“&ana¸ iva&ana AaiNa sausaMskar yaaMsaazI iSaxaNap`saar”

- iSaxaNa mahYaI- Da^ baapUjaI saaLuMKo

EaI svaamaI ivavaokanaMd iSaxaNa saMsqaa kaolhapUr saMcaalaIt

ivavaokanaMd ka^laoja kaolhapUr
XII SCIENCE
[PHYSICS]

OSCILLATIONS

XII SCIENCE NOTES

Prof. R. S. Gade.
May 13, 2020

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 OSCILLATIONS
Periodic motion: The motion that repeats after equal interval of time is called the periodic
motion. The periodic motion along a straight is called linear periodic motion. In the
periodic motion the displacement of the particle is given by either a sine function or cosine
function, therefore the periodic motion is called harmonic motion. A body performing
periodic motion goes on repeating the same set of movements. The time taken for one such
set of movement is called its periodic time. As such, the uniform circular motion is a
periodic motion. Another type of periodic motion in which a particle repeatedly moves to
and fro along the same path is the oscillatory or vibratory motion.
Linear simple harmonic motion: (LSHM.)
Defn: “The linear periodic motion in which the force acting on the particle (or acceleration
of the particle) is directly proportional to its displacement and is directed towards the mean
position of motion.”
i.e. mathematically,- F = - k x , Where k is the proportionality constant and is called
force constant. It has the magnitude equal to force per unit displacement. Its SI unit is N/m
and the dimensions are [L0M1T-2].
e.g. 1) Motion of simple pendulum for small amplitude.
2) Motion of needle of sewing machine.
Differential equation:
By definition of LSHM, force acting on the particle is directly proportional to
displacement and is apposite to displacement. F = - k x ---- (1)
Again, if „m‟ is the mass of the particle, then according to Newton‟s second law of
motion, the force acting on the particle is given by:
Force = mass x acceleration.
d2x dv d dx d2x
i.e. F=mx ----- (2) [∵ Acceleration = = dt = dt 2 ]
dt 2 dt dt
From equations (1) and (2) we get:
d2x d2x d2x k
m. = -kx or m. +kx=0 or + x = 0 ------ (3)
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 m
This is the differential equation of the linear SHM.
Expression for acceleration, velocity and displacement, from the differential equation
of linear SHM:
d2x k
The differential equation of linear SHM is given by: + x = 0 ------ (1)
dt 2 m
d2x
Where, = acceleration of particle; m = mass of particle, k = force constant. Substituting,
dt 2
k d2x d2x
= ω2 in equation (1) we get: + ω2 x = 0 ∴ = - ω2 x
m dt 2 dt 2
∴ Acceleration, a = - ω2 x ------ (2)
This is an expression for acceleration of particle. Negative sign represent that
acceleration and displacement are apposite to each other.
Now, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity w.r.t. time
dv dv dx
i.e. acceleration = = dx . dt ----- ∵ by chain rule
dt
dv dx
= dx . v ----- ∵ v = dt
dv
∴ Equation (2) becomes: dx
. v = - ω2 x ∴ v. dv = - ω2 x dx
v2 ω2 x 2
Integrating this equation we get: v . dv = −ω2 x dx i.e. =− + c
2 2

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 Where, c is integration constant, which can be find out by using the condition that, when
ω2 x 2 ω2 x 2
x = ± A then v = 0 in the above equation as: 0 = − + c ∴ = c
2 2
Using this value of c in above equation we get:
v2 ω2 x 2 ω2 x 2
=− + ∴ v 2 = ω2 A2 − ω2 x 2 ∴ v = ±ω A2 − x 2 ------ (3)
2 2 2
This is the expression for velocity of a particle performing linear SHM.
Now, velocity is the rate of change of displacement w.r.t. time.
dx dx
∴ Velocity, v = ∴ By equation (3) we get: = ω A2 − x 2 (in magnitude only)
dt dt
dx
∴ = ω dt
A 2 −x 2
dx x
Integrating this equation we get: = ω dt ∴ sin−1 = (ωt + ϕ)
A 2 −x 2 A
Where, ϕ is the integration constant which depends upon initial conditions of particle.
x
Taking sine on both sides of above equation we get: A = sin ωt + 𝜙
∴ x = A sin ωt + ϕ ------ (4)
This is general expression for displacement of particle performing linear SHM.
Special Cases:
Case-I: If the particle starts its motion from mean position, then its initial conditions are,
t = 0 and x = 0. Using this in eqn (4) we get: 0 = A sin (0 + ϕ)
∴ sin ϕ = 0 or ϕ = 0 With this equation (4) becomes: x = A sin ωt ------ (5)
This is the displacement equation if the S.H.M. starts from mean position.
Case-II: If the particle starts its motion from extreme position, then its initial conditions
are, t = 0 and x = ± A.
Using this in equation (4) we get: A = A sin (0 + ϕ)
∴ sin ϕ = 1 or ϕ = π/2 ; With this eqn (4) becomes: x = A sin (ωt + π/2)
∴ x = A cos ωt ------ (6)
This is the displacement equation if, SHM stars from extreme position.
Expression of displacement (x), velocity (v) and Acceleration (a) at time t.
x = A sin(ωt + ϕ)
v = dx/dt = Aω cos(ωt + ϕ)
a = dv/dt = - Aω2 sin(ωt + ϕ) = - ω2x
Maximum and minimum values of displacement, velocity and acceleration:
Displacement: Equation for displacement in SHM is: x = Asin (ωt + ϕ)
(i) At mean position at t = 0, ϕ = 0. ∴ ωt + ϕ = 0 ⇒ x = 0.
This is the minimum value of displacement at mean position.
(ii) At extreme position, at t = 0, ϕ = π/2 or 3π/2 ∴ ωt + ϕ = π/2 or 3π/2
∴ x = Asin(π/2) or x = Asin(3π/2) ∴ x = ± A.
Thus at extreme position, the displacement of particle performing SHM is maximum.
Velocity: General equation of velocity for the particle performing linear SHM is:
v = ± ω A2 − x 2 , which represent that the magnitude of velocity at any instant is given
by, (ω A2 − x 2 ) . Therefore, for maximum velocity, x must be minimum i.e. zero.
Therefore velocity of particle is maximum at mean position and is equal to ωa
∴ Vmax = ± ωA
While for minimum velocity the displacement must be maximum i.e. „A‟.
Therefore velocity is minimum at extreme position and is equal to zero. ∴ Vmin . = 0

