language, not paragraph 65
because she was not smart enough,
not because she was too old to learn,
and not because my father forbade her,
but because she feared that learning
English would change her Chinese
soul."

The mother did not learn English poor paraphrase:

because she was afraid that it would "Chinese soul" is an expression
change her Chinese soul. unique to the author.

The mother did not learn English good paraphrase:

because she was afraid that she would It does not repeat author's words, and
lose her identity as a Chinese woman. it shows the meaning of "Chinese
soul. "

3. In this example, the student's task was to paraphrase the quotation from an arti-
cle in Unit 15:

"Finally, Isuspect the Uniformists original quote by Bev Akerman,

have a secret motivation behind their page 340, paragraph 8
fashion agenda: it makes public schools
resemble, in the most superficial way,
the exclusive private schools that
pepper my Montreal neighbourhood."
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 243

At last, I assume that people in charge poor paraphrase:

ofthe uniforms have a secret ambition • The student substituted synonyms
behind the dress code, to make public for the original phrasing.
schools look like the exclusive private • The student incorrectly used I.
schoolsthat hot-tasting berries of • It shows lack of understanding by
certain plants in the Montreal area. using the dictionary definition of
the noun pepper (which is used as a
verb in the original).

The author thinks that those who good paraphrase:

support uniforms really want to make It gets the main idea across, shows
their schools look like elite private that the student understood the idea.
schools.

Exercise 8.1
With a partner or in a small group, try to come up with as many different ways to
express these ideas as you can. Compare your answers to those of another group.
1. Sean was fired for poor work performance.
2. An effective public transportation system is vital to any metropolis because it
keeps the people moving efficiently and thus saves billions of dollars.
3. Clarity is the most important feature of good writing because the objective is
to communicate information to the audience.
4. Students must paraphrase on tests and in essays to show their
understanding of the material.

Exercise 8.2
Paraphrase these passages:

1. Appearance is everything. We are constantly being judged by the way

we look-to our advantage or disadvantage. Unattractive people may be
viewed as inconsequential or ill-favoured, while very attractive people may
be thought of as all beauty and no brains.
2. Although some people argue that people today are ruder and less
considerate of others, it is easy to find examples of how we are better
behaved than our ancestors. For example, our society has made
improvements in the way we treat those who have lesser status. We make
fewer class distinctions, and overt racism is not socially accepted today.
Women are no longer treated as being nothing more than the property of
their husbands or other male relatives.
3. It's hard to say who is more addicted to lotteries-the people who play them
or the governments who depend on the revenue they generate. The money
244 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

goes to support many facilities that should be funded by taxes, such as

hospitals and recreation centres. However, taxpayers seem to prefer putting
their money toward lottery tickets than toward tax increases.
4. Women's sports have always gotten short shrift. Women golfers and tennis
players would play for peanuts compared to the men's prizes. Women's
hockey teams have trouble getting ice time. The poor media coverage
for women's teams means that even their victories are buried in a few
paragraphs in the sports section of the newspaper while losing men's teams
get front-page coverage.
5. Halloween has become such a big holiday in North America that spending
on it is second to that of Christmas. Houses are elaborately decorated
to resemble haunted houses with ghosts and skeletons. Adults wear
costumes to scare and delight trick-or-treaters or for parties. An interest
in the supernatural is reflected in the current popularity of vampire books
and movies.

Reported speech (or indirect speech) is a type of paraphrasing. It may not be a

complete or true paraphrase, because often many of the original words are repeated.
Reported speech is tricky because of the required changes, such as pronouns and
time references. For example, the speaker's reference to I becomes he or she. If the
speaker says today or tomorrow, you may have to change it to that day or the next day.
Verb tense is also tricky. Often, you have to change the present tense verb to past
tense. Here are some examples:

Quotation Reported speech

The director said, "Why isn't anyone The director asked why no one was
listening to me?" listening to him.

The actor said, "Why am I not getting The actor wondered why he was not
more auditions?" getting more auditions.

Peter said, "You have to do that scene Peter said we would have to do the
all over again." scene agam.
Peter told us to do the scene again.

John said, "Why don't you come with John invited me to the game on
me to the game on Saturday?" Saturday.

Ivana said, "Let's go to the 8 o'clock Ivana suggested going to the 8

show, and then we can go for dessert." 0' clockshow and going for dessert
afterwards.

Note the use of different verbs such as ask, wonder, and invite, which show the func-
tion of the original statement.
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 245

Exercise 8.3
Change these sentences from direct quotation to reported speech. You do not have
to use all the words as long as you get the meaning across:
1. Susan said, "I'm going to work on that assignment tomorrow."
2. Raj said, "I will help you with the painting this weekend."
3. My sister asked, "What shall we get Mom for her birthday?"
4. Mohammed said, "Why don't we get tickets for the Great Big Sea concert?"
5. Lulu asked, "Will you help me prepare my oral presentation?"
6. He asked the TA, "Will Unit 6 be on the mid-term?"
7. Hans asked, "Do you know where Michael bought his Vespa?"
8. "I'm sorry. I forgot to call you yesterday," said Amar.
9. Brad said, "I think we should take up curling. It looks like a sport I could
handle."
10. Lindy said, "Tomas should buy a new car. His is a piece of junk."

Summarizing is a skill used every day.You summarize when you recount the plot
of a movie or relate what happened to you in your day; summarizing textbook
chapters is an excellent way to study for exams;journal articles are summarized in
abstracts; and business reports often include an executive summary. Being able to
summarize something concisely is a valuable skill worth cultivating.
When you summarize, you give the main ideas from a reading such as an arti-
cle, story, or report. You do not include examples or specific details, such as dates,
figures, and biographical data, unless they are important for comprehension. The
points should be in the same order as in the original whenever possible. Make
sure you cover the whole article. When students are faced with a strict word limit,
they sometimes stop writing as soon as they reach this limit. Keep in mind that a
summary by itself is objective. You do not give your opinion of what is said in the
article or evaluate the author's writing.You just report what the author said.
The summary should be clear enough that someone who has not read the
original text can still understand the summary and come away with the same basic
information. Avoid vague statements such as "the authors talk about bottled water,"
which just state the topic and not the main idea. Usually the word about signals such
a statement. One way to check clarity is to ask someone who has not read the ori-
ginal article to read the summary to see whether he or she has any questions.
Conciseness is important because the main purpose is to make something
shorter. A summary can range in length from one sentence to one-third the length
of the original article. For school assignments, you may be asked to write a sum-
mary that is one-tenth the length of the original so that a l Ofl-word paragraph
summarizes a lOOO-word article. When you have a strict word limit, it may be easier
246 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

to write a first draft without worrying about the word count. Then you can edit it,
looking for ways to make it concise and eliminating unnecessary details.
Paraphrase is an important part of summarizing. Use your own words to
express the ideas of the author. Copying sentences from the original is not accept-
able. One good way to avoid copying phrases from the text is to draft your summary
without looking at the original.You can check later to make sure you have covered
all the ideas you need. Remember that if the article is in the first person (1), your
paraphrase will use third person references such as "the author" and "she says."
A summary should follow good paragraph structure and start with a topic
sentence. Just as the topic sentence of a developed paragraph gives the main idea (as
shown in Unit 4), the topic sentence of the summary tells the reader that this is a
summary. Usually, the author and title of the article are named, and the source infor-
mation (the name of the newspaper, the date, and the page number, for example)
may be given if necessary.
Here is an 88-word summary of an 830-word article that can be found in
Unit 11 on pages 283-84:
In "Why PayMore? To Be Conspicuous;' Peter Singer criticizes conspicuous
consumption-buying luxury goods just to show off wealth. He uses the
example of the designer watches worn by Ukrainian government ministers
to make his argument: the watches do not even work that well, they cost
several times the average annual salary in Ukraine, and they indicate possible
corruption. People do not need to give up all luxury items, but buying such
high-end goods is immoral when the money could be spent instead on
helping the poor.
Note that in this summary, the example of the watch is mentioned because it is a
major part of the article, even though examples are usually not given in summaries.

Steps for Writing a Summary

1. Read the entire article, story, or report, making sure you understand it all.You
may have to read it a few times. Use a dictionary for unfamiliar words.
2. Put the article or story away, and think about what it said.Without referring to
the original, write a quick draft of your summary, using your own words.Your
draft can be in the form ofjot notes.
3. Go over the article again, making sure you have covered all the main points in
your draft.
4. Rewrite your summary, putting it in proper form.
5. Start a summary paragraph with a topic sentence that identifies the article (title,
author's name, and source) and gives the main idea of the original reading.
6. Make sure your summary paraphrases the words of the author. Do not copy
his or her specific expressions. Do not quote.
7. Check to see whether your summary says enough to be clear to readers who
have not read the original.
8. Edit your summary to meet the required word length.
9. Correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation for your final draft.
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 247

Writing the Topic Sentence for a Summary Paragraph

Just as the topic sentence of a paragraph often gives the main idea, the topic sen-
tence of a summary tells the reader that the paragraph is a summary and identifies
the work that is being summarized by giving the title and the author's name. (You
may also be asked to give the source information in the first sentence, but that
information could be given in a citation instead.) The first sentence gives an over-
view of the article.
Ideally, the topic sentence of a summary contains both the title of the article
and the author's name, and one of those two elements is the grammatical subject
of the sentence. In effect, this means that writers can use the preposition in with
the title and by with the author but they cannot use both in their topic sentence,
because a grammatical subject cannot be in a prepositional phrase. This is shown in
the variations of a summary topic sentence given below.

For a summary topic sentence:

• Either the title or the author has to be the grammatical subject of the
sentence.
• The grammatical subject cannot be in a phrase beginning with a preposition.
• The title of the article is singular (for subject-verb agreement).
• The title of an article or short story is written between quotation marks.
• The title and the author's name must be given in full, with no changes or
mistakes.
• If the article was written by two authors, both names are given (and the verb
is in the plural form if the authors are the subject of the sentence).
• Use a verb such as say, tell, explain, and discuss to introduce the main idea of
the article (but avoid weak verbs such as mention or refer to).

Here are some examples of topic sentences for a summary paragraph:

a) "Fear Math, Not Numbers" by correct topic sentence:

Peter Martyn argues that we The grammatical subject of the
should make a distinction between sentence is the title of the article.
arithmetic and mathematics.

b) In "Fear Math, Not Numbers," Peter correct topic sentence:

Martyn argues that we should The grammatical subject of the
make a distinction between sentence is the author.
arithmetic and mathematics.

c) In "Fear Math, Not Numbers" incorrect topic sentence:

by Peter Martyn argues that we The sentence lacks a grammatical
should make a distinction between subject because both the title and the
arithmetic and mathematics. author's name are in prepositional
phrases.
248 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

d) "Fear Math, Not Numbers" is by weak topic sentence:

Peter Martyn. It just gives the title and author with
no information about the topic of
the article.

e) "Fear Math, Not Numbers" by Peter incorrect topic sentence:

Martyn. It is an incomplete sentence (no
verb).

f) In the article "Fear Math, Not wordy topic sentence:

Numbers" by Peter Martyn, the Saying "the article," "by," and "the
author argues that we should author" is unnecessary.
make a distinction between
arithmetic and mathematics.

g) This article is about the distinction incorrect topic sentence:

between arithmetic and The article is not identified.
mathematics.

h) Arithmetic is different from incorrect topic sentence:

mathematics. It does not show that this is a
summary and does not identify the
article.

i) This article was very interesting. incorrect topic sentence:

It does not identify the reading, it
does not say what the article is about,
and it gives an opinion.

j) This is a summary of the article incorrect topic sentence:

"Fear Math, Not Numbers" by Peter This is an announcement instead of a
Martyn. topic sentence.

Exercise 8.4
Here is a 227-word summary of"White Tops, Grey Bottoms;' by Bev Akerman (Unit 15,
pages 339-40). Eliminate unnecessary phrases and sentences, and reduce wordiness
to make the summary lessthan 100 words:
In the article "White Tops, Grey Bottoms," by Bev Akerman, the author
explains her objections to the strict dress codes at her children's public school
in Montreal. The author gives examples of the problems of the dress code,
which is too strict. Her son was sent home from school for having an untucked
shirt. Akerman had to wear a uniform when she was in school, but things have
changed. Akerman complains thatstudents have to wear specific brands of
uniforms. The uniforms are in dull colours like grey and white. These colours
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 249

are boring and do not let the students express their creativity. Bev Akerman
also makes a complaint that the money that the parents are collecting from
the sale of the clothing is used to pay for items that the school board should
pay for, such as musical instruments and school computers. Moreover,
uniforms are a cop-out for parents. The parents do not want to deal with
their children wearing inappropriate clothing, so they defer to the schools to
take the heat and regulate their children's appearance. Uniforms are a way of
making public schools seem like elite private schools, but Akerman prefers
the diversity inherent in the public school system where there are many
different kinds of students. Her son's school should concentrate on educating
the students. It is far too concerned with their appearance.

A good summary

• is clear to anyone who has not read the original article or story
• gives only the main ideas of the original, without unnecessary details or
examples
• is a paraphrase, with no quotes from the original
• tells the reader it is a summary in the first sentence by identifying the original
work
• is concise, meeting word limits
• covers all the major points of the article
• does not give the summary writer's opinion of the original

In your English course, you may be assigned a variety of writing tasks based on a
reading. It is important that you have a clear idea of what each task entails, so here
is a reference list:

Reading comprehension questions (explained below): usually short

answers, in full sentences, in your own words (in other words, paraphrased)
Summary (explained in the previous section): the main ideas of the reading,
usually in a paragraph
Literary analysis (explained below): close examination of the writer's tech-
niques or the elements of fiction (such as plot, theme, and characters);
could be in a paragraph or an essay
Personal response (explained below): your opinion of the reading; usually less
structured
Paragraphs and essays (examples shown in Units 4-6 and Appendices C and
D): writing on a topic related to what is said in the reading (not necessarily
the main idea); see examples of topics in the Discussion and Assignments
sections following each reading in Part 2
250 PART 1: SKILL DEVElOPMENT

Answering Reading Comprehension Questions

Short-answer comprehension questions are a good way for instructors to test both
your reading and your writing skills.Your answers may be marked for both content
and language use.
Paraphrasing is an important part of comprehension tests because you cannot
paraphrase properly if you do not understand what has been said. If you copy the

I
author's words directly, your instructor cannot tell how much you understand. Even
a person with very little English could be lucky enough to find and copy the right
sentence to answer the question.
On a reading test, you have to understand both what the author is saying in 1
the reading and what the question is asking. Look for key words such as describe,
compare, and explain, and make sure your answer fulfills the requirement. If it is
a two-part question, do not neglect half the question. Check to see how many
marks each question is worth to make sure you say enough but not too much.
For example, a three-mark question asking you to explain the author's thesis
should be two to three sentences-not an extended paragraph summarizing the
whole article.
One way to get your answer on the right track is to use a few words from
the question. For example, if the question asks, "Why does the father encour-
age the waiters to learn English?" you can start by saying, "He encourages them
because ...."
Each of the reading selections in Part 2 of this text is accompanied by compre-
hension questions that will allow you to practise answering such questions.

Here is an example of a reading comprehension question and answer for "Fear

Math, Not Numbers" in Unit 9 on pages 260-61:
Why does Peter Martyn think it is important to keep the distinction between
arithmetic and mathematics?
He thinks it is important because understanding arithmetic is part of
our everyday lives. People need to understand basic addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division to do tasks such as figuring out the correct
change for a purchase. Mathematics, on the other hand, requires the higher-
level work with numbers that scientists and engineers use.

Literary Analysis
You may be called upon to write a literary paragraph or essay in which you ana-
lyze what a writer did in a short story, novel, or play. You might have to discuss
plot, symbolism, or theme or compare two literary works. What students find most
difficult about this task is doing actual analysis and not just retelling the plot. You
can keep on track if you remember what you learned about academic paragraphs-
begin each paragraph with your main idea, an argument. Then you use examples
from the text to support what you said. Compare the two sample paragraphs on
the next page.
 UNIT 8: READING SKILLS 251

In "Why My Mother Can't Speak English," the story begins incorrect:

with the old mother wanting to get her citizenship This is just a plot
becauseshe is afraid of being deported and of losing her summary. It retells
old age pension. After a disappointing interview with a the story but does
Citizenship clerk, the narrator recounts the reasons why not do any analysis.
his mother never learned the English language. While
the father in the story encourages the Chinese waiters
to learn English, he discourages his own wife from doing
so because he is afraid of losing control over her. More
interesting is the revelation that the mother does not
want to learn because she thinks she may be changed.
However, the story ends somewhat happily: The mother
does get her citizenship, and she wants to show her
achievement to her dead husband at the cemetery.

In "Why My Mother Can't Speak English," Garry Engkent correct:

presents some complex reasons for the difficulty This paragraph
immigrant women have in learning a new language. focuses on a point-
First,learning English opens up the new world to explaining why
women, and some men have trouble accepting that. For immigrant women
example, the husband does not permit his wife to learn experience difficulty
English because he can control her if she cannot speak learning the new
the language. Moreover, he is afraid that she will learn language. The
the ways of white women, something he cannot accept. supporting details for
Second,the wife is reluctant to become more than this point are from
merely functionally literate in the restaurant because she the story.
is afraid that English may change her cultural identity.
The writer underscores the point that language is more
than a medium of communication.

Writing a Personal Response

In your writing course, you may be asked to write a personal response to a reading.
It could be a simple paragraph explaining your reaction to what you read or a fully
developed essay with a thesis-it depends on what is specified in the assignment.
Unless you are specifically asked to include a summary of the reading in your per-
sonal response, a summary is not required in this type of writing because it is assumed
the reader of your response has read the original. Moreover, a summary and a personal
response are two quite different pieces of writing: Summaries should not include your
opinion of what you read, but a personal response calls on you to do exactly that.
Instead of making a bland statement such as "I enjoyed the story because it
was interesting;' say something specific. Here are some example statements that you
could include in a personal response:
I enjoyed reading "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" because the story
reminded me of my own grandmother, who is also stubborn about hanging
onto her culture.
-
252 PART 1: SKILL DEVELOPMENT

"The Case against Bottled Water" gave me information I had not known
and made me rethink my own habit of drinking bottled water. The authors
gave compelling arguments and supported each point they made with clear
examples and facts, such as the actual cost of the water.
A personal response is an opportunity for you to do critical thinking of what you
read and to state and support your personal opinions of the article or story.

• Read as often as possible. For instance, read when you have to wait, such as
at the doctor's office or in a line-up for service. Keep reading material handy,
whether it is a paperback or magazine in your bag or an e-book on your smart-
phone or tablet.
• Join the public library to gain access to a wide range of materials, both print
and electronic.
• Vary your reading diet. Read both fiction and non-fiction. Read both short
works like newspaper articles and long ones like novels. Read opinions that you
do not agree with.
• For readings assigned for school, read them more than once. Look up unfamil-
iar words in the dictionary. Summarize the readings in your notes.
• Read attentively, paying attention to the use of language.
• Use a dictionary, but use it judiciously-do not stop to look up every unfamil-
iar word, because you will lose the flow of your reading. If you can follow the
general meaning, keep reading.
• Keep a reading journal. Writing something about the reading will help you
remember it. You can record your thoughts, a brief summary, or vocabulary
notes.
• For non-fiction, read popular treatments of subjects you are interested in.
Many science and social science books are written for a lay (non-professional)
audience.
• Get into the newspaper habit. Daily newspapers offer articles of interest for
everyone, and they are often available online.
• Read books at a level you are comfortable with. They should be challenging
enough to enable you to build your skills but not too difficult that they make
the reading a chore.
• Try children's literature or books written for teenagers. Some of these books
are quite sophisticated. Moreover, the classic books are part of a shared culture
and are often referred to. Learning this shared culture is especially important for
ESL students.
• Check out simplified novels if you find other novels difficult. They are written
at different reading levels and can be found in the public library.
• Try different kinds of literature. Give the book or article a fair chance, but if
you decide it is not for you, try something else.
• Ask your instructors and librarians for advice and book recommendations.
PART 2
 Education

Unplug the Digital Classroom ' '~~'~',i.,~

~ "' ~

by Doug Mann
We are entering an age when the "digital delivery of course content can free
faculty in traditional institutions to engage in direct dialogue and mentorship with
students."
So says the Ontario government's 2012 white paper on education,
"Strengthening Ontario's Centres of Creativity, Innovation and Knowledge."
Professors muse that the classroom must "evolve or die" to become more "fun and
engaging" for the modern student.
Such views are misinformed at best, crude propaganda for Apple and
Microsoft at worst. The use of digital technology in higher education has promoted
ignorance, not knowledge, and severely degraded basic reading, writing and
thinking skills. It's time to hit the off button.
One problem with the most enthusiastic futurists is that too many of them
haven't spent any time in the classroom in the last decade. If they had, they'd
realize that digital technology is already omnipresent there, used by both students
and professors. Almost all undergraduate students in North America are addicted
to texting on their smartphones and checking their Facebook pages on an hourly
basis. Almost all professors use computers, projectors, Power Point presentations
and the Internet as part of their lectures. Calling for more digital technology in
education today is like calling for more white people in the Republican party.
The real question is how computers, smartphones and iPods are used, and
whether these uses contribute anything to the main goal of higher education: to
improve students' minds and characters by helping them to learn facts, debate
ideas and understand the world better. The answer, for the most part, is no-study
after study shows that digital technology has dumbed down higher education.
They may make education more "fun" and "engaging." But that's only saying that
they've turned education into a form of entertainment. Writing essays, reading
difficult texts or figuring out complex mathematical problems have never been
"fun"-and never will be.

\
256 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

On the plus side, the use of the computer as a delivery device for texts and
images is largely a positive development. Gone are the nights spent in the bowels
of the university library looking through card catalogues and the social science
index for books and articles. It's also useful from a teacher's point of view to be
able to display images and video via classroom computers when teaching things
like fine art, comics and film.
Laptops in the classroom are much more of a problem. Yes, one student in
10 actually uses them to look up relevant facts and issues, but the other nine are
using classroom Wi-Fi to check their Facebook pages, email or celebrity websites.
Portable computers combine all four of the general functions of digital technology:
information delivery, peer communication, entertainment and procrastination.
Cellphones concentrate on the last three functions and have no pedagogical purpose.
Anyone who has walked to the back of a university classroom and looked at
what students are actually looking at on their various screens will abandon any
sense that digital technology plays a positive role in the classroom. Facebook and
celebrity websites dominate their screens.
What's especially frustrating when we hear the blind support for digital
technology bruited in government white papers and the mass media today is
the refusal to acknowledge the substantial empirical research over the last 15
years that questions the value of such technology. Mark Bauerlein's The Dumbest
Generation contains literally dozens of studies that show how digital technology
has helped to create a generation of proud bibliophobes who avoid complex
knowledge like the plague.
10
Jean Twenge and Keith Campbell's The Narcissism Epidemic shows how
celebrity culture, the web 2.0 and soft parenting have accelerated young people's
sense of self-esteem beyond all reasonable boundaries of actual achievement.
The mass culture tells them that everyone can be a star, facts be damned. Digital
narcissists don't care about their inability to read and write English or their
ignorance of a range of basic historical and political facts.
11
My solution? Hit the off button in as many places as we can. Turn off Wi-Fi in
the classroom, restricting it to student lounges scattered across campus. Create a
schoolwide policy that bans the use of cellphones during lectures and seminars.
Since texting has become an addiction for many, treat cells like cigarettes: if you
want to text, do it outside. Ban the use of social networking websites during class.
Stop promoting Internet-managed distance-education courses: these are cheap
imitations of the real thing. Digital technologies can be great delivery devices. But
what they too often deliver has nothing to do with education.

[6 October 2012\

Notes
Mann's reference to "calling for more white people in the Republican party" l4J
means that there is already too much technology in the classroom. The Republican
Party is the right-wing, conservative political party in the United States. It is criti-
cized for the lack of diversity among its membership. Most Republicans are white.
 UNIT 9: EDUCATION 257

Comprehension
1. What is Mann's main argument?
2. What supporting evidence does he offer for his main argument?
3. What does the Ontario government propose in its 2012 white paper?
4. Why does Mann refer to these views as "crude propaganda"?
5. How is digital technology used in the classroom now?
6. What are the advantages of using digital technology in the classroom, accord-
ing to Mann?
7. What do students use their laptops for in the classroom?
8. Mann refers to two books. What do the authors say?
9. Explain "celebrity culture, the web 2.0 and soft parenting" [l0J.
10. What is Mann's final suggestion?

Discussion
1. Discuss the ways you have seen digital technology used in the classroom
by both the instructor and the students. What was effective? What did not
work well?
2. How has the use of digital technology affected you?
3. Do you think Mann's opinion of digital technology in the classroom is too
negative? Is this essay just an anti-technology rant from the older generation?
Or are his arguments justified?
4. Is it realistic to think that education should be fun and entertaining?
5. Mann says that cellphones "have no pedagogical purpose" [7]. Do you agree?
How could cellphones be used in class?
6. Discuss the statement: "The mass culture tells them that everyone can be a star,
facts be damned" [10]. Consider, for example, celebrities such as Justin Bieber
who started their careers with YouTube videos. Does this mean that anyone
actually can become famous?
7. What kind oflimits should be placed on students' use of digital devices such as
smartphones in the classroom?

Assignments
1. Studies show that students learn differently from digital devices than from
printed books. Research this topic, and write a comparison essay.
2. Do students waste their time on celebrity news and social media? Write an
essay explaining your point of view.
3. Mann says the main goal of education is "to improve students' minds and
characters by helping them to learn facts, debate ideas and understand the
world better" [5].Write an essay explaining what the purpose of education is.
4. How should instructors make class more appealing to the digital generation?

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "We are entering an age when the 'digital delivery of course con-
tent can free faculty in traditional institutions to engage in direct dialogue and
mentorship with students'" [1J.
258 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

2. Paraphrase: "Anyone who has walked to the back of a university classroom and
looked at what students are actually looking at on their various screens will aban-
don any sense that digital technology plays a positive role in the classroom" [8].
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

Mann begins by quoting and referring to a government publication in his first two
paragraphs. This is a common technique to establish the topic. It sets up his argu-
ment-his disagreement with the position taken in the report. How effective do
you find this opening?
Note how Mann uses the two books to support his argument. He says the
work is based on "substantial empirical research."
In his argument essay, Mann uses many long sentences of explanation.
However, he also uses conversational expressions to make his essay more accessible
to the average reader. Note the fragment ("My solution?") [11 J and the use of yes
17] and no [5]. He also uses you and command sentences in his conclusion. These
colloquialisms would not be acceptable in an academic essay.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context from the reading to match each word to its definition:

1. bowels, n [6] _ _ a) based on scientific testing

2. bruite, v [9] _ _ b) being everywhere
3. degrade,v[3] _ _ c) delaying something for later
4. empirical, adj [9] _ _ d) false or misleading information
5. mentorship, n [1] _ _ used by an institution
6. muse,v[2] _ _ e) having someone work as an advisor
7. omnipresent, adj [4] _ _ and role model
8. pedagogical, adj [7] _ _ f) make something worse
9. plague, n [9] _ _ g) related to education
10. procrastination, n [7] _ _ h) serious infectious disease
11. propaganda, n [3] _ _ i) spread, as for news
12. undergraduate, adj [4] _ _ j) student working on a bachelor's
degree in university
k) the lowest or deepest part of
something, such as a basement
I) think, imagine

Word Focus
addicted [4]
The verb addict is rarely used in the active form. For instance, we would not say,
"Tobacco addicts many people." Instead, we would use the passive voice: "Many
people are addicted to tobacco." We use the passive participle, addicted, to describe
 UNIT 9: EDUCATION 259

the people but the adjective form, addictive and its opposite non-addictive, to describe
the substances. The noun forms are addict for the person and addiction for the state. A
common error is to confuse addicted and addictive. Examine these example sentences:
He is a drug addict. He is addicted to crystal meth, which is a very addictive
substance. However, he is going to enter a treatment facility for his addiction.

bibliophobe [9]
The word bibliophobe is a combination of two Greek roots. The root biblio- means
books and shows up in the words biblio.lZraphy and Bible. The combining form -phobe
refers to a fear or dislike. Thus, a bibliophobe is someone who dislikes books.
The form -phobe refers to a person, and -phobia refers to the fear itself, while
-phobic is the adjective ending. Here are examples of words that use this root word:
technophobe: someone who dislikes technology

claustrophobic: describing someone who is afraid of enclosed spaces

arachniphobia: fear of spiders
The opposite of -phobe and -phobia is -phile and -philia, referring to a lover or
love of something, respectively. The combining forms -mania and -maniac can also
refer to an obsession for something. Here are some examples:
bibliophile: someone who loves books
Sinophilia: the love of Chinese culture and things
kleptomaniac: someone who obsessively steals things
There are hundreds of obscure words formed with the -phobe and -phile roots
attached to Latin and Greek words. Even though they are not in common use,
they are entertaining to examine. You can easily do a search on the Internet for a
list of phobias and philias. See if you can find out the meaning of triskaidekaphobia,
for instance.

narcissism [10]
Narcissism refers to self-love. A narcissist is a person obsessed with himself or herself.
The words come from the Greek myth of Narcissus and Echo. See the definition
paragraph on pages 164-65 to find out more.

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

achievement [10] n/a

digital [1]

dominate [8]
260 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

imitation [11]

knowledge [3]

promote [3] n/a

n/a severely [3]

value [9]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expreSSIOns:
hit the off button [3]
avoid something like the plague [9]
on the plus side [6]
on an hourly basis [4] (Note that hourly is an adjective in this expression,
but it can also be an adverb.) (Other time words can also be used in this
expression-daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly.)

Sentence Structure Analysis

Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the modifi-
ers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify,

1. "The real question is how computers, smartphones and iPods are used, and
whether these uses contribute anything to the main goal of higher educa-
tion: to improve students' minds and characters by helping them to learn facts,
debate ideas and understand the world better." [5J
2. "Gone are the nights spent in the bowels of the university library looking
through card catalogues and the social science index for books and articles." [6]

Fear Math, Not Numbers

by Peter Martyn

Words matter. They indelibly colour our perceptions.

Take the overdue revival of debate about the value of memorizing addition,
subtraction and multiplication tables in school curriculums. The problem lies in
the use of the word "math."
For reasons not clear to me, simple arithmetic-addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division-has come to be called math. It's cursed a couple of
generations of otherwise intelligent, creative people with an ungrounded and
unnecessary fear of numbers.
 UNIT 9: EDUCATION 261

In his classic 1946 essay Politics and the English Language, George Orwell
decried his contemporaries' "lack of precision" in their use of words (not to
mention their reliance on outdated metaphors and bland euphemisms). The
situation has not improved.
We can't blame Twitter, with its admirable and disciplined brevity. Common
use of the one-syllable, four-letter "math" for mathematics predates not only the
advent of social media, but for all intents and purposes, the Internet itself. Perhaps
the misnomer comes from an understandable disinclination to use polysyllabic
vocabulary. After all, Orwell did admonish us to "Never use a long word where a
short one will do."
Actual "math" is difficult for many. The Oxford English Dictionary defines it as
"the abstract science of number, quantity and space." It's not arithmetic.
The distaste for true math often begins in high school. Geometry is not so
difficult. Algebra and trigonometry are harder. And many of us are thrown under
the bus of calculus, never to walk again among mathematicians.
That is the point where people begin to say they "can't do math."
When children hear their parents and teachers trash-talking "math," meaning
anything to do with numbers, those adults are inadvertently contributing to a
dangerous dumbing-down. We need facility with numbers, without having to
refer to a calculator or an app.
10
Some foresee mental faculties we don't use succumbing to atrophy,
becoming vestigial, like the appendix. Columbia professor Tim Wu has suggested,
in two recent New Yorker pieces, that unused mental faculties will eventually
disappear through a process of "biological atrophy."
11
But if you can't do simple arithmetic in your head, how do you know if you're
getting short-changed at the store? How do you know whether the politicians
debating your next tax bill make sense-and how do they know whether their
aides' figures add up? These are important things to be able to do on the fly, but
they don't require mathematics. Arithmetic suffices.
12
Around the walls of my grade-school classroom was a wooden picture rail,
from which hung posters or student art. Above it were construction-paper cutouts
with arithmetic exercises: 3 + 3 =, 7 x 11 = and so on. Whenever our attention
wandered, Miss Cline would take her wooden pointer and stride the room, aiming
its tip at the questions and calling on us at random. Woe betide those who couldn't
answer-they would spend the next several evenings at home memorizing.
13
Memorization, drills. They sound like something from the 19th century, and
in fact they are. But recent research using functional magnetic resonance imaging
shows that brains change as subjects memorize the solutions to numerical
problems, getting quicker with practice.
14
So get out those addition, subtraction and multiplication tables. Memorize
them, if you were deprived of that brain exercise in grade school. And teach a
child. It will improve your mental agility, and it's not math.

[3 April 2014!

t
262 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Comprehension
1. What is Martyn's thesis?
2. Explain the first paragraph of the reading.
3. What is the difference between mathematics and arithmetic? Is it possible to
be skilled at one and not the other?
4. Explain Martyn's opinion ofTwitter.
5. Why do we need to be able to do arithmetic in our head?
6. Why is mathematics less useful than arithmetic in our daily lives?

Discussion
1. Discuss Martyn's first two sentences. Give examples of how language deter-
mines how something is perceived.
2. Do you have math anxiety? Why or why not?
3. How did you learn arithmetic and mathematics in school? Did your studies
focus on memorization or on problem solving? Were the methods effective?
4. What learning methods did you use for other subjects? For example, languages
are often taught with drills and memorization. Do you think the methods
used were effective? How would you change the education you had?
5. Now that we have calculators on our smartphones, is it necessary to be able to
do arithmetic in our heads? Discuss.
6. What else do we depend on our smartphones to "remember" for us? For
example, do you know your family members' and friends' phone numbers by
heart? What information would you lose if you lost your phone? What is the
danger of this?
7. What are the benefits of rote learning and drills? What should students actually
memorize?
8. Does Martyn follow Orwell's advice to "Never use a long word where a short
one will do"? Can you think of any instances in the article where he didn't
follow this advice? If so, what are they? Which shorter words could he have
used in those cases?