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 Acceleration: General equation for acceleration of particle performing linear SHM is given
by, Acceleration, a = - ω2 x , which clearly represents that the magnitude of acceleration
is, ω2 x. Therefore for maximum acceleration the displacement must be maximum i.e. „A‟.
Therefore the maximum acceleration will be ω2 A. ∴ amax . = ± ω2 A
While for minimum acceleration the displacement must be minimum i.e. zero. Therefore
minimum acceleration will be zero. ∴ amin . = 0
Some definitions:
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the particle performing linear SHM is
called the amplitude of that SHM.
Period (T): The time required to complete one oscillation for the particle performing linear
SHM is called its time period.
We know the displacement of particle performing linear SHM is given by the general
expression: x = A sin (ωt + ϕ) - - - - - - - (i)
The displacement of the particle after the time (2π/ω) the displacement is:
2π
x' = A sin [ω t + + ϕ] = A sin [(ωt + ϕ) + 2π] = Asin (ωt + ϕ) = x
ω
It means that particle gets the same displacement i.e. position after a time (2π/ω). Hence by
2π
definition the period of the SHM is: T = But we have, ω2 = K/m
ω
K F acceleration
∴ω= = = = acceleration per unit displacement
m xm x

2π m
∴ T= Also T = 2π
Acceleration per unit displacement K

Frequency (n): The number of oscillations completed by the particle performing linear
SHM, in one second is called the frequency of the linear SHM. It is found that:
1 ω 1 K
n = T = 2π = 2π m
Phase (θ): “The physical quantity with the help of which, we can find the complete state of
oscillation of the particle performing linear SHM is called phase of SHM.” The state of
motion is completely represented by magnitude and direction of displacement of the
particle performing linear SHM.
We have displacement equation of particle in SHM, x = A Sin (ωt + ϕ).
In this equation, the angle (ωt + ϕ) decides the magnitude and direction of
displacement. Therefore this angle is called phase of linear SHM.
∴ θ = (ωt + ϕ).
The phase of SHM at the instant of starting the motion is called as epoch of SHM or
initial phase or phase constant of SHM and is therefore equal to, ϕ
Projection of U.C.M. on any diameter (Relation between UCM and linear SHM):
Consider a particle, P performing U.C.M., with angular velocity , ω along the circular
C path of radius, A. Consider the another particle, M which
lies at the projection of P on diameter AB, then it is
A
found that as particle, P moves along the circumference
of circle, particle, M performs linear periodic motion
M A along the diameter, AB.
B O
Let particle, P starts from Po such that: ∠PoOD = ϕ
ϕ ωt (ωt +ϕ) and reaches to position, P in time, t. ∴ ∠ POPo = ωt.
P
Po And ∠POD = (ωt + ϕ). At the same time projection will
D

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 be at point, M. ∴ The displacement of projection is: OM = x. From geometry of figure,
OM X
∠OPM = ωt + ϕ ∴ From ∆OPM, Sin (ωt + ϕ) = = A ∴ x = A Sin (ωt + ϕ) ----- (1)
OP
d
∴ velocity of projection, v = dx/dt i.e v = dt A Sin (ωt + ϕ) = Aω Cos (ωt + ϕ)
d
∴ Acceleration of projection = dv/dt = dt A ω Cos(ωt + ϕ) = - A ω2 Sin (ωt + ϕ)
∴ Acceleration = - ω2x ------ (2)
Equation (2) represents that acceleration of projection is directly proportional to its
displacement and – ve sign shows that the acceleration is apposite to displacement. Hence
motion of projection must be the linear SHM.
“ i. e. Projection of U.C.M. along the diameter is the linear SHM.”
This circular path is called reference circle and the particle is called reference particle.
As such the radius of the reference circle is the amplitude of linear SHM.
Graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration against time:
(I) For the SHM starting from mean position:
For this position, x = A sinωt, v = Aω cosωt and acceleration = - ω2x.
By using these expressions along with, ω = 2π/T, we can find the values of x, v and
acceleration of particle. These values are as given in following table.
By using these values, we can plot the graphs
Time ωt x v a
between Displacement, velocity, acceleration and
0 0 0 +ωA 0
time
T/4 π/2 +A 0 -ω2A They are as shown in following graphs.
T/2 π 0 -ωA 0
3T/4 3π/2 -A 0 +ω2A
T 2π 0 +ωA 0 •
T/4 T/2 3T/
• • •
T 5T/ 3T/ t
• • •
X 0 4 4 2 ωt
π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π
From these graphs we can draw
following conclusions.
1) All the three curves are sinusoidal, V T/4 T/2 3T/ T 5T/ 3T/ t
hence x, v and acceleration varies • • • 4 • • 4• 2•
0 π / 2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π ωt
harmonically with time, t. Hence x,
v & a are periodic functions of time.
2) Every curve represents same path accln T/4 T/2 3T/ T 5T/ 3T/ t
• • • • • 4• 2•
after the phase of 2π rad. 0 4
π / 2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π ωt
3) The phase different between
displacement and velocity as well as
between velocity and acceleration is π/2 radian. While the phase difference between
displacement and acceleration is π rad.
(ii) For SHM starting from extreme position:
For this motion, x = A cosωt, v = - A ω sinωt, and acceleration = - ω2x.
By using these expressions along with, ω = 2π/T we can find the values of x, v and
acceleration of particle. These values are as
n
Time ωt x v accl given in table. By using these values, we can
2
0 0 +A 0 -ω A plot the graphs betn Displacement, velocity,
T/4 π/2 0 -ωA 0 acceleration and time. They are as shown in
2
T/2 π -A 0 +ω A following graphs.
3T/4 3π/2 0 +ωA 0
T 2π +A 0 -ω2A

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 From these graphs we can draw same conclusions as follows -
1) All the three curves are sinusoidal,
hence x, v and acceleration varies T/4 T/2 3T/ T 5T/ 3T/ t
harmonically with time, t. Hence x, X • • • 4• • 4• 2•
0 π / 2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π ωt
v & a are periodic functions of time.
2) Every curve represents same path
T/4 T/2 3T/ T 5T/ 3T/ t
after the phase of 2π rad. V0 • • • 4• • 4• 2•
3) The phase different between π / 2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π ωt
displacement and velocity as well as
between velocity and acceleration is
accln T/4 T/2 3T/ T 5T/ 3T/ t
π/2 radian. While the phase 0
• • • 4• • 4• 2•
n π / 2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π ωt
difference bet displacement &
acceleration is π rad.
Composition of two SHMs having same period and along the same line:
Two SHMs along the same line (x- axis), having different amplitudes (A1 & A2) and
different initial phases (ϕ1 & ϕ2) are represented by,-
X1 = A1sin (ωt + ϕ1) and X2 = A2sin (ωt + ϕ2) ------ (1)
If particle is subjected to these two SHMs simultaneously, its resultant displacement is
given by: X = x1 + x2 = A1sin (ωt + ϕ1 ) + A2sin (ωt + ϕ2 )
∴ X = A1[ sinωt cosϕ1 + cosωt sinϕ1 ] + A2[ sinωt cosϕ2 + cosωt sinϕ2 ]
∴ X = (A1 sinωt cosϕ1 + A1 cosωt sinϕ1) + (A2 sinωt cosϕ2 + A2 cosωt sinϕ2)
= sinωt [A1cosϕ1 + A2cosϕ2] + cosωt [A1sinϕ1 + A2sinϕ2]
Substitute, R sin δ = A1sinϕ1 + A2sinϕ2 ---- (2); R cos δ = A1cosϕ1 + A2cosϕ2 - - - - - (3)
∴ X = R cos δ sinωt + R sin δ cosωt = R (cos δ sinωt + sin δ cosωt)
∴ X = R sin (ωt + δ) ------ (4)
This is the resultant displacement of the particle, which represent that resultant motion is
the linear SHM of amplitude, R and initial phase, δ.
Resultant amplitude: (R)
To find resultant amplitude, square and add the equations (2) and (3) as,
R2 sin2 δ + R2 cos2 δ = ( A1sinϕ1 + A2sinϕ2 )2 + ( A1cosϕ1 + A2cosϕ2 )2
∴ R2 = (A21 cos 2 ϕ1 + A22 cos 2 ϕ2 + 2A1 A2 cosϕ1 cosϕ2 ) +
(A21 sin2 ϕ1 + A22 sin2 ϕ2 + 2A1 A2 sinϕ1 sinϕ2 )
= A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 (cosϕ1 cosϕ2 + sinϕ1 sinϕ2 ) = A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cos⁡
(ϕ1 − ϕ2 )