Assignments
1. Write an essay arguing that it is (or is not) still important to be able to do
arithmetic in our heads without technical aids.
2. How does Twitter affect language use? Write an illustrative essay.
3. The way that math is taught in school is a controversial subject. Some people
favour more drill and memorization, while others argue that students need to
understand math concepts and do problem solving. Research the topic, and
write an essay explaining your point of view.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase and explain:" And many of us are thrown under the bus of calculus,
never to walk again among mathematicians" [7].
r

UNIT 9: EDUCATION 263

2. Paraphrase: "When children hear their parents and teachers trash-talking

"math," meaning anything to do with numbers, those adults are inadvertently
contributing to a dangerous dumbing-down. We need facility with numbers,
without having to refer to a calculator or an app" [9J.
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

Discuss Martyn's tone in this article. Is his language and style academic or conversa-
tional or a mixture of both? Explain your answer, and discuss the effect of the tone.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context from the reading to match each word to its definition:

1. bland, adj[4] _ _ a) accidentally, without meaning to

2. brevity, n [5] _ _ do something
3. contemporaries, n [4] _ _ b) did not have something
4. decried, v [4] _ _ c) dislike, feeling that something is
5. deprived, v [14] _ _ unpleasant
6. distaste, n [7] _ _ d) in a way that is impossible to forget
7. inadvertently, adv [9] _ _ orto remove
8. indelibly, adv [1] _ _ e) lacking colour or interest
9. misnomer, n [5] _ _ f) people of the same age or era
10. ungrounded, adj [3] _ _ g) strongly criticized
h) using few words
i) without a good foundation
j) wrong name for something

Word Focus
difficult [6, 7]
The adjective difficult is used in the reading to describe math and, more specifically,
geometry. The word difficult and its synonyms and antonyms can cause problems for
some language learners when they try to use these adjectives to describe people
and come up with incorrect sentences such as "I am difficult to learn English" or
"college students are easy to look for jobs." To add the element of a person, the
preposition for is used:"Math is difficult for me."
Practise using these words by writing answers to the following questions. Vary
your wording by using synonyms for difficult and easy.
a) What subject do you find difficult in your program?
b) In gym class, what was the easiest activity or sport for you? Was this also the
one you enjoyed the most?
c) What do you find easy in writing essays, and what do you find difficult?
264 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

admirable [5]

creative [3]

dangerous [9]

debate [11]

functional [13]

memorize [2]

refer (to) [9]

reliance [4]

suffice [11]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
to come to be [3]
for all intents and purposes [5]
to throw somebody under the bus [7] (Note:This was used in the passive
voice in the article.)
trash talk [9]
to dumb down [9]
to get short-changed [11]
on the fly [11]
at random [12]
woe betide [12] (Note: an old-fashioned expression)

Verb Tense and Form

1. It's can be a contraction of It is or It has. Which one is it in "It's cursed" [3J?
Explain.
2. Explain the use of the modal verb would in Paragraph 12: "Miss Cline would
take ..."What meaning does it have?
3. What verb form is Martyn using in all these instances: "Take" [21 and "get out,"
"memorize," and "teach" [14J? Explain what the purpose of this verb form is.

Tackling a Difficult Sentence

Sometimes as you are reading, you will be stopped by a sentence with unfamil-
iar words and a complex structure. If you understand what is being said from the
 UNIT 9: EDUCATION 265

context, you can just continue reading. Sometimes, however, the sentence may be
critical for understanding the text, so you have to spend the time to analyze and
decode the sentence. Some techniques for analyzing such sentences are given below.
The example sentence is a quotation from the reading:
"Some foresee mental faculties we don't use succumbing to atrophy,
becoming vestigial, like the appendix:' [10]

1. Read surrounding sentences to get the context. Martyn repeats the idea
with more detail in the following sentence, where he uses the phrase "will
eventually disappear" along with repeating some of the words. This points to a
similarity of meaning between "succumbing to atrophy" and" disappear."
2. Because this sentence has a lot of unfamiliar words, use your dictionary to
find the definitions:
foresee (v): to think something is going to happen in the future
mental faculties (n): mental abilities (imagination, language skills, etc.)
succumb (v): to lose out to something
atrophy (v): to become weak and useless
vestigial (ad)): remaining as the last part of something that used to exist
appendix (n): a small bag of tissue attached to the large intestine (Note: It is
helpful to know that this is a body part humans don't really need.)
3. Isolate the core of the sentence by identifying modifying phrases and clauses:
Some foresee mental faculties [we don't use] succumbing to atrophy,
[becoming vestigial.] [like the appendix].
4. Identify the subject and verb:
subject: some (people)
main verb: foresee
5. Use your dictionary to check the structure the main verb takes:
to foresee sb/sth doing sth
I just didn't foresee that happening. [Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary]
Knowing the pattern of use for the verb foresee helps you to see why suc-
cumb is in the -in,!? form and how it fits in the sentence.
6. Finally, paraphrase the sentence to check your understanding:
Some people think that our mental abilities will weaken and perhaps dis-
appear if we do not use them.

Sentence Structure Analysis

Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences from the article. What
are the phrases and clauses, and what do they modify?

1. "Around the walls of my grade-school classroom was a wooden picture rail,

from which hung posters or student art." [12] .
266 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

2. "When children hear their parents and teachers trash-talking 'math,' meaning
anything to do with numbers, those adults are inadvertently contributing to a
dangerous dumbing-down." [9]
3. "Common use of the one-syllable, four-letter 'math' for mathematics pre-
dates not only the advent of social media, but for all intents and purposes, the
Internet itself." [51

The worlds of the liberal arts and the sciences are at loggerheads today. Students of
the humanities seem to be poles apart from science and math students. Moreover, the
prevailing wisdom is that university students studying literature, history, philosophy,
or music are wasting their time and money and that those who want a job had better
study engineering and computer science. Governments follow this precept by making
cuts to arts programs, deeming them an expensive luxury item. However, engineers
and scientists can benefit greatly from more education in the arts.
The very term "humanities" shows that these subjects stress people skills-skills
that are sorely needed in the scientific community. The study of literature can foster
empathy; tech designers can use empathy to understand their users and thus create
cellphones suitable for older people, for example. Second, because liberal arts courses
require essay-writing, students develop their critical thinking and communication
skills-skills that all professionals need. Scientists who have taken drama courses, for
instance, have stronger public speaking skills and can better present their ideas at
conferences. Story-telling is a fundamental teaching skill-a skill learned through the
study of literature. Teaching or instructing others is something most people have to
do at some time, in any profession. Moreover, learning another language can also help
scientists communicate with others.
Students in the sciences can broaden their thinking by taking liberal arts courses.
Today science and technology is highly specialized, resulting in narrow fields of view.
Scientists need to take a break and step away from their field once in a while to get
perspective. A knowledge of history can show scientists how human knowledge was
built on the discoveries of previous researchers and give them insight into the future.
For instance, Steve Jobs took a course in calligraphy that gave him an appreciation of
the aesthetics of typefaces and influenced his ideas for the design of Apple products.
Philosophy courses can make scientists consider the ethics of their decisions.
Finally, arts and sciences should not be viewed as an either/or proposition. A
strong correlation has been found between mathematical, musical, and language
skills. It stands to reason that training in music can enhance other abilities. Neurological
studies also show that human brains respond fundamentally to art. Moreover, careers
can span both areas. Leonardo da Vinci was not only one of the greatest artists of
all time, he was also a scientific genius. Some fields, like the social sciences, depend
on both sciences and arts. Linguistics, for example, encompasses a scientific view of
language in its many branches. For instance, neurolinguistics studies how language is
stored in the brain, and phonetics and phonology show how human beings make and
combine sounds.
 UNIT 9: EDUCATION 267

While today's world does demand a high degree of specialization, it is a mistake

to focus too narrowly on a scientific field of inquiry without appreciating what the arts
provide to humanity. Educators understand this when they "force" students to take
courses outside their primary field of interest. Too many students, however, do so
grudgingly, complaining about having to take an English course. They should embrace
the opportunity to broaden their experience and learning, which will ultimately make
them better at their jobs.

1. Choose a program or subject that you think deserves more time and attention
in school, and write an essay arguing your point. For example, should there be
more physical education and sports classes?
2. What are the dangers of over-specialization? Why do students need courses
outside their area of study? Write an essay focusing on one field. For example,
you can argue why medical students should study literature and philosophy.
3. Write an essay comparing two kinds of education that you are familiar with.
For example, you can compare high school and college, two different courses
or programs, or Canadian education with that in another country.
4. Studies show that women are having more academic success than men. For
instance, female students outnumber males at Canadian universities. Write an
essay explaining either causes or effects of this trend.
5. It has been argued that boys and girls learn differently. Should there be separ-
ate schools or separate classes in elementary or secondary education? Support
your position.
6. Find out about alternatives to public schools in your province. What kind of
private schools are allowed? What are the regulations on home schooling?
Choose one alternative to public school, and argue for or against it. Or argue
in favour of the public school system for all students.
7. What should students take into consideration when choosing a program? Is
it more important to follow their passions or to study courses that they think
will lead to a job? Explain why.

d
Work

by Carol Goar
The rules ofthe game used to be clear. You got a good education, found a job with
a future, rented an apartment, started a family, bought a home, equipped your
kids with the tools to succeed and saved for your retirement. It worked for five
generations of Canadians. It is not working for the sixth.
Today's young people are living in a world of precarious work, globalization,
outsourcing, retrenchment at all levels of government and rising household debt.
Even if they get a good education, they might not get a job. Even if they find work,
it is likely to be short-term contract employment. Even if they make a decent
living, they'll be priced out of the housing market. Even if they want to save for
their retirement, there's no money left when the bills are paid.
For baby boomers, this is a strange new world. They don't know how to
prepare their children for it.
An increasing number are revisiting the idea of a basic income guarantee for
all Canadians.They never thought they'd endorse universal income redistribution
by the state. But they don't see any other option.
In fact there are alternatives. They haven't been talked about since 2006
when Stephen Harper became prime minister, vowing to cut taxes, downsize
government, impose market discipline on the public sector and allow the private
sector to bring in thousands of pliant temporary foreign workers, but they still
exist. With an election approaching, it's time to widen the conversation, look at
the policies that he jettisoned and the tools being tested in other countries.
This list of possibilities is by no means exhaustive. It is meant to get people
thinking and dispel the senseof powerlessness they feel.
Progressive taxation was used for almost a century to prevent the richest
segment ofthe population from amassing a disproportionate share ofthe nation's
wealth. Since the mid 1980s, policy-makers have reduced the number of tax
brackets under the guise of simplification and created hundreds of loopholes

d
270 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

allowing wealthy individuals to pay little or no tax. As executive compensation hit

stratospheric levels, the government did nothing.
By adding a couple of new high-income tax brackets and cleaning up the
loopholes that are draining billions of dollars from the public treasury, Canada's
next government could mitigate the growth of inequality and use the new
revenue to restore the safety nets that have been shredded.
After the Great Depression, Canada created unemployment insurance to
tide workers over between jobs. It worked well for the baby boom generation
(1946-1965). But their children (born 1972 to 1992) entered a very different labour
market. Employers preferred contractors to employees, part-time and casual work
became more common, temporary agencies burgeoned. Rather than adjust the
system, Ottawa restricted access to benefits. Today, the majority of Canadian
workers are excluded from the program.
10
By modernizing the employment insurance system, a new government could
keep people afloat between jobs, stabilize their lives and moderate the swings of
the business cycle.
11
Until 1996, Canada had a federal minimum wage. It applied only to industries
regulated by Ottawa, but it set a national benchmark. Today, each province
establishes its own wage floors. All 10 of them are below the poverty line.
12
Ottawa can't dictate provincial labour standards. But it can set an example. By
reinstating the federal minimum wage at or above the poverty line-which would
mean at least $12.75 per hour-it could exert upward pressure.
13 In other countries, the state is the lead investor in far-sighted projects that
spawn new industries, create good jobs and spur lasting economic growth. That
used to happen in Canada too: Ottawa took a risk on Bell Northern Research (later
Nortel), an early pioneer of digital communication; spearheaded the development
of the Canadarm, inspiring generations of scientists and engineers; and created
Atomic Energy of Canada (AECL) to explore the vast potential of nuclear energy in
everything from medicine to power generation.
14
Under Harper, government labs closed, scientists fled, the very idea of
government-led innovation fell out of favour. But a new government could revive
it, using any national challenge-building modern infrastructure, moving to a
low-carbon economy, adapting to an aging population-as the springboard.
15
The point is that Canada's next generation is not doomed to a future of
insecure low-wage work in an increasingly polarized nation. It is a choice.

111 March2015j

Notes
The public sector refers to the areas of the economy controlled by the government,
while the private sector does not have direct government control. Teachers and doc-
tors, for instance, are in the public sector since they receive their income from
government institutions-school boards and post-secondary institutions and the
health care plan. (This distinction is also used in public and private schools (see
"White Tops, Grey Bottoms," pages 339-40).)

-----------~
 UNIT 10: WORK 271

A tax bracket [7J is a range of income that is taxed at a certain rate. For instance, an
income over $140,000 could be taxed at 30 per cent. Progressive taxation [7] means
that the more money you have, the more tax you pay.

The social safety net [8] refers to the government programs that exist to help people
survive. It includes health care, unemployment insurance, and welfare.

The poverty line [11] is the minimum income needed to acquire the necessities of
life-food, shelter, and utilities like heat and power. The poverty line for single
people is different from the poverty line for a family. It can also vary depending on
location. For example, it costs more to live in Toronto than in Halifax and more to
live in Iqaluit than in Saskatoon.

Comprehension
1. What does Goar mean by the "rules of the game?" [1]
2. What are the problems that young people today face? Explain why these prob-
lems exist.
3. What changed in 2006? Explain the effect of each of these policies.
4. How do businesses try to avoid paying taxes?
5. Why is unemployment insurance no longer effective?
6. What is the problem with the minimum wage today?
7. What has changed in the relationship between the government and science
and innovation?
8. What is Gear's opinion of the Harper government? How does she show this?

Discussion
1. Goar says that parents equipped their kids "with the tools to succeed" [1].
What do you think these tools are? What do you think parents should do to
ensure their children's success in life?
2. What is the role of the government in employment issues? Consider, for
example, health and safety and minimum wage.
3. How would you change the tax system in Canada? Explain why.
4. Do you think this article is a fair assessment of the Harper government?
Explain. What do you think the Liberal government will do?
5. What do you think could improve the employment situation in Canada?

Assignments
1. Should the mrrumum wage be increased? Write an essay explaining your
viewpoint.
2. Write an essay explaining why students should learn about politics.
3. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of contract work instead of full-
time positions from three points of view-the workers', the employers', and
society's. Write an essay on one of these six aspects, such as the advantages for
the worker or the disadvantages for society.
272 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

4. Goar refers to the government's desire to "impose market discipline on the

public sector" [5]. Should schools function as a business? Some institutions
refer to their students as "clients." Write an essay explaining the problems of
this approach to education.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "Even if they make a decent living, they'll be priced out of the
housing market" [2].
2. Paraphrase: "With an election approaching, it's time to widen the conversation,
look at the policies that he jettisoned and the tools being tested in other coun-
tries" [5].
3. Paraphrase: "This list of possibilities is by no means exhaustive. It is meant to
get people thinking and dispel the sense of powerlessness they feel" [6].
4. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

Writers repeat phrases or structures for a purpose. What effect does the repetition
of the sentence beginning "even if" have in Paragraph 2?
Note how Goar varies her sentence structure and length, with some long,
complex sentences and some short, simple sentences. Examine where the short
sentences are used. What is the effect?

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context from the reading to match each word to its definition:

1. benchmark, n [11) _ a) an opening that allows someone

2. burgeon, v [9) _ to get around a law
3. endorse, v [4) _ b) begin to grow rapidly
4. infrastructure, n [14) _ c) divide into two opposite and
5. loophole, n [7, 8) _ _ opposing groups
6. mitigate, v [8) _ d) easily influenced and controlled
7. outsource, v [2) _ by others
8. pliant, adj [5) _ _ e) extremely high or great
9. polarize, v [15) _ f) make a situation less harmful or
10. spawn, v [13) _ _ serious
11. spur, v [13) _ _ g) make exist; give birth to
12. stratospheric, adj [7) _ h) make something happen faster
i) publicly support something
j) send work out to another company
or another country
k) standard to judge by
I) systems and structures that a
country needs to work, such as
roads and the power grid

----L
 4

UNIT 10: WORK 273

Word Focus
precarious [2]
The adjective precarious is often used to describe a person or an object that can
easily fall over, something that is unstable. It is now used to describe employment
situations-jobs that can easily be lost, as when contracts expire.
The term precariat was coined to describe the class of people in precarious
employment such as contract workers and part-timers. It is a portmanteau term-a
word formed from the merging of two other words, in this case precarious and pro-
letariat (a term used in socialist writing to describe a class of workers who work for
wages and do not own property).

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

dictate [12]

exhaustive [6]

globalization [2]

inequality [8]
equality

innovation [14]

progressive [7]

risk [13]

safety [8]

stabilize [10]

widen [5]

Word Parts
Discuss the meaning of these words by looking at their parts:
disproportionate [7]
modernizing [10]
powerlessness [6]
redistribution [4]
reinstating [12]
retrenchment [2]
revisiting [4]
simplification [7]
274 PART 2: READING SElECTIONS

Usually, you can take off prefixes and suffixes to identify the root of the words and
thus make them easier to understand. Sometimes, however, a word might be more
familiar with the affixes than without. For example, the word guise [71 is related to
disguise, which is the more common word. Check your dictionary for the difference
. .
In meanings.

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
to make a decent living [2]
strange new world [3]
to tide someone over [9]
to fall out of favour [14]

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentence. Identify the
modifiers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify.
What is the parallel structure used?
"By modernizing the employment insurance system, a new government
could keep people afloat between jobs, stabilize their lives and moderate
the swings of the business cycle." [10 J
Sentences that start with by can be difficult for writers to structure correctly.
Review Reducing Clauses to Phrases, pages 86-87. Consider these example
sentences:

By walking to school, it can save money. incorrect

it cannot walk to school.
By walking to school, students can save correct
money. Here the participial phrase works
because students are doing the
walking. (This is the same structure we
see in the quotation: the government
is doing the modernizing.)

Walking to school can save money. correct

The gerund phrase walking to school is
the subject of the verb phrase can save.

2. Analyze the following sentence. Start by identifying the subject and verb.
What does they refer to in the sentence? Find the parallel structure-what are
the four verbs in a list?
"They haven't been talked about since 2006 when Stephen Harper became
prime minister, vowing to cut taxes, downsize government, impose market
discipline on the public sector and allow the private sector to bring in
thousands of pliant temporary foreign workers, but they still exist." [51
 UNIT 10: WORK 275

. .
by Elizabeth Renzetti

Let's say you wear a big hat and had one of the most infectious, popular songs of
the year. You're Pharrell Williams, and your song Happy was played 43 million times
on the music-streaming service Pandora. Pretty sweet, huh? Except, according to
the website Fusion, Mr. Williams made about $25,000 in royalties from Pandora for
those 43 million clicks.
And that's Pharrell, who sits atop music's golden throne. If he's earning tiny
digital royalties, what does that say for the artists further down the chain, in
the grubby realm of mere mortals? Toronto songwriter Diana Williamson, who
recently moved back from L.A., told me about a song she'd co-written that had
reached 260,000 downloads and made it to No.3 on the Billboard dance chart.
She hadn't seen a penny in royalties. To complain about rip-off downloading, she
said in an interview, is to invite "abuse from the mob. But if those fans were bakers,
they wouldn't be giving away their croissants for free."
After 20 years in the music business, she says she's seeing songwriters
"leaving in droves. If you can't make a living, if you can't afford go to the dentist,
you're going to leave." This is a lament you'll hear from artists everywhere these
days: We can't afford to do this anymore. The well has dried up. Freelance rates are
what they were when the first Trudeau was in power. Rents rose, and royalties fell.
Novelists are becoming real-estate agents; musicians open coffee shops.
The evidence of this culture shock is in front of our eyes, in the shuttered book
shops and video stores and music clubs, yet it's remarkably unremarked upon.
Artists don't actually like to complain publicly about their lot in life, knowing the
inevitable backlash from those who still believe that creating is not "a real job."
I mean, they're artists. They're supposed to suffer, right? It's this very prejudice
that has allowed "a great Depression" to go on right under our noses for the past
decade without any outcry, American journalist Scott Timberg argues in his new
book, Culture Crash: The Killing of the Creative Class. All the other victims of the
ragged economy receive sympathy, apart from artists. "We produce and export
creativity around the world," Mr. Timberg writes. "So why aren't we lamenting the
plight of its practitioners? ... When someone employed in the world of culture
loses a job, it's easier to dismiss or sneer at their plight than when it happens to,
say,a steel worker or an auto worker."
Mr. Timberg outlines the gutting of the average artist's income over the
past decade. With most attention focused on the lucky, minuscule minority-the
Rowlings, the Beyonces-what has gone unnoticed is that a weak economy and
rapid technological change have been ruinous for many creators. Incomes have
fallen, jobs have disappeared and the formerly grotty centres of cities are now too
posh for all but the wealthiest artists (at one point, he interviews a violinist with
the Santa Barbara Symphony who cannot afford to live in Santa Barbara).
When the artists go, a whole ecosystem goes with them-publicists and
roadies, critics and video-store clerks. Yet it's gone unlamented, for complex
reasons. Artists don't generally like to moan about their economic plight, for fear
276 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

of seeming ungrateful or mercenary. They are perhaps the only class of humans,
apart from criminals, whom we begrudge a decent living. Their work should be
reward enough, suffering is their historic lot, and on and on. This, Mr. Timberg
rightly argues, is BS.
Do we value the role of artists (and their handmaidens) enough to ensure
that they can actually continue to create? Or do we just want to be left with the
American Idol winners and the trust fund babies? For things to change, we'd have
to acknowledge that artists have a right to aspire to the security of a middle-class
life, as much as any accountant or teacher. Second, we have to return to a place
where people are paid for the fruits of their labour, whether they're making a car
or a song.
Because I'm not Merlin, I'm not entirely sure how that will be accomplished.
But we can start with the words of David Byrne, genius songwriter and outspoken
advocate of getting paid, who put it this way: "Philosophically, I think the issue is:
Do we always do what is best for the consumer in the short run, or do we think
more long-term about our culture and quality of life?" That's not a question for
people who make the art, but for the rest of us who have become used to not
paying for it.

11,) January 20151

Notes
Renzetti refers to "the Rowlings, the Beyonces" [61. J.K. Rowling is the famous,
and wealthy, author of the Harry Potter books. Beyonce is a huge singing star. Both
are at the top of their professions. Renzetti uses a plural form to include other stars
like them.

The time reference "when the first Trudeau was in power" [31 refers to the years
when Pierre Trudeau was prime minister of Canada (1968-79 and 1980-84). His
son, Justin Trudeau, was elected leader of the Liberal Party in 2013 and became
Prime Minister on November 4,2015.

Merlin [lJ! is the magician who guided King Arthur in the British legend.

Comprehension
1. How much in royalties is Pharrell Williams making per click?
2. What point is Williamson making when she mentions bakers and croissants? Is
this a good comparison?
3. What are the attitudes many people have toward artists? Explain.
4. In Paragraph 5, the economy is described as "ragged." Look up the different
meanings of rag,gcd. Do you think this is a good word to describe the modern
economy? Explain the picture the word paints.
5. What point is Renzetti making when she refers to J.K. Rowling and Beyonce
[61 and to American Idol winners and the trust fund babies" [8]? Explain.
6. Why are artists important to the economy as a whole?
7. Explain what point Renzetti is making in her concluding sentence.
 I

UNIT 10: WORK 277 I

Discussion
1. Do you think $25,000 is fair pay for the song "Happy"? Why or why not? I I
2. How should artists get paid? In the past, artists, such as Mozart and Shakespeare,
had patrons, either wealthy individuals or organizations that funded their
work. Today, there is barely any financial support for the arts. If artists are not
earning a living wage from selling their works, should we develop other ways
to support them, or should we increase the amounts they get from the sys-
tems already in place (such as giving Pharrell Williams more money per click)?
Should artists use crowdsourcing and ask fans for donations?
3. Discuss and debate the ramifications of downloading music, streaming vid-
eos, and photocopying textbooks. Are these acceptable practices? Why do so
many people not consider these actions the same as stealing? Explain people's
attitudes.
4. Do you consider larger economic decisions when you purchase something,
or is the cost your only consideration? For instance, do you support Canadian
artists and Canadian companies?
5. Considering how little artists get paid, discuss what drives them to create their
work.
6. How important are the arts in your life? Discuss what impact music, the mov-
ies, dance, literature, art, and the theatre have on you personally.
7. Would you want a career in the arts? Explain why or why not.
8. Why do you think that many people consider the work that artists do to be
relatively easy? Why do so many non-artists think they could do the work?

Assignments
1. Research the average earnings of actors, musicians, writers, and visual artists
(such as painters and sculptors). Choose one profession, and write a report
explaining how they are paid.
2. Watch the music video for Pharrell Williams's song "Happy." Write a review,
explaining why it became such a hit.
3. Renzetti refers to the "ecosystem" surrounding artists' work [7]. Choose one
artistic profession (such as acting, music, dance, writing, or painting), and con-
sider the wider economic benefits of the work performed by the artists, such
as tourist dollars. Write an essay explaining the effects.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "The evidence of this culture shock is in front of our eyes, in the
shuttered book shops and video stores and music clubs, yet it's remarkably
unrernarked upon" [4J.
2. Paraphrase: "If he's earning tiny digital royalties, what does that say for the
artists further down the chain, in the grubby realm of mere mortals?" [21
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.
278 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Structure and Technique

Renzetti starts with a specific example of an underpaid artist. She uses an example
that most of her audience would likely be familiar with and even puts the audience
in the artist's shoes with the use of you: "Let's say you wear a big hat and had one
of the most infectious, popular songs of the year. You're Pharrell Williams, and your
song 'Happy' was played 43 million times on the music-streaming service Pandora."
This gets the readers' attention and allows them to relate to the points she goes
on to make.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context from the reading to match each word to its definition:

1. backlash, n [4] _ _ a) closed

2. begrudge,v[7] _ _ b) dirty and unpleasant
3. grotty, adj [6] _ _ c) expression of sadness
4. lament, n [3] _ _ d) fancy and expensive
5. mercenary, adj [7] _ e) feel unhappy that someone has
6. minuscule, adj [6] _ something you do not think he or
7. plight, n [5, 7] _ _ she deserves
8. posh, adj [6] _ _ f) only interested in the money they
9. roadie, n [7] _ will be paid
10. shuttered, adj [4] _ _ g) show a lack of respect for someone
11. sneer,v[5] _ through one's facial expression or
tone of voice
h) someone whose job is to help with
the equipment when musicians
travel
i) strong negative reaction by many
people against something that has
happened
j) very bad situation or trouble that
someone is in
k) very small

Word Focus
suppose
Suppose essentially means "to think," with a touch of uncertainty. The verb is often
followed by a noun clause. It can also be used to introduce a hypothetical idea,
"Let's suppose ..."
Suppose is commonly used in a kind of passive voice structure, to be supposed to,
that functions like a modal verb showing expectation and obligation. The verb to be
can be either simple present (am, is, are) or past (was, were), and the to is followed by
the base form of the verb (as a modal verb is).
 UNIT 10; WORK 279

Examine the differences of meaning and use of suppose in these examples:

"They're supposed to suffer, right?" [5] meaning: People expect artists to

suffer. (passive voice, present tense)

I suppose that he could have misplaced meaning: I think that this is a

the file. possibility.
(active voice, used with noun clause)

We are supposed to change those meaning: Somebody wants us to

figures to metric. change the figure.

I was supposed to pick him up at four, meaning: I was told (or it was arranged)
but I forgot. that I would pick him up, but I didn't.

The logical relationship between this modal structure and the base meaning
of the verb suppose may be confusing, but expectation is based on belief, or what
somebody thinks, so that "he is supposed to wait there" has the basic idea that
somebody thinks that he should wait there.
A common error is to leave the d off the end of the past participle supposed.
For example, someone may write, "He was suppose to leave the keys." This error
occurs because the writer is confused by the pronunciation: The sound of the d
disappears next to the t of to (just as the d sound in the expression used to tends to
disappear in speech).

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

abuse [2]

creativity [5]
creation

dismiss [5]

economic [7]
economical

infectious [1]

philosophically [9]

publicist [7]
publicity

ruinous [6]

security [8]

sympathy [5]
280 PART 2: READING SElECTIONS

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
in front of one's eyes [4]
(right) under one's nose [5]
leaving in droves [3]
to make a living [3]
the well has dried up [3]
fruits of their labour [8]

Conversational Expressions
Note Renzetti's use of conversational style:
"Let's say ..." [1J
"Pretty sweet, huh?" [1]
"I mean, they're artists. They're supposed to sufTer, right?" [5]
Discuss the meaning and use of each of these phrases and sentences. What makes
them conversational? Give other ways of expressing the same meaning. What effect
do these conversational expressions have in the article?
In the expression "pretty sweet," is pretty an adjective or an adverb? What is the
difference in meaning between the adjective and the adverb? Which usage is more
common? Why do you think so? What can the adjective pretty be used to describe?

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Renzetti uses quotations in her article. Examine how she integrates them
into her writing and the punctuation she uses. How are the quotations in
Paragraphs 2 and 3 different from those at the end of Paragraphs 5 and 9?
Note the quotation marks around the phrases "a real job" [4J and "a great
Depression" [5].Which of these phrases is a quotation attributed to an actual
person? Explain the use of the quotation marks in the other case.
2. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the
modifiers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify,
a) "With most attention focused on the lucky, minuscule minority-the
Rowlings, the Beyonces-v-what has gone unnoticed is that a weak economy
and rapid technological change have been ruinous for many creators." [6J
b) "When the artists go, a whole ecosystem goes with them-publicists and
roadies, critics and video-store clerks." [71

In North American restaurants, diners are expected to tip their servers. The going
rate is between 10 and 20 percent of the bill. This gratuity system is so ingrained that
wait staff is paid less than minimum wage on the assumption that their earnings are
supplemented by tips. While tips are supposed to be voluntary, in effect, people in
the service industry are practically demanding tips-even those who traditionally do
 UNIT 10: WORK 281

not receive them. However, instead of extending the practice to supplement the poor
wages of even more workers, the practice of tipping should be abolished.
Tipping is a practice that just does not make sense.If the purpose is, as commonly
understood, "To Insure Promptness," then the money would be better given as a bribe
before service. In addition, the speed of service depends more on the efficiency of the
kitchen than on the work of the server. Furthermore, who gets tipped and who does
not is an arbitrary system. Many jobs today are in the service industry, but only a few in
the sector regularly receive gratuities. Even in food service, the system makes no sense.
Someone who brings food to the table in a restaurant gets tipped handsomely, while
someone who hands food over a counter in a cafeteria gets nothing. Both employees
interact with customers, and both work hard. All workers deserve to be paid fairly for
their labour-by their actual employer.
The practice of tipping taints the whole dining experience. Servers size up
customers, giving more attention to those they think will tip well. Customers realize
they are being judged and treated according to their potential generosity. Wait staff
have been known to discriminate against people they think will tip less-such as non-
drinkers and people from Asian cultures (where tipping is not a common practice).
Some customers even endure the stress of having servers hover over them as they
pay. Even calculating a fair gratuity can put pressure on diners, especially if they have
imbibed enough to make their math skills questionable.
The tipping system leads to many kinds of abuse. Servers are asked to tip out a
percentage of their sales. If they were unlucky enough to have a series of low-tipping
customers, they could end up losing money. Sometimes, restaurant management even
takes some of the gratuities, a practice that defeats the purpose of the tip in the first
place. Moreover, gratuities are not reported on T4 slips, and much of the money is
given in cash. As a result, this income is part of the underground economy-most of
the money is not reported for income tax purposes.
It is clear that the unfair practice of tipping needs to be eliminated. Instead,
restaurants can raise their meal prices, give all their staff a living wage, and make it
clear that the establishment has a no-tipping policy. If this catches on, most people
would be on board. Even the servers who make much more than others in the service
industry would recognize that eliminating tipping is the right thing to do.

1. What factors determine how rate of pay is established? For example, why does
a daycare worker make less than a zookeeper? How important are criteria such
as education, training, years of experience, and the prestige inherent in the job?
2. Employers look for many ways to reduce labour costs, such as outsourcing
work overseas, hiring foreign workers, using interns, and offering only con-
tract work. Choose one of these practices, and explain the causes or the effects
in an essay.
3. While the average Canadian worker makes about $50,000 a year, CEOs in
Canada can make 200 times what their employees earn. Write an essay arguing
that CEOs are worth millions of dollars or that they are not worth it.
282 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

4. The argument has been made that instead of giving welfare and unemploy-
ment benefits, the government would be better off making sure everyone has
a "living wage."The organization Living Wage Canada explains the benefits of
this policy on its website. Write an essay agreeing or disagreeing with this pol-
icy. Or you can write an essay on the likelihood of this policy being adopted.
What would stand in its way?
5. Young people desperate to get a foothold in the job market may take unpaid
internship positions. Some of these are short practicums that are credited as
part of their school work. However, in some cases, employers take advantage of
free labour without offering interns valuable experience or a realistic chance
of being hired at the company. Moreover, the laws governing internships
are weak. For instance, interns may not have injury compensation coverage.
Research the topic of internships, and choose one issue for an argument essay.
For example, you could argue that all interns should be paid at least minimum
wage or explain that internship only benefits graduates from rich families.
6. Since 2007, women have outnumbered men in the workforce in Canada, yet
women still get paid less. Choose one specific issue concerning women in
the workforce, and write an essay stating your point of view. For example,
you could write about the glass ceiling, about women in top management,
about women in science and technology fields, or about discrimination
or harassment.
7. While underground economies (unlicensed and untaxed) have always existed,
websites and phone apps have facilitated the growth of what is now referred
to as "the sharing economy." For instance, instead of staying in a hotel, tourists
can rent an apartment they find on the service Airbnb. Instead of hailing a taxi,
people can get a ride in a private car with a service like Uber. Apps can also
put you in touch with people who are willing to clean your house, take care
of your children, and do home repairs. Choose one of the issues surround-
ing the sharing economy for an essay. You can focus on a specific service and
explain its advantages or disadvantages; you can argue whether these services
are fair competition or not; or you can explore the effects these services have
on the economy.
Money

by PeterSinger

When Radoslaw Sikorski, Poland's Foreign Minister, went to Ukraine for talks last
month, his Ukrainian counterparts reportedly laughed at him because he was
wearing a Japanese quartz watch that cost just $165. A Ukrainian newspaper
reported on the preferences of Ukrainian ministers, several of whom have watches
that cost more than $30,000. Even a Communist member of Ukraine's parliament,
the Rada,was shown wearing a watch that retails for more than $6,000.
The laughter should have gone in the opposite direction. Wouldn't you laugh
(maybe in private, to avoid being impolite) at someone who pays more than 200
times as much as you do, and ends up with an inferior product?
That is what the Ukrainians have done. They could have bought an accurate,
lightweight, maintenance-free quartz watch that can run for five years, keeping
virtually perfect time, without ever being moved or wound. Instead, they paid far
more for clunkier watches that can lose minutes every month, and that will stop if
you forget to wind them for a day or two (if they have an automatic mechanism,
they will stop if you don't move them). In addition, the quartz watches also have
integrated alarm, stopwatch and timer functions that the other watches either
lack or employ only as a design-spoiling, hard-to-read effort to keep up with the
competition.
Why would any wise shopper accept such a bad bargain? Out of nostalgia,
perhaps? A full-page ad for Patek Philippe has Thierry Stern, the president of
the company, saying that he listens to the chime of every watch with a minute
repeater that his company makes, as his father and grandfather did before him.
That's all very nice, but since the days of Mr. Stern's grandfather, we have made
progress in time-keeping. Why reject the improvements that human ingenuity has
provided to us? I have an old fountain pen that belonged to my grandmother; it's
a nice memento of her, but I wouldn't dream of using it to write this column.
Thorstein Veblen knew the answer. In his classic TheTheoryofthe LeisureClass,
published in 1899, he argued that once the basis of social status became wealth
itself-rather than, say, wisdom, knowledge, moral integrity or skill in battle-the
284 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

rich needed to find ways of spending money that had no other objective than the
display of wealth itself. He termed this "conspicuous consumption." Veblen wrote
as a social scientist, refraining from rendering moral judgments, although he left
readers in little doubt about his attitude toward such expenditure in a time when
many lived in poverty.
Wearing a ridiculously expensive watch to proclaim that one has achieved an
elevated social standing seems especially immoral for a public official in a country
where a significant portion of the population still lives in real poverty. These
officials are wearing on their wrists the equivalent offour or five years of an average
Ukrainian's salary. That tells Ukrainian taxpayers either that they are paying their
public servants too much, or that their public servants have other ways of getting
money to buy watches that they would not be able to afford otherwise.
The Chinese government knows what those "other ways" might be. As the
International Herald Tribune reports, one aspect of Beijing's campaign against
corruption is a clampdown on expensive gifts. As a result, according to Jon Cox, an
analyst at Kepler Capital Markets, "it's no longer acceptable to have a big chunky
watch on your wrist." The Chinese market for expensive watches is in steep
decline. Ukrainians, take note.
Wearing a watch that costs 200 times more than one that does a better job
of keeping time sayssomething else, even when it is worn by people who are not
governing a relatively poor country. Andrew Carnegie, the richest man of Veblen's
era, was blunt in his moral judgments. "The man who dies rich," he is often quoted
as saying, "dies disgraced."
We can adapt that judgment to the man or woman who wears a $30,000
watch or buys similar luxury goods, like a $12,000 handbag. Essentially, such
a person is saying; "I am either extraordinarily ignorant, or just plain selfish. If I
were not ignorant, I would know that children are dying from diarrhea or malaria,
because they lack safe drinking water or mosquito nets, and obviously what I have
spent on this watch or handbag would have been enough to help several of them
survive; but I care so little about them that I would rather spend my money on
something that I wear for ostentation alone."
10
Of course, we all have our little indulgences. I am not arguing that every luxury
is wrong. But to mock someone for having a sensible watch at a modest price puts
pressure on others to join the quest for ever-greater extravagance. That pressure
should be turned in the opposite direction, and we should celebrate those, like Mr.
Sikorski, with modest tastes and higher priorities than conspicuous consumption.