∴ R = A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 cos⁡

(ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) ------ (5)
Special cases: I) If (𝛟𝟏 − 𝛟𝟐 ) = 00: If original two SHMs are in same phase
i.e. (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 00 then equation (5) gives, resultant amplitude as:
R = A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 ∴ R = A1 + A2
* Further, if A1 = A2 = A say, then R = 2A
II) If (𝛟𝟏 − 𝛟𝟐 ) = π : If original two SHMs are in apposite phase, then (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = πc then
c

equation (5) gives, the resultant amplitude as:

R = A21 + A22 − 2A1 A2 i.e. R = A1 − A2
* Further, if A1 = A2 = A say, then R=0

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 III) If (𝛟𝟏 − 𝛟𝟐 ) = π/2C = 900: If original two SHMs are having phase difference of 900
then (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 900 then equation (5) gives, resultant amplitude as: R = A21 + A22 + 0
i.e. R= A21 + A22

* Further, if A1 = A2 = A say, then R = 2A2 = 2A

IV) If (ϕ1 – ϕ2) = π/3C = 600: If original two SHMs are having phase difference of 600
then (ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) = 600 then equation (5) gives, resultant amplitude as:
R = A21 + A22 + 0.5 A1 A2
* Further, if A1 = A2 = A say, then R = 2.5 A2 = 5/2 A
Resultant epoch: (δ)
To find the resultant epoch, divide equation (2) by equation (3) as:
R sin δ A 1 sin ϕ1 +A 2 sin ϕ2 A 1 sin ϕ1 + A 2 sin ϕ2
=A i.e. tan δ = A
R cos δ 1 cos ϕ1 +A 2 cos ϕ2 1 cos ϕ1 + A 2 cos ϕ2

A 1 sin ϕ1 + A 2 sin ϕ2 sin ϕ1 +sin ϕ2

∴ δ = tan−1 ---- (6) if A1 = A2 then δ = tan−1
A 1 cos ϕ1 + A 2 cos ϕ2 cos ϕ1 +cos ϕ2

Energy and its conservation in linear SHM:

When particle performs linear SHM it A C D B
O
has kinetic energy and potential energy. • • • • •
x 𝐅 dx
Kinetic energy (Ek): Consider a particle
performing linear SHM is at a distance, x from the mean position, as shown in figure. Then
its velocity is given by: v = ±ω A2 − x 2 ∴ v2 = ω2 (A2 – x2).
Therefore the kinetic energy, Ek = ½ m v2 = ½ m ω2 (A2 – x2) ------ (1)
Potential energy (Ep): “The potential energy of the particle in SHM at any position is the
total work done to displace the particle from mean position to that point.”
When particle is at a distance of x from mean the force acting on the particle is:
F = - k x, which is directed towards mean position. Therefore to displace the particle
through a small distance, dx against this force, from point, C to the point, D, then the
required amount of work done is:
dw = - F dx = kx dx.
Therefore, the total amount of work done to displace the particle from mean to the
w x
point, C will be: W = 0 dw = 0 kx dx = ½ kx2 But, ω2 = k/m ∴ k = mω2
∴ W = ½ m ω2x ------ (2)
This work done represents the potential energy of particle at point, C.
∴ Ep = ½ m ω2x. ----- (3)
Therefore total energy (E) of particle is,-
E = ½ m ω2 (A2 – x2 ) + ½ m ω2x = ½ m ω2 A2 ------ (4)
Remarks: From the expression of total energy we can draw following remarks.
1) In equation (4), (½mω2) is a constant. Hence, “the total energy of the particle
performing SHM of constant frequency is directly proportional to square of its
amplitude.”
2) In equation (4), ω = 2πn. ∴ E = (2π2A2m) n2. In this (2π2A2m) is constant for
constant amplitude. Hence, “the total energy of the particle performing SHM of
constant amplitude is directly proportional to square of its frequency.”
3) Total energy is directly proportional to mass of particle performing SHM.

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 4) In equation (4), as there no factor, x, the total energy must be independent of x, i.e.
independent of position of the particle. Hence it is same at each and every position.
That means total energy of the particle is conserved.
i.e. “Total energy of the particle in linear SHM remains constant.”
Conservation of energy in SHM: When the particle performing SHM is at a distance of x
from mean position then its K.E. and P.E. are given by:
P.E. = ½ k x2 ; K.E. = ½ k (a2 – x2)
∴ T.E. of particle at distance x from mean position = ½ ka2 - - - (i)
* At mean position, x = 0 ∴ P.E. = 0; K.E. = ½ k (a2 – 0) = ½ ka2
∴ Total energy of particle at mean position = ½ ka2 - - - - - (ii)
* At extreme positions, x = ± a ∴ P.E. = ½ ka2; K.E. = 1/2 k (a2 – a2) = 0
∴ Total energy of particle at any extreme position = ½ ka2 - - - - - (iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii) it is clear that the total energy of the particle
performing SHM is same at each and every point in its path and it is conserved.
Graphical representation of variation in Ep, Ek and E with displacement:
When particle performs linear SHM, its
energy varies with Displacement, as shown in
graphs. Graphs represents: 1) Potential energy is
zero in mean position and is maximum in
extreme positions. 2) Kinetic energy is zero at
the extreme positions and is maximum at mean
position. 3) Total energy is constant throughout
motion. But it is entirely kinetic at mean position
and entirely potential in extreme positions.
Simple pendulum:
Ideal simple pendulum:
“An ideal simple pendulum is a system in which a heavy point mass is suspended
from a rigid support with the help of weightless and inextensible string.”
In actual practice ideal simple pendulum does not exist, because we can have neither
heavy point mass nor a weightless string. In practice ideal simple pendulum can be realized
in the form of practical simple pendulum.
Practical simple pendulum: “Practical simple pendulum is a system in which a heavy
metal sphere (called pendulum bob) is suspended to the rigid support with the help of
inextensible and light string.”
The distance betn point of suspension & center of sphere is called length of simple
pendulum, L. Time required to complete one oscillation for bob is called its period.
Expression for time period: Consider a simple pendulum having the length, L and bob of
mass, m. Let bob is displaced from its mean position, O
O
θ to the position, A through a very small angle, θ and
then released, it started to oscillate about mean
position. In the displaced position the forces acting on
ℓ T'
the bob are,- (i) Weight, mg of the bob and (ii) tension,
T' in the string. From this weight, mg can be resolved
C
X
B into two components: „mg cosθ‟ and „mg sinθ‟ as
mg sinθ θ shown in figure. The component mg cosθ is balanced
A
by tension and hence the component, „mg sinθ‟
mg cosθ
mg remains as a unbalanced force which will restore the

[RSG/XII/PHY/OSCILLATIONS] Page 8
 bob into its mean position. Hence restoring force acting on the bob will be:
F = - mgsinθ ----- (1) -ve sign in this expression represents that force is apposite to
displacement. Now, if θ is very small and is expressed in radian then, Sinθ ≈ θ and
arc (OA ) x x
θ= = L. ∴ F=-mg
radius L
x
∴ acceleration of the bob is given by: Acceleration = F/m = - g ------ (2)
L
In this expression for acceleration, g and L are constants, hence acceleration of the bob is
directly proportional to displacement of bob, and –ve sign in this expression represents that
the acceleration is apposite to displacement, which means that the motion of the bob must
be the linear SHM. ∴ the period of simple pendulum is given by:
2π
T= . But from eqn, (2) magnitude of acceleration per unit
acceleration per unit displacement

2π L
displacement is (g/L). ∴ T = = 2π ----- (3)
g/L g

* For the above derivation the assumption that are to be made are:
1. The amplitude of oscillation is very small (20 times smaller than its length)
2. The length of the string is large and
3. During oscillations bob oscillates in a single vertical plane.
Laws of simple pendulum:
1. First law (law of length): “At given place, period of simple pendulum is directly proportional
to square root of length of simple pendulum.” i.e T ∝ L , when „g‟ is constant.
2. Second law (law of gravity): “For given simple pendulum, period of simple pendulum is
inversely proportional to square root of acceleration due to gravity at that place.”
1
i.e. T ∝ , when „L‟ is constant.
g
3. Third law (law of mass): “For any pendulum, at any place, the period of simple pendulum is
independent of mass of the pendulum bob.”
4. Fourth Law (Law of isochronous): “The period of simple pendulum does not depend upon
its amplitude.”
Second’s pendulum:
“Second‟s pendulum is a simple pendulum, which has time period two second.”
Therefore, for Second‟s pendulum we write: T = 2 s and L = Ls , length of Second‟s
Ls g
pendulum. ∴ 2 = 2π or L s = π2
g

* Two pendulums of lengths L1 and L 2 (L 2 > L 1) starts vibrating at same instant, then the two
are at the same position in the same phase after the n vibrations of larger pendulum such
that: (n + 1)T1 = nT2 or (n + 1) L1 = n L2
Distinguishing between conical and simple pendulum:
Conical Pendulum Simple Pendulum
1 Trajectory and the plane of motion Trajectory and plane of motion of bob
. of bob is a horizontal circle is part of a vertical circle
2 Horizontal component of the force Tangential component of weight is the
. due to tension is the necessary governing force for energy conversion
centripetal force (governing force) during motion
3 K.E. & gravitational P.E. are K.E. & gravitational P.E. are
. constant interconverting but their sum is
conserved