113 May 2013]

Notes
Patek Philippe is a high-end Swiss watch-making company. The company's website
explains what a minute repeater is with this definition:
A repeater is a complication in a mechanical watch that chimes the
time on demand by activating a push or a slide-piece. Different types of
repeater allow the time to be heard to varying degrees of precision; from
 UNIT 11: MONEY 285

the simple quarter-repeater which merely strikes the number of hours

and quarters, to the minute repeater which sounds the time down to the
minute using separate tones for hours, quarter-hours and minutes.
Originating before widespread use of electricity, they allowed the
time to be determined in the dark and they were also used by the visually
impaired. Today minute repeaters, one of the most complex repeater
mechanisms, are coveted by collectors and watch lovers alike as rare
masterpieces of precision mechanical engineering.
Andrew Carnegie (lH35-1919) was a famous American industrialist and philanthro-
pist. He made his money in the steel industry and was responsible for establishing
many public libraries with his charitable donations.

Comprehension
1. Why did the Ukrainian ministers laugh at the Polish foreign minister?
2. What are the advantages of quartz watches over the ones that the Ukrainian
ministers were wearing?
3. What is Singer's main argument?
4. Why does Singer call it immoral to spend thousands of dollars on a watch? r51
5. Explain what Singer means when he says, "That tells Ukrainian taxpayers
either that they are paying their public servants too much, or that their public
servants have other ways of getting money to buy watches that they would not
be able to afford otherwise" [6J.What is he referring to?
6. Explain what Singer means when he says, "The Chinese market for expensive
watches is in steep decline" Pl.
7. Explain this statement: "But to mock someone for having a sensible watch
at a modest price puts pressure on others to join the quest for ever-greater
extravagance" [101.
8. What is conspicuous consumption? Explain Veblen's argument 151.

Discussion
1. What kind of consumer are you? Do you love to shop? Are your tastes modest
and practical? Do you care what other people think of your purchases? How
important is style and fashion in your purchases? Do you indulge in conspicu-
ous consumption?
2. Singer says, "I am not arguing that every luxury is wrong" [1OJ. What kind of
luxuries do you think are justified? Explain why.
3. Explain Carnegie's statement, "The man who dies rich dies disgraced" [8J. Do
you agree? Explain why or why not.
4. How much should people donate of their time and money to charitable
causes? Give guidelines.
5. Discuss designer knock-offs.Would you buy one-such as a fake Rolex?What
are some of the problems? Consider issues such as copyright and quality.
6. Are watches even worth wearing now? Many people just refer to their cell-
phones to find out the time. Compare analog and digital timepieces-which
are better, and why?
286 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

7. Singer says,"Why reject the improvements that human ingenuity has provided
to us? I have an old fountain pen that belonged to my grandmother; it's a nice
memento of her, but I wouldn't dream of using it to write this column" [4].
Is new technology always better? For instance, some people argue that vinyl
records have a better sound than CDs or digital recordings. Some writers insist
on writing by hand or on a manual typewriter. Discuss the advantages of older
technologies.

Assignments
1. Choose one luxury item, and argue whether or not this item is worth buying
(by those who can afford it) in a paragraph or a short essay. You can discuss
specific brands or just the item in general. Consider whether it is the quality
of the item that makes it worthwhile or whether it's just ostentation. Example
items: luxury cars (like a Ferrari or Porsche), designer shoes, designer hand-
bags, expensive watches (like Rolex).
2. Singer talks about a fountain pen being a nice memento of his grandmother.
Similarly, pocket watches are often handed down as heirlooms. What would
you appreciate as a keepsake of your grandparents? Write a paragraph describ-
ing the item and explaining why it is meaningful.
3. The Andrew Carnegie Dictum says that one should spend the first third of
one's life getting all the education one can, the next third making all the
money one can, and the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes.
Discuss this dictum in an essay. Is it an ideal way to spend one's life?
4. Consider Veblen's argument that "once the basis of social status became wealth
itself-rather than, say, wisdom, knowledge, moral integrity or skill in battle-
the rich needed to find ways of spending money that had no other objective
than the display of wealth itself" [5]. Discuss this statement in an essay.
5. Singer refers to "one aspect of Beijing's campaign against corruption" [7].
Corruption among politicians and bureaucrats is a serious problem in many
countries. Write an essay about political corruption. Focus on effects or solu-
tions. Narrow your topic to a specific area-perhaps a place or an industry
such as construction.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase Andrew Carnegie's saying, "The man who dies rich dies dis-
graced" [8].
2. Paraphrase this statement: "Wearing a ridiculously expensive watch to proclaim
that one has achieved an elevated social standing seems especially immoral for
a public official in a country where a significant portion of the population still
lives in real poverty" [6].

Structure and Technique

Note the different uses of quotations in the article. Paragraphs 7 and 8 include quota-
tions by identified speakers (Cox and Carnegie, respectively). However, in Paragraph
9, Singer gives a hypothetical quotation-it is not directly quoting something that
 UNIT 11: MONEY 287

someone actually said. What is the effect of this "quotation"? Rephrase what he is
saying so that it is not in the first person.
In addition, Singer uses quotation marks around "other ways" in Paragraph 7;
in a sense, he is actually quoting himself because this refers back to his use of the
words "other ways" in the previous paragraph. In Paragraph 5, the quotation marks
around "conspicuous consumption" show that it was a coinage by Veblen. Now,
conspicuous consumption is an accepted expression in English, and you would not
need to quote it to use it.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. blunt, adj [8] _ _ a) a ringing sound

2. chime, n [4] _ _ b) a treat, some pleasure you allow
3. clampdown, n [7] _ _ yourself
4. clunkier, adj [3] _ _ c) almost, practically
5. counterpart, n [1] _ _ d) amount of money spent
6. expenditure, n [5] _ _ e) combining many parts that work
7. indulgence, n [10] _ _ well together
8. ingenuity, n [4] _ _ f) display of wealth to show off to
9. integrated, adj [3] _ _ other people
10. nostalgia, n [4] _ _ g) feeling of affection for something
11. ostentation, n [9] _ _ in the past
12. rendering, v [5] _ _ h) heavier, more awkward to wear
13. retails (for), v [1] _ _ or use
14. virtually, adv [3] _ _ i) making, expressing
j) sells for, costs in a retail store
k) skill at inventing and coming up
with new ideas
I) someone who has the same job but
in a different location
m) sudden action taken to stop illegal
activity
n) very direct, saying exactly what you
think without trying to be polite

Word Focus
afford [6], spend [5, 9]
The verbs afford and spend are relatively easy to understand, but they can cause prob-
lems in writing, especially for English language learners. Both are transitive verbs,
which means they take direct objects. The direct objects for spend usually refer to
money or time. The verb afford is almost always used with can, could, or be able to,
often in the negative. It can also be followed by an infinitive. Even though afford is a
transitive verb, it is not used in the passive voice.
 1

288 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Study these example sentences, identifying direct objects and verb forms:

1. She could not afford a designer purse, so she bought a knock-off. She spent
only $20.
2. They spent several hours trying to identify the problem, but they could not
afford to lose another day on the project.
3. Jason cannot afford a new car, so he is shopping for a used one.
4. Even if they save for 10 more years, they will not be able to afford to buy a
house.
5. She does not want to spend more than $2000 on the trip.

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

celebrate [10] n/a

corruption [7]

employ [3] n/a

indulgence [10]

knowledge [5]

progress [4]

social [5]

Explain the difference in pronunciation between progress [n] and its verb form.

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressIOns:
keeping time [3, 8]
to end up with something [2]
to keep up with somebody [3]
would not dream of doing something [4]

Sentence StructureAnalysis
1. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the
modifiers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify.
a) "They could have bought an accurate, lightweight, maintenance-free
quartz watch that can run for five years, keeping virtually perfect time,
without ever being moved or wound." [3]
b) "Wearing a ridiculously expensive watch to proclaim that one has achieved
an elevated social standing seems especially immoral for a public official
 UNIT 11: MONEY 289

in a country where a significant portion of the population still lives in real

poverty." [6J
2. Note how the so ... that structure is used in this sentence: "but I care so little
about them that I would rather spend my money on something that I wear for
ostentation alone" [9J. After the word so, an adjective or adverb can be found;
in this case, it is the adverb little, completed by the phrase about them. In the
so ... that construction, that introduces a clause; in this sentence, the subject
of the clause is I, and the verb is would spend. Paraphrase the sentence using
another so ... that structure.
This sentence also illustrates the use of would rather to show preference.
Because the would is contracted in speech and the sound is almost lost, many
people barely recognize that the would is necessary to the sentence. They
sometimes mistakenly write sentences such as "he rather go" instead of "he'd
rather go" or "he would rather go."

by Leonard Stern
To disapprove of gambling is considered quaint, a bit like railing against pool
tables and rock 'n' roll. Gambling was traditionally classified as a "vice," an old-
fashioned word that conjures up tedious moralizing.
I'll try not to moralize, or at least not to be tedious, in discussing the plan of
provincial governments to expand Internet gambling operations.
British Columbia raised the weekly betting limits for its online casino games
to $9,999. Quebec figures that in a couple of years, revenue from online gambling
will add some $50 million to the treasury. The Atlantic provinces are getting into
the game.
Perhaps, in a self-interested way, this is something that non-gamblers like me
should celebrate. I ought to encourage my own province of Ontario also to expand
its state-run gambling enterprise, so that all the good things that the government
does, from which I derive personal benefit, will be even more heavily subsidized
by others.
Let the loser who takes forever at the gas station sorting through his lottery
tickets, thus making me late for work when alii want to do is pay for a fill-up-Iet
him pay for my health care.
A 2008 survey showed that about seven per cent of Ontario adults believe
that "gambling is an easy way to make money." Nine per cent believe that "the
more you gamble, the more likely you are to win a lot of money." You don't have
to be a student of probabilities to know how wrong they are.
While a lot of people gamble now and then, the habitual gamblers-the ones
who provide much of the revenue that governments reap-constitute a small
percentage of the population, perhaps the nine per cent who believe gambling
is a way to make money. So part of me wants to say nine per cent of Ontarians are
delusional and we shouldn't feel bad about taking their money and using it to buy
MRI machines for the rest of us.
290 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Let's be honest. This nine per cent who provide so much revenue and who
believe gambling is a way to get rich are an unsympathetic lot. I was taught that
the secret to financial security was education and hard work. If some people try to
use the casino as a short cut, then they deserve to lose their money.
Or maybe the problem isn't that they're lazy. If they really believe they can
make money gambling, they might be plain stupid.
10
Lots of data suggest that a disproportionate amount of gambling revenue
comes from the uneducated class. The province might as well take their money
because these people aren't competent to spend it wisely anyway.
11
That's the cynical view. As I said, I'm not immune to it, especially when I'm
stuck behind a guy buying $SO worth of lottery tickets who would be better off
spending the money on winter boots for his toddler.
12
The ethical view, however, is that exploiting the poor is wrong. Economists
talk about gambling as a regressive tax, a tax on those who can least afford it.
13 One Canadian study found that the highest rates of compulsive gambling
show up in aboriginal communities. There are U.S. data going back 20 years
showing that state lotteries raise much of their money from disadvantaged
minorities.
14
Last year in Britain, a new study was released showing that manual labourers
and the unemployed are significantly more likely to play the national lottery, a
finding that has caused some controversy because the lottery is helping to pay for
the London 2012 Olympic Games.
15
It's tempting to call for governments to exit the gambling business
altogether-tempting, but impractical. In Canada, the provinces are too
dependent on the revenue. There's also the unseemly paternalism of trying to
protect people-especially poor people-from themselves. Gambling isn't the
only unhealthy behaviour that correlates with low income and education. In a free
society people are allowed to make dumb choices.
16
But governments should be aware that gambling revenue is morally
compromised. In a 2006 paper, the Ottawa-based Vanier Institute of the Family
argued persuasively that governments have played an important role not just in
sanitizing and legitimizing gambling, but in creating the demand for it.
17
Remember the hype surrounding Lotto Super 7? The marketing targeted
those foolish, desperate people who believe everyone is entitled to be rich, that
you don't have to work for it and that anyone can be a winner.
18
It's enough that our governments are in the gambling business. The least
they could do is not promote so aggressively the unhealthy fantasies that fuel it.

[18 February 201 OJ

Notes
For much of Canada's history, most gambling activities were illegal, but in 1969 a
Criminal Code amendment opened the door for government-run lotteries and
casinos. Now the federal governmentand provincial governments take in billions of
dollars from gambling activities. Hospitals use this money to fund research projects

---_._---------------_.... -
 UNIT 11: MONEY 291

and their everyday activities. In essence, the money from gambling supplements
the government's income from taxes. People do not want to pay taxes, but many of
them do not mind buying lottery tickets; this is why lotteries are often referred to
as "a tax on the stupid."

In his first paragraph, Stern is referring to changing social attitudes toward gam-
bling and other activities that can be considered immoral behaviour-acts such as
gambling, drinking, smoking, prostitution, and drug use. What society tolerates is
reflected in its laws, and these laws vary widely from country to country and over
time. For example, laws determine where alcohol can be sold and drunk, the age of
drinkers, and bar hours. Quebec has more liberal drinking laws than Ontario, which
in turn is more liberal than many American states. Even shopping on a Sunday can
be considered wrong in some societies. Stern mentions rock 'n' roll music, which
used to be considered immoral. Today, many jurisdictions in North America are
moving toward decriminalization and even legalization of marijuana use. On the
other hand, smoking was once widely accepted in Canada, but now smokers are
treated as social outcasts. It is interesting to look at the different attitudes towards
such "sins" and "vices." (See Assignment Topic #2.)

Comprehension
1. What is Stern's position on gambling? Explain what he is feeling conflicted
about. What conclusion does he come to?
2. Why do governments run lotteries, casinos, and other gambling businesses?
Where does the money go?
3. Explain the point Stern is making when he says, "You don't have to be a stu-
dent of probabilities to know how wrong they are" [61.
4. Who tends to gamble more?
5. Why can't the government quit running gambling activities?
6. What kind of "unhealthy behaviour" and "dumb choices" [151 is Stern refer-
ring to, besides gambling?
7. What is Stern referring to in his last sentence?

Discussion
1. Is it immoral for governments to make so much money from lotteries and
casinos? Could governments get out of the gambling business? What would
happen if they did? Would gambling cease to exist?
2. Are people who buy lottery tickets stupid, as Stern suggests? Discuss.
3. Stern says that he was taught "that the secret to financial security was educa-
tion and hard work" [8J. Do you agree with this view? Why or why not?
4. It has been argued that hospitals especially should not run lotteries because
gambling addiction is a mental illness and hospitals should not be encouraging
it. Do you agree or disagree? Explain your point of view.
5. Why are young people particularly susceptible to gambling addictions?
6. Why is online gambling worse than other kinds of gambling for those who are
addicted?
 292 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

7. Gambling is often referred to as "gaming." What is the effect of using this

word?
8. Discuss the commercials and other advertisements used to promote lotteries
and casinos. What advertising techniques are used? Are the ads effective? Are
they misleading?

Assignments
1. Research the history of gambling in Canada. Write an illustrative essay
showing how attitudes toward gambling changed over time: what was once
considered a sin or a vice is now considered a form of entertainment.
2. Consider the points made in the second Note above. Write an essay com-
paring two different views of one "immoral activity" (such as drinking or
smoking).You can base your comparison on either time or place. For instance,
you can compare attitudes toward and laws concerning alcohol use in Canada
to those in Saudi Arabia. Or you can look at the differences between attitudes
today and those during Prohibition in 1920s America.
3. Write an essay comparing two kinds of gambling activities (such as online
gambling, buying lottery tickets, or playing poker). Consider which is more
addictive, for example, or which has some element of skill.
4. Research the odds of winning various lotteries and gambling activities. Give
an oral report to the class.
5. Write an essay about the effects of gambling addictions.
6. Write a paragraph analyzing a particular advertisement for a casino or lottery.
7. Many casinos are found on Native reserves and are run by First Nations
organizations. Research these casinos, and write an essay explaining either the
advantages or the disadvantages of such gambling operations.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "To disapprove of gambling is considered quaint, a bit like railing
against pool tables and rock 'n' roll. Gambling was traditionally classified as a
'vice,' an old-fashioned word that conjures up tedious moralizing" [1].
2. Paraphrase: "This nine per cent who provide so much revenue and who believe
gambling is a way to get rich are an unsympathetic lot. I was taught that the
secret to financial security was education and hard work. If some people try to
use the casino as a short cut, then they deserve to lose their money" [8].
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Do not exceed 100 words.

Structure and Technique

Note the language Stern uses to show his conflicted feelings. He starts Paragraph 4
with "Perhaps" and says "I ought to." In Paragraph 7 he says, "part of me wants to
say." After he refers to "the cynical view" [11], he says he is "not immune" to having
this view-which is not exactly saying that he holds that view. Explain how Stern
makes his own viewpoint clear. Where does he stand on the issue?

p
 UNIT 11: MONEY 293

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. compulsive, adj [13] _ _ a) advertising and publicity that

2. conjure up, v [1]_ _ usually exaggerates the qualities
3. cynical, adj [11] _ _ of something
4. delusional, adj [7]_ _ b) boring
5. derive, v [4] _ _ c) evil or immoral behaviour
6. hype,n[17] __ d) fooling yourself; having a false belief
7. paternalism, n [15]_ _ e) nice in an old-fashioned way
8. quaint, adj [1] _ _ f) not caring that something might
9. tedious, adj [2]_ _ hurt others
10. vice, n [1] _ _ g) system in which the government
tries to protect citizens without
giving them freedom of choice (like
a father)
h) that is difficult to stop or control
i) to get something from something
j) to make something appear in your
mind

Word Focus
to rail against something [1]
This expression is relatively formal and not that common today. The verb rail (and
the related noun raillery) is different from the noun rail used for iron bars and train
tracks. Check to see how the word is shown in your dictionary. For instance, is it a
separate entry, or is it given as an alternative meaning under the entry for rail?

disapprove [1], disproportionate [1], disadvantaged [13]

Note the use of dis- as a negative prefix. Explain the meaning. What part of speech
is each word? Check for other forms of the words (both with and without the neg-
ative prefix) to explore the word families.

sanitizing [16]
The verb sanitize comes from the Latin word for health, sanitas, which can refer to
both physical and mental health. It can therefore be confusing sorting out the many
English words that come from this source word. Sanitize means to make something
really clean, especially removing bacteria, but it can also refer to making something
less offensive or unpleasant (as it is used in the article). The two lists below show the
basic meanings, but check the dictionary definitions for any words you are unsure of.
Words relating to health and hygiene: sanitation, sanitary, sanitize
Words referring to mental health: sane, insane, sanity, insanity, sanitarium
294 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

n/a aggressively [18]

dependent [15]
independent

n/a desperate [17]

fantasy [18]

immune [11] n/a

legitimize [16]

morally [16]

persuasively [16]

promote [18] n/a

significantly [14]

sympathetic
unsympathetic [8]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and use of the following expressions:
to get into the game [3]
to be better off [11]
to create a demand for something [16]
the least someone can do [18]

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the
modifiers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify,
a) "While a lot of people gamble now and then, the habitual gamblers-the
ones who provide much of the revenue that governments reap-consti-
tute a small percentage of the population, perhaps the nine per cent who
believe gambling is a way to make money." [7J
b) "There's also the unseemly paternalism of trying to protect people-espe-
cially poor people-from themselves." [15 J
2. Note the structure in the phrase "the more you gamble, the more likely you
are to win" [61. English uses a "the ... , the ..." structure with comparative
 UNIT 11: MONEY 295

forms of adjectives or adverbs to show that one thing depends on another.

Note the use of the comma between the phrases. Study these examples:
a) The more he tries to help, the more mistakes she makes.
b) The more he thinks about it, the less he understands.
c) The hungrier she gets, the grumpier she is.
d) The fewer participants there are, the higher the cost will be.
e) The later they arrive, the less time we will have.

Thriftiness and careful shopping are generally seen asvirtues. No one likes to spend
more money than they have to. However, economy taken to extremes turns people
into cheapskates: they begrudge every penny that comes out of their wallets and
do not appreciate true value. This can become a social problem, and even a national
characteristic, rather than just a personality quirk. The mindset of many Canadians
today is dominated by cheapness, affecting retail products, news and entertainment,
and public infrastructure.
By making their buying decisions based on price alone, Canadians create problems
on a national scale. They want to buy inexpensive items, such as $10 T-shirts, but
these goods are produced in overseas factories with cheap labour and unsafe working
conditions. As a result, factories in Canada close down, putting Canadians out of work.
Salespeople are also losing their jobs as retailers lose business to online shopping.
Consumers often choose to buy cheaper products, such as books, online-even if
they have visited the retail stores to make their selections beforehand. Widespread
unemployment means less money pumped into the economy in both spending and
taxes. It also creates a vicious circle because asjobs are lost, people are unable to afford
better goods. In addition to these economic problems, the choice of cheap goods causes
environmental problems. These products do not last long and have to be replaced. For
example, while hand-crafted furniture can last for more than 100 years, modern furniture
made of particle board and melamine becomes garbage in less than 10 years. It ends
up in the landfill, and replacement items have to be bought. Stress on the environment
occurs both in the manufacturing process as well as in the disposal of the item.
Canadians are no longer willing to pay for their news and entertainment. The
Internet has fooled them into thinking that they can get everything free. They
download music, movies, television shows, and books. They get their news from free
online sources to avoid paying subscription fees. These practices hurt many industries.
Movie producers have to fight the pirating and the subsequent loss of their income.
Musicians and writers lose royalties from their work. Newspapers fold because of the
lack of subscriptions and ad revenues. With less money going to the creators, the
quality of products also suffers. The industries are less inclined to make the required
investments for superior products. For example, ground-breaking investigative news
stories cost a lot of money for researchers' and journalists' time. Cheap news is put
out quickly on social media and blogs, but it lacks the fact-checking and thoughtful
analysis of older media.
296 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Canadians particularly resent paying taxes, thinking of it as the government

picking their pockets rather than as citizens paying for necessary services.This attitude
has changed the civic discourse, where politicians now consider voters taxpayers rather
than citizens and spending any public money is seen as a careless or even evil action.
Aging infrastructure, including roads and water systems, is not being maintained as
it should be because that costs too much money. This means that eventually it will
cost even more to replace the structures. With less tax revenue, cities cannot afford
to upgrade their transit systems, yet citizens are deluded into thinking they can get
subways for free. Many new public buildings are cheap and ugly because no one wants
to pay for impressive edifices, yet beautiful architecture is the face'of a city and attracts
visitors as well as making a better environment for citizens.
Cheapness is an illness that is destroying the country. Canada needs leaders to be
honest, to tell the citizens that they will only get what they are willing to pay for, and
that an investment in quality is well worth the money. Canadians should not be a people
that, as OscarWilde said, "know the price of everything and the value of nothing."

1. How should discretionary income be spent? Write an essay giving advice to

young adults.
2. Discuss the advantages or the disadvantages of a cashless society. Consider how
easily the one-cent coin was phased out. Is it time to go completely electronic
and get rid of coins and bills?
3. What is the best way for financial literacy to be learned? How should children
be taught about the meaning of money? Are young adults in Canada finan-
cially illiterate? Do they understand the use of credit and the value of saving?
Explain.
4. Henry Ford was famous for establishing modern manufacturing and for pay-
ing his workers enough so that they could afford to buy one of his cars. Find
out more about Ford's ideas about money, or research another famous busi-
nessperson such as Bill Gates or Timothy Eaton. What were their attitudes
toward money based on? Were they philanthropic? Were they considered ruth-
less businessmen?
5. Choose one major retailer, and explain its failure (or success) in the market-
place. Here are examples for you to consider: Eaton's, Sears catalogue shopping,
Target Canada, Canadian Tire, WalMart.
6. Choose one product (such as athletic shoes, textbooks, or fast-food hamburg-
ers), and research its pricing. Find out how much it costs for the materials, the
labour, the retailer, the taxes, and the profits. Write a report.
Technology

by Emma Teitel
Last year, American celebrity chef Anthony Bourdain opened up to a tabloid about
one of modern life's most common social practices, or-depending on whom
you're talking to-one of its biggest transgressions. When asked what he thought
about "food instagramming"-photographing your meal at a restaurant and
uploading the pictures onto social media-he explained that while he does this
"all the time," he isn't particularly fond of the practice. "It's a dysfunctional, even
aggressive practice," he said. "Why do we instagram pictures of our food? To make
people feel really bad. You don't want people eating dinner with you when you
instagram a picture of your food. You want them to be eating a bag of Cheetos
on their couch in their underpants. It's a passive-aggressive act." In other words,
much like other popular online pastimes-posting jealousy-inducing travel
photos to your Facebook page or pictures of the diamond ring your fiancee just
gave you-instagramming your food is an easy, detached way of saying, "My life
is better than yours." Bourdain's philosophy on this subject may be highly cynical.
and a bit snooty, especially for a man who has the luxury of being around photo-
worthy culinary masterpieces all the time. But he's not alone.
Last week, an anonymous poster claiming to be a Manhattan restaurateur
argued in the "Rants and Raves" section of New York's Craigslist page that
photographing food at restaurants is not only rude and self-indulgent, but a
blight on customer service. The poster, who has since deleted his now-viral rant
(it racked up more than 750,000 shares on Distractify in one weekend), claimed
to have studied security footage at his midtown restaurant from the last 10 years,
and concluded that smartphone use at the table has drastically increased wait
times in his restaurant, to the point where some customers were so busy looking
at their phones and photographing their food that when they were finally ready to
take a bite, their food was cold and the server had to reheat it.
According to his survey, "26 out of 45 customers spend an average of three
minutes taking photos of food," and "14 out of 45 customers take pictures of each
other with the food in front of them. This takes, on average, another four minutes,
as they must review and sometimes retake the photo. Nine out of 45 customers
sent their food back to reheat." The whole food-photo ordeal, he alleged, can add,
on average, up to five wasted minutes of a server's time.
298 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Whether any of this is true we will likely never know.

Matty Matheson, the executive chef at Toronto's popular Parts and Labour
restaurant, acknowledges that smartphone and Instagram use sometimes delays
service in his restaurant. "I see customers tell servers to 'come back to us' because
they're on the phone," he says. But he argues that the positives generally outweigh
the negatives. Instagram is, after all, free publicity for any business.
What's most interesting, however, in this extremely low-stakes debate isn't
the dubious data presented by an anonymous Craigslist poster, but the enormous
popularity of the post and the speed at which it was shared. Clearly, fictitious or
not, people were excited by the notion that public smartphone use had disrupted
life as they knew it. There was a possibility that their annoyance with amateur
Internet food photography had suddenly been validated by cold, hard facts. So,of
course, they did what any mature social media-wary people would do in the year
2014: They shared the story on social media.
Instagramming your food and digitally documenting the finer things in life may
be passive-aggressive, as Bourdain claims, but so is modern Internet life in general.
The truth is that we've all turned inward-not just those of us who ignore our dates
while we photograph food, but those of us who have a problem with the ubiquity
of public smartphone use, too. Some of us may believe social media is inherently
anti-social and destructive, yet it appears that the only forum where we feel truly
comfortable expressing this discontent is on social media itself. (There is no greater
proof of this irony than the huge success of British writer Gary Turk's short film
LookUp, about the dangers of excessive social media use. It now has more than 44
million views on YouTube and 44,000 comments.) Rarelydo any of us, ballsy enough
to take on the habits of the young, tell a friend or a stranger that his incessant
instagramming-at the dinner table or anywhere-is a rude, annoying waste of
time. A more interesting and prudent study might be one that determines how many
customers actually say something-in real life-when the practice annoys them.
Whether we like it or not, etiquette has undergone a radical makeover in the
last five years. However, the biggest loss we've suffered as a social civilization may
not be manners or the art of conversation, but the art of public confrontation.

[11 August 2014J

Notes
Passive-aogressive is a term from psychology that can be hard to explain and to
understand. The words passive and aggressive are essentially opposites. The term refers
to someone being angry but not expressing that anger openly, instead choosing to
do something negative somewhat secretly. Look online for examples of passive-
aggressive behaviour, and discuss. Choose which example you think best describes
this kind of behaviour.

Comprehension
1. What is Instagram, and how is it used?
2. Explain the term social media.What does it include?
3. Explain what Anthony Bourdain thinks of the practice of instagramming
meals. What is Teitel's opinion ofBourdain's view?
 UNIT 12: TECHNOLOGY 299

4. Explain how taking photos of food can affect restaurant service. How can it
benefit a restaurant?
5. What point is Teitel making in Paragraph 6? Explain the irony in "they did
what any mature social media-wary people would do in the year 2014: They
shared the story on social media."
6. What does Teitel mean when she says "we've all turned inward" [7]?
7. Explain what Teitel means when she says,"the biggest loss we've suffered as a
social civilization may not be manners or the art of conversation, but the art of
public confrontation" [8].

Discussion
1. Do you instagram your meals? Why or why not? What do you think of the
practice?
2. Teitel refers to "jealousy-inducing travel photos" on Facebook [1]. Is posting
to social media just showing off? Explain.
3. Do you think that customers taking photos of food is an actual problem in
restaurants?
4. How has the smartphone changed the way people behave in public? Is this
behaviour acceptable?
5. How do you use social media? Do you think social media are a time-waster or
a valuable tool? What are your favourite apps?
6. Do you agree that people are now less able to confront people personally?
Would you consider this a social problem? Discuss.

Assignments
1. Write an essay explaining why people want to share their lives on social media.
2. Write an essay explaining the effects of easy access to cameras. For example,
tourists are so busy taking photographs of the view that they do not take time
to admire it. (It has been shown that people remember better if they look at
something instead of photographing it.)
3. Technology changes the way we deal with people because it protects us from
personal interaction. For example, pedestrians do not treat each other as rudely
as drivers do; road rage happens because drivers are "hidden" in a car. People
post rude comments anonymously online-things they would never say in
person to someone. Some people even break up with their partner by text
message. Take one example of such actions, and in an essay explain why it
happens, what it leads to, or what should be done about it.
4. Watch Gary Turk's YouTube video Look Up. Write a one-paragraph review of
the video.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "much like other popular online pastimes-posting jealousy-
inducing travel photos to your Facebook page or pictures of the diamond ring
your fiancee just gave you-instagramming your food is an easy, detached way
of saying, 'My life is better than yours'" [1].
300 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

2. Paraphrase: "What's most interesting, however, in this extremely low-stakes

debate isn't the dubious data presented by an anonymous Craigslist poster, but
the enormous popularity of the post and the speed at which it was shared" [6J.
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

Note that Teitel clearly gives her opinions in this article, but she makes no personal ref-
erences to herself. She does not have to say "1 think" or "in my opinion." Go through
the article and examine how she presents points of view-hers and others' views.
How does Teitel show that she doesn't believe the anonymous poster she dis-
cusses in Paragraphs 2-4? Discuss the words she uses to show this lack of belief.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. ballsy, adj [7] _ _ a) allowing yourself something you do

2. blight, n [2] _ _ not need
3. dubious, adj [6] _ _ b) angry, critical speech
4. incessant, adj [7] _ _ c) careful and sensible
5. inherently, adv [7] _ _ d) common existence, seeming to be
6. ordeal, n [3] _ _ everywhere
7. prudent, adj [7] _ _ e) difficult experience
8. rant, n [2] _ _ f) doubtful, not proven
9. self-indulgent, adj [2] _ _ g) naturally part of something
10. snooty, adj[l] _ _ h) newspaper that tends to report
11. tabloid, n [1] _ _ gossipy, sensational news
12. transgressions, n [1] _ _ i) not stopping
13. ubiquity, n [7] _ _ j) showing a lot of courage and
determination
k) snobbish, thinking you are better
than others
I) something that has a bad effect on
something
m) something that is against the rules

Word Focus
instagram [1]
Instagram is the name of a social media app used on mobile phones. Note that the
word is capitalized when it is used as the proper noun (the actual name of the app)
in Paragraph 5. However, it is not capitalized when used as a verb in Paragraphs 1
and 7. The verb refers to the practice of taking a photo and posting it online with
Instagram. It is common for words to change part of speech in English, such as the
practice of"verbing" nouns.
 UNIT 12: TECHNOLOGY 301

When the name of a brand becomes a regular word, it reflects a certain

status-that the word has been accepted into the language as more than a proper
noun. For example, the search engine is called Google, but the verb toJ.!oo,{!le is now
used to refer to online searches in general.
Social media are powerful forces that have made many changes to the lan-
guage. For example, because of the influence of Facebook, the word like is used as a
countable noun to say that something received a number of"likes."
Can you find other examples of word changes influenced by modern technology?

server [3]
The word server is a good example of how language adjusts to reflect social change.
The words waiter and waitress were more commonly used in the past, but server is
the preferred term now because it is gender-neutral. The term uiaitstaj]is also used.
In the same way,.flight attendant has replaced steward and stewardess. Feminine
forms such as actress have dropped out of usage in favour of actor for both sexes. In
small groups, discuss other such changes in terminology to describe people. Make a
list of some gender-neutral terms and the words they replaced.

allege [3]
Allege is a verb that means to state something is a fact but without actual proof. The
word is used a lot in crime reporting because it cannot be said that someone com-
mitted a crime before that person is convicted in court. Thus, "the alleged killer"
means that there is strong evidence the person is the killer but that it has not yet
been proven legally.