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 4 String always makes a fixed angle With large amplitude, the string can
. with the horizontal and can never be be horizontal at some instances.
horizontal
5 Lcos θ L
Period, T = 2π Period, T = 2π g
. g

Angular S.H.M. and its Differential Equation:

Figure (a) shows metallic
disc attached centrally to a thin
wire hanging from a rigid
support. If the disc is slightly
twisted about the axis along the
wire and released it perform
rotational motion partly in
clockwise and anticlockwise
(or opposite) sense. Such
oscillations are called angular
oscillations or torsional oscillations. Such motion is governed by the restoring torque in the
wire, which is always opposite to the angular displacement. If its magnitude happens to be
proportional to the corresponding angular displacement, we can call the motion to be
angular S.H.M. Thus for the angular SHM, τ = - cθ ----- (i) where c is the proportionality
constant and is the restoring torque per unit angular displacement. If I is the moment of
inertia of the disc or rotating body then the torque acting on the body is given by,
τ = Iα ------ (ii) where α is the angular acceleration. Form equations (i) and (ii) we can
d2θ d2θ
write, I α = - cθ ⇒ I = - cθ ⇒ I + cθ = 0 -------- (iii) This is the differential equation
dt 2 dt 2
c
of the angular SHM. From this equation the angular acceleration can be given by α = - I θ
Definition: Angular SHM is defined as the oscillatory motion of a body in which the torque
or angular acceleration is directly proportional to the angular displacement and its direction
is opposite to that of angular displacement.
Time period of angular SHM is given by,
2π 2π
T= =
ω Angular acceleration per unit angular displacement
Magnet vibrating in uniform magnetic field:
Consider the bar magnet freely suspended in the plane of a uniform magnetic field
with the help of twistless string. Then it is found to remain steady with its axis parallel to
the direction of field. If the magnet is now rotated in horizontal plane through smaller
angle, θ as shown in figure (b) and released, it oscillates about the rest position. These
oscillatory motion is an example of angular SHM. Let µ be the magnetic dipole moment
and B the magnetic field. Then in the deflected position, a restoring torque acts on the
magnet that tends to bring it back to its equilibrium position. Then magnitude of torque is
given by: τ = µBsinθ. But as θ is small sinθ ≈ θ ∴ τ = µBθ
For clockwise angular displacement θ the restoring torque is in the anticlockwise
direction. ∴ τ = Iα = - µBθ where I is the moment of inertia of the bar magnet and α is the
µB
angular acceleration. ∴ α = - θ ------- (i) In this equation as µ, B and I are constants,
I
this equation shows that angular acceleration of oscillating magnet is directly proportional
to angular displacement and is opposite to the angular displacement. Hence motion is
angular SHM. Hence the period of oscillation of the magnet is given by:

[RSG/XII/PHY/OSCILLATIONS] Page 10
 2π 2π I
T= = = 2π --------- (ii)
Angular acceleration per unit angular displacement α µB
θ
DAMPED OSCILLATIONS:
“When the amplitude of the motion of an oscillator is reduced by an external force,
the oscillator and its motion are said to be damped.”
Periodic oscillations of gradually decreasing amplitude are called damped harmonic
oscillations and the oscillator is called a damped harmonic oscillator.
A simple harmonic oscillator is shown in the figure. It consists of a block of mass, m
kept oscillating vertically by a spring having spring constant k. From the block, a rod

Rigid
support
+A
Spring

ʖ
X
Block time (t)

Vane
-A
Displacement - time graph

Damped simple harmonic oscillator

extends to vane that is submerged in a liquid. As the vane moves up and down, the liquid
exerts drag force on it and thus on the complete oscillating system. With time the
mechanical energy of the block-spring system decreases, as energy is transferred to thermal
energy of the liquid and vane.
The dragging force depends on the nature of the surrounding medium. The damping force
Fd is directly proportional to velocity, v of the vane and block. ∴ Fd = - b v where b is a
damping constant and negative sign indicates that Fd opposes the motion. SI unit for
damping constant is kilogram per second (kg/s). The force on the block from the spring is
Fs = - k x. Let us assume that the gravitational force on the block is negligible compared to
Fd and Fs. Thus the total force acting on the mass at any time t is: F = Fd + Fs But F = m a
∴ m a = Fd + Fs = - b v – k x ⇒ m a + b v + k x = 0
d2x dx
∴m + b + k x = 0 - - - (i) This the differential equation for the motion of the block.
dt 2 dt
Solution of this equation is found to be of form:
x = Acos(ω't + ϕ) - - - - (ii) where A = A0 e-bt/2m, A0 is the maximum amplitude and A is
the amplitude of the damped harmonic oscillations. Amplitude decreases with time
exponentially as shown in graph.
The expression cos (ω't + ϕ) shows that the motion is still periodic and SHM.
k b 2 2π
Angular frequency ω' = − ; period of oscillation is: T =
m 2m k b 2
−
m 2m
b 2
The period of oscillation increases due to the presence of the term – in the
2m
denominator. Thus damping increases the period and decreases the amplitude.

[RSG/XII/PHY/OSCILLATIONS] Page 11
 Free Oscillations, Forced Oscillations and Resonance:
Free oscillations: “When a body capable of oscillations is displaced from its mean
position and released, it started to perform oscillations which are called free oscillations.
The frequency of such oscillations is called natural frequency of the body. This depends
upon dimensions, mass, elasticity & the mode of oscillations of body.”
Examples:
1) If a stretched string is plucked at some point it performs free oscillations with its natural
frequency.
2) When the bob of simple pendulum is displaced from its mean position and released it performs
the free oscillations with its natural frequency and amplitude of oscillation decreases due to air
or frictional resistance and finally it comes to rest.
3) When a prong of a tuning fork is struck on a rubber pad, the prongs oscillates with a single
frequency and amplitude of oscillation decreases due to frictional resistance of air and finally it
comes to rest. Here oscillations of the tuning fork are free oscillations.
4) Oscillations of a spring, current oscillates in an AC (LCR) circuit when capacitor discharges.
* When body performs free oscillations, it continuously loses energy due to frictional resistance
of the surrounding medium. Hence the amplitude of oscillations goes on decreasing and finally
the body comes to rest; such oscillations are damped oscillations. If there is no resisting force
acting on the oscillating body, oscillations are truly free and the amplitude will be constant. e.g.
oscillations of simple pendulum in vacuum.
* The natural frequency of the oscillations depends on the dimensions, mass, elastic properties
and mode of vibration of the vibrating body.
Forced oscillations: “When a body capable of oscillations is made to oscillate by applying the
external periodic force constantly then the oscillations of the body are the forced oscillations.”
The frequency of the forced oscillations is the frequency of the external periodic force
which is different than the natural frequency of that body.
Examples:
1) A person swinging in a swing without any one push it is an example of free oscillations.
However while swinging in a swing if you apply a push periodically by pressing your feet
against the ground or changing your position i.e. by changing moment of inertia, you find
amplitude of oscillation increases. This is an example of driven or forced oscillations.
2) The oscillations of a pendulum in a clock.
* The amplitude of forced oscillations is inversely proportional to the difference in frequency of
external periodic force and natural frequency of the body as shown in following graph.
Resonance: “If the frequency of the external periodic force
applied to a body is exactly equal to the natural frequency of the
body, the body begins to oscillate with maximum amplitude. This
phenomenon is called resonance.” This frequency is called
resonant frequency. OR
“The phenomenon in which the body oscillates under the action
of external periodic force, whose frequency is equal to the natural
frequency of the driven body, so that amplitude becomes
maximum is called Resonance.

* * * * *

[RSG/XII/PHY/OSCILLATIONS] Page 12
 EXERCISE
1. Choose the correct option.
i) A particle performs linear SHM starting from the mean position. Its amplitude is A and
time period is T. At the instance when its speed is half the maximum speed, its
displacement is
3 2 A 1
(A) A (B) A (C) 2 (D) A
2 3 2
Ans: (A)
3
ω [A2 – x2]1/2 = ½ ωA ⇒ x = A
2
ii) A body of mass 1 kg is performing linear SHM. Its displacement x (cm) at t (second) is
given by, x = 6sin(100t + π/4). Maximum kinetic energy of body is
(A) 36J (B) 9J (C) 27J (D) 18J
Ans: (D)
Here, A = 6 cm = 6 x 10-2m and ω = 100 rad/s
Max. KE = TE = ½ mω2A2 = ½ x 1 x 104 x 36 x 10-4 = 18J
iii) The length of second‟s pendulum on the surface of earth is nearly 1m. Its length on the
surface of moon should be [Given acceleration due to gravity (g) on moon is 1/6ththat on
the earth‟s surface]
(A) 1/6 m (B) 6 m (C) 1/36 m (D) 1/61/2 m
Ans: (A)
Length of second‟s pendulum, ℓ = g/π2 ⇒ ℓ ∝ g ∴ ℓm = ℓe (gm/ge) = 1 (1/6) = 1/6 m
iv) Two identical springs of constant k are connected, first in series and then in parallel. A
metal block of mass m is suspended from their combination. The ratio of their frequencies
of vertical oscillations will be in a ratio
(A) 1:4 (B) 1:2 (C) 2:1 (D) 4:1
Ans: (B) 1:2
n = (1/2π) (k/m)1/2 ⇒ n ∝ k1/2 ∴ ns / np = (ks / kp)1/2
ks = k1k2/(k1+k2) = k/2 and ks = k1 + k2 = 2k ∴ ns/np = [(k/2) / 2k]1/2 = [1/4]1/2 = 1:2
v) The graph shows variation of displacement of a particle performing SHM with time t.
Which of the following statements is correct from the graph?
(A) The acceleration is maximum at time T
(B) The force is maximum at time 3T/4
(C) The velocity is zero at time T/2
(D) The KE is equal to TE at time T/4
Ans: (B)
At time T the displacement x = 0, ∴ acceleration is zero not maximum ∴ (A) is wrong
At time 3T/4, displacement, x = A ∴ F = kA which is maximum ∴ (B) is correct
At time T/2 , displacement x = 0 ∴ velocity is maximum not zero ∴ (C) is wrong
At time T/4 displacement x = A ∴ KE is zero not equal to TE ∴ (D) is wrong
8. At what distance from the mean position is the speed of a particle performing SHM half its
maximum speed. Given path length of SHM = 10cm [Ans: 4.33 cm]
3 3
Soln V = ½ Vmax ⇒ ω[A2 – x2]1/2 = ωA ⇒ x = A= x 5 = 4.33 cm
2 2
9. In SI units, the differential equation of an SHM is d2x/dt2 = - 36x. Find its frequency and
period.
Soln. Comparing given equation with d2x/dt2 = - ω2x we get ω = 6 rad/s
∴ ω = 2πn ⇒ n = ω/2π = 6/2π = 3/π = 3/3.14 = 0.955 Hz