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

argue [2]

believe [7]

comfortable [7]

confrontation [8]

digitally [7]

excessive [7]

fictitious [6]

finally [2]

popularity [6]

public [6]

social [1]
302 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Sentence Structure Analysis

Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the modifi-
ers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify,

1. "Bourdain's philosophy on this subject may be highly cynical, and a bit snooty,
especially for a man who has the luxury of being around photo-worthy culi-
nary masterpieces all the time." [1J
2. "However, the biggest loss we've suffered as a social civilization may not be
manners or the art of conversation, but the art of public confrontation." [8J

...
by Gwyn Morgan

A decade has passed since BlackBerry led the transformation of mobile phones
into e-mail and Internet access devices. By the end of 2014, more than 1.7 billion
of global mobile phone users-some 40 per cent-will own smartphones.
In that breathtakingly brief period, the smartphone has transformed society
in unimaginable ways. The most Widely cited impacts are social. Pervasive e-mail
and text messaging, the phenomenal popularity of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram
and YouTube plus the vast amount of information accessible through search
engines see many users virtually unable to avoid using their smartphone for more
than a few minutes. This condition has become known as Internet addiction. It
infects children as young as two years and it's well on its way to infecting a large
part ofthe post-smartphone generation.
What does this have to do with business? A great deal, since those who
grew up in the age of smartphones will eventually comprise Canada's entire
workforce. How can people who've spent almost every waking minute fixated on
their gadgets learn thinking skills such as problem solving, strategic planning and
disciplined time management? Psychological studies don't paint an encouraging
picture.
When we go online, we enter an environment that promotes cursory reading
and hurried, distracted thinking. Surprisingly, one of the clearest enunciations of
the problem comes from an Internet veteran. Two years ago, Joe Kraus, a partner
at Google Ventures, sounded the alarm. "We are creating ... a culture of distraction
where we are increasingly disconnected from the people and events around us
and increasingly unable to engage in long-form thinking. People now feel anxious
when their brains are unstimulated ... We threaten the key ingredients behind
creativity and insight by filling up all our gap time with stimulation."
With Facebook, Twitter and other cell phone interactions, this is surely the
most socially connected generation in history. But as personal as these seem to
be, they shield the user from face-to-face interaction. And given the opportunity
for face-to-face interaction, users often prioritize their phones over the people
right in front of them.
"We are lonely, but fearful of intimacy. Digital connections offer the illusion
of companionship without the demands of friendship. We expect more from
 9

UNIT 12: TECHNOLOGY 303

technology and less from each other," says Sherry Turkle, an MIT Professor who
studies technology and society.
This helps explain why employers are finding young recruits very bright, but
awkward and deficient when working in teams or interacting with customers.
Studies by psychologists and neurobiologists point to the conclusion that the
Internet device revolution is actually rewiring brains. Mr. Kraus puts it this way:
"We're radically overdeveloping the parts of our quick thinking, distractible brain
and letting go ofthe long-form thinking, creative contemplative, solitude-seeking,
thought-consolidating pieces of our brain atrophy by not using them ... that's
both sad and dangerous."
It's dangerous from a social standpoint because constantly distracted people
who are incapable of long-form thinking will have difficulty managing their
lives. And it's dangerous economically because business success in a globally
competitive world requires undivided focus, analytical accuracy, creative problem
solving, innovative thinking and team-working skills.
10
The Internet brain seeks to fill all "gap" time tweeting, texting, e-mailing,
following Facebook "friends" and, if there's any spare minutes left, playing video
games. Is it possible to rewire the Internet-addicted brain? I wouldn't be surprised
to see"Internet withdrawal" retreat centres emerge as a new business opportunity.
And businesses should be adding "long-form thinking" to employee development
programs. The survival of their enterprises may depend upon it.

" Decem ber 20141

Notes
Gwyn Morgan is a business writer. This is why he asks "What does this have to do
with business?" [3J. He is anticipating that his audience will be wondering why he
starts by talking about social change brought about by technological change.

Comprehension
1. What is Morgan's thesis?
2. What is the point Morgan is making in the first paragraph?
3. Explain what Kraus means by "a culture of distraction" [41.
4. What is meant by "gap time" [4J?
5. What are the "key ingredients behind creativity and insight" [4]?
6. What is the problem with the social connections that are common today?
7. What do employers see as a problem with the young people who are being
hired today?
8. What does Morgan recommend in his conclusion?

Discussion
1. Discuss Turkle s pronouncement that we "expect more from technology and
less from each other" [6].What does she mean? Do you agree? Give examples
of such behaviour.
2. What are the signs ofInternet addiction?
304 PART 2: READING SElECTIONS

3. How do you fill your "gap time"?

4. Do you agree with Morgan that addiction to the Internet and electronic gad-
gets is causing serious social and economic problems? Explain.
5. Morgan argues that the younger generation needs to be rewired and
unplugged. He sees their dependence on technology as a weakness. However,
is it realistic to change a whole generation? Maybe the workplace has to adapt
to this generation. Discuss.
6. Morgan suggests a future for "Tnternet withdrawal' retreat centres" [10]. What
other kinds of services do you think our technology-dependent society could
use? Propose a possible business.

Assignments
1. In an essay, compare digital friendships to traditional ones.
2. Choose one skill that is important in todays workplace. In an essay, explain its
importance and how it is affected by the use of communication technology.
3. Is the use of digital media changing our thinking or just our behaviour? Write
an essay arguing your point of view.
4. Morgan describes the online environment as one "that promotes cursory
reading and hurried, distracted thinking" [41. Studies show that people read
differently online and that they remember more from paper books. One
report is "The Reading Brain in the Digital Age: The Science of Paper
versus Screens," by Ferris Jabr (Scientific American, 11 April 2(13). Write a
research essay on the differences between reading on paper versus reading on
digital media.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "And given the opportunity for face-to-face interaction, users
often prioritize their phones over the people right in front of them" [51.
2. Paraphrase: "And it's dangerous economically because business success in a
globally competitive world requires undivided focus, analytical accuracy, cre-
ative problem solving, innovative thinking and team-working skills" [91.
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

The first two paragraphs are an introduction, giving background information and
setting up Morgan's arguments. He is moving from facts to opinions. How effective
is this introduction? What else could he have done to introduce his argument?
Discuss Morgan's use of pronouns. Note that he avoids you, but uses a coIlec-
tive we. He does not use I until the end. How effective is this? What tone does the
pronoun use give the article?
Note how Morgan uses the opinions of others. How does he show that these
people's opinions are valuable? He quotes others but does not give full references
for the quotations as you would have to in an academic journal article.
 UNIT 12: TECHNOLOGY 305

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. atrophy, v [8] _ _ a) always thinking or focusing on one

2. comprise, v [3] _ _ particular thing
3. contemplative, adj [8] _ _ b) become weak from not being used
4. cursory,adj[4] _ _ c) come out as
5. deficient, adj [7] _ _ d) consist of, make up
6. emerge, v [10] _ _ e) existing everywhere
7. fixated, adj [3] _ _ f) lacking something
8. pervasive, adj [2] _ _ g) make something most important
9. prioritize, v [5] _ _ h) person who has recently joined an
10. recruit, n [7] _ _ organization
i) thinking quietly and seriously
about something, meditating on
something
j) without paying enough attention
to details

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

access [1]

analytical [9]

avoid [2]

competitive [9]

creativity [4]

fearful [6]

global [1]

infect [2]

unimaginable [2]
imaginable
imaginative

management [3]

strategic [3]
306 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Parts
Discuss the meaning of these words by looking at their parts:
breathtakingly [2]
neurobiologists [8]
overdeveloping [8]
unimaginable [2]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and use of the following expressions:
have something to do with something [3]
it's well on its way to ... [2]
to sound the alarm [4]

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the
modifiers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify.
a) "Studies by psychologists and neurobiologists point to the conclusion that
the Internet device revolution is actually rewiring brains." [81
b) "When we go online, we enter an environment that promotes cursory
reading and hurried, distracted thinking." [3J
2. If you overload a sentence with too many modifiers, phrases, or clauses, you
can lose track of the basic sentence structure. This can result in an ungrammat-
ical sentence and one that is confusing to the audience. In speech, this is not
too much of a problem because listeners are used to following sentences that
ramble or change direction. Transcripts of actual speech show many false starts,
hesitations, and repetitions; speech is far from the polished form we see in
written language. Journalists who report what people say often have to clean
up sentences to make them readable.
An example of an overloaded sentence that ran away from the author is
Joe Kraus's statement below. Analyze and discuss the quoted sentence to deter-
mine the core and the modifiers. Why is the sentence problematical? Discuss
ways to improve the sentence.
"We're radically overdeveloping the parts of our quick thinking,
distractible brain and letting go of the long-form thinking, creative
contemplative, solitude-seeking, thought-consolidating pieces of our brain
atrophy by not using them ... that's both sad and dangerous." [41

Communication technology such asthe smartphone has become an indispensable

tool allover the world. Astonishingly, according to a 2013 UN study, more people in the
world have access to cell phones than to toilets. The utter domination of cell phones
has taken lessthan 20 years. Millennials, those born after 1980, have had access to the
technology from their teen years and even before. Their parents, the baby boomers,
 UNIT 12: TECHNOLOGY 307

were the first generation to grow up with television, but most did not start using
computer technology until they were well into adulthood. The differing experiences
of these two generations has created a disconnect. Millennials and boomers have far
different attitudes toward the technology they both use.
Young people and their parents use technology differently in their social spheres.
Millennials depend on being able to contact their friends instantly. They arrange get-
togethers on the fly and invite friends to come and join them by sending text messages.
Boomers, on the other hand, tend to arrange social events ahead of time with fixed
time and place. Cellphones provide only a back-up contact method to confirm or
change plans. Once they do meet their friends, millennials have a hard time dragging
their attention away from their phones. Instead of conversing, they may be looking
at the screen together watching streaming video. They may even be busy sending
messages to others rather than talking to the friends that are actually there. Boomers
prefer talking to their friends face-to-face.
Technology has created a generation of multi-taskers with shorter attention
spans than their parents. The Internet experience is made up of a never-ending trail
of distractions-other links to click, beeps announcing new messages, and games and
videos to fill downtime. Constantly dealing with so much calling for their attention,
millennials have faith in their ability to multi-task. They are more likely to think they can
drive and text at the same time, for instance. Ultimately, millennials find it hard to stay
focused on one subject and get bored easily. Their parents are not unaffected by the
assault of technological distraction, but they are better able to turn it all off when they
need to. Boomers can more easily enjoy pursuits such as reading a novel or watching a
movie that does not change to another frenetic scene every few seconds.
While boomers do rely on their cellphones for both work and social purposes, their
children have evolved a dependence on their gadgets that forms an unbreakable bond.
Millennials argue that they cannot turn off their phones in class because their family
might have to contact them in an emergency (their teachers scoff at the likelihood of
this happening-their definition of "an emergency" is much more narrow than their
students'). Millennials depend on their phones instead of their memory, and much of their
memory is visual-so they will take pictures of what they need to remember. Boomers
tend to write down important information. Dependence also leads to trust: millennials
are less likely to worry about their phones getting hacked or compromised, while their
parents do not completely trust modern technology. Boomers have also come to depend
on technology, but they remember a world without such gadgets and so can find other
ways to do the same tasks. For example, a boomer could figure out the change for a cash
purchase, while a millennial would be helpless if the computerized cash register broke
down-and probably would not even make a cash purchase in the first place.
While both boomers and millennials have had their lives irrevocably changed by
technological developments, the age people are exposed to the technology makes
a big difference. Those who acquire technologies as adults can easily remember
how to live without the gadgets. Looking into the future is much more difficult than
remembering the past. The social change wrought by technological advancement
would have been impossible to predict a generation ago, so preparing for a future
more than a couple of years ahead is beyond our ability. Technology is changing our
world, and we can just go along for the ride and adapt as we can.
308 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

1. Is a prohibition against cellphones in school unfair? Discuss.

2. Explain young people's reliance on their communication devices. Use strong
arguments that would convince the skeptical older audience.
3. Are people today too dependent on communication technology?
4. Are online relationships as satisfying as face-to-face ones? Explain.
5. How do people use cellphones and other technology to insulate themselves
from human interaction? For example, does using earbuds or headphones send
a "do not talk to me" message? When does this insulation become hiding and
thus potentially dangerous? For instance, anonymous Internet posters make
hurtful and even obscene comments that they would never make if their iden-
tities were known.
6. Are we moving toward less dependence on the written word? For example,
text messages can be sent with emoji instead of words, and traditional written
instructions are being replaced by ones that rely on icons to communicate the
message. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of the change to more visual
communication.
7. Laws and regulations cannot keep up with the rapid pace of technology. For
instance, the laws protecting traditional mail do not apply to email; cyberbul-
lying is a new kind of crime; privacy laws do not cover drones looking into
your windows; and copyright laws cannot handle the type of electronic copy-
ing that is done today. Choose one such case, and discuss how the laws should
treat the case.
8. How does access to cellphones change lives in developing countries?
9. What new devices do you foresee being developed, and how would they
change our lives?
10. Both pedestrians and drivers risk their lives because of their use of smart-
phones and other electronic devices. Write an essay explaining the problem or
an essay giving solutions.
11. "Inattentional blindness" occurs when someone is engaged in a certain task
and does not register or actually see something within his or her field of vision.
One famous test is the gorilla experiment in which viewers did not see the
person in the gorilla suit because they were concentrating on something else
in the video. (You can look up this experiment and view the video online.)
Although most laws allow drivers to use hands-free devices while driving,
studies show that this practice is as dangerous as driving under the influence of
alcohol. Take a position on this issue, and write an essay arguing your point of
view. For example, you can argue that the laws should be amended to include
a prohibition on hands-free devices, or that car manufacturers should not have
so many distracting devices in cars, or that drivers need to use such devices
despite the risk.
The Environment

. . ..
by Sean Petty and Justin Trudeau

Canadians have long been proud of the mighty rivers and beautiful lakes that
make this country one of the greatest repositories of fresh water on the planet. So,
it's a sad statement about our society that we are increasingly choosing to drink
bottled water, often from foreign companies.
A recent Statistics Canada study found that three in 10 Canadian households
used bottled water astheir main source of drinking water in 2006. The study results
are surprising, as there are so many good reasons to avoid drinking bottled water.
Many Canadians buy bottled water because they think it's safer and healthier
than tap water. Certainly, advertising by bottled water companies-dominated
by images of pristine glaciers and mountain streams-leaves consumers with that
impression. The reality is that Canada's water supply-with rare exceptions-is
extremely safe. Furthermore, according to Health Canada, there is no evidence
to support the belief that bottled water is any safer than tap water. Indeed, if
anything, our tap water may well be safer and healthier than bottled varieties.
The municipal water supply is more stringently tested than bottled water
supplies. In Canada, the CBC reports that local water supplies are inspected
every day while bottled-water plants are inspected just once every three years.
In addition, according to MSN News, water-bottling plants are required to test for
coliform bacteria just once a week whereas most municipal water systems test for
the bacteria several times a day.
Consumers should also consider the safety and health risks posed by the
bottles themselves. Many plastic water bottles are made using the chemical
polyethylene terephthalate or PET. A recent study by Dr. William Shotyk, the
Canadian director of the Institute of Environmental Geochemistry at the University
of Heidelberg, found PET bottles leach a dangerous toxin called antimony into the
water they contain. The study found that the levels of antimony rise the longer
water stays in the bottle.
310 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Before reaching for bottled water, Canadians need to think about the serious
environmental consequences of their water choice. These include: release of
millions of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from manufacturing,
transport, and marketing, which contributes to global warming; depletion of
scarce energy and water resources; release of toxic chemicals into our air, land,
and water; and absorption of poisons into the food chain.
According to the Pacific Institute, the energy required to produce plastic
water bottles for the American market alone in 2006 was equivalent to more than
17 million barrels of oil and created 2.5 million tons of carbon dioxide.
Producing bottles consumes a huge amount of water too, with the
Pacific Institute estimating it takes three Iitres of water to produce one litre of
bottled water.
It also takes energy to fill the bottles; ship them by truck, train, boat, or plane
to the consumer; refrigerate them; and recover, recycle, or dispose of the empty
bottles. The Pacific Institute estimates the total amount of energy used to provide
a bottle of water to the consumer could be equal to filling 25 per cent of that
bottle with oil.
10
Unfortunately, most empty bottles-more than 85 per cent according to
the David Suzuki Foundation-are thrown into the trash. These bottles don't
just disappear-they either get buried in the landfill or they're incinerated. The
buried bottles take up to 1000 years to biodegrade and may leak toxic additives
into the groundwater. The incinerated bottles release toxic chemicals into our air.
Moreover, some of the bottles make their way into our oceans, where they break
down into increasingly tiny pieces and can enter the food chain when they're
eaten by marine animals and birds.
" The economics of bottled water are as startling as the health and
environmental considerations. While we don't tend to think of it in this way,
buying bottled water is an incredibly expensive habit: a bottle of water costs more
than a litre of gasoline. If we buy a bottle a day for a toonie from the vending
machine, we're spending more than $700 a year on water.
12
What's more, bottled water is an example of price gouging at its most
outrageous. More than one-quarter of the bottled water consumed by Canadians
is nothing more than filtered tap water. Two of the top-selling brands in Canada
are Dasani, which is owned by Coca-Cola, and Aquafina, which is owned by its
beverage rival PepsiCo.
13
As Pepsi was forced to admit last year, both brands take the water they
bottle directly from municipal water systems; Dasani uses water from Calgary and
Brampton taps while Aquafina usestap water from Vancouver and Mississauga.
14
Shocking, isn't it? These companies are taking our tap water, which on average
in Canada costs us less than one-tenth of a cent per litre, filtering it, although it is
already perfectly clean, and selling it back to us at a markup that can be several
thousand times its original price.
15
What's perhaps even more galling is that not only is the consumer paying
exorbitant prices for filtered tap water but the taxpayer is also heavily subsidizing
 UNIT 13: THE ENVIRONMENT 311

these companies on the back end by allowing them to draw water from municipal
systems that were built with their tax monies.
16
From a marketing perspective, bottled water is unquestionably one of the
great success stories of modern times. However, from a social, environmental,
and economic perspective, the success of bottled water has created a myriad of
problems.
17
Responding to these problems, governments, universities, schools,
companies, and restaurants around the country have stopped buying and selling
bottled water. They are thinking before they drink. You can too.

'11 August 200Rj

Comprehension
1. What is the main argument of this article?
2. Why do so many Canadians drink bottled water?
3. Why is tap water safer than bottled water?
4. Why is plastic an environmental hazard?
5. Where do many bottled water companies get their water from?
6. Why do the authors say that bottled water producers are gouging consumers?
7. Why do the authors say that bottled water is a marketing success?

Discussion
1. Do you drink bottled water? How often? Why? Will this article change your
practice?
2. Are the authors' arguments sound? Give counter-arguments.
3. What can people do in their everyday lives to lessen environmental damage?
4. Is it feasible to stop the use of bottled water? Are there occasions when its use
is justified, such as when travelling or buying take-out food? Discuss.
5. Do you feel pressured to follow more environmentally sound practices?

Assignments
1. Although ideally products are designed and made to meet human needs, often
the need is as manufactured as the product. Petty and Trudeau show that bot-
tled water is unnecessary. Consider another product for which the perceived
need is exaggerated. Write an essay explaining why.
2. While consumers should reduce their use of bottled water, an outright ban on
the product would be going too far. In an essay, explain when bottled water is
necessary, giving guidelines for its use.
3. Petty and Trudeau say that "Canada's water supply-with rare exceptions-is
extremely safe" [3]. One of those exceptions was the contamination of drink-
ing water in Walkerton, Ontario, in May 2000. Research the event, and write
an essay or give an oral report explaining the causes or the results.

-
-------_....
312 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

4. Petty and Trudeau call Canada "one of the greatest repositories of fresh water
on the planet" [11. This fact makes Canadians take fresh water for granted.
What happens as a result of this attitude?

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "Many Canadians buy bottled water because they think it's safer
and healthier than tap water. Certainly, advertising by bottled water compan-
ies-dominated by images of pristine glaciers and mountain streams-leaves
consumers with that impression" [3].
2. Paraphrase: "What's perhaps even more galling is that not only is the consumer
paying exorbitant prices for filtered tap water but the taxpayer is also heavily
subsidizing these companies on the back end by allowing them to draw water
from municipal systems that were built with their tax monies" [15].
3. Write a one-paragraph summary (no more than 100 words) of this article.

Structure and Technique

Petty and Trudeau's essay follows a similar structure to that of an academic essay
even though it is more journalistic in style. Specifically, it has the short paragraphs
necessary for newspaper-writing. The article has a clear thesis, three main argu-
ments, and two supporting points for each argument. Identify these elements in the
essay, and write them in the following outline.
Thesis:

1. Main argument:
a) Supporting point:
b) Supporting point:

2. Main argument:
a) Supporting point:
b) Supporting point:

3. Main argument:
a) Supporting point:
b) Supporting point:

Consider the three main arguments. Are they presented in a logical and effect-
ive order? Which argument do you consider the strongest? Would you use the same
order? Explain why or why not.
Note how the authors show other people's opinions in Paragraph 3. They use
the phrases "they think" and "leaves consumers with that impression," but then they
say "The reality is ..." More on distinguishing opinions can be found in Unit 8,
page 234.
 UNIT 13: THE ENVIRONMENT 313

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. biodegrade, v [10] _ _ a) burned up

2. depletion, n [6] _ _ b) change back to a natural state
3. exorbitant, adj [15] _ _ through the action of bacteria
4. galling, adj [15] _ _ c) making somebody angry because
5. gouging, n [12] _ _ of an unfair situation
6. incinerated, adj [10] _ _ d) much too high (usually used
7. leach, v [5] _ _ with cost)
8. pristine, adj [3] _ _ e) reduction in the amount of
9. startling, adj [11] _ _ something to the point that there is
10. stringently, adv [4] _ _ not enough
f) remove a chemical from something
as the result of water passing
through it
g) strictly
h) surprising, shocking
i) taking too much money from
somebody with no justification
j) very clean, pure

Word Focus
bottled water
In the phrase "bottled water," bottled is an adjective-the past participle formed
from the verb to bottle (which means to put liquid in a bottle), so it refers to
water that has been put in a bottle and is sold that way. However, students some-
times write "bottle water" by mistake. This expression would not mean the same
thing-it would refer to water that would be put in a bottle, but it is not a usual
expression at all.
"A bottle of water" would refer to a specific bottle and is therefore countable.
You can say,"I want to buy three bottles of water." "Bottled water" is not countable
because water and other liquids are not countable. When Petty and Trudeau want to
refer to a single bottle, they say "a bottle of water" [9 J.
When people say something like "I want a water," it is not really grammati-
cal-it is considered an ellipsis, a short form, standing for "a bottle of water." This
is similar to the way people say "let's go for a coffee"; it is a short form for "a cup
of coffee."
Petty and Trudeau also refer to "plastic water bottles" [5]: This refers to
the bottles that are used for water. They refer to the factories as both "bottled-
water plants" [3j and "water-bottling plants" [41; these terms are synonymous, but
"water-bottling" has more emphasis on the action of putting the water in the
bottles. Note that both these adjectives are hyphenated.
 r
314 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Go through the article to check the use of the words bottle and water. Look
at the verb forms and determiners that show that bottle is countable while water is
uncountable. (See pages 208-9 for more on countable and uncountable nouns.)

subsidize [15]
Subsidize is a verb. The participles subsidizing and subsidized are used as adjectives.
What are the two noun forms? Fill in the correct forms of the verb or the noun in
the blanks in the sentences. What adverb collocates with the adjective subsidizing in
the reading?

a) There are too few daycare spaces.

b) After the rule infractions, they decided to withdraw the _

c) The provincial government the education costs.

d) Family farms would not survive without _

toxic [6]
What is the opposite of the adjective toxic?

Here are four definitions corresponding to four different nouns related to the word
toxic. Use your dictionary to find the word for each definition.

a) a poisonous substance:
b) the scientific study of poisons:
c) blood poisoning, infection of the blood:
d) the quality of being poisonous:

municipal [4]
The adjective municipal refers to city government. What is the noun form? What
other adjectives ending in -al are used to describe levels of government in Canada?
Give the noun form of each.

myriad [16]
The expression "a myriad of" is similar to "a host of," which is discussed in the
Word Focus note on page 321.

toonie [11]
Every day new words are invented. Some catch on while others don't-this can
make for some fascinating stories.
The one-dollar coin was introduced in Canada on 30 June 1987. While
many coins and bills have nicknames (such as penny, nickel, dime, quarter, buck), these
names are not officially designated by the Royal Mint or the Bank of Canada. The
one-dollar coin is officially referred to as a "one-dollar coin."
 UNIT 13: THE ENVIRONMENT 315

The image on the first one-dollar coin was of the Canadian bird, the com-
mon loon. It did not take long for people to start calling the coin "a loonie," The
word loonie is now firmly established in the Canadian lexicon. (Be careful of the
spelling so as not to confuse loonie with loony, which means "crazy" and is a short
form of lunatic.)
The loon, however, was not the first-choice design for the coin. The coin was
supposed to feature two voyageurs in a canoe, showing the importance of the fur
trade in Canada's history. However, the master dies for the coin were lost in tran-
sit to the Mint in Winnipeg. To prevent counterfeiting, the Mint used a different
design. It is interesting to ponder what the nickname of the coin would have been
with the original design. It is safe to say that a nickname would not have been so
easily coined.
This brings us to the story of the word toonie, which is not as interesting a
tale, but the word would not exist if it were not for loonie. The two-dollar coin was
introduced on 19 February 1996. It featured a polar bear. Many suggestions were
bandied about for a nickname: "doubloon" (as in "double loon") or "bearback."
However, toonie, a combination of tum and loonie, won out.

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:
-- -------

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

beautiful [1]
-~

belief [3]
-- ~- __.-
. - _ . ~ - - _ .

- -

choice [6] n/a

-- - - - f------._-

consider [5]
---------

economic [16]
economical
--- - - - - - - - - - . - - - f--- -~

perfectly [14]
- ---------- --

produce [7]
1-------- -------- -- 1------ - - -

n/a proud [1]

1----- ---- I------

risk [5]
--._.-

sad [1]
------ ------ -- --

safe [3]
-------------

success [16]
._._-----

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _A
316 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Parts
Discuss the meaning of these words by looking at their parts:
increasingly [10]
unquestionably [16]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
to leave somebody with an impression (How is this different from "to
impress somebody"?)
to support a belief that (How is this different from "to believe"?)
to pose a risk

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Analyze the structure of the following passage. Identify the main subject and
verb and the antecedent of the pronoun these in the second sentence. Explain
the use of the colon and semicolons.
"Before reaching for bottled water, Canadians need to think about the
serious environmental consequences of their water choice. These include:
release of millions of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from
manufacturing, transport and marketing, which contributes to global
warming; depletion of scarce energy and water resources; release of toxic
chemicals into our air, land and water; and absorption of poisons into
the food chain." [6]

2. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. What are the
phrases and clauses, and what do they modify?
a) "However, from a social, environmental and economic perspective, the suc-
cess of bottled water has created a myriad of problems." [16 J
b) "According to the Pacific Institute, the energy required to produce plastic
water bottles for the American market alone in 2006 was equivalent to
more than 17 million barrels of oil and created 2.5 million tons of carbon
dioxide." [7]

3. Compare the use of as in these two sentences from Paragraph 2:

a) "A recent Statistics Canada study found that three in 10 Canadian house-
holds used bottled water ~ their main source of drinking water in 2006."
b) "The study results are surprising, as there are so many good reasons to
avoid drinking bottled water."
What is the difference between the two uses of as? Which of the two could be
replaced by another word? Which words would work as a replacement?
Analyze the two sentences. Find the core of the sentence (the main subject
and verb). Identify clauses and phrases.
r
UNIT 13: THE ENVIRONMENT 317

by PeterShawn Taylor

It could be worse. Cathy Cirko could be the official spokesperson for the Somali
Brotherhood of Pirates,or the Mosquito BreedersAssociation. As it is, Cirko is vice-
president of the Canadian Plastics Industry Association and the country's chief
advocate of plastic shopping bags.
The once-ubiquitous plastic bag has quickly become an environmental
bogeyman in Canada. Earlier this month, citing concerns over litter and landfill,
Toronto launched the country's first municipal bylaw requiring all stores to charge
a five cents per bag fee to discourage their use. Several retail chains-including
Home Depot and Canada's largest grocer, Loblaw Co. Ltd.-have taken the
fee nationwide. Emboldened by the speed with which this policy has moved,
environmental groups are now talking of the day when plastic bags will seem
as repellant as in-flight smoking sections. "It's taking off everywhere as people
realize this is the next right thing to do:' says Steven Price,the senior conservation
director of the World Wildlife Fund.
Tasked with the unenviable job of defending plastic bags in the face of this
momentum, Cirko has fought back with a host of independent scientific studies
and government data that appear to undercut the substantive arguments made
against the bags. "Even if we assume every plastic bag went straight to the dump,
it would only represent 0.2 per cent of the 25 million tonnes we send to landfills
annually," she says, citing federal and provincial documentation. And she points to
a 2007 Decima poll that found more than eight out of 10 Canadians reused their
shopping bags for household garbage or pet waste.
She also notes a 2006 City of Toronto street litter audit that examined 4300
individual pieces of garbage at 300 sites citywide. Of this total urban detritus, just
six were plastic retail shopping bags. That's 0.15 per cent of total litter.
"Bags are not a litter issue, and they are not a landfill issue," she says. "And
we have the numbers to show that. Unfortunately, this has become an emotional
issue rather than a debate based on facts. It is very frustrating." She argues
municipal efforts would be better directed towards recycling plastic rather than
discouraging its use.
Glenn de Baeremaeker, a Toronto councillor, is the architect of his city's bag
bylaw. The ardent environmentalist disputes the notion that bags are a minor
issue."Nothing is insignificant," he says. "We are drowning in a sea of garbage. So
we are coming after plastic bags, and we are coming after everything else that's
bigger as well." From disposable coffee cup lids to consumer electronics, it is all in
his sights. De Baeremaeker argues that beyond the practical benefits of reducing
landfill usage, if only by a tiny amount, his campaign is emblematic of a broader
issue."The plastic bag is a symbol of our wasteful and gl uttonous lifestyle. It all has
to change."
Still, it's hard to escape the sense that the plastic bag crusade is largely a
political statement. The bags, for instance, are frequently held up as the biggest
blight on the world's oceans. But this month, the United Nations Environmental
318 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Programme (UNEP) released a major report on marine waste which cited garbage
T
cleanups along the Mediterranean Sea showing plastic bags accounted for just
8.5 per cent of total marine litter. Cigarettes and cigars were 37 per cent, plastic
bottles, 10 per cent. With respect to entanglement of marine life, a 2007 study
identified fishing nets, lines, and ropes as being responsible for over 70 per cent
of such incidents. Plastic bags, including garbage and shopping bags, caused
less than 10 per cent. The report recommended that bag use be "discouraged" in
coastal areas. Instead, the executive director of the UNEP, Achim Steiner, issued
a press release calling for a sweeping worldwide ban on "pointless" plastic bags.
Based on the evidence, a ban on fishing line, plastic bottles, or cigarettes would
make more sense.
Then there's the possibility that, regardless of the symbolism, throwaway plastic
bags might simply be better than the alternatives. Cirko also commissioned two
independent labs to examine the health implications of replacing plastic shopping
bags with reusable woven "green" bags. Bags randomly obtained from shoppers
were tested for bacteria, yeast, mould, and E. coli. The results were then interpreted
by Dr. Richard Summerbell, the former chief of medical mycology for Ontario.
The tests found surprisingly high levels of bacteria in two-thirds of the
reusable bags. One-third had levels above those set for safe drinking water. The
fact that some people used the bags to carry items other than food-gym clothes
or beer empties-greatly increased the risk.
10
"This study provides strong evidence that reusable bags could pose a
significant risk to the safety ofthe food supply if used to transport food from store
to home," Dr. Summerbell concluded. He recommended that all meat be double-
wrapped before being placed in reusable bags and that the bags themselves be
washed and discarded regularly. None of the throwaway bags were found to be
contaminated in any way.

12July 20091

Notes
In 2012, the City ofToronto rescinded the bylaw making retailers charge for plastic
shopping bags and voted against a proposed ban on their use. However, some gro-
cery store chains and other stores continue to charge for shopping bags.

Not mentioned in the article, but important to understand, are other problems that
surface in the battle against the plastic bag. Biodegradable bags do not work well
unless they are placed in composting; they contaminate the recycling stream. People
who do not have grocery bags to recycle as bags for their garbage may turn to buy-
ing bags especially for these purposes; these garbage bags, however, are made with
more plastic and are only used once, which is more wasteful.

Comprehension
1. Explain the first sentence. What does it refer to?
2. Who is Cathy Cirko?
3. What is being done to reduce the use of plastic bags?

l
 UNIT 13: THE ENVIRONMENT 319

4. What are the main arguments that Cirko gives? What does she mean when
she says "this has become an emotional issue" [5J?
5. What is de Baerernaeker's position? How does he justify it?
6. What point is being made with all the figures given in the article?
7. What is the problem with reusable grocery bags?

Discussion
1. Although Taylor presents both sides of the argument, he reveals a bias. What is
his opinion about plastic bags? How do you know?
2. Discuss Taylor's reference to the made-up groups: "the Somali Brotherhood of
Pirates" and "the Mosquito Breeders Association."What point is he making? Is
the point made effectively?
3. Where do you stand on the plastic bag issue? Do you use reusable bags? Why?
4. What kind of controls should be placed on plastic bags? Should they be
banned? Could an education program be enough to curtail use? Should there
be no controls?
5. Do you think it was right to target plastic bags in this way? Is there any pollu-
tion that you think is worse?

Assignments
1. Write an essay giving your opinion on the controls on plastic bags.
2. Write an essay on either the benefits or the problems of one specific kind of
recycling.
3. Choose one garbage problem (such as excessive packaging, discarded elec-
tronic equipment, or paper diapers), and suggest solutions in an essay.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "The once-ubiquitous plastic bag has quickly become an environ-
mental bogeyman in Canada" 12].
2. Paraphrase: "Tasked with the unenviable job of defending plastic bags in the
face of this momentum, Cirko has fought back with a host of independent
scientific studies and government data that appear to undercut the substantive
arguments made against the bags" 131.
3. Paraphrase: "Glenn de Baeremaeker, a Toronto councillor, is the architect of
his city's bag bylaw. The ardent environmentalist disputes the notion that bags
are a minor issue. 'Nothing is insignificant,' he says. 'We are drowning in a sea
of garbage. So we are coming after plastic bags, and we are coming after every-
thing else that's bigger as well.' From disposable coffee cup lids to consumer
electronics, it is all in his sights" [6].
4. Write a one-paragraph summary of this article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

Taylor reports on other people's words, findings, and opinions. Note how he uses
both quotes and indirect speech. (You can refer to Unit 8, pages 244-45, for an
explanation of these forms.) Are the quotes effective? Are there any that should be
indirect speech instead?

c
 320 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Taylor starts his article with an attention-grabbing sentence, "It could be

worse," which forces people to read the second sentence to find out what the it
refers to. He repeats the verb form could be to show that he is expanding on the
first sentence. In an academic essay, however, you should start your body paragraphs
with nouns, not unidentified pronouns, to make your writing clear.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. advocate,n[l] _ _ a) campaign to get something done;

2. ardent, adj [6] _ _ long war
3. audit, n [4] _ _ b) disagree with something
4. blight, n [7] _ _ c) existing everywhere
5. bogeyman, n [2] _ _ d) having strong positive feelings for
6. crusade, n [7] _ _ something
7. detritus, n [4] _ _ e) leftover bits; waste material
8. dispute, v [6] _ _ f) monster; somebody or something
9. emblematic, adj [6] _ _ that people think is evil
10. ubiquitous, adj [2] _ _ g) official examination ofthe standard
of something
h) person who publicly supports
something
i) something that spoils or damages
something
j) that represents or is a symbol of
something

Word Focus
cite [2, 7], site [4], sight [6]
The words cite, site, and sight are homophones (words that sound the same) that can
be easily confused. Here is a chart, partially filled in, to help you distinguish the
three words. Fill in the blanks. Use your dictionary when you are not sure.

Cite Sight Site

Part of speech noun (usually)

Basic meaning location

Related words citation (noun)

Fill in the blanks with cite, sight, or site:

a) The environmental study did not approve of the proposed of

the factory.
I
~- - - -__- - - - - - - - -.. . .L
 UNIT 13: THE ENVIRONMENT 321

b) Double-decker -seeing buses are popular among tourists in

many large cities.
c) Students must be careful to correctly their sources when they
are writing a research essay.
d) It is not wise to rent a place unseen.

e) The web was taken down after many people complained.

host [31
English has a few expressions that follow the pattern "a _ _ of" and mean "many."
Taylor refers to "a host of independent scientific studies" [3], and in the first article
of this unit, Petty and Trudeau refer to "a myriad of problems" [16]. Both of these
expressions are formal English. In contrast, "a lot of" is a conversational expression
that should be avoided in academic writing. "A number of" can be used in both
academic and conversational English.
All four expressions take a plural form of the verb (as in "a number of mistakes
were made") even though by strict grammatical rules they could be considered
singular. Compare this to the sentence "each of the students needs a book" where a
singular form of the verb is used.

green [8]
Taylor refers to "reusable woven 'green' bags." The word green is often used to
describe actions or products that are better for the environment. There can be con-
fusion with the reference to green as just a colour. This confusion was played on
with reusable shopping bags that had the slogan "This is a green bag" printed on
them whereas they were actually black in colour.

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

argument [3]

benefit [6]

disposable [6] n/a

emotional [5]

identify [7]

political [7]

safety [10]

significant [10]
322 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Parts
Discuss the meaning of these words by looking at their parts:
emboldened [2]
unenviable [3]
undercut [3]
reused [3]
insignificant [6]
disposable [6]
entanglement [7]
reusable [9]

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Note the use of the verb form be in the sentences with the verb recommend:
a) "The report recommended that bag use be 'discouraged' in coastal areas." [7J
b) "He recommended that all meat be double-wrapped before being placed
in reusable bags and that the bags themselves be washed and discarded reg-
ularly." [101
In formal styles of English, verbs such as demand, insist, recommend, and
require take the base form of the verb in the that clause. This is called the sub-
junctive; in English, its use is slowly dying out. In less formal styles, which
word would replace be in the above sentences?
Discuss the structure of the sentences and the verb forms used in these
sentences and in the additional examples below:
c) She insisted that he take the earlier train.
d) They demanded that the candidate be approved by the vetting committee.
e) The agreement required that the manager review the recommendations
before the changes could be implemented.

2. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the
modifiers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify.
a) "Emboldened by the speed with which this policy has moved, environ-
mental groups are now talking of the day when plastic bags will seem as
repellant as in-flight smoking sections." [2]
b) "Tasked with the unenviable job of defending plastic bags in the face of
this momentum, Cirko has fought back with a host of independent scien-
tific studies and government data that appear to undercut the substantive
arguments made against the bags." [3J
c) "Based on the evidence, a ban on fishing line, plastic bottles, or cigarettes
would make more sense." [7J
Note the similarity of the sentence structure: Each sentence starts with a
phrase describing the subject of the sentence-it is important that the phrase
does in fact describe the grammatical subject, as shown here:
a) Environmental groups are emboldened by the speed ...
Environmental groups are now talking of the day ...
b) Cirko is tasked with the unenviable job ...
Cirko has fought back ...
 UNIT 13: THE ENVIRONMENT 323

c) A ban would be based on the evidence ...

A ban ... would make more sense ...
Refer back to Reducing Clauses to Phrases (pages 86-87) if you need
more help understanding this sentence structure.

The environmental movement has done a good job informing people about
the need to be kinder to the earth. Canadian students learn the three R's-reduce,
reuse, and recycle-in elementary school, and they influence their parents to be more
conscious of environmental damage in their everyday lifestyle. However, Kermit the
Frog's lament "It's not easy being green" can be applied to consumers' attempts to
reduce harm to the environment. Despite their best intentions, people run into
problems trying to follow such practices as recycling goods, reducing consumption,
and buying environmentally friendly products.
Although recycling may be the most visible victory of the environmental
movement, it is often impractical. Not everything can be reused or recycled. As anyone
who has tried to downsize knows, it is often hard to find a new home for items such as
furniture and books-even charities do not want them. It feels wasteful to throw things
in the garbage, but sometimes that is the only option. Recycling actually takes energy
to collect, sort, clean, and ship items. Most important, there may not even be a market
for the recycled goods. Metal, glass, and paper usually can be more easily recycled than
plastics, which vary greatly in composition and type. People feel good about recycling,
but most do not realize that some of the items they have so carefully placed in blue
boxes get dumped into landfills by municipalities because recycling can be costly.
Although one solution to the problems of reusing and recycling is to buy less in
the first place, this is also easier said than done. People should buy goods that do not
need to be replaced as often, but the market is flooded with cheaply made stuff, and
it is hard to find or even recognize better quality goods. Appliances and furniture do
not seem to last as long as they once did, and the cost offixing them can outweigh the
cost of replacing them. The high-tech industry tempts consumers with newer, flashier
gadgets, causing people to throw out perfectly usable cell phones after only months
of service. In addition, conscientious consumers are stymied when they try to avoid
excessive packaging; if they want an item, they get the styrofoam, oversize packages,
and unopenable clamshell plastic caseswith it.
Even the products that are presented as "greener" choices have their dark side.
For example, compact fluorescent bulbs contain mercury, which makes disposal tricky.
Batteries from some electric cars can also be toxic. Plastic shopping bags are considered
an environmental scourge, but reusable green bags are contaminated with bacteria,
and bans on the bag force people to buy bags for their garbage instead of reusing the
ones from the grocery store. Local fruits and vegetables do not have to travel as far,
but if growing conditions are not as favourable, more water and fertilizer may have to
be used to produce them. Moreover, choosing truly eco-friendly products is difficult
because many companies use misleading claims on their packaging; this established
practice even has its own term, "greenwashing." For example, the term "all natural" is
324 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

not a regulated term, so it can fool buyers. Consumers would need extensive education
to ensure that they are making environmentally sound choices.
From the purchases shoppers make to the way they dispose of products,
environmentally conscious decision-making is fraught with difficulty. However, this
does not mean that people should just throw up their hands in surrender. They need
to do what they can because the environment is so important. They must complain
to manufacturers and government agencies about systemic problems such as
greenwashing and over-packaging.

1. Canadians today spend less time outdoors. How can this affect their awareness
of environmental damage?
2. Most Canadians depend on their personal vehicles for everyday transportation.
How can they limit environmental damage from their cars?
3. Write an essay comparing the environmental situation in Canada with that
in another country you are familiar with. You can compare people's attitudes,
government actions, or the state of pollution.
4. Some people follow vegan diets (which do not allow any animal products) for
environmental as well as health reasons. Write an essay about the advantages or
disadvantages of veganism (or vegetarianism).
5. Research a huge garbage problem, such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch or
space junk, and explain the problem.
6. When considering global warming, many people confuse weather and climate.
Write a definition paragraph explaining the difference.
7. Choose one environmental problem, and write an essay explaining causes or
effects.

--_.-~~---------------------_ .......-
r!

Citizenship

by Salim Sachedina
On July 16, I will be celebrating 47 years in Canada.I could delay writing this article,
in anticipation of a rounder figure-say, half a century. But at my somewhat
advanced age, it is better to act in the present.
I was among the first wave of immigrants to arrive in Canada after 1962, when
the government abolished the previous, racist immigration policies with a more
balanced merit-based approach.
I remember landing in Toronto on a sunny Saturday afternoon in 1967. My
benefactors and friends, Pat and Geri Clever, came to pick me up at the airport.
They'd sponsored me and my family, sight unseen, to Canada (a story in itself-
but one I will save for another day).
My first memories of Toronto remain vivid to me. The TD Centre was under
construction; the new City Hall had just opened a year earlier; and the old
Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce building on King Street West was the tallest
building in the British Commonwealth.
But otherwise, Toronto was a dull city then, a poor cousin to the dynamic
and progressive Montreal. Those were the days when we Torontonians went to
Buffalo, N.Y., to have some fun.
I lived in an apartment complex north of Maple Leaf Gardens with my first
wife, Farida, and our son Abdul, who was almost two years old when we arrived
here. I remember that when we took a walk on Yonge Street, my wife, clad in
a sari, caused a few heads to turn. Many had never seen a woman dressed that
way before. Toronto has indeed come a long way. That year, the 1966-67 hockey
season,was the last time the Maple Leafswon the Stanley Cup. Hockey was new to
me. But if I had known then how long it would be until the event repeated itself, I
would have indulged more in the celebration.
There are two stages to the immigration process-the physical and the
emotional. The former is achieved as soon as one sets foot in the new land. The
latter can take decades. Unless one achieves both, there will always be a longing
326 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

for one's home country, where the sun is thought to shine brighter; the sky bluer;
the sea warmer.
Achieving emotional immigration depends on one's purpose. Immigrants
who come with no other goal except to get rich will never settle fuliy as an
immigrant until that goal is achieved. But in my case, the goal was to live in
a country that was politically stable, offered law and order, and provided an
opportunity for children to get the education they deserve. These advantages
became available to me the moment I set my foot in this great land. I never looked
back. This was home, I told myself.
I quickly started to adopt the values of my new environment-which meant
discarding certain notions I'd brought from overseas. When I think of issues
connected to culture and values, I use the analogy of a glass of water filled to the
rim. You can't add anything fresh to it unless you are willing to dump out some of
the existing contents.
10
Canada's history became my history. I started to learn more about my new
country-its history, its arts and literature, its political structure. I even picked a
favourite prime minister: Sir Wilfrid Laurier.
11
I stopped seeing myself as a hyphenated Canadian, even if my double
identity is of interest to demographers and pollsters (and to politicians who seek
to package their politics to suit my presumed tendencies). I have no use for the
religious and ethnic leaders who have resolved to live in a fish-bowl under the
pretext of multiculturalism. As Laurier would say: "I am a Canadian first, last and all
the time." In time, the lyrics of Gordon Lightfoot, Stompin' Tom Connors and Joni
Mitchell became as relevant to me as songs by Lata Mangeshkar and Mohammed
Rafi about social injustices in my father's homeland of India. The narratives by
Margaret Atwood about Canadian life now resonate as well as Moyes Vasanji's
stories echoed my early days in Tanzania.
12 I remarried, to a wonderful woman named Honey. She is Jewish and I, a
Muslim. Canada is one of the few countries where such a union could not only
take place but also flourish without danger or controversy.
13 I have never taken Canada for granted. And I have shared my love and
appreciation ofthis country with all of my four children: Abdul, Najeeb, Jeremy and
Hamida. I am also proud to say that I have never missed voting in an election-
municipal, provincial or federal.
14
Canada is no Utopia. I know that. No human institution is. The country has
built-in conflicts, between English and French. Its historical treatment of Aboriginal
peoples is shameful, not to mention more mundane problems of governance
and equity.
15 Yet at the same time, Canadians are resolved to go forward and tackle these
problems, in a spirit of respect and harmony. We exhibit those qualities far more
often than not.
16
I love my country. There is no other like it, and certainly no other place I would
rather live. On Canada Day weekend, I will be one of those proudly standing on
guard "for thee."

12K June 2013]

 UNIT 14: CITIZENSHIP 327

Comprehension
1. Explain the title.
2. When did Sachedina come to Canada? What made his arrival possible?
3. What does Sachedina mean by a "merit-based approach" [2J?
4. What is the picture that Sachedina paints of Toronto? How was it different
from what it is today?
5. Explain what Sachedina means by the two stages of the immigration process.
6. Explain the author's analogy in Paragraph 9. Do you think what he says is valid?
7. Why would Sachedina s ethnic identity be of interest to demographers, poll-
sters, and politicians? Discuss.
8. What did Sachedina do to become Canadian?
9. Why is Sachedina proud to be living in Canada?
10. What is Sachedina referring to in the last five words of the article?

Discussion
1. Do you think Sachedina had the right approach to immigration? Discuss.
2. What makes a successful immigrant?
3. Discuss the various reasons that people immigrate to Canada.
4. Does the reason that an immigrant comes to Canada make it easier to adapt to
the new life? For instance, does an immigrant fleeing a war-torn country find
it easier to settle than one who is coming for economic reasons? Discuss.
5. What kind of values do you think are better discarded by new immigrants to
Canada? What kind of values should be retained?

Assignments
1. What factors determine how easily immigrants adapt to living in Canada?
Write an essay.
2. Write an essay explaining why it is important to vote in elections.
3. Research one of the Canadian icons Sachedina mentions in Paragraph 11,
and write a paragraph explaining why that person is important to Canada. Or
choose another notable Canadian, and explain why that person is important.
4. Sachedina says Laurier is his favourite prime minister. Who would you pick?
Explain why.
5. Write an essay comparing the personal essay "No Hyphen for Me" and the
short story "Why My Mother Can't Speak English" (pages 353-58). Choose
one basis of comparison. For example, you could discuss the differences
between the citizenship experiences of the mother in the story and those of
Sachedina.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "But otherwise, Toronto was a dull city then, a poor cousin to the
dynamic and progressive Montreal" [5].
2. Paraphrase: "There are two stages to the immigration process-the physical
and the emotional. The former is achieved as soon as one sets foot in the
new land. The latter can take decades. Unless one achieves both, there will
328 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

always be a longing for one's home country, where the sun is thought to shine
brighter; the sky bluer; the sea warmer" [7].
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

This is a personal essay in which the author tells something of his own life story.
"Why My Mother Can't Speak English" (pages 353-58) is also the story of an
immigrant, but it is autobiographical fiction told in a short story. Both are narra-
tives, but a short story is told much differently from a personal essay. Note the use of
dialogue in the short story. The short story also covers a shorter amount of time but
in more detail. Discuss the differences in narration.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context from the reading to match each word to its definition:

1. abolish, v [2] _ _ a) be officially responsible for an

2. benefactor, n [3] _ _ immigrant to Canada, giving
3. clad, adj [6] _ _ financial support if necessary
4. demographer, n [11] __ b) be successful and happy
5. equity, n [14] _ _ c) dressed in, clothed in
6. flourish, n [12] _ _ d) garment made of a long, thin cloth
7. mundane, adj [14] _ _ wrapped around the body, worn by
8. pollster, n [11] _ _ women in South Asia
9. sari, n [6] _ _ e) be in harmony with
10. sponsor, v [3] _ _ f) not interesting or exciting; ordinary
11. resonate, v [11] _ _ g) officially end a practice of something
12. tackle, v [15] _ _ h) person who gives money or other
support to someone or something
i) person who studies population
j) situation where everyone is treated
fairly and equally
k) someone who determines public
opinion by asking questions
I) try to solve a difficult problem

Word Focus
even [10,11]
Even is an adverb used to strengthen or intensify. It is used just before the surprising
part of a statement.
EvenJohn was pleased with the results.
I even got my nails done.
I couldn't even see the stitching; it was so fine.
She started working even faster when the bell rang.
 UNIT 14: CITIZENSHIP 329

Even thou,Rh is stronger than although but is used in the same way. A common ESL
error is to use even as a conjunction, but it cannot stand alone to join sentences-it
must have an accompanying conjunction to make even thouc"Zh, even if, or even when.
Even if the mini-skirt does come back into fashion, I wouldn't be caught dead
wearing one.
Even though Monica spent a fortune on her outfit, she didn't look half as good
as Rachel.

Alter the following sentences by adding the word even. See in how many positions
even will fit in each sentence.You might have to make slight alterations to the sentence:

a) If Fred had notified us a day earlier, I would have been able to fix the prob-
lem with less effort.
b) Although Fatima couldn't see the alterations, she approved the new design
as a better choice.
c) I had to follow the template, so I couldn't use Jamie's suggestions.
d) If! raised the hemline and took in the seams, the dress wouldn't look better.

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

appreciation [13]

bright [7]

construction [4]

political [10]

repeat [6]

respect [15]

rich [8]

shameful [14]
ashamed

stable [8]

warm [7]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
live in a fish-bowl [11]
sight unseen [3]
set foot in [7]
take something for granted [13]
330 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Sentence Structure Analysis

Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the modifi-
ers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify.

1. "Immigrants who come with no other goal except to get rich will never settle
fully as an immigrant until that goal is achieved." lHJ
2. "When I think of issues connected to culture and values, I use the analogy of
a glass of water filled to the rim." [91

by RudyardGriffiths

I have to make a confession: I am a citizen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain

and Northern Ireland.
Yes, even though I have just written a book declaring how special it is to be a
Canadian and admonishing Canadians to be better citizens, I am one of the more
than three million of us who hold a second passport. Mine entitles me to vote in
British elections, attend, at reduced cost, some of the world's finest universities
and, should I wish, leave Canada to work and live in Britain hassle-free.
It also bestows on me the rights of full membership in the European
Community, so I could conceivably take up residence in Tuscany, vote for the next
president of Slovenia or accept a job, if my Ontario high-school French were up
to it, with the Acadernle francaise, And, like all dual citizens, I can confer these
benefits on my children and spouse.
4
In not-so-subtle ways, my British passport represents a kind of standing
invitation, should things not work out for me in Canada, to take part in one of
the world's great social, political and economic experiments. There is something
undeniably impressive about the fact that half a billion Europeans are fashioning a
common civic identity from 27 states, 23 languages and a $17-trillion economy.
But I have come to the conclusion that Canada will not survive the coming
decades in its current form if more and more of its Canadian-born citizens continue
to live, as I have, with the mental gymnastics of dual citizenship.
As I argue in Who We Are:A Citizen's Manifesto, the scale and complexity of the
challenges Canada will soon face are like nothing we have experienced in living
memory. When the social and economic effects of our fast-aging population and
rapid climate change begin to hit home-starting in 2020 and then intensifying
relentlessly as we move toward the mid-century mark-it is inevitable that
Canadians' collective flight-or-fight instincts will kick in.
Those who choose to fight will respond to the stresses racking our society
with a spirit of solidarity and self-sacrifice. Others, driven by the flight instinct,
will act out of self-interest and self-preservation. Which of these two instincts
ultimately triumphs depends, in no small part, on how we each imagine our place
in Canada.
 UNIT 14: CITIZENSHIP 331

I became a dual citizen a decade ago for sentimental, rather than practical,
reasons. I wanted to acknowledge how choices made by my parents and
grandparents had helped to shape my life.
But I cannot deny that it introduced an element of doubt as to whether my
allegiance to Canada is, in fact, unconditional.
10
Who is to say that after living for another decade in a country struggling to
cope with rapid ecological change, the financial burdens of a greying society or
some yet-unfathomed crisis, I will not end up finding a convenient rationale to
justify leaving for William Blake's "green and pleasant" land?
11
We all must decide, whether our families have been here for generations or
only a few years, that Canada is where we will make our collective stand. If we are
to thrive in the difficult period that lies ahead, there can be no opting out when
the going gets tough.
12
We may be called upon to make many sacrifices, which will be especially
difficult for those who are not rooted in Canada by a strong sense of history or
place, and are quick to judge the value of citizenship by the access it provides
to the highest quality of life for the fewest obligations. As a result, I believe it's
essential for the country's long-term well-being that it return to a version of the
pre-1977 practice of annulling the citizenship of Canadian adults who voluntarily
and formally acquire the citizenship of another country.
13 At this point, the measure should apply only to natural-born citizens (whether
living at home or abroad) with at least one parent who is a Canadian citizen.
14
Such a law would have two important objectives. It would impress on those
born here that there is no opt-out clause in their social contract with Canada.
15
It also would let all aspiring citizens know that assuming Canadian citizenship
has an important, permanent and unavoidable consequence: The children you
have once you become a citizen will be Canadian and nothing more.
16 That said, I do not believe it is reasonable to mandate that newcomers to
Canada renounce the citizenship of their homelands. First-generation immigrants
feel far more pressure to retain a second passport. It allows them to visit their
extended families unimpeded and to keep up business relationships that may be
integral to their livelihood here-and to the Canadian economy, which benefits
from these global links.
17
But for the 750,000 Canadian-born adults who voluntarily became dual
citizens, plus the millions of second-generation Canadians who will be born in the
coming decades and, for the most part, will be legally entitled to claim a second
citizenship, the time has come to acknowledge that dual citizenship does Canada
a disservice.

17 March 200')1

Notes
Rudyard Griffiths is the co-founder of the Dominion Institute. This article is
adapted from his book Who We Arc: A Citizen's Manifesto. Griffiths was born in
Canada but acquired his dual citizenship because he had a parent born in Britain.
332 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Each country has different, and sometimes complicated, rules as·to who is consid-
ered a citizen. For instance, a country's government may confer official citizenship
on anyone born in that country and may extend it to children and even grand-
children of their citizens, even if the children were born elsewhere. In addition,
immigrants can become citizens of their new country through naturalization;
immigrants who have permanent resident status can apply for Canadian citizenship
after three years in the country. Some countries, like Canada, allow dual citizenship.
For instance, immigrants can keep the citizenship of their country of birth even
after they are naturalized as Canadian citizens. Second-generation immigrants born
in Canada can acquire citizenship from their parents' native country.

Griffiths is quoting from the last line in William Blake's poem "Jerusalem": "In
England's green and pleasant land" [10]. The poem is sung as a well-known English
hymn and anthem.

Comprehension
1. What citizenships does Griffiths hold?
2. Why does he use the word confession in his first sentence?
3. What are the advantages of having British citizenship?
4. Explain what Griffiths means by" one of the world's great social, political and
economic experiments" [4].
5. Griffiths refers to two specific challenges that Canada faces in the coming
years. What are they?
6. Why does the author think that first-generation immigrants should be allowed
to have dual citizenship but not the second-generation?

Discussion
1. Do you agree with Griffiths? Should second-generation Canadians not be
allowed to hold dual citizenship? Would you renounce a second citizenship?
2. If you have dual citizenship, where do your loyalties primarily lie? Explain
why.
3. Is attachment to a home country more than eating the food and cheering for
the sports teams? Discuss. What does patriotism mean in a global society?
4. Do you think Griffiths will give up his British citizenship? Explain why or
why not.
5. Griffiths imagines different places he could live in Europe. If you could live
anywhere in Europe, where would you choose to reside? Why?
6. What makes Canada such an attractive destination for so many immigrants?

Assignments
1. What are the responsibilities of a Canadian citizen? Explain in an essay.
2. Write an essay arguing for or against dual citizenship.
 UNIT 14: CITIZENSHIP 333

3. Griffiths refers to the European Union as "one of the world's great social,
political and economic experiments" [4J. However, this article was written
in 2009, and it could be argued that the experiment is currently not going
so well. Choose a recent problem Europe is facing, such as the dissatisfaction
of foreign workers or the economic strains of poorer countries on the union.
Write an essay explaining how the problem affects the whole union.
4. Dual citizenship is a controversial issue. Consider the following questions, and
choose one issue for an argument essay. Specific examples are given to help
you research the question.
a) How much should Canada do to get its citizens out of trouble when they
are in a country where they also hold citizenship? Consider cases such
as the evacuees from the war in Lebanon in 2006 and Mohamed Fahmy
imprisoned in Egypt in 2013.
b) Should high-ranking politicians and government officials be allowed to
keep dual citizenship? Consider, for example, former Governor General
Michaelle Jean (2005) and NDP Leader Thomas Mulcair (2012).
c) How are dual citizens treated differently than other Canadians? Consider
the 2015 cases of Zakaria Amara and Saad Gaya and the Harper govern-
ment's StrengtheninJI Canadian Citizenship Act.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "But I have come to the conclusion that Canada will not survive
the coming decades in its current form if more and more of its Canadian-
born citizens continue to live, as I have, with the mental gymnastics of dual
citizenship" [5].
2. Paraphrase: "Who is to say that after living for another decade in a country
struggling to cope with rapid ecological change, the financial burdens of a
greying society or some yet-unfathomed crisis, I will not end up finding a
convenient rationale to justify leaving for William Blake's "green and pleasant"
land?" [10].
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Use no more than 100 words.

Structure and Technique

Griffiths starts with a personal example: He has dual citizenship. After four
paragraphs explaining the advantages, he changes direction. Discuss how he
accomplishes it. Does he offer clues before Paragraph 5, or is his twist a surprise to
the reader?
Note that in Paragraph 11 Griffiths introduces an inclusive we. What effect
does this have on his argument?
334 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. admonishing, v [2] _ _ a) continued support for a person

2. allegiance, n [9] _ _ or institution
3. conceivably, adv [3] _ _ b) give somebody an honour or
4. confer, v [3] _ _ a right
5. disservice, n [17] _ _ c) make or shape something
6. fashion, v [4] _ _ d) make somebody do something
7. hassle-free, adj [2] _ _ officially
8. mandate, v [16] _ _ e) not obvious
9. relentlessly, adv [6] _ _ f) possibly
10. subtle, adj [4] _ _ g) something harmful to someone
11. triumph, v [7] _ _ or something
12. unimpeded, adv [16] _ _ h) telling someone that he or she has
done something wrong
i) win, succeed
j) without being stopped or
blocked
k) without problems or trouble
I) without stopping, refusing to
give up

Word Focus
opt out [11,14]
The verb opt means to choose; it is related to the noun option. It can be followed by
for, against, in, or out, or it can be followed by an infinitive (as in "he opted to refuse
the transfer").
Phrasal verbs, such as opt out, are written as separate words, but they are
hyphenated when they become adjectives or nouns. If the nouns become estab-
lished as compounds, they may lose the hyphen. Study these examples:
He opted out of the excursion to see the Mayan temple.
There are no provisions for anyone to opt out.
The opt-out box has to be checked.
The instructor asked the students to hand out the assignment instructions.
That instructor gives his class too many hand-outs.
We need to log off when we finish the work, but the log-off instructions are
complicated.
My daughter likes to dress up. She has a trunk full of dress-up clothes.

- - - - - -__..L
 UNIT 14: CITIZENSHIP 335

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

collective [6, 11]

* convenient [10]
inconvenient

financial [10]
--

formally [12]

impressive [4]

intensify [6]

invitation [4]

opt[11]

rationale [10]
rationalization

voluntarily [12]

*Note that the verb is a negative form.

Sentence StructureAnalysis
Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the modifi-
ers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify

1. "Those who choose to fight will respond to the stresses racking our society
with a spirit of solidarity and self-sacrifice." [7]
2. "But for the 750,000 Canadian-born adults who voluntarily became dual cit-
izens, plus the millions of second-generation Canadians who will be born in
the coming decades and, for the most part, will be legally entitled to claim a
second citizenship, the time has come to acknowledge that dual citizenship
does Canada a disservice." [17]

Voting is important in a democracy and an obligation of every citizen. However,

turnouts in Canadian elections are embarrassingly low, averaging about 60 percent
of eligible voters. Moreover, many voters put little thought into their support for a
candidate, some just voting along party lines or casting a ballot for the incumbent.
However, civic engagement is every citizen's duty. Good voters must educate
themselves, think critically, and vote strategically.
336 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

First, voters need to be well-informed. They need to know the issues and the
candidates. The best way to do this is to read the newspaper regularly. Newspapers
report on local, provincial, and national issues, giving more information than television
news shows can ever cover. Journalists' investigative reporting uncovers scandals
and crimes such as outrageous expenses claimed by politicians. In addition to factual
stories, newspapers contain op-ed pieces, regular columns, and letters to the editor
analyzing the political issues and offering a wide range of opinions. Voters can also
read campaign literature and watch debates. The more information they acquire, the
better informed they will be when they cast their vote.
Using their amassed knowledge, voters must develop critical thinking skills.
Politicians pander to the voters and make promises based on what they think will get
them elected, so voters need to evaluate the validity of different claims. For example,
vowing to build a subway without increasing taxes is a claim that defies common
sense and economic logic. When something sounds too good to be true, it probably is.
Therefore, voters have to decide when and which politicians are playing fast and loose
with the facts.
Good voters may also have to vote strategically. In provincial and federal elections,
Canadians do not cast a vote for the premier or the prime minister; they can only decide
who their riding representative will be. The leader of the party with the most elected
representatives in the House then comes into power. Therefore, both the individual
candidate and political party are important to consider. Voters have to weigh many
factors to make their decision. They have to know how to play the politics game. By
voting with their heart, they may split the vote and help elect a candidate that might be
harmful to their interests. For instance, citizens who strongly believe the environmental
issues facing us today are of utmost importance may favour Green Party policies, but
if the Green Party candidate has little chance of gaining a seat, environmentalists
might be better off casting a vote in favour of another candidate who also values the
environment, perhaps a Liberal or New Democrat, in order to prevent another less
environmentally conscious candidate from taking the riding.
Being a responsible voter does take effort. Casting a ballot is an important part of
living in a democracy. It is a responsibility that should not be taken lightly, especially in
consideration of the many countries around the world that do not hold free elections.
With more emphasis on civics in school curricula, students can be taught to recognize
their right and responsibility to vote.

1. Research a specific group of immigrants, such as the Vietnamese boat people

or the Irish in the 1850s. Summarize why they came to Canada, how they
were treated, and how they fared.
2. Write an essay explaining how you think new immigrants to Canada should
be chosen. What should be the most important criteria?
3. What should be the criteria for being granted citizenship in Canada? For
example, how long should immigrants have been residents of Canada? How
well should they be able to speak English or French? What type of test should
 •

UNIT 14: CITIZENSHIP 337

they pass? Write an essay detailing what you think are reasonable criteria,
explaining why.
4. Should Canadian citizenship be taken away from someone? Under what
circumstances?
5. The citizenship oath has been challenged in court because it requires swear-
ing allegiance to the Queen. Should those seeking Canadian citizenship be
required to swear this oath?Write an essay arguing your point of view.
6. Should high-calibre athletes from other countries be fast-tracked for Canadian
citizenship so that they can compete for Canada in the Olympics?
7. Should amnesty be granted to illegal residents, especially children, if they have
been living here for many years and contributing to our society?
8. On 20 July 2015, the Ontario Court of Appeal agreed with the federal
Conservative government that ex-pats living abroad for more than five years
could not vote in federal elections. Should all Canadian citizens have the right
to vote?
Clothing

••
by BevAkerman
Not long ago, my 15-year-old son received a detention. He had to stay after school
not for inappropriate language or behaviour but because his shirttail was untucked.
Although I usually allow room for some embellishment-and even, at times, truth-
twisting-in his version of events, I believe him on this one. And that's because I've
become acquainted with the Uniformists. In Quebec, they're among the parents,
teachers, and school administrators on the governing boards that run the schools.
My three children, all in the public system, go to elementary and high schools
with strict dress codes. I've never been completely in favour of all this uniformity.
When I was in kindergarten in 1965-66, I had to wear a navy, box-pleated tunic
to school. Not long after that, the school abandoned this requirement because,
according to the then-latest thinking, wearing a uniform stifled self-expression and
creativity. Now, the received wisdom is quite different: uniforms are supposed to
"create an environment conducive to learning" and a sense of "community among
students." Fair enough, I suppose, given the intense, competitive consumerism
and cliquishness that plague many schools today.
Still, I have a number of questions, starting with: How much uniform is uniform
enough? All my kids and all their schoolmates wear some variation of white shirts
and grey flannel skirts or slacks. The school my 15-year-old attends also insists on a
particular brand of shoe. I can understand requiring a certain style, but no one has
yet explained to me why one make should be sanctioned. Meanwhile, both schools
keep changing which style of shirt they deem acceptable. Oxford, T-shirt, polo-
who can keep track? And the latest dictates: monograms on collars or pockets.
So why all the white and grey? Do we want our schools to be sensory
deprivation zones? I see nothing wrong with letting a child wear a blue, pink, or
yellow shirt as long as it's in the prescribed style. Besides,there's the environmental
degradation that keeping white shirts white is causing-I'd never used bleach
before my kids entered these schools!
I have other concerns. Our high school has a devoted cadre of volunteers who
run the uniform store, generating tens of thousands of dollars a year. This money is
put toward many things that really are the school board's responsibility: new musical
340 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

instruments, a fresh coat of paint more than once every seven years,equipment for
classrooms, computers, libraries, etc. It also gets spent on extras: lavish graduation
exercises, an unbelievable number of academic prizes for graduates, European
exchange trips. So requiring students to wear uniforms, in effect, functions as an
invisible school fee, over and above the taxes we all pay. Maybe if we were more
up-front about this we'd demand more money from our governments, or at least
that our school boards make better use of the existing funds.
The surprising truth is most parents I speak with feel the uniforms are
a blessing: they are relieved to not have daily arguments about appropriate
dress. As for the school officials, it seems one reason they've chosen a particular
monogrammed shirt is that it's only available in adult sizes. The previously
acceptable shirt was also available in children's sizes, which on some high school
girls were extremely tight and skimpy.
But I question whether we are really doing our kids any favours by abdicating
our authority to the school bureaucracy. Parents need to face head-on the
challenges these uniforms try to cover over with grey flannel. If we have a problem
with the downright sluttish dress of some of our daughters, tattoos, body piercing,
or outlandish hair colour, we should deal with these things ourselves. Buck up,
people! Learn to say, "No, that is not appropriate dress for school. When you
are a responsible adult, you can choose whether or not to conform to society's
expectations." No further explanation necessary.
Finally, I suspect the Uniformists have a secret motivation behind their
fashion agenda: it makes public schools resemble, in the most superficial way, the
exclusive private schools that pepper my Montreal neighbourhood. I simply do
not share that aspiration. We should be proud that our kids go to public schools,
where all races, religions, and socio-economic groups form a community-just
like the real world they will eventually enter.
My kids love their schools. And I'm grateful for all the hard work the decimated
custodial staff, devoted teachers, concerned administrators, and dynamic parent
volunteers put in. I know-and so does my son-that by his age, he shouldn't be
wandering about with his shirttail hanging out. But I wish the administration was
more concerned with the originality of my kids' minds and less concerned about
the conventionality of their dress. In the final analysis, shouldn't their education be
more about content and lessabout form?

[7 March 20051

Notes
The terminology for different kinds of schools differs from country to country
and even from province to province in Canada. History explains the split between
public schools and separate schools. When Canada became a country in 1867, there
were two main ethnic groups-English Protestants and French Catholics-so two
public school systems were set up according to both language and religion.
As Canada became multicultural, some provinces were left with the legacy of
the split system. In Ontario, for example, the schools serving English Protestants
became the public system for students of all religions, with a further division into
 UNIT 15: CLOTHING 341

French and English systems depending on linguistic area. The separate school sys-
tem is essentially for those of the Catholic faith but not exclusively so. However,
other religious groups do not have public school funding, although private schools
may be established for specific religious groups.
Private schools in Ontario do not receive tax funding, so parents pay hefty school
fees to send their children there. While private schools can be religion-oriented,
many are elitist institutions, the kind referred to by Akerman as "exclusive" [8].
School uniforms are more commonly worn in private and separate schools
than in the public system.

Comprehension
1. What is the main argument in this article?
2. Why did Akerman's son receive a detention? What is her complaint about this?
3. What is the author's personal experience with uniforms?
4. What argument for wearing uniforms does she accept as valid?
5. What objections does she have to the colours of uniforms?
6. Explain her complaint about what the funds from selling uniforms are used for.
7. What objections does she have to parents letting the schools dictate what is
acceptable clothing?
8. What does she see as an advantage of the public school system?

Discussion
1. Do you think more Canadian schools should adopt uniforms? Why or why
not? Discuss your experience with school uniforms.
2. Do Canadians dress too casually? Consider work as well as school.
3. What is your opinion about "tattoos, body piercing, or outlandish hair colour"?
4. Should religious schools be funded by the government? Why or why not?
5. Are private schools better than public schools? Discuss the advantages and dis-
advantages of both kinds of education.
6. Akerman refers to the "intense, competitive consumerism and cliquishness
that plague many schools today" [2]. Discuss this statement. Is it true? How
does consumerism and cliquishness manifest itself? What are the problems
they cause?
7. Consider the educational necessities and luxuries Akerman lists in Paragraph
5. What do you think are the basics that should be covered in government
funding? What are luxury items that could be paid for through parents' and
students' fund-raising activities?

Assignments
1. Write an essay for or against uniforms in high school.
2. In an essay, explain how appearance can affect a person's life.You may want to
narrow the topic down to focus on one aspect such as clothing choice, phys-
ical features, or body art.
3. Write a classification essay explaining different diques that existed in your
high school.
4. Are teenagers today too materialistic? Write an essay explaining your view.
342 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

5. What rules and guidelines should parents set down for their teenagers' appear-
ance? Explain your choices.
6. Write a paragraph (or essay) comparing business suits and school (or work)
uniforms.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase, in impersonal, academic English: "Buck up, people! Learn to say,
'No, that is not appropriate dress for school. When you are a responsible adult,
you can choose whether or not to conform to society's expectations.' No fur-
ther explanation necessary" [71.
2. Paraphrase: "But I wish the administration was more concerned with the orig-
inality of my kids' minds and less concerned about the conventionality of their
dress. In the final analysis, shouldn't their education be more about content
and less about form?" [91.

Structure and Technique

This essay is less formal than an academic essay would be. It contains personal ref-
erences, sentence fragments, sentences that begin with conjunctions, exclamation
marks, overuse of questions, and conversational expressions. Identify examples of
this type of usage, and explain what could be used instead in an academic essay.
This essay clearly gives the author's opinions. Notice the repeated use of I.
She starts many of her points with phrases like "I question,''''1 suspect," and "I have
other concerns.t'This emphasizes that she is disagreeing with the school policies.
The author moves from relating a specific incident that happened with her
son to other problems. Explain how she gets to other problems. What are the logi-
cal connections?

language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. embellishment, n [1] _ _ a) added details to a story that are not

2. stifled, v [2] _ _ true but make it more interesting
3. conducive, adj [2] _ _ b) to bother or annoy somebody or
4. plague, v [2] _ _ something
5. sanctioned, v [3] _ _ c) allowing something to happen easily
6. deem, v [3] _ _ d) consider, think
7. dictates, n [3] _ _ e) give up one's responsibility for
8. lavish, adj [5] _ _ something
9. abdicate, v [7] _ _ f) large, impressive, expensive
10. superficial, adj [8] _ _ g) officially accepted or approved
h) on the surface only, not deep
i) rules, regulations
j) stopped from happening or
developing
 UN\! '5: ClQ1HING 343

Word Focus
conventionality [91
Conventionality is an example of a noun made from an adjective, conventional; another
noun form is convention. Use your dictionary to find the different meanings of con-
vention.Which meaning is the one that relates to the meaning of conventionality?

cliquishness [21
Cliquishness is a noun formed from an adjective (cliquish) formed from a noun (clique).
Another adjective form is cliquey. Clique is usually pronounced "cleek" although some
people pronounce it as "click." The word refers to a small, exclusive group of people
and generally is used for the groups formed in high school. It has a negative connota-
tion. The word is originally French (as you can tell by the -que ending).
Paragraph 5 has another French word for a group of people. Find the word,
check its meaning, and determine how it is different from the word clique.

uniform and dress

The word uniform is primarily an adjective meaning "of one form." It became a noun
to refer to army uniforms (and then other uniforms) as a shortening of "uniform
dress." Note that the noun uniform is countable, as in "he wears a uniform to work."
You won't find the word Uniformist in your dictionary. Akerman has essentially
made the word up. It is a proper noun (it starts with a capital letter). In English, the
-ist ending denotes a person who believes in something, so Akerman is using the
word to describe those in favour of school uniforms and a strict dress code.
Note that even schools without uniforms can have a dress code. The term dress
rode (which is a compound noun) refers to clothing rules in general. For example,
T-shirts printed with obscene slogans are not allowed in most schools' dress codes.
The word dress can be confusing. It is both a verb and a noun, and the noun has
a different meaning depending on whether it is used as a countable or uncountable
noun. Study these example sentences and the use of the word in the reading.

She hates wearing a dress. dress as a countable noun refers to a

woman's article of clothing
She prefers casual dress. uncountable use of dress to refer to
clothing in general
The play was presented in modern dress. uncountable use of dress to refer to
clothing in general
I don't know how to dress for the party. dress as a verb
He likes to dress up for special dress up is a phrasal verb meaning to
occasions. dress in special clothing such as formal
Ken refuses to dress up for the clothes (the opposite is dress down) or
Halloween party. to dress in a costume.
She'll be ready soon. She is just getting toget dressed means to put on clothing
dressed.

See also the note on clothes/clothing on pages 348-49.

344 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

creativity [2]

competitive [2]

variation [3]

acceptable [3]

prescribe [4]

responsibility [5] n/a

unbelievable [5]
believable

argument [6]

exclusive [8]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
to receive/get/have a detention [1]
to run a school (or other institutions) [1]
to be in favour of something [2]
to keep track of something [3]
to see nothing wrong with something [4]
money put toward something [5]
to do somebody a favour [7]
to face something head on [7]
buck up [7] (informal, idiom)

SentenceStructure Analysis
1. Identity the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identity the
modifiers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify,
a) "If we have a problem with the downright sluttish dress of some of our
daughters, tattoos, body piercing or outlandish hair colour, we should deal
with these things ourselves." [7]
b) "Although I usually allow room for some embellishment-and even,
at times, truth-twisting-in his version of events, I believe him on this
one." [1]
2. Identity the part of speech of the words underlined in the following sentences.
Explain how the sentence structure tells you the function of the word. Both
words are more commonly used in another part of speech. Which one?
 UNIT 15: CLOTHING 345

a) " ... it makes public schools resemble, in the most superficial way, the exclu-
sive private schools that ~ my Montreal neighbourhood." [8]
b) "I can understand requiring a certain style, but no one has yet explained to
me why one make should be sanctioned." [3]
3. Akerman uses parenthetical dashes in Paragraphs 1,3,4,8, and 9. Review the
section Hyphens and Dashes," page 99, and then study how she uses them in
her sentences.

by RobertEverett-Green
Dress codes used to be a way of indicating what kind of place or event you were
going to. Now the term is almost a form of abuse, as shown by the ruckus raised
when Arcade Fire said that people attending its forthcoming shows should come
in "formal attire or costumes."
Nothing the Montreal band has done, said, written or recorded has had such
sneeringly bad press, though from my years as a music writer I know that rock
critics tend to resent any clothing more formal than a faded band T-shirt.
They're missing the point this time, which is that a dress code can create an
occasion, by getting people to do something in harmony with a lot of others they
don't know.
An audience that dressesfor a show is an engaged audience, especially when
the code is as open as "formal attire or costumes." The wonder isn't that Arcade
Fire put out such a request, but that other bands don't.
We already have a massive public event with a dress code that is universally
accepted. It's called Halloween, and I'll bet that a lot of people grousing about
Arcade Fire's call for costumes didn't raise a murmur when the pumpkins were
out, just a couple of weeks earlier.
Last weekend I attended another event at which everyone dressed to rule,
and no one complained about it. WORN Fashion Journal's periodic Black Cat Ball
is a black-and-white affair, and few people who go to the Toronto event fail to
execute some riff on that simple contrast.
It would be a very different party if they didn't. The thought and effort that
go into making your appearance a variation on a common theme give the ball the
feeling of a creative social experience.
A lot of people at the Black Cat Ball dressed to stand out, which is contrary
to the traditional purpose of dress codes, especially at the formal end of the
spectrum. "Formal and semi-formal clothes leave less leeway for individuality,
hence less room for error," says my 1954 copy of Esquire Etiquette. Dress codes
were a way of defusing anxiety, not stirring it up.
When clothing started to become less formalized, a decade or so after that
book was published, dress codes started to seem 'more like the universal dad's
way of spoiling the fun. Restaurants that keep racks of jackets and ties to impose
346 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

on men who arrive without them are the worst thing that ever happened to
dress codes.
10
The second worst is probably the kind of hedged terminology-"casual black
tie," for example-that sets up a puzzling dissonance about what is expected.
11
But where a dress code has an organic origin or is well-established, it can be
hard to displace. The Queen's annual race meeting at Ascot has been held since
1711, and is "the last large-scale court occasion with strictly enforced dress rules,"
writes Philip Mansel in his 2005 book, Dressed to Rule:Royal and Court Costume
from LouisXIVto ElizabethII.
12
Women at Ascot must wear "formal day dress with a hat"; for men, "black or
grey morning dress with top hat is required." In 1968, these rules were relaxed so
that men could wear a business suit, but the change was abandoned after two
years, "since so few men wanted to wear it."
13 Presumably they felt that without formal dress, Ascot wouldn't be Ascot.
What people wear is a key part of the event.
14 That's what Arcade Fire had in mind: to get its audience to help make the
occasion with the clothes. "It just makes for a more fun carnival when we are all in
it together," they said. A similar idea is visible at any goth or metal concert, where
fans tend to dress within a carefully structured code without prompting.
15
From the outside, a uniform look among people who attach themselves to a
kick-it-over sensibility in music can seem comical, but from the inside, it's part of
the experience, part of being in the crowd and with the band.
16
Arcade Fire's error, apparently, was to ask. But what they're asking seems to
me a great idea, and could make these concerts among their most satisfying.
17
Say yes to dress codes, rock fans. You have nothing to lose but your
inhibitions.

[2 December 2013]

Notes
Arcade Fire is an acclaimed rock band from Montreal.

Ascot refers to a town in Berkshire, England, where the Queen's special horse race,
The Royal Ascot, occurs each year.

"Black-and-white affair" refers to formal parties where people wear only black
and white.

Comprehension
1. What did Arcade Fire do, and what was the reaction?
2. What is the thesis of this article?
3. What three specific examples does Everett-Green draw on to make his point
about the value of dressing up?
4. Explain "the traditional purpose of dress codes" l8j.
 UNIT 15: CLOTHING 347

5. Explain the point the author is making in Paragraphs 9-11. Explain the dis-
tinction he is making when he disapproves of the restaurant "racks of jackets
and ties" [9J and "hedged terminology" [lOJ but approves of"a dress code that
has an organic origin or is well-established" [11 J.
6. How did Ascot change its dress code in 196H and then in 1970?
7. Explain "Goth or metal concert" [14 J. How do fans of these types of music
tend to dress?

Discussion
1. Do you agree with Everett-Green? Why or why not?
2. Are events like concerts and theatre presentations special enough to require
less casual clothing? Discuss what you think is appropriate attire.
3. Do you think Canadians dress down too much?
4. What do you think is suitable work attire for an office? Are you in favour of
casual Fridays? Why or why not?
5. What is your personal style of clothing? Why do you prefer such clothes?
6. Do you enjoy Halloween? Do you like wearing a costume? Explain why or
why not.

Assignments
1. Clothing terminology can be confusing. Much of it relies on minor dis-
tinctions. For instance, how does a tuxedo differ from a regular suit? Write a
paragraph comparing two similar articles of clothing.
2. The Ascot horse races are famous events in England. Look up "Ascot dress
code."Write a paragraph summarizing what the dress code specifies.
3. Halloween has become a major holiday in North America. Research its ori-
gins and customs and how it has changed over the past generation. Write an
essay explaining the evolution of Halloween as a holiday.
4. Write a paragraph explaining "cosplay" (short for "costume play") among sci-
ence fiction and fantasy fans.
5. Write a comparison essay on two different styles of music culture, such as
goth, heavy metal, punk, or grunge.
6. Write an essay explaining the importance of dressing appropriately for events.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "That's what Arcade Fire had in mind: to get its audience to help
make the occasion with the clothes. 'It just makes for a more fun carnival
when we are all in it together,' they said" [14]. Be sure to use indirect speech
for the quotation.
2. Paraphrase: "a dress code can create an occasion, by getting people to do some-
thing in harmony with a lot of others they don't know" [3].
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of the article. Do not exceed 100 words.
348 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Structure and Technique

Note how the author takes a specific news story (criticism of Arcade Fire's request
that concert-goers dress up) and uses it to make general statements about formal
and special attire. This is a common journalistic technique, since a journalist's job is
to relate news events to a wider context.
Everett-Green quotes the Arcade Fire pronouncement twice, in the first para-
graph and in the fourth. But in the second quote, two words are italicized. What is
the point of the italics?

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. dissonance, n [10] _ _ a) complain

2. grouse,v[5] _ _ b) feelings of shyness
3. inhibitions, n [17] _ _ c) happening in a slow and
4. leeway, n [8] _ _ natural way
5. murmur, n [5] _ _ d) improvisation; a variation on a
6. organic, adj [11] _ _ theme
7. riff, n [6] _ _ e) in a way that shows no respect
8. ruckus, n [1] _ _ f) lack of agreement
9. sneeringly, adv [2] _ _ g) noisy argument
10. spectrum, n [8] _ _ h) say something in a soft, quiet
voice
i) range of related qualities or ideas
j) room or freedom to change
something

Word Focus
clothes/clothing
The words cloth, clothes, and clothing can be difficult for students to use correctly.
Clothes and clothing are synonyms, but clothes is often more specific to the owner,
and clothing is more general. Both words are nouns, but clothes is a plural form with
no corresponding singular, and clothing is uncountable. Cloth refers to the material
used to make clothes and is not the singular of clothes.
Fill in the correct word (more than one word may be possible):

a) After his growth spurt, all his were too small.

b) Her wedding dress is made of some shiny , perhaps satin.

c) She was still wearing her work when we met.

d) I need a damp to clean this mess up.
r

UNIT 15: CLOTHING 349

e) The immigrant family needed to buy winter _

f) The store has re-opened after the fire.

Here are some other words that refer to clothing: apparel, attire, dress, garment,
wear, and wardrobe. Find out the difference in meaning and usage. For example,
which words are countable? Write a sentence for each word. See also the note on
the words uniform and dress, page 343.

few [6]
The determiner Jew can be tricky to use correctly. First, it is used with countable
nouns, while little is used with uncountable nouns. The determiners much and many
show the same distinction.
Examine the following example sentences, and mark each noun as countable
or uncountable:
She has few friends and little interest in keeping them.
A few students complained that there was too much homework.
Many people attended the party, so it was crowded and there was too
much noise.
Becauseso many applications had to be processed, much time was lost.
The second characteristic to note is that Jew and little change in connotation if
the indefinite article a is used before the determiners.
Note the differences in connotation:

Few people attended the after-party. focusing on the negative-not

many

A few people attended the after-party. focusing on the positive-some

I have little time now, so I'll have to do focusing on the negative-not

it later. enough

I have a little time now, so I can do it. focusing on the positive-enough

Fortunately, few people were lost. focusing on the positive-not many

were lost

Unfortunately, a few people were lost. focusing on the negative-some

were lost

Thus, "few people who go to the Toronto event fail to execute some riff on that
simple contrast" [6] is saying that most people who attend wear the appropriate
clothing. Note that you have two negative expressions here: "few people" and
"fail to."
350 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

abuse [1]*

accept [5]

carefully [14]

create [3]

execute [6] n/a

--

formal [1]
informal

harmony [3]

indicate [1]

individuality [8]

resent [2]
-~

variation [7]

*Note the pronunciation of the different parts of speech for this word.

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meaning and usage of the following expressions:
to rise to the occasion [title]
used to be [1]
to raise a ruckus [1] [This was used in the passive voice in the article.]
bad press [2]
to miss the point (of something) [3]
(to do something) to rule [6]
to stand out [8]
to leave leeway for something [8]
room for error [8]
strictly enforced [11]
nothing to lose [17]

Sentence StructureAnalysis
1. Identify the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identify the
phrases and clauses, and determine what they modify.
a) "Arcade Fire's error, apparently, was to ask." [16J

- - - - - - - -__L
 UNIT 15: CLOTHING 351

b) "The thought and effort that go into making your appearance a vari-
ation on a common theme give the ball the feeling of a creative social
experience." [7J
c) "What people wear is a key part of the event." [131
2. Explain the use of the modal verb would in the following sentences. What
kinds of sentences are these? Paraphrase and explain each sentence.
a) "It would be a very different party if they didn't." [71
b) "Presumably they felt that without formal dress, Ascot wouldn't be
Ascot." 113J

Dressing up in costumes is more than just child's play. Most cultures have traditions
such as theatre, masquerades, and pageants. In North America, Halloween has become
a billion-dollar industry, mostly driven by adults' costumes and parties. In addition, the
popularity of superhero comic books has led to conventions where many fans indulge
in "cosplay"-dressing up as their favourite fantasy character. Wearing costumes has
become a widespread activity because it allows people to extend their hobbies, take
on new identities, and garner attention.
Instead of just reading fantasy books and watching movies or television shows, fans
of different genres can go a step further into actually acting out life in their favourite
world. Wearing replica uniforms, history buffs can take part in battle re-enactments.
The Society of Creative Anachronism allows people to pretend to live in medieval
times. Fans of the television show The Walking Dead can sport ghoulish makeup and
lurch down the street in a zombie walk. Live Action Role Play (LARP) allows people
to play games in character, perhaps imagining a post-apocalyptic world. Dressing up
adds another dimension to the fans' enjoyment of their fantasy.
People are also attracted to costumes because they can become someone
different from their ordinary selves. The clothing, along with masks and makeup, not
only changes a person's appearance but also permits him or her to shed inhibitions.
Actors point out that costuming is an important part of their craft, that they can
assume the character's traits more readily as soon as they get dressed and made up.
Shy people, especially, find it easier to interact with others if they are wearing a mask
or makeup. They may have dull everyday jobs, but they can become superheroes when
they go to conventions. Costume-wearing becomes escapism.
Costumes also offer people a chance to be in the limelight. Other people clamour
to take selfies with costumed characters. For those in costume, there is a great feeling
in being noticed, in being the centre of attention, in being worthy of a shared moment
with strangers. Moreover, since many of the costumes are homemade, the wearers get
to show off and take pride in their handiwork. Costume competitions allow the wearers
to bask in admiration and even profit from prizes. Wearing a costume can even lead to a
way to make a living. Costumed characters have become part of the landscape in places
such asTimes Square where they get paid for posing for photographs with tourists.
Wearing costumes has always been part of human history, but its recent
popularity shows its range of possibilities and the benefits wearers garner from the
 352 PART 2: READING SElECTIONS

outfits. The trend shows no signs of abating. It is fed by an entire industry, spanning the
manufacture of costumes to the blockbuster movies centring on comic book heroes
and villains. Modern adults do not want to abandon their toys as they grow up.

1. Choose an item of clothing that has significance in a religion, such as a nun's

habit, the yarmulke, the hijab, the niqab, the burqa, or the Sikh turban. Explain
the significance of the item and any controversy surrounding it.
2. Is women's clothing oversexualized? Discuss.
3. In today's marketplace, it is difficult to find gender-neutral clothing and toys.
Girls are supposed to wear pink and play with dolls. Boys' clothes are festooned
with trucks and robots. Even toys like building blocks are divided into girls'
and boys' versions. In an essay, discuss the causes or effects of such marketing.
4. Write a paragraph describing your best Halloween costume.
5. Watch the movie The Devil VVears Prada. Write a review of the movie. Or write
an essay agreeing or disagreeing with the movie's central argument about the
importance of the fashion industry.

..-.------------------__L
Fiction Readings

by Garry Engkent

My mother is 70 years old. Widowed for five years now, she lives alone in her own
house except for the occasions when I come home to tidy her household affairs.
She has been in gum san for the past 30 years. She clings to the old-country ways
so much that today she astonishes me with this announcement:
"I want to get my citizenship:' she says as she slaps down the Dai Pao,"before
they come and take away my house."
"Nobody's going to do that. This is Canada."
"So everyone says:' she retorts, "but did you read what the Dai Pao said? Ah,
you can't read Chinese. The government is cutting back on old age pensions.
Anybody who hasn't got citizenship will lose everything. Or worse."
"The Dai Pao can't even typeset accurately," I tell her. Sometimes I worry about
the information Mother receives from that bi-weekly community newspaper.
"Don't worry-the Ministry of Immigration won't send you back to China."
"Little you know:' she snaps back. "I am old, helpless, and without citizenship.
Reasons enough. Now get me citizenship. Hurry!"
"Mother, getting citizenship papers is not like going to the bank to cash in
your pension cheque. First, you have to-"
"Excuses, my son, excuses. When your father was alive-"
"Oh, Mother, not again! You throw that at me every-"
10
"-made excuses, too." Her jaw tightens. "If you can't do this little thing for
your own mother, well, I will just have to go and beg your cousin to ...n
11
Every time I try to explain about the ways of the fan gwei she thinks I do not
want to help her.
12 "I'll do it, okay?Just give me some time."
13
"That's easyfor you:' Mother snorts. "You're not 70 years old. You're not going
to lose your pension. You're not going to lose your house. Now, how much lai-shi
will this take?"
 354 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

14
After all these years in gum san she cannot understand that you don't give
government officials lai-shi, the traditional Chinese money-gift given to persons
who do things for you.
15
"That won't be necessary," I tell her. "And you needn't go to my cousin."
16
Mother picks up the Dai Pao again and says:"Why should I beg at the door of
a village cousin when I have a son who is a university graduate?"
17
I wish my father were alive. Then he would be doing this. But he is not here,
and as a dutiful son, I am responsible for the welfare of my widowed mother. So I
take her to the Citizenship Court.
18
There are several people from the Chinese community waiting there. Mother
knows a few of the Chinese women, and she chats with them. My cousin is
there, too.
19
"I thought your mother already got her citizenship," he says to me. "Didn't
your father-"
20
"No, he didn't."
21
He shakes his head sadly. "Still, better now than never. That's why I'm getting
these people through."
22
"So they've been reading the Dai Pao."
23
He gives me a quizzical look, so I explain to him, and he laughs.
24
"You are the new generation," he says. "You didn't live long enough in han
san, the sweet land, to understand the fears ofthe old. You can't expect the elderly
to renounce all attachments to China for the ways of the fan gwei, white devils.
How old is she, 70 now? Much harder."
25
"She woke me up this morning at six and Citizenship Court doesn't open
untillO."
26
The doors of the court finally open, and Mother motions me to hurry. We wait
in line for a while.
27
The clerk distributes applications and tells me the requirements. Mother
wants to know what the clerk is saying so half the time I translate for her.
28
The clerk suggests that we see one of the liaison officers.
29
"Your mother has been living in Canada for the past 30 years, and she still
can't speak English?"
30
"It happens," I tell the liaison officer.
31
"I find it hard to believe that-not one word?"
32
"Well, she understands some restaurant English," I tell her. "You know, French
fries, pork chops, soup, and so on. And she can say a few words."
33
"But will she be able to understand the judge's questions? The interview with
the judge, as you know, is a very important part of the citizenship procedure. Can
she read the booklet? What does she know about Canada?"
34
"So you don't think my mother has a chance?"
35
"The requirements are that the candidate must be able to speak either French
or English, the two official languages of Canada. The candidate must be able to
pass an oral interview with the citizenship judge, and then he or she must be able
to recite the oath of allegiance-"

~
36
"My mother needs to speak English," I conclude for her.

l__-
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 355

37
"Look, I don't mean to be rude, but why didn't your mother learn English
when she first came over?"
38 I have not been translating this conversation, and Mother, annoyed and
agitated, asksme what is going on. I tell her there is a slight problem.
39
"What problem?" Mother opens her purse, and I see her taking a small red
envelope-Iai-shi-I quickly cover her hand.
40
"What is going on?" the liaison officer demands.
41
"Nothing," I say hurriedly. "Just a cultural misunderstanding, I assureyou."
42
My mother rattles off some indignant words, and I snap back in Chinese: "Put
that away! The woman won't understand, and we'll be in a lot of trouble."
43
The officer looks confused, and I realize an explanation is needed.
44
"My mother was about to give you a money-gift as a token of appreciation
for what you are doing for us. I was afraid you might misconstrue it as a bribe. We
have no intention of doing that."
45
"I'm relieved to hear that."
46
We conclude the interview, and I take Mother home. Still clutching the
application, Mother scowls at me.
47
"I didn't get my citizenship papers. Now I will lose myoid age pension. The
government will ship me back to China. Myoid bones will lie there while your
father's will be here. What will happen to me?"
48
How can I teach her to speak the language when she is too old to learn, too
old to want to learn? She resists anything that is fan gwei. She does everything
the Chinese way. Mother spends much time staring blankly at the four walls of
her house. She does not cry. She sighs and shakes her head. Sometimes she goes
about the house touching her favourite things.
49
"This is all your dead father's fault," she says quietly. She turns to the
photograph of my father on the mantle. Daily, she burns incense, pours fresh cups
of fragrant tea, and spreads dishes of his favourite fruits in front of the framed
picture as is the custom. In memory of his passing, she treks two miles to the
cemetery to place flowers by his headstone, to burn ceremonial paper money, and
to talk to him. Regularly, rain or shine, or even snow, she does these things. Such
love, such devotion, now such vehemence. Mother curses my father, her husband,
in his grave.
50
When my mother and I emigrated from China, she was 40 years old, and I,five.
My father was already a well-established restaurant owner. He put me in school
and Mother in the restaurant kitchen, washing dishes and cooking strange foods
like hot dogs, hamburgers, and French fries. She worked seven days a week from
six in the morning until 11 at night. This lasted for 25 years, almost to the day of
my father's death.
51
The years were hard on her. The black-and-white photographs show a robust
woman; now I seea withered, frail, white-haired old woman, angry, frustrated with
the years, and scared of losing what little material wealth she has to show for the
toil in gum san, the golden mountain.
52
"I begged him," Mother says. "But he would either ignore my pleas or say:
'What do you need to know English for? You're better off here in the kitchen. Here
356 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

you can talk to the others in our own tongue. English is far too complicated for
you. How old are you now? Too old to learn a new language. Let the young speak
fan gwei. All you need is to understand the orders from the waitresses. Anyway, if
you need to know something, the men will translate for you. I am here; I can do
your talking for you."
53
As a conscientious boss of the young male immigrants, my father would force
them out of the kitchen and into the dining room. "The kitchen is no place for
you to learn English. All you do is speak Chinese in here. To survive in gum san,
you have to speak English, and the only way you can do that is to wait on tables
and force yourselves to speak English with the customers. How can you get your
families over here if you can't talk to the Immigration officers in English?"
54
A few of the husbands who had the good fortune to bring their wives over
to Canada hired a retired school teacher to teach a bit of English to their wives.
Father discouraged Mother from going to those once-a-week sessions.
55
"That old woman will get rich, doing nothing. What have these women
learned? Fan gwei ways-make-up, lipstick, smelly perfumes, fancy clothes-like
whores. Once she gets through with them, they won't be Chinese women any
more-and they certainly won't be white, either."
56
Some of the husbands heeded the words of the boss, for he was older than
they and had been in the white devils' land longer. These wives stayed at home
and tended the children, or they worked in the restaurant kitchen, washing dishes
and cooking fan gwei foods, and talking in Chinese about the land and the life
they were forced to leave behind.
57
"He was afraid that I would leave him. I depended on him for everything. I
could not go anywhere by myself. He drove me to work, and he drove me home.
He only taught me to print my name so that I could sign anything he wanted me
to, bank cheques, legal documents ... n
58
Perhaps I am not Chinese enough any more to understand why my mother
would want to take in the sorrow, the pain, and the anguish and then to recount
them every so often.
59
Once I was presumptuous enough to ask her why she would want to
remember in such detail. She said the memories didn't hurt any more. I did not
tell her that her reminiscences cut me to the quick. Her only solace now is to be
listened to.
60
My father wanted more sons, but she was too old to give him more. One son
was not enough security he needed for old age. "You smell of stale perfume," she
would say to him after he had driven the waitresses home. Or, to me, she would
say: "A second mother will not treat you so well, you know," and, "Would you like
another mother at home?" Even at that tender age, I knew that in China a husband
could take a second wife. I told her that I didn't need another mother, and she
would nod her head.
61
When my father died five years ago, she cried and cried. "Don't leave me in
this world. Let me die with you."
62
Grief-stricken, she would not eat for days. She was so weak from hunger that
I feared she wouldn't be able to attend the funeral. At his graveside, she chanted
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 357

over and over a dirge, commending his spirit to the next world and begging the
goddess of mercy to be kind to him. By custom, she set his picture on the mantel
and burned incense in front of it daily. And we would go to the cemetery often.
There she would arrange fresh flowers and talk to him in the gentlest way.
63
Often she would warn me: "The world of the golden mountain is so strange,
fan gwei improprieties, and customs. The white devils will have you abandon your
own aged mother to some old age home to rot away and die unmourned. If you
are here long enough, they will turn your. head until you don't know who you are,
what you are-Chinese."
64
My mother would convert the months and the days into the Chinese lunar
calendar. She would tell me about the seasons and the harvests and festivals in
China. We did not celebrate any fan gwei holidays.
65
My mother sits here at the table, fingering the booklet from the Citizenship
Court. For thirty-some years, my mother did not learn the English language, not
because she was not smart enough, not because she was too old to learn, and
not because my father forbade her, but because she feared that learning English
would change her Chinese soul. She only learned enough English to survive in the
restaurant kitchen.
66
Now, Mother wants gum san citizenship.
67
"Is there no hope that I will be given it?" she asks.
68
''There is always a chance," I tell her. "I'll hand in the application."
69
"I should have given that person the iai-shi" Mother saysobstinately.
70
"Maybe I should teach you some English," I retort. "You have about six months
before the oral interview."
71
"I am 70 years old," she says. "Lai-shi is definitely much easier."
72
My brief glimpse into mother's heart is over, and it has taken so long to come
about. I do not know whether I understand my aged mother any better now.
Despite my mother's constant instruction, there is too much fan gwei in me.
73
The booklet from the Citizenship Court lies, unmoved, on the table, gathering
dust for weeks. She has not mentioned citizenship again with the urgency of that
particular time. Once in a while, she would say:"They have forgotten me. I told you
they don't want old Chinese women as citizens."
74
Finally, her interview date is set. I try to teach her some ready-made phrases,
but she forgets them.
75
"You should not sigh so much. It is bad for your health," Mother observes.
76
On the day of her examination, I accompany her into the judge's chamber. I
am more nervous than my mother.
77
Staring at the judge, my mother remarks: "Noi yren." The judge shows interest
in what my mother says, and I translate it: "She saysyou're a woman."
78
The judge smiles "Yes.Is that strange?"
79
"If she is going to examine me," Mother tells me, "I might as well start packing
for China. Sell my house. Dig up your father's bones, I'll take them back with me."
80
Without knowinq what my mother said, the judge reassures her. "This is just
a formality. Really. We know that you obviously want to be part of our Canadian
society. Why else would you have gone through all this trouble? We want to
358 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

welcome you as a new citizen, no matter what race, nationality, religion, or age.
And we want you to be proud-as a new Canadian."
81
Six weeks have passed since the interview with the judge. Mother receives a
registered letter telling her to come in three weeks' time to take part in the oath of
allegiance ceremony.
82
With patient help from the same judge, my mother recites the oath and
becomes a Canadian citizen after 30 years in gum san.
83
"How does it feel to be Canadian?" I ask.
84
"In China, this is the eighth month, the season of harvest." Then she adds:
'The Dai Pao says that old age pension cheques will be increased by nine dollars
next month."
85
As we walk home on this bright autumn morning, my mother clutches her
piece of paper. Citizenship. She says she will go up to the cemetery and talk to my
father this afternoon. She has something to tell him.

[june 19R5]

Notes
This story is autobiographical fiction. It is based on true events, but these events
have been dramatized in the story-telling.

Second-generation immigrants are those born or raised in Canada, like the son in
the story. Many have a first language that is different from their mother tongue.
(Mother tongue refers to the language first learned and still understood, usually their
parents' native language. First language means the language the person is most com-
fortable speaking.) Most second-generation immigrants become very comfortable
in English or French, especially as they progress through their schooling in that lan-
guage. They do not develop their ability to speak their mother tongue in the same
way. For example, they might be able to talk about history and do math in English
but only talk about household concerns in their native language. A common situa-
tion is that the immigrant parents speak their mother tongue to their children, but
the children answer back in English or French. In this story, the son cannot read
Chinese but does speak to his mother in Chinese.

Unlike other ethnic groups, the Chinese were not encouraged to establish families
in Canada. While the men were welcome as workers, Canadian immigration poli-
cies such as the Head Tax (1885-1923) and the Chinese Exclusion Act (1923-47)
prevented them from bringing over family members. This is why the father in the
story was in Canada before his wife and son.

Comprehension
1. Why does the mother want to get her citizenship?
2. Describe the process by which the mother gained her citizenship.
3. Why did the mother want to use lai-shi? Why did the son not want her to
do that?

-----_L
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 359

4. What was the father's attitude toward immigrants learning English? What
double standard did he have?
5. What reasons contribute to the mother's not learning English? What is the
most important reason she does not learn?
6. Explain the author's reference to the mother's "Chinese soul."
7. What is ironic about the last bit of dialogue in the story-the last exchange
between the mother and son?
8. How does the writer make the story humorous?

Discussion
1. How realistic is the portrayal of the mother? Do you know any immigrants
like her?
2. Are the mother's fears justified? Why or why not?
3. What is the most important factor in learning a second language? Could the
mother have overcome her age and her husband's disapproval had she really
wanted to?
4. What are some of the problems faced by immigrant women learning English?
5. What kinds of conflicts are common between first- and second-generation
immigrants?
6. Discuss the immigration and citizenship procedures in Canada. Use examples
of the experience of friends, family, or yourself.
7. Different cultures have different rituals for mourning the dead. Discuss dif-
ferent funeral and mourning customs you are familiar with. For instance, in
Western cultures, black is the colour of mourning, while in some Asian cul-
tures, white is traditionally worn.

Assignments
1. What factors determine how well an immigrant assimilates? Explain these
factors in an essay.
2. What factors determine how much a second-generation immigrant will keep
his or her mother tongue? Explain these factors in an essay.
3. Research the history of the Chinese in Canada (or that of another immigrant
group). Write a report on the factors that played a part in their settlement.
Alternatively, write an essay comparing two immigrant groups.
4. Write an essay explaining the process of becoming a Canadian citizen.
5. What are the rights and responsibilities of Canadian citizenship? Is Canadian
citizenship too easy to obtain? Should dual citizenship be allowed? Write an
essay on one of these issues or another issue related to Canadian citizenship.
6. Review the information given in Discover Canada: The Rights and Responsibilities
of Citizenship, the booklet given to people studying to become citizens (avail-
able on the website of Citizenship and Immigration Canada). Is it a good
introduction to Canada? What do you think of the coverage? Is there any
other information you think should be included in the booklet?
360 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase: "Perhaps I am not Chinese enough anymore to understand why
my mother would want to take in the sorrow, the pain, and the anguish and
then to recount them every so often" [58 J.
2. Paraphrase: "She turns to the photograph of my father on the mantle. Daily,
she burns incense, pours fresh cups of fragrant tea, and spreads dishes of his
favourite fruits in front of the framed picture as is the custom. In memory of
his passing, she treks two miles to the cemetery to place flowers by his head-
stone, to burn ceremonial paper money, and to talk to him. Regularly, rain or
shine, or even snow, she does these things" 1491.
3. Write a summary of the story. Do not exceed 150 words.

Structure and Technique

First Person, Unnamed Narrator
This story is told in first-person narration: 1.The narrator's name is not given. Note
that this story is fiction, so the 1 is a character, and you cannot refer to him as
"Garry Engkent." Instead, you can call him "the son" or "the narrator."
In first-person narration, the 1 tells the story from the 1 perspective, not from
a general one. The reader gets only the narrator's way of seeing or interpreting an
action and must trust that what the narrator says is valid and true. Often, the reader
identifies with the narrator.

Present-Tense Narration
Although most stories are told in the simple past tense, the use of the present tense
brings a sense of immediacy. How effective is the use of the present tense in this
story? Compare this to the past-tense narration used in pages 363-64 the other
readings in this unit.

Dialogue
Much of this story is told in dialogue. Look at the punctuation used and the word-
ing that sets up the speech. When a new speaker begins, there is a new paragraph.

Use of Foreign Words

Words from a foreign language that are not a standard part of English are gener-
ally printed in italics. Engkent uses words in Chinese to add flavour to the story.
The author knows that his audience will not know what these words mean;
even Chinese-speaking readers would be unlikely to know this particular dialect.
Therefore, he gives the readers many clues to help them figure out the meaning.
The most common technique is to put the translation in apposition. This means
it is set offby commas. For example, in "for the toil in gum san, the golden mountain"
[51], Engkent shows that the translation o(ltum san is "golden mountain," which is
the way the Chinese referred to Canada and the United States. (The term reflects the
fact that the first Chinese came to North America as part of the gold rush.)
Context is also important for understanding the meaning of the words. Note
how the meaning of Dai Pao gradually becomes clearer. The first clue is that it
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 361

is something the mother "slaps down" [2]. The capital letters show that it is a
proper noun, the official name of something. Finally, the meaning is given as "that
bi-weekly community newspaper."
Look at all the Chinese words in the text, and find the clues the author gives
you. Figure out what each word means. Sometimes the translation or definition
does not come with the first use of the word in the story.

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. astonish, v [1] _ _ a) answer back angrily

2. clutch, v [46] _ _ b) emotional comfort
3. glimpse, n [72] _ _ c) hold tightly
4. heed,v[56] __ d) memories
5. misconstrue, v [44] _ _ e) misunderstand
6. obstinately, adv [69] _ _ f) pay attention to, follow advice
7. reminiscences, n [59] _ _ g) quick look at something
8. retort, v [70] _ _ h) something that represents a feeling
9. robust, adj [51] _ _ or event
10. solace, n [59] _ _ i) strong and healthy
11. token,n[44] _ _ j) stubbornly
12. trek, v [49] _ _ k) surprise, shock
m) take a long, hard walk; hike

Word Focus
welfare [17]
The noun welfare has the same parts as the word farewell. The verb to fare means
to progress and get on, so welfare means the well-being of someone. Note that in
Canada we also use the word welfare as a short form for "welfare benefits," the
government payments people receive if they cannot earn their own living. We say
someone is "on welfare." Check the dictionary for other meanings of the word fare
and its homophone fair.

grief-stricken [62]
The compound adjective griif-stricken has a variation of the past participle of the
verb strike, which is also used in poverty-stricken and panic-stricken. The more com-
monly used past participle is seen in such compounds as awe-struck and thunderstruck.
See if you can find other compounds. For example, horror-struck and terror-stricken
are mentioned in the language note for horrified on pages 365-66.

conscientious [53]
The words conscience (n) and conscious (adj) are sometimes confused because they
sound almost the same and both concern mental states.Your conscience is the voice
362 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

inside your head that tells you whether something is right or wrong. If you listen
to your conscience and do the right thing, you can be considered conscientious (adj).
If you are conscious, it means you are awake and aware. Related words include
unconscious (adj), subconscious (n), and consciousness (n). Use your dictionary to find
definitions, example sentences, and other uses of the words.

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

appreciation [44]

explain [11] n/a

finally [26]

formality [80]

helpless [6]

information [5]

instruction [72]

security [60]

suggest [28]

tighten [10]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss each of the following expressions. How clear is the meaning? Is it idiom-
atic? How useful is the expression?
to cut back on [4]
little you know [6]
to have a chance (at something) [34]
to stare blankly at something [48]
to be better off [52]
to cut somebody to the quick [59]
to gather dust [73]

Sentence Structure Analysis

Identity the main subject and verb in the following sentences. Identity the modifi-
ers-adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses-and what they modify.

1. "There are several people from the Chinese community waiting there." l18]
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 363

2. "As a conscientious boss of the young male immigrants, my father would

force them out of the kitchen and into the dining room." [53]
3. "The booklet from the Citizenship Court lies, unmoved, on the table, gather-
ing dust for weeks." [731

byUrs Frei

The other day a man walked into the store, carrying a cat. I don't know which I
noticed first, the cat or how the man was crying. The cat was his, I guess. Its legs
were mangled, and blood was dripping through his fingers. He was crying so hard
he didn't notice that this wasn't a vet hospital anymore.
"I need you to put my cat to sleep," he said.
There he stood, dripping onto the carpet. We had three customers in the
store. Of course they were staring.
"The vet moved out last month, sir," I said. I came around the counter to show
my concern. But also to move him out of there. You have to understand, we'd only
been open a month. "We sell computers."
The man was silent. The cat was crying low, strange cries.
"Where's the vet?" he said.
"Where'd that vet go?" I said. Robert, one of my sales reps, was staring back
at me. It was a pointless question, actually, because I knew the vet hadn't moved
anywhere near. I was pretty sure there was no vet within a mile. "Have a look in the
phone book," I told him.
The man was sobbing again. I couldn't decide if the best thing to do would
be to ask him to step outside or if this would antagonize the customers. I had a
closer look at him. He had earrings in both ears. His hair was shaved on the sides
of his head. He was wearing a leather jacket, and it was hard to say for sure, but
he seemed handsome, the kind of man who would talk about his successes with
women. What was he doing crying about a cat?
The stock boy had heard the cat and come in from the stock room. He wasn't
supposed to be in the store.
10
Robert said, "There's a vet over on K- road."
11
K- road was the other side of town.
12
"Should I call them?" he said. "They have a pet ambulance, it says here."
13
"Call the pet ambulance," I said. "Get that pet ambulance over here."
14
The stock boy wasn't a boy at all. He was a Mexican man, about 40 years old,
named Ricardo, who spoke almost no English. He was wearing dirty blue jeans and
a blue work shirt. Also, he wasn't legal. He was taking off his shirt. I thought, Lord
in heaven-Lord in heaven. There was that cat, dripping on my new carpet, and
there was the stock boy, taking off his shirt.
15
He walked up to the man, spreading the shirt on his palms, and took the cat,
and wrapped it in the shirt. The man said nothing. Ricardo turned his back so that
no one could see, but everyone heard the snap as he broke the eat's neck. The cat
364 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

went silent. One of the customers, a lady, made a horrified sound. Then Ricardo,
with his head bowed, handed the cat back, along with his shirt.
16 I was glad I'd got that in about the pet ambulance. You have to understand
that this was before I learned that blood comes out easily with just soap and water.
It was that lady customer who told me.

[Autumn 19971

Notes
The stock boy "wasn't legal," which means he didn't have proper status from the
immigration department.

Comprehension
1. Describe the narrator: male or female? age? occupation?
2. Is the narrator portrayed as an admirable character? Support your answer.
3. What is the setting for the story? Why is this significant? Could this story hap-
pen somewhere else with the same impact?
4. Why did the man with the cat come into the store?
5. What do you think had happened to the cat? Support your answer.
6. Explain the narrator's description of the man with the cat. What does the way
the man is described say about the narrator?
7. What is the narrator concerned about?
8. What is the narrator apologizing for in the last paragraph?
9. Compare the narrator and the stock boy. How do their different backgrounds
explain their reactions?
10. What is the significance of the title?

Discussion
1. What would you do in this situation?
2. Could you competently kill an animal if necessary? Could you, for example,
kill a chicken, clean it, and prepare it for dinner? Could your parents do it?
Could your grandparents? What has changed? Does this matter?
3. Do Canadians care too much about their pets? Consider, for example, people
who have severe allergies and yet refuse to get rid of their pets.
4. How far would you go to save the life of a pet? Would you pay thousands of
dollars for surgery, for example?
5. How does the narrator fit the stereotype of a computer expert?
6. What is this story saying about modern society? Is this a valid criticism?

Assignments
1. Write an essay explaining the criteria that should be considered for euthanasia
for animals and/or humans.
2. Have Canadians become too urbanized, like the computer store owner? Have
we lost touch with nature? Write an essay explaining the problems this causes.
Or write an essay arguing that it does not matter.
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 365

3. Take one of the controversial issues surrounding animal rights, and discuss it
in an essay. For example, how should farming practices be changed to be more
humane? Or are vegans going too far?
4. Consider the problems of illegal immigrants. Canadians rely on them for
cheap labour, but Canadian immigration favours educated immigrants, many
of whom have trouble getting jobs that suit their education level. Some people
argue that illegal immigrants should be given amnesty since they have estab-
lished themselves here, often having children born in Canada and therefore
Canadian citizens. Yet they live in an underground economy and cannot avail
themselves of simple services such as health care and education. Suggest a pos-
sible solution, and discuss it in an essay.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. In one short paragraph, summarize what happens in the story.
2. Write a one-sentence description of each character, paraphrasing what the
narrator says.

Structure and Technique

1. The author has used first-person narration, with an unnamed narrator. What is
the effect of this type of narration in this story?
2. The author gives us the narrator's internal dialogue. How does this reveal the
narrator's personality?
3. The story hinges on an implied contrast between the narrator and the stock
boy. Should this contrast have been made more explicit?

Language Study
Word Focus
vet [11, rep [71
Both rep and vet are short forms oflonger words. What does each word stand for in
the story? What other words use the same short forms?

legal [14]
One of the sentences describing Ricardo says, "he wasn't legal." This refers to his
immigration status. The terminology for immigrant status varies, and the con-
notation can be quite different depending on the term used. For example, illegal
immigrant is more negative than undocumented immigrant. Moreover, Americans use
the term alien. Discuss the different terminology describing immigration and cit-
izenship status.
As for the adjective legal, what other words are in its word family? What are
the noun, verb, and adverb forms? What word is the opposite of feRal?

horrified [1S]
From the noun horror, we have the adjectives horrific, horrible, horrendous, horrid,
and horror-struck (or horror-stricken) and the corresponding adverbs horribly and
366 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

horrendously. The adjectives horrified and horrifying are participles of the verb horrify.
All have come down from a Latin verb which meant "to tremble."
Fill in the blanks with an appropriate word from this word family:

a) Even though she did not believe in ghosts, she found the spooky atmos-
phere in the old house truly _

b) The bystanders were by the brutal attack.

c) At Halloween, all the television stations show movies.

d) That is a colour.

e) The collision was . It left several people with severe injuries.

Using these sentences as examples and referring to a dictionary when neces-

sary, discuss the different uses of these words. For instance, which words can be
used to describe the person feeling the emotion, and which words can be used to
describe what is causing the feeling? Which adjectives seem stronger in meaning?
The word family for terror, a synonym of horror, shows a similar pattern of forms
and usage: the verb terrify (with the participles terrified and terrifying); adjectives terrific,
terrible, terror-struck (or terror-stricken); and the adverb terribly. 'Terror has also spawned
terrorize, terrorist, and terrorism. However, one of the words derived from terror has
changed meaning completely and is now used to describe something that is good.
Which word is it? Discuss any other differences in meaning between corresponding
words in the two families. Which corresponding synonyms from terror can be used
in the blanks of the example sentences above? What other synonyms could be used?

Connotation
The man wants someone to "put my cat to sleep" [2J. This is an example of a
euphemism. When people talk about their pets, they use this expression. The man
would not ask someone to "kill" his cat or "put it to death."
There are many expressions to refer to killing and dying. Some are euphe-
misms; some are idioms. Some terms can be used to refer to animals; some are used
for people.
Here are some examples of words and expressions. Discuss these and other
terms you are familiar with.
1. euthanasia, mercy killing, to pull the plug, to put down
2. kill, murder, assassinate, foul play, manslaughter
3. homicide, suicide, genocide, patricide
4. die, pass away, kick the bucket, be six feet under

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Explain the use of parallel structure in the sentence:
"There was that cat, dripping on my new carpet, and there was the stock
boy, taking off his shirt." [14J
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 367

2. In the sentence below there are four verb forms, one different from the others.
Identify the subject and the main verbs. Explain the function of the other verb
form. How else could the sentence have been structured? Which word is not
necessary grammatically? Explain the use of the commas.
"He walked up to the man, spreading the shirt on his palms, and took the
cat, and wrapped it in the shirt." [15]

Excerpt from Chapter XV, Anne ofGreen Gables, by L.M. Montgomery

Mr. Phillips was back in the corner explaining a problem in algebra to Prissy
Andrews, and the rest of the scholars were doing pretty much as they pleased,
eating green apples, whispering, drawing pictures on their slates, and driving
crickets, harnessed to strings, up and down the aisle. Gilbert Blythe was trying
to make Anne Shirley look at him and failing utterly, because Anne was at that
moment totally oblivious, not only of the very existence of Gilbert Blythe but
of every other scholar in Avonlea school and of Avonlea school itself. With her
chin propped on her hands and her eyes fixed on the blue glimpse of the Lake of
Shining Waters that the west window afforded, she was far away in a gorgeous
dreamland, hearing and seeing nothing save her own wonderful visions.
Gilbert Blythe wasn't used to putting himself out to make a girl look at him
and meeting with failure. She should look at him, that red-haired Shirley girl with
the little pointed chin and the big eyes that weren't like the eyes of any other girl
in Avonlea school.
Gilbert reached across the aisle, picked up the end of Anne's long red braid,
held it out at arm's length, and said in a piercing whisper:
"Carrots! Carrots!"
Then Anne looked at him with a vengeance!
She did more than look. She sprang to her feet, her bright fancies fallen into
cureless ruin. She flashed one indignant glance at Gilbert from eyes whose angry
sparkle was swiftly quenched in equally angry tears.
"You mean, hateful boy!" she exclaimed passionately. "How dare you!"
And then-Thwack! Anne had brought her slate down on Gilbert's head and
cracked it-slate not head-clear across.
Avonlea school always enjoyed a scene. This was an especially enjoyable
one. Everybody said, "Oh" in horrified delight. Diana gasped. Ruby Gillis, who
was inclined to be hysterical, began to cry. Tommy Sloane let his team of crickets
escape him altogether while he stared open-mouthed at the tableau.
10
Mr. Phillips stalked down the aisle and laid his hand heavily on Anne's
shoulder.
11
"Anne Shirley, what does this mean?" he said angrily.
368 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

12
Anne returned no answer. It was asking too much of flesh and blood to expect
her to tell before the whole school that she had been called "carrots." Gilbert it
was who spoke up stoutly.
13 "It was my fault, Mr. Phillips. I teased her."
14
Mr. Phillips paid no heed to Gilbert.
15
"I am sorry to see a pupil of mine displaying such a temper and such a
vindictive spirit," he said in a solemn tone, as if the mere fact of being a pupil of
his ought to root out all evil passions from the hearts of small imperfect mortals.
"Anne, go and stand on the platform in front of the blackboard for the rest of
the afternoon."
16
Anne would have infinitely preferred a whipping to this punishment, under
which her sensitive spirit quivered as from a whiplash. With a white, set face,
she obeyed. Mr. Phillips took a chalk crayon and wrote on the blackboard above
her head.
17
"Ann Shirley has a very bad temper. Ann Shirley must learn to control her
temper," and then read it out loud so that even the primer class,who couldn't read
writing, should understand it.
18
Anne stood there the rest of the afternoon with that legend above her. She
did not cry or hang her head. Anger was still too hot in her heart for that, and it
sustained her amid all her agony of humiliation. With resentful eyes and passion-
red cheeks she confronted alike Diana's sympathetic gaze and Charlie Sloane's
indignant nods and Josie Pye's malicious smiles. As for Gilbert Blythe, she would
not even look at him. She would never look at him again! She would never
speak to him!

1 1'!OKJ

Notes
Unlike most of the other reading selections in this textbook, this is an excerpt from
a longer work. Excerpts are often harder to understand because the context is miss-
ing. Some of the context is usually explained in notes.

The most famous Canadian book in the world is undoubtedly Annc of Green Cables
by Lucy Maud Montgomery. It was first published in 1908 and is the first in a series
of books about Anne Shirley. When the book begins, Anne, who is then 11 years
old, comes from an orphanage in Nova Scotia to live with Matthew and Marilla
Cuthbert, an elderly brother and sister who need help on their family farm in
Prince Edward Island. Anne has red hair (which she is very sensitive about), a lively
imagination, a keen intelligence, a tendency to daydream, and a talent for getting
into trouble. Her best friend is Diana.

Avonlea school is a one-room rural school, typical of that day. Children from six
to 16 study in the same classroom. Students write on slates (small, individual black-
boards). Girls often wear their hair in long braids, which are irresistible to boys; a

b
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 369

typical prank is to dip the braid in an ink bottle. This scene takes place early in the
school year, on the first day Gilbert is at school.

Note that Mr. Phillips misspells Anne's name on the blackboard-another thing
that Anne is sensitive about.

Comprehension
1. Why was the teacher oblivious to what the students were doing?
2. What was Anne doing during the class?
3. What did Gilbert do to provoke Anne? Why did he do it?
4. What was Anne's reaction to Gilbert's provocation?
5. How was Anne punished? How did she react to the punishment?
6. Who were Anne's friends in the classroom? How were their reactions to
Anne's punishment different?

Discussion
1. Who was most at fault in this incident?
2. Is Anne's anger at Gilbert justified? Did she overreact?
3. Do you think she deserves her punishment?
4. How is this school scene different from what one would expect today?
5. What would modern students do if their teacher was preoccupied or out of
the classroom?
6. What kind of teasing went on in school when you were a child? When does
teasing cross the line to bullying?
7. What were common methods of discipline in your school? How effective
were they?
8. What do you imagine happened to Anne and Gilbert afterwards? Do you
think she ever spoke to him again?

Assignments
1. Write a narrative retelling the basic story but updating it to modern times. For
instance, the students could be using tablets instead of slates.
2. Write a paragraph comparing a modern classroom to the one in the story.
3. Read the book Anne of Green Gables. It can easily be found in the library or
online. Write a book report.
4. Watch the 1985 TV miniseries "Anne of Green Gables" starring Megan
Follows. Write a review of the series.
5. Research the book's fame and position in Canadian literature. Find out about
the role of the story in the tourist industry of Prince Edward Island. Do you
find this interest surprising, or is the book's fame justified? Write an essay.
6. In small groups, act out the scene in class. Do not read or memorize the
text; feel free to interpret it. Compare your version to the one in the 1985
rmruserres.
 370 PART 2: READING SelECTIONS

Paraphrase and Summary

1. In less than 75 words, summarize the main action of the story.
2. Paraphrase:" ... Anne was at that moment totally oblivious, not only of the
very existence of Gilbert Blythe but of every other scholar in Avonlea school
and ofAvonlea school itself. With her chin propped on her hands and her eyes
fixed on the blue glimpse of the Lake of Shining Waters that the west window
afforded, she was far away in a gorgeous dreamland, hearing and seeing noth-
ing save her own wonderful visions" [1].
3. Paraphrase: "Anne returned no answer. It was asking too much of flesh and
blood to expect her to tell before the whole school that she had been called
'carrots'" [12].
4. Paraphrase: "Anger was still too hot in her heart for that, and it sustained her
amid all her agony of humiliation. With resentful eyes and passion-red cheeks
she confronted alike Diana's sympathetic gaze and Charlie Sloane's indignant
nods and Josie Pye's malicious smiles" [18].

Structure and Technique

Explain Montgomery's technique in these sentences: "And then-Thwack! Anne
had brought her slate down on Gilbert's head and cracked it-slate not head-clear
across." Does the word "thwack" give a good idea of the sound? Why is the verb
("had brought") in the past perfect tense? Is the use of parenthetical dashes effect-
ive? Is it humorous? Would it be as effective if Montgomery had instead written
"cracked her slate and not his head"?

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. slate, n [1] _ _ a) brief look, a partial view

2. harnessed, adj [1] _ _ b) completely
3. utterly, adv [1] _ _ c) easily upset and excited
4. oblivious, adj [1] _ _ d) evil, showing hatred
5. propped, adj [1] _ _ e) feeling anger and surprise because
6. glimpse, n [1] _ _ of unfair treatment
7. gorgeous, adj [1] _ _ f) high, loud, unpleasant sound
8. piercing, adj [3] _ _ g) not noticing anything
9. indignant, adj [6, 18] _ _ h) shake, be affected
10. hysterical, adj [9] _ _ i) small chalkboard in a wooden
11. quiver, v [16] _ _ frame that schoolchildren used to
12. malicious, adj [18] _ _ write on
j) strapped together
k) supported
I) very beautiful

I ~ L
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 371

Word Focus
used to [2}
The structure used to is very common in English, but it is often written or formed
incorrectly. For example, a common spelling mistake is to leave ofT the d on used;
this occurs because the d sound is not distinct-it slides into the t sound.
It is important to distinguish the two used to expressions, in both form and
meamng.
used to do: for an action in the past
He used to smoke, but he quit.
The buildinq used to house a veterinarian's office.

be used to doing: expresses the idea of being accustomed to something

The students were used to staying up late to finish assignments.
The dog is used to being fed at the same time every day.

It is important to pay attention to the different verb forms used. To express the
idea of an action in the past, used to is followed by a verb in the base form (with no
endings) to complete the idea. To express the idea of a habit, a form of the verb to he
(such as is or was) is followed by used to and then a gerund (-in)? form}
Note the differences:

I used a credit card to open the door. the verb to use in its basic meaning

A credit card can be used to open the passive voice construction with the
door. verb to use

I used to work long hours, but now I past action

have a new job.

I'm used to working long hours, so I showing a habitual action and being
don't mind my new shifts. accustomed to it

Explain which meaning of used to is shown in this sentence from the reading:
"Gilbert l3lythe wasn't used to putting himself out to make a girl look at him and
meeting with failure" l2J.
Note that one of the definitions in the Definitions exercise above can be
interpreted in two ways and thus pronounced with two different stresses, depending
on whether the verb used is considered part of the expression used to or not: "small
chalkboard in a wooden frame that schoolchildren used to write on." When the
past action is meant, used to is pronounced together as one unit.

horrified [9]
Here the adjective is used to describe delight. What does "horrified delight" mean?
Do you consider this word combination to be unusual? Discuss the meaning and
effect. Compare this to the other uses of horrified and its related words on pages
365-66.
372 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

angry [6]

confront [18]

delight [9]

enjoyable [9]
r---"---"
equally [6]

resentful [18]

sympathetic [18]

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
to do as one pleases [1]
to put oneself out to do something [2]
to be inclined to be something [9]
at arm's length [3] [Note that in this reading, the expression is used literally.
More commonly today, the expression is used to talk about a figurative
distance.]
with a vengeance [5]
to ask too much of somebody [11]
flesh and blood [11]
to speak up [12]
to pay no heed to somebody/something [14]
to have a bad temper, to control one's temper [17]
to hang one's head [18]

Language Change
Anne of Green Gables was written more than 100 years ago, and the language reflects
this. Much of the wording sounds old-fashioned. For instance, the words scholars [1]
and pupil [15] for students are not as common today.
Here are some words that you may know but may not recognize in the way
Montgomery uses them. Look them up in the dictionary, go through the various
meanings of the words, and find the definition that fits the usage in the reading:
afford [1], fancies [6], legend [18], quench [6], primer [17], save [1]

---_L
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 373

Sentence Structure Analysis

1. Examine the structure of this sentence. Divide it into the two main clauses,
and identify the different phrases and what they describe.
"Mr. Phillips was back in the corner explaining a problem in algebra to
Prissy Andrews, and the rest of the scholars were doing pretty much as
they pleased, eating green apples, whispering, drawing pictures on their
slates, and driving crickets, harnessed to strings, up and down the aisle." [1]
2. Change the sentence structure of "Gilbert it was who spoke up stoutly" [12]
to one that would be commonly used today. What effect does the original
sentence have? In other words, why does Montgomery start her sentence with
"Gilbert"?

by Linwood Barclay

The two women stood in the doorway between the kitchen and the dining room,
arms folded, watching with cautious interest as the 1O-year-old boy played with
his model trains.
He had taken over the dining-room table, where he had set up a couple of
loops of track, a passenger station and sidings on top of a green tablecloth. He
was consumed, at this moment, with placing the wheels of some coaches on the
tracks. It was a delicate task, getting the flanges just so on the insides of the rails.
The boy's mother, Edna,said to her friend, Sandra,"Michael's absolutely loving
the trains. He hasn't stopped playing with them since Frank and I bought him the
set last week. I don't want him down in the basement, where it's damp and he
might catch a chill, and there's no spot for it in his bedroom, so we thought we'd
let him set up here. It's not like we ever eat in here anyway, except at Christmas."
4
"Sure," said Sandra. "I get that." She lowered her voice to a whisper. "So no
trouble since you got him interested in trains?"
Edna shook her head. "Not a one. I've been keeping a count of how many
matchbooks we've got in the drawer and none of them have disappeared."
"That's encouraging," Sandra said. "That last time, when he set those bins of
trash on fire out back of the house, you nearly lost the place."
Edna nodded. "It was a close one, that's for sure."
"Did the doctor say why he does that?"
"He said most kids are curious about fire, but there's a handful that take
pleasure in it. They get a bit of a thrill."
10
"And Michael's one ofthose?"
11
Michael coupled two passenger cars together, then linked them to an engine.
He plugged the transformer into a wall outlet, and made sure the two wires
leading from the transformer were firmly attached to the terminal track.
 T

374 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

12
Edna sighed. "We don't know for sure. If it was just the trash by the house,
well, that'd be just one incident. But there was that fire in the classroom, and that
thing with the little girl's shoelaces ... tr
13
"I heard about that. And the animals?"
14
Michael turned the throttle on the transformer and the train began to move.
It circled the track, gaining speed.
15
Edna sighed. She really didn't want to talk about it. It was embarrassing, your
child having all these problems. But at the same time, it was good to be able to
share her troubles with someone.
16
"Well, again, we haven't had any incidents since we bought Michael the train
set. It was the doctor's idea. Find something positive and fun for him to focus on."
17
'That's good then, isn't it?" Sandra said encouragingly. "It's all a question of
pointing him in the right direction. Is old Mrs. Farnsworth next door still making a
big issue over her cat?"
18
Edna gave her a sharp look. "She has so many ofthe damn things it's a wonder
she even noticed one missing. If it hadn't been for the smell in the backyard, she
might not have."
19
Sandra leaned her head so close she practically had it on Edna's shoulder. "He
really grabbed hold of its neck and ... n
20
Edna cut her off. "For alii know, he was just hugging it a little too tight. Young
boys, sometimes they just don't know their own strength."
21
The train sped around the loop, so fast it was almost a blur. Michael had his
chin on the table so he could watch the train at eye level.
22
Sandra whispered, "You must wonder, sometimes, what's going on inside his
head. The things he must be thinking."
23
And what Edna was thinking, but did not say, was that she often really didn't
want to know.
24
"The good thing is," Michael's mother said, "is that he's got his mind off dark
things. He's really liking his trains. He's mesmerized by them. He and his father
even went down to the station so Michael could watch how the tracks and the
switches and whatever you call them all go together so he could make something
just like that. We had to take him back to the store and buy more pieces of track
and switches and ... n
25
There was a sudden, loud, clatter. The train had fallen off the track and
knocked the passenger station to the floor.
26
"Oh, dear!" Edna cried. "Are you okay?"
27
Michael looked at his mother and smiled. "I'm fine," he said. "It's okay." He
bent down, picked up the station, and set it back on the table. Then he set about
putting the train back on the tracks.
28
"What happened?" his mother asked. "Is it broken?"
29
"Nope," Michael said. "I was just running it too fast."
30
"But you're still having a good time?" she asked.
31
"Yup," he said. "I love it."

b
 UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 375

32
Edna smiled, and touched Sandra's arm. "The mums are going to have some
tea now, Michael."
33 "Okay:' he said.
34
Once the women were gone, Michael inspected his handiwork. He had taken
just one match from one of the matchbooks in the kitchen drawer, from the
middle of the pack where no one would notice.
35
He had placed it sideways on the track, thinking that, in size, it was pretty
close in scale to a big piece of lumber. When the engine came around and the
wheels caught it, the whole train went flying. Right into the passenger station.
36
Michael knew from his trip to the station with his father that there were
several times a day, when people were waiting on the platform for a local train,
that an express blew right through at high speed. He wondered if a real piece of
wood, placed just right, would create the same result that it did right here on his
dining-room table.
37
He could imagine the sound. Wheels scraping on rail. Cars buckling and
crashing into each other. People screaming.
38 Michael'd had no idea trains could be this much fun.

121July 2012j

Comprehension
1. Why was Michael given a train set?
2. Why is the train set up in the dining room?
3. Explain what trouble Michael has gotten into.
4. Why did the train fall off the track? [251
5. How is Michael fooling his parents?
6. Why does Edna talk to Sandra about Michael's problems? How does she feel
about sharing the problems?

Discussion
1. Discuss the effect of the story. Did you like it? Were you caught up in it? Were
you surprised by the ending? Do you think the story was well constructed?
Explain your point of view.
2. What do you think is the likely setting for the story? Is it contemporary (mod-
ern day) or set in the past? Is it set in Canada? Discuss possible indications of
setting.
3. Do you think Edna and Frank are good parents? Discuss.
4. What do you think is wrong with Michael?
5. Barclay leaves "that thing with the little girl's shoelaces" [12J unexplained.
What do you think could have happened?
6. What leads people to violent tendencies and criminal acts? Is criminality
learned or inherited? Discuss.
376 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Assignments
1. Write an essay naming and analyzing three techniques the author uses to tell
the story.
2. Write a paragraph explaining what you think will happen in the future to
Michael and his family.
3. Write an essay about the benefits of a specific hobby-either model trains or
something similar. For example, you can talk about constructing dollhouses,
building model planes, or setting up military dioramas.
4. Although the terms psychopath and sociopath are often used interchangeably,
many psychiatrists say there are important distinctions. Look up some different
definitions. Write a paragraph explaining what you think is the most import-
ant distinction between the two terms.

Paraphrase and Summary

1. Paraphrase Edna's reason for setting up the train set in the dining room [3],
using indirect speech (see pages 244-45 for more on indirect speech).
2. Paraphrase: "Edna sighed. She really didn't want to talk about it. It was embar-
rassing, your child having all these problems. But at the same time, it was good
to be able to share her troubles with someone" [15].
3. Write a one-paragraph summary of this story. Use no more than 150 words.

Structure and Technique

Barclay uses the dialogue between the mothers to reveal background information.
How effective is this technique? Does it give the reader enough information?
Most of the story is told in dialogue, but Barclay shows what Edna is thinking,
not just what she is saying. Which paragraphs show Edna's thoughts? What other
words show her feelings? Are these a necessary supplement to the dialogue? Discuss
Barclay's technique for expanding on the dialogue.
Barclay also turns the focus to what Michael is doing and, at the very end of
the story, to what he is thinking. Why does he leave Michael's thoughts to the very
end? What is the effect of the author's choice?
Linwood Barclay was a columnist for the TOronto Star before he became a
well-known mystery writer. He is the author of" A Global Warming Deal to Do
Nothing Still Possible" (pages 14-15). Compare his writing techniques in the news-
paper article and in the short story.
r ...,

UNIT 16: FICTION READINGS 377

Language Study
Definitions
Use the context to match each word to its definition:

1. buckle, v [37] _ _ a) bend under a weight or force

2. consumed, adj [2] _ _ b) device that controls the power to
3. flange, n [2] _ _ the engine and therefore the speed
4. handiwork, n [34] _ _ c) device that changes the high
5. mesmerized, adj [24] _ _ voltage from the wall outlet to a
6. siding, n [2] _ _ safer and lower voltage to power
7. terminal track, adj+n [11] _ _ the train engine
8. throttle, n [14] _ _ d) flat end on the wheels that keeps
9. transformer, n [11] _ _ them from falling off the rails
e) fully engaged in something, with
complete attention on something
f) short railway track connected to
the main track where trains are kept
when they are not being used
g) so attracted to something that one
cannot look away
h) something that someone has made
ordone
i) track that the transformer wires
connect to, which powers the
engine

Word Families
Fill in the chart with the corresponding parts of speech:

NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE ADVERB

c autious [1]

n/a c urious [9]

encouragingly [17]

imagine [37]

incident [12] n/a

strength [20]

trouble [4]

.
378 PART 2: READING SELECTIONS

Collocations and Expressions

Discuss the meanings and usage of the following expressions:
catch a chill [3] (catch a cold)
get someone's mind off something [24]
keep a count of [5]
not a one [5] (Note that this phrase is not grammatical, because the
indefinite article a and the word OHe essentially mean the same thing.)

Sentence Structure Analysis

The last sentence of the story contains a contracted auxiliary verb:
"Michael'd had no idea trains could be this much fun." [38]
What auxiliary verb does the 'd stand for?
Examine the other verb tenses used in that section (Paragraphs 34-8), and
explain the usage. For instance, where is the past perfect tense used, and why?
Appendix A

Most students use email to communicate with their professors, and it is important
to write messages that communicate effectively. Here are some guidelines.

Using a Subject Heading

You should always give your email a brief, descriptive subject heading. "Hi, this is
lung" is not an appropriate subject heading. Be as specific as possible. Here are some
examples: "question about midterm," "absence on Friday," and "appointment request."

Identifying Yourself
Make sure that any email from you includes your full name. The recipient should
be able to tell immediately whom the message is from. This should be evident from
your email address. If it is not in the address, you may have to include it in your
subject heading.
Do not start your message with "Hi, my name is May Novak. I'm one of your
students." Instead, give your full name at the bottom of the email as a signature.You
can also use an automatic signature with information about yourself, such as your
title, address, and phone number.
You will generally be given a school email address; use it for correspondence
with your instructor. It is not professional to send out email with an address like
"[email protected]," and the messages may end up in the trash as suspected
spam. It is useful to have different email accounts: your school email, one for social
contacts, and one to use with retailers, for instance.

Including a Salutation
Letters generally start with a salutation, such as "Dear Professor Brown," but memos
do not have salutations since the information at the top of the page gives the
addressee's name. An email message is more like a memo since it includes "to,"
"from," and subject information. Therefore, salutations are considered optional in
email. They are a good idea when you initiate an email conversation but unneces-
sary once you get into a back-and-forth exchange of information.
Email etiquette is still evolving. It seems that "Hi" with the person's name is
becoming the common salutation in email messages. As North American business
style has become more casual, first names are commonly used even in business
communication. However, if you do not know the person, it is wise to be formal
and use title and last name, especially if you are contacting your professor. In other
words, say "Professor Chu" instead of using the professor's first name.
380 APPENDIX A: WRITING EMAIL

Using Correct, Standard English

You can use abbreviations such as "U R" in chat messages or in email to your
friends, but your mail to your instructor should be written in correct, Standard
English-especially for an English course. Use a spell checker, and proofread care-
fully before you send your message.

Making Your Message Clear and Concise

Like all writing, email messages should be clear and concise. No one wants to read
a long, rambling message only to come to the end with no clear idea of what the
sender wants.
Write an email message like a business letter. State right away what the pur-
pose of your message is.You can give necessary details in subsequent paragraphs.

Being Prudent
Before you hit the "Send" button, reread and rethink your message. Remember that
email is recorded forever. Keep in mind that business email is legally the property of
the institution, so your supervisor is entitled to read any message you send from a
company address. If you are sending an emotional message, such as a response to an
insult, save your message and read it again the next day before you send it.

Reducing Email Traffic

Do not hit "Reply All" unless your information must actually go to every recipient
on the list. For example, if someone is setting up a meeting, you probably do not
have to tell everybody on that mailing list whether you will attend or not.
Do not request a "Received Receipt" unless it is absolutely necessary.
Do not let messages get longer and longer as the back-and-forth correspond-
ence goes on. Delete any of the copied information from previous messages unless
it is important reference information.
Print messages only if the hard copy is important as a reference. Copying and
pasting the message into a word processing document allows you to control the
way it is printed, so you can save paper, eliminate unnecessary parts, and increase
the print size.

Attachments
Your instructor will probably have definite preferences on whether or not work
can be submitted electronically, so ask if your instructor does not tell you this in the
course information. Some instructors prefer to get essays by email, while others are
wary of opening attachments. Many instructors prefer assignments in hard copy so
that they do not have to print your work (especially if they do not have access to
school facilities for this purpose). If you have questions about your draft, you can
copy and paste the text into the body of the message.

School Policies
Your institution may have official policies for appropriate use of email. Check these
policies for further information.
Appendix B

•
Presenting your work properly is important whether you are in elementary school,
college, or the workforce. The two most important criteria for school assignments
are that the work is easy to read and that it leaves the marker plenty of room for
comments and corrections. Instructors with specific format guidelines generally
make them clear with assignment instructions. Here are some common format
guidelines:
• Type your assignments on a computer. The printout should be black ink (not
faded) on medium-weight 8Y2-by-ll-inch white paper.
• Use a plain type face in a size that is easy to read, such as Times New Roman,
Arial, or Calibri 12 point. Do not use typefaces that look like printing or
handwriting.
• Double-space your essay. (Set paragraph line spacing at 2.)
• Leave a one-inch margin on all sides of the page.
• Number your pages. MLA and APA formats require page numbers in the top
right corner.
• Use only one side of the paper.
• Indent your paragraphs with five spaces, the default tab setting.
• Use left justification and a ragged right margin. (Full justification often results
in large gaps between words.)
• Make sure your sentences are clearly shown with a capital letter at the begin-
ning and a period at the end.
• Use one space after a period. Do not put spaces before periods or commas.
• Make sure your work is properly identified with the title of the assignment,
your name and student identification number, the course code including sec-
tion number, the date, and the professor's name. You may be asked to put this
information on a separate cover page or on the top of the first page of the
assignment. (The sample MLA essay in Appendix C shows the latter style, while
the sample APA essay in Appendix D shows a cover page.)
• Avoid unnecessary artwork. Include illustrations only when necessary.
• Staple the pages together in the top left corner. Do not use a cover or folder
unless your instructor has specifically asked for one..
 Appendix C

Galliano 1

Melissa Galliano

Professor T. Singh

English 101

14 April 2015

The Benefits of Reading Fiction

Curling up with a novel seems an old-fashioned pastime in the modern world

of amusements such as cat videos and Twitter gossip. Students used to the brevity of

modern communication may struggle with classic novels such as A Tale of Two Cities

and Treasure Island. However, even short stories and contemporary novels seem to be

too much work for students today-they would rather watch the movie. Moreover,

educators are under pressure to reduce the study of literature in the classroom to focus

more on marketable skills. However, fiction is more than entertainment: It is vital to

human learning and development.

Fiction gets its primary legitimacy from the long-standing importance of

story-telling in human life. Story-telling is practically hard-wired into our brains-after

all, we spend our sleeping hours making up fiction in our dreams. The art of the
4 f

APPENDIX C: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN MLA FORMAT 383

Galliano 2

narrative exists in every culture; it is"an almost certain part of our evolutionary heritage,

having arisen as a response to the daily needs of survival in our hunter-gatherer

ancestors" (Ingram). Telling stories is how our ancestors imparted important survival

information. A story about a hunter evading a bear would teach listeners what to do

if they came across a bear in the woods. Even today, with all our high-tech ways of

accessing information, we remember facts better if they are told in a story. For example,

a reader of historical fiction retains more facts about the time period than anyone

reading a regular history textbook. In the classroom, teachers' anecdotes help students

to retain information. It does not matter whether the stories are true or fantasy-we

need the narrative to have it stick in our brains.

Fiction-reading is an important part of educational development. Students

improve their language skills as they read. Fiction, specifically, offers readers a rich

vocabulary, metaphors, and symbolism, all of which challenge the brain to understand

what is being said. Reading a novel strengthens memory as readers have to follow a

complicated plot, keep track of a range of characters, and remember details of settings.

Moreover, fiction exercises the imagination. Readers have to picture the characters and

settings from what the author reveals. Once books are made into movies, however, this

power is taken away. For example, now that the Harry Potter books have been filmed, a

reader would be unable to imagine his own Harry-he or she would only be able to see

Daniel Radcliffe, the actor. In addition, fiction can challenge our critical thinking skills.

Science fiction encourages us to think "what if;' and mystery novels make us use our

deductive skills to figure out "whodunit:'

Even though fiction is not "true;' it gives us real insights into our lives. For

instance, in "Why My Mother Can't Speak English;' an elderly woman who "feared that
384 APPENDIX C: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN MLA FORMAT

Galliano 3

learning English would change her Chinese soul"teaches us what immigrants face in

assimilation (Engkent 357). Malcolm Lowry's novel Under the Volcano takes us into the

mind of an alcoholic. The lessons revealed in fiction can be life-altering, as evidenced

by work in bibliotherapy. For example, book clubs in prisons are successful vehicles of

rehabilitation, as attested to by an inmate who values the exercise:

Reading a book, sure, there is adventure, there is escapism, lifting yourself out

of this reality, which isn't always kind or welcoming. [But] it's in a purposeful

and productive way. It's better than drugs. It's better than banging your head

on the wall. It's safe and builds something, knowledge, empathy (Taylor).

Short stories and novels can thus quide us to a deeper understanding of our world.

Fiction-readers not only read books better-they also read people better.

Neuroscientists have proved that these readers develop understanding and empathy.

Brain scans show that words involving the senses and physical motion fire up the parts

of the brain that are used for those senses and motions. "The brain, it seems, does not

make much of a distinction between reading about an experience and encountering it

in real life; in each case,the same neurological regions are stimulated" (Paul).This brain

activity also shows that readers view fictional characters like real people and have an

emotional response to them. The parts of the brain that we use to follow a narrative are

also used in our own social interactions with people (Paul).The ability to understand

people's motives and actions is an important part of emotional intelligence, a quality

that is highly valued in the modern workplace. Fiction-readers can therefore use their

people-reading skills to achieve success.

Reading fiction undoubtedly makes us smarter. The study of literature

deserves a place in every language and writing course throughout our education.

b
 APPENDIX C: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN MLA FORMAT 385

Galliano 4

With the wealth of reading materials available today, instructors can find novels and

stories suitable for each student. The habit of reading fiction should be cultivated in

all students so that they carryon the practice throughout their life and can reap the

many benefits.
386 APPENDIX C: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN MLA FORMAT

Galliano 5

Works Cited

Engkent, Garry. "Why My Mother Can't Speak English:' Skill Set: Strategies for Reading and

Writing in the Canadian Classroom. By Lucia Engkent. 3rd ed. Don Mills: Oxford

UP, 2016. 353-58. Print.

Ingram, Jay."Once upon a Time, a Story Meant Survival:' Toronto Star, 23 Dec. 2001: F.8.

Canadian Newsstand. Web. 15 April 2015.

Paul, Annie Murphy. "Your Brain on Fiction:' New York Times, 17 March 2012. Web.

14 April 2015.

Taylor, Kate. "The Book Club at the Big House:' Globe and Mail, 22 Nov. 2014: R5. Print.

b
Appendix D

. . .... .

Running head: ADOLESCENTBRAIN

The Adolescent Brain

Andreas Lackner

York University

Prof. K. McKenzie

PSYCH 250: Patterns of Behaviour

21 March 2015
388 APPENDIX D: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN APA FORMAT
T
ADOLESCENT BRAIN 2

The Adolescent Brain

Parents and educators have always complained about the irrational and

immature behaviour of teenagers and young adults, but today it seems worse.

Adolescence-the period before adulthood-seems to extend to the age of 30 as the

boomerang generation settles into their parents' basement after college or university.

Many factors-such as economic conditions and the development of technology-

playa role in this state of affairs, but a factor that is only being understood now is

the neurological one. The human brain continues to develop beyond the legal age

of maturity. Understanding the adolescent brain can help people to understand the

behaviour of adolescents.

One predominant characteristic of adolescents is their heightened social

sensitivity. Teenagers are very self-conscious and think that everyone is looking at them.

They are mortified by minor embarrassments-even simple actions such as dropping

a tray or tripping on stage. Adults can more easily shrug off criticism, but bullying and

rejection by peers can be devastating to teens and young adults (Carman, 2012, p. A4).

Humiliation on social media can even lead them to commit suicide. The development of

the adolescent brain shows that social anxiety is part of a natural growth process:

As the brain matures in adolescence, the prefrontal cortex assumes

responsibility for many of the cognitive processes-such as reasoning,

planning and behavior control-that are initially performed in the more

primitive subcortical and limbic structures, she [Dr. Deborah Yurgelun-ToddJ

says. The development of the prefrontal cortex parallels improvements in

cognitive control and behavioral inhibition as an adolescent transitions to

an adult. Frontalization may underlie adolescents' growing ability to think

7
 APPENDIX D: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN APA FORMAT 389

ADOLESCENT BRAIN 3

abstractly outside of themselves, and see themselves in the way others see

them-which could contribute to the feeling of being constantly on stage and

judged that many teens experience (Packard, 2007.)

As they mature, adolescents gain control of the social parts of their brain. It is part of

the normal maturation process as children gradually individuate themselves from their

parents and learn to act in a larger social arena.

Adolescents tend to take more risks than adults. They are more likely to

drive recklessly-behaviour they pay for in higher car insurance rates.They try crazy

stunts, such as diving off a cliff, especially under the influence of peer pressure. Again,

this is due to the ongoing development of their brains: "Since both the wiring to

the prefrontal cortex, and the insulation, is incomplete, teens often take longer to

accesstheir prefrontal cortexes, meaning they have a harder time making accurate

judgments and controlling their impulses" (McMahon, 2015, p. 50). Hormones and

neurotransmitters like dopamine also play an important role because they make

risk-taking an immensely pleasurable activity (McMahon, 2015, p. 51).This activity

is heightened when teens have an audience of their peers. For example, researchers

found teens take more risks in a car-racing video game when they are watched by other

teens (McMahon, 2015, p. 53).

Experimentation with drugs and alcohol is also common among teens and

young adults. This can lead to addiction and serious social and mental problems. The

experimentation can be considered another kind of risk-taking behaviour influenced

by peer pressure, but more biological factors come into play. "The hormone THp, which

is released by the body in response to stress, has a calming effect in adults, but actually

seems to have the opposite effect in teens, increasing stress" (McMahon, 2015, p. 50).
390 APPENDIX D: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN APA FORMAT

ADOLESCENT BRAIN 4

A higher level of stress may lead them to try drugs as a release in the first place. This is

dangerous because the developing brain is more susceptible to damage from drugs

and alcohol.

Parents and teachers need to understand adolescent brain development in

order to guide young people through their tumultuous development. Adolescents'

social anxiety and reactions to bullying cannot be dismissed as minor problems. Parents

and educators have a delicate balancing act to manoeuvre-guiding adolescents away

from behaviour that can lead to permanent damage while allowing them enough

leeway to learn and mature to responsible adults.

- -__l
 APPENDIX D: SAMPLE RESEARCH ESSAY IN APA FORMAT 391

ADOLESCENT BRAIN 5

References

Carman, T. (2012, October 12). Bullying among teenage girls like "worst sort of brain

torture:' Vancouver Sun, p. A4. Retrieved from http://lcweb.senecac.on.ca:2075/

docview/1112617690?accountid=28610.

McMahon, T. (2015, January 12). Inside your teenager's scary brain. Maclean's, pp. 48-53.

Packard, E. (2007, April). That teenage feeling. Monitor on Psychology, 38(4). Retrieved

from http://www.apa.org/mon itor/apr07/teenage.aspx.

abstract nouns, 24 base form, of verb, 25-6
academic writing, 5, 16. Sec also essays; rhetoric; "Battle of the Bag" (Taylor), 317~ 1H
writing be, 50, 52, 54-6, 59. Sec also auxiliary verbs
ps. conversational language, 12-14 bibliography, 236
as impersonal, 12, 132,205-(,,222 bibliophobe,259
paragraphs in, H, 101 bilingual dictionaries, 44-5
topic sentence in, 104 body paragraphs, 127, 145~7
acronyms, 3R bottled water, 313-14
actions, as described by verbs, 25, 64 brainstorming, 133-5
active and passive voice, 54-6
active (present) participle, 2(,-7, 59, 61,62, capitalization, 24, 99-100
73,lHO errors in, 216~ 17
active (productive) vocabulary, 21 careless slips, 193
addicted, 25H-9 "The Case against Bottled Water" (Petty and
adjective clauses, H1-2 Trudeau),309-11
adjective phrases, 73 cause and effect essays, 167-70
adjectives, 27-H, 71~2 Chicago Manual style, 236
comparative and superlative, 27-8, 73, 179 cite, 320-1
compound, 31 clarity, 5-6
endings of, 27~H classification/definition essays, 164~7
verbs as, 61 , 62 clauses
adverb clauses, R3-5 adjective (relative), 81-2
adverbial connectives, H5, 120 adverb (subordinate/dependent), H3-5
adverbs, 2H, 72 main, H3-4
conjunctive, H5, 120 noun, HO-1
affixes, 30. Sec also prefixes; suffixes as reduced to phrases, H6-7
afford, 287-R diquishness, 343
agreement, subject-verb, 210-12 clothes / clothing, 34R-9
allcoe, 301 coherence, 5,121-2
analogy, 17R~9 collective nouns, 24
antecedent, 69-70, 71,201,202 collocation, 41
antonyms, 35, 45 colloquialisms,3H
APA (American Psychological Association) colons,9H
s~le,236-7,3H7~91 commas, 94~5
apostrophes, 96-7 adjective clauses and, H2, 95
in contractions, 96, 213, 214 serial, 76, 95
for plurals, 97, 214 comma splices, 217
for possession, 71, 96, 212-14 comparative adjectives, 27-H, 73, 179-HO
arguments. Sec points compare, 180
articles, 67-H comparison essays, 175-H
aspect, of verbs, 52-4 comparisons, 175-H 1
"Attention, Dual Citizens: Canada Can No adjectival, 27-8, 73, 179-HO
Longer Afford Our Divided Loyalty" by analogy, 17H-9
(Griffiths),33CH complement, 50, 62, 65
audience and purpose, 4-5, 12 objective, 63
of description, 162-4 complex sentences, H4-5, 92-3
of narrative, 159~62 compound adjectives, 31
authors, references to, 232~3 compound nouns, 24, 30-1
autobiographical fiction, 231-2 compound sentences, H4
auxiliary verbs, 50, 56-7, 59 conceding points, 85, 1H4

~ L
 INDEX 393

conciseness, H-lJ electronic dictionaries, 45

concluding sentences, 117 ellipsis, ')3
conclusions, 12H, 14H-50 email.guidelines for, 379-80
concrete nouns, 24 em dash and en dash, 99
conjunctions end punctuation, 93-4
coordinate, 76-H, H4, 8H English language, 42-4
subordinate, H3-5, HH history of, 43
conjunctive adverbs, 85 new words in, 43-4
connecting sentences, HH-lJO errors, 9-10
connotation, 36 types of, 1lJ3-5
conscientious, 361-2 errors, correction of, 1HH, 226-7
content,7-H grammar, 1lJ3, 200-16
content words, 24 punctuation/capitalization, 1lJ3, 216-17
context, 3lJ-40, 264-5 sentence structure, 217-22
contractions, lJ6, 213, 214 spelling, IlJ5-8
convcntionalitv, 343 style, 222-5
conversational V.I'. academic English. See spoken vocabulary, 195-200
1'.1'. written English errors, prevention of
coordinate conjunctions, 76-8, H4, 88 checklist for future use, 1HlJ
copula (linking) verbs, 64 computer tools, 190
copying errors, llJ3 drafts/revisions, 191-2
core (subject and predicate) of sentence, 91 effective dictionary use, llJO
correcting errors, 1HH, 226-7. See also errors, learning from marked work, 1H-19, 188-89
correction of essays. See also rhetoric
correctness, s-: 0 aims of, 127
countable nouns, 24, 20H-lJ body paragraphs, 127, 145-7
critical thinking, 7-8, 134,252 conclusions, 12H, 14H-50
critical thinking for, 7-8,134,252
dashes,9lJ five-paragraph length of, 8, 127-8, 132,
definite articles, 67-H 138-40,142,175
definition/ classification essays, 164-7 introductions, 127, 142-5
demonstratives, 67, 6H vs. paragraphs, 128-lJ
as pronouns, 71, 122 personal vs. impersonal, 153-5
denotation, 36 planning of, 17, 130-7
descriptive essays, 162-4 samples of!practice topics, 150-6
determiners, 67-8, 349 structure of, 127-30
errors in use of, 20H, 210 thesis statements, 137-40
diction, errors in, 194 essays, planning of, 17,130-7
dictionaries, 41 , 44-7, IlJO brainstorming ideas, 133-5
entries in, 46 choosing topic, 131
online/wiki, 45, 235 organizing ideas, 135
quoting from, 164-5 understanding essay question, 7,131-3
types of, 44-5 writing outline, 136-7
dilfirult,263 writing title, 135-6
dress, 343 euphemisms, 36
dummy it, 71 evaluation of writing, by instructor, 18-1lJ,
18H-89
c-books, 231 cVl'1l,32H-9
editing and correcting process. See also errors, examples, as used to support points, 114-17
and entries Jol1oUJin,~ explanatory!illustrative essays, 157-lJ
correcting errors, 1HH, 226-7
editing, 18, 188 "False Economy," 2lJ5-6
proofreading, 1H, 1HH, 1lJO "Fear Math, Not Numbers" (Martyn), 260-1
394 INDEX

few and little, 349 "It's Not Easy Being Green," 323-4
fiction, 231-3
figurative meaning, 35, 37 jargon, 37-H
first person writing, 10-11,69,203-4
foreign words, 360-1 language interference errors, 194
formality, 12-13, 39 language learners, dictionaries for, 45
format guidelines, 3H1 Latin, 24, 30, 43, 259
fossilized errors, 194 h:l?al,365
fragments, sentence, 217-1H linking (copula) verbs, 64
function words, 24 literal meaning, 35, 37
future tense, 54 literary analysis, 250-1
logical fallacies, 1H3
gerunds, 26, 60, 65 "Lots ofWays to Make Canada Fairer" (Goar),
"A Global Warming Deal to Do Nothing Still 269-70
Possible" (Barclay), 14-15 "The Lure of Costumes," 351-2
grammatical errors, 193,200-16
Greek,22,23,24,30,43,259 main (independent) clauses, H3-4
green, 321 margins, 94, 99
gri~f-stricketl, 361 "Maybe It's Time to Rewire and Unplug the
Next Generation" (Morgan), 302-3
helping (auxiliary) verbs, 50, 56-7, 59 "Michael's New Toy" (Barclay), 373-5
homophones, 195-6,320-1,361 MLA (Modern Language Association) style,
horrified, 365-6, 371 236-7,382-6
host, 314, 321 modal auxiliary verbs, 50, 56-7, 69
"how to" writing, 171-4 modifiers, 71-3
hyphens, 99 municipal, 314
line breaks for, 94 myriad, 314, 321
in words, 24, 30-1,73,99
narcissism, 259
I1we (first person pronoun), 10-11, 69, 203-4 narrative essays, 159-62
ideas narrative examples, 116-17
generating/organizing, 133-5 narrowing a topic, 131
as introduced by topic sentences, 104, 108, negative prefixes, 31,33,293
118,145 "No Hyphen for Me" (Sachedina), 325-6
idiomatic combinations, 75. See also collocation non-fiction, 231-3
idioms, 37 non-referential it, 71
"If the Artists Starve, We'll All Go Hungry" non-restrictive (non-defining) clauses, H2
(Renzetti),275-6 "No Tips, Please," 280-1
illustrative/explanatory essays, 157-9 noun clauses, 80-1
impersonal voice, in academic writing, 12, 132, nouns, 24-5
205-6, 222. See also personal vs. impersonal endings of, 25
voice as gerunds, 26, 60, 65
indefinite articles, 67-H plurals of, 24-5, 213
indefinite pronouns, 71 pronouns and, 69-71
indentation of paragraphs, 94,101, 102 as subjects/objects, 24, 50
independent paragraphs, 102-4 types of, 24
infinitives, 25, 61-2, 65
initialisms,3H object, 24
instacram (verb), 300-1 objective complement, 63
in-text citations, 236 obscenity,39
intransitive verbs, 63 one (pronoun), 206-7
introductions, 127, 142-5 "Online Gambling a Way to Rip off the Poor"
its and it's, 71,196,213 (Stern),289-90
 INDEX 395

opinion, of writer, 234 of possessives, 212, 214

opt out, 334 of pronouns, 69, 71, 202-5
outline of essay, 136-7 subject-verb agreement and, 210-11
overly formal language, 12-13,39 points
conceding, 85, lR4
paragraphs making, 10R-9
coherence of,S, 121-2 supporting, 110-11
concluding sentences for, 117 possession/possessive pronouns, 67, 71 , 96,
I'S. essays, 12R-9 212-14
indentation of, 94, 101, 102 precarious, 273
independent, 102-4 predicate (verb), 50
making points in, 10R-9 prefixes, 30-1,40,274
samples of, 124-6 common, 31-2
supporting points/examples in, 110-11, negative, 31,33,293
114-17 prepositional phrases, 57-8, 74-5, 247
topic sentences of, 104-7 prepositions, 57-8, 64, 74-5, 169, 1RO, 194,247
transition signals in, 115, 119-20 present (active) participle, 26-7, 59,61,02,
unity of, 118 73,IRO
parallel structure, 7H, 221 present tense, 52-3
paraphrasing, 240-3 in narrative, 53, 162,360
participles print-form dictionaries, 45
active and passive, 27, 59, 73, lRO process description essays, 171-4
present and past, 26-7, 59, 61 , 62 pronouns, 69-71 . Sec also specific pr0l10UllS
particles, 50, 57-R antecedents oC 09-70, 71 , 201, 202
parts of speech, 24-8 demonstrative, 71, 122
errors in use of, 19R-9 errors in use of, 201-7
passive (past) participle, 26-7, 59, 61, 62, 73, 180 gender-neutral, 70, 202-3
passive (receptive) vocabulary, 21 indefinite, 71
passive voice, 54-6 personal, 09-70
past (passive) participle, 26-7, 59, 61,62,73, lRO possessive, 67, 71, 212-13
past tense, 25-6, 53-4 reflexive, 71, 207
periods, 93, 94 relative, 81-2
personal 1'5. impersonal voice, 10-11 pronoun shift, 202
in academic writing, 12, 132,205-6,222 pronunciation, 22-3
in essays, 153-5 proofreading, is, 18R, 190
in opinion pieces, 234 proper nouns, 24, 99-100,136
pronoun use and, 10, 203-6 used as verbs, 300-1
personal pronouns, 69-70 or
punctuation, 93-99. See 1//50 specific types
personal responses to readings, 251-2 punctuation
persuasive essays, 181-5 errors in, 193,210-17
phrasal verbs, 50, 57-8, 59
phrases qualifying statements, 1R4-5
adjective, 73 quantifiers, 67
clause reduction to, 86-7 question, essay, 7, 131-3
prepositional, 57-8, 74-5, 247 quotation marks, 98, 234, 238-9
plagiarism, 238 quoted material
planning, in writing process. See essays, as exact words, 238-9
planning of as paraphrase, 240-3
plural as reported speech, 244
apostrophes and, 97, 214
of determiners, (,7 rail, 293
incorrect information on, 45, 235 reading, as comprehension
of nouns, 24-5, 213 of assigned readings, 230-1, 250
 r
I

396 INDEX

reading, as comprehension (continued) sentences

of thesis/main idea, 233-4 capitalization in, 99-100
of writer's opinion, 234 complex, 84-5, 92-3
of writer's techniques, 234-5 concluding, 117
reading, methods/types of connecting, 88-90
to build skills, 252 fragments, 217-18
fiction V.I. non-fiction, 231-3 punctuation of, 93-99
paper V.I. screen, 231 run-on, 89, 217-19
as research, 235-6 serial comma, 76, 95
by scanning/skimming, 229 server, 301
textbooks, 230-1 set-up, to essay question, 131
reading, and reproduction of content sight, 320-1
avoiding plagiarism, 238 singular, 24-5
paraphrasing/ reporting, 240-4 of determiners, 67-68
quoting directly, 238-9 of pronouns, 69-71
referencing sources, 236-7 subject-verb agreement and, 210-11
summarizing, 245-8 site, 320-1
readings, assigned skimming, as way of reading, 229
comprehension of, 230-1, 250 slang, 38-9
literary analysis of, 250--1 "Soap and Water" (Frei), 363-4
personal response to, 251-2 sources, citing, 236-7
references, 236-7 space (as form of punctuation), 94
reflexive pronouns, 71, 207 spelling, 23-4
relative clauses, 81-2 British V.I. American, 24, 27
relative pronouns, 81-2 errors in, 190, 193, 195-7
rep, 365 words often confused/misspelled, 196-7
reported speech, 244 spend, 287-8
research, 235-6 spoken V.I. written English, 3-4, 42
restrictive (defining) clauses, 82 colloquialisms/slang, 38-9
reviews, 170-1 conceding points, 184
rhetoric, 157-86. Sec also essays, and entry style, 12-16
.«)[[owing vocabulary, 4, 5, 21, 23
cause and effect, 167-70 "writing by ear," 194
comparison, 175-81 stative verbs (verbs describing states), 25, 64
defini tion / classification, 164-7 style
description, 162-4 as appropriate, 12-16
explanation/illustration. 157-9 as improved by editing, 222-5
narration, 159-62 subject, 24, 50
persuasion, 181-5 subject-verb agreement, 210-12
process description, 171-5 subordinate conjunctions, 83-5, 88
review, 170-1 subordinate (dependent) clauses, 83-5
roots, of words, 30. Sec also prefixes; subsidize, 314
suffixes suffixes, 30-1. See also prefixes
run-on sentences, 89, 217-19 summarizing, 245-8
superlative adjectives, 27-8, 73, 179-80
-5 endings, 213-14 suppose, 278-9
sanitizino, 293 synonyms, 35, 45
scanning, as way of reading, 229
semicolons, 98 techniques, of writer, 234-5
sentence structure, 50-2 "Technology and the Generational Divide,"
analysis of, 91-2 306-7
errors in, 217-22 "Tempest in the School Teapot" (Montgomery),
verbs and,50,62-7 367-8
 INDEX 397

tense, of verbs, 25-7, 52-4,162 vet, 365

textbooks, 230-1 vocabulary. See also words
thesauruses, 35, 45 errors in, 194
thesis statements, 137-40 expansion of, 47
identification of, 233-4 knowledge/use of, 21-2
as three-pronged, 138-40 parts of speech, 24-8
topic sentences and, 104-7 pronunciation, 22-3
they (plural pronoun), as singular, 202-3 spelling, 23-4, 190, 195-8
titles, 135-6, 233
toonie, 314-15 welfare, 361
topic, choice of, 131 "What Makes a Good Voter," 335-6
topic sentences "White Tops, Grey Bottoms" (Akerman),
for body paragraphs, 127, 145-7 339-40
for summary paragraphs, 247-8 "Why Arcade Fire Fans Should Rise to the
thesis statement and, 104-7 Occasion and Say Yes to the Dress Code"
toxic, 314 (Everett-Green),345-6
transition signals, 5, 6, 115, 119-20, 121 "Why My Mother Can't Speak English"
transitive verbs, 54, 62-3 (Engkent),353-8
"Turning the Table on Instagram" (Teitel), "Why Pay More? To Be Conspicuous" (Singer),
297-8 283-4
typos (typographical errors), 193 "Why Study Liberal Arts?," 266-7
words. See also vocabulary
uncountable nouns, 24, 208-9 classes of, 28-9
uniform, 343 combinations of, 41,75
"Unplug the Digital Classroom" (Mann), families of, 32-4
255-6 foreign, 360-1
used to, 371 formation of,30-2
as idioms/jargon, 37-8
verbals, 60-2 as inappropriate, 38-9
verbs as incorrectly chosen, 200
as describing actions or states, 25, 64 meanings/connotations of, 35-6
endings/beginnings of, 25 as often confused/misspelled, 195-7
gerunds created from, 26, 60, 65 origins of, 23, 42-4
gerundslinfinitives following, 65 unfamiliar, 39-40
sentence structure and, 50, 62-7 writing. See also essays;rhetoric
subject agreement with, 210-12 audience/purpose of, 4-5
tense/aspect of, 25-7, 52-4, 162 evaluation of, 18-19, 188-89
verbs, forms of, 25-7, 54-60 principles of,3-16
active/passive voice, 54-6 process of, 16-18
base form, 25-6 reading as important to, 3, 47, 252
errors in use of, 215 techniques of, 234-5
infinitive, 25, 61-2,65 "writing by ear" errors, 194
modal auxiliary, 50, 56-7, 69 written English. See spoken vs. written English
participles, 26-7, 61-2, 73,180
phrasal, 50, 57-8, 59 yes-or-no essay questions, 131
transitive/Intransitive, 54, 62-3 you (second person pronoun), 204-5

I
J.
Skill Set
STRATEGIES FOR READING AND WRITING IN THE CANADIAN CLASSROOM

Updated and enhanced, the Third Edition of Skill Set: Strategies for Reading and Writing in
the Canadian Classroom carries on the proven problem/ solution/ model approach. Designed by
an experienced Canadian college instructor and improved through classroom feedback, this new
edition continues to emphasize the development of reading and vocabulary skills as fundamental to
improving writing and critical thinking skills in post-secondary students.

Part 1, Skill Development, takes a very practical, student-friendly approach. Clear and straight-
forward explanations of how to avoid and correct common writing problems help learners
develop the confidence to express themselves in writing. A supporting lexical approach increases
competency in a wide variety of vocabulary skills encompassing different abilities-identifying the
parts of a word, understanding how words determine sentence structure, recognizing collocations,
and seeing the relationships between words. Grammar instruction and practice is integrated
throughout, where most relevant to areas oflearning.

Part 2, Reading Selections, features a wide range of stimulating and topical Canadian selections,
generating active interest and high motivation to engage with the varied discussion questions and
assignment suggestions. Each reading provides many powerful examples as students are invited to
analyze the structures and writing techniques used. Attention is given to developing paraphrase and
summary skills, with detailed language study related to the reading, fostering the development of
enhanced critical reasoning skills.

NEW TO THIS EDITION:

~ 12 new readings to engage students
~ Model 5-paragraph essays on unit themes provide students with properly structured examples
of responding to readings
~ sample research papers in both APA and MLA style for modeling
~ clearly and logicallyorganized content guides students step by step through concepts and topics
~ information boxes and hint sections to highlight key concepts
~ fresh, open design and chunked information for ease of use and understanding

Includes Online Teacher's Resource containing Answer Keys, Teaching Notes, more sample MLA and APA essays,
and numerous other features.
Instructors can contact [email protected] for a free access code.

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-902013-3

OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
9 UJJlIllL