[RSG/XII/PHY/OSCILLATIONS] Page 13
 Period, T = 1/n = π/3 = 3/142/3 = 1.05 s
10. A needle of a sewing machine moves along a path of amplitude 4cm with frequency 5Hz.
Find its acceleration (1/30) s after it has crossed the mean position. [Ans: 34.2 m/s2]
Soln. ω = 2πn = 10π rad/s
∴ x = Asinωt = 4 sin(10π / 30) = 4sin2π/3 = 4 sin1200 = 4 x 0.866 = 3.464 cm
Now magnitude of acceleration at x, a = ω2x = 102π2 x 3.464 = 3418 cm/s2 = 34.2m/s2
11. Potential energy of a particle performing linear SHM is 0.1π2x2 joule. If mass of the
particle is 20g, find the frequency of SHM. [Ans: 1.581 Hz]
Soln. PE = ½ mω2x2 ⇒ 0.1π2x2 = ½ m (4π2n2)x2 ⇒ 0.1 = ½ x 0.020 (4n2) ⇒ n = 1.581 Hz
12. The total energy of a body of mass 2kg performing SHM is 40J. Find its speed while
crossing the centre of the path. [Ans: 6.324 cm/s]
Soln: TE, E = ½ mω2A2 = ½ m Vm2 ⇒ Vmax = [2E/m]1/2 = [2 x 40 / 2]1/2 = 401/2 = 6.324 m/s
13. A simple pendulum performs SHM of period 4s. How much time after crossing the mean
position, will the displacement of the bob be one-third of its amplitude? [Ans: 0.2163s]
Soln: x = Asinωt ⇒ A/3 = Asin(2πt/4) ⇒ πt/2 = sin-1(1/3) = 19.47 ∴ t = 19.47 x 2 / 180 = 0.2163
14. A simple pendulum of length 100 cm performs SHM. Find the restoring force acting on the
bob of mass 50g when the displacement from the mean position is 3cm. [Ans: 1.48 x10-2N]
Soln: Restoring force, F = mgsinθ = mgθ = mg(x/L) = 0.05 x 9.8 x 0.03 / 1 = 1.48 x 10-2 N
15. Find the change in length of second‟s pendulum, if the acceleration due to gravity changes
from 9.75 m/s2 to 9.8 m/s2. [Ans: Decreases by 0.0051m]
Soln: ℓ = g/π2 ⇒ ℓ2 - ℓ1 = (g2 – g1) / π2 = (9.8 – 9.75)/9.86 = 0.005066 ≈ 0.0051 m
∴ Change in length = Increase by 0.0051 m
16. At what distance from the mean position is the kinetic energy of a particle performing
SHM of amplitude 8cm is three times its potential energy? [Ans: 4cm]
Soln: ½ mω2(A2 – x2) = 3 x ½ mω2 x2 ⇒ x = A/2 = 8/2 = 4cm
17. A particle performing linear SHM of period 2π seconds about the mean position O is
observed to have a speed of b 3 m/s when at a distance b metre from O. if the particle is
moving away from O at that instant, find the time required by the particle, to travel a
further distance b. [Ans: π/3 s]
Soln: ω = 2π/T = 2π/2π = 1 rad/s.
From given information, v = ω [A2 – x2]1/ 2 ⇒ b 3 = 1 x [A2 – b2]1/2 ⇒ A = 2b.
Let particle is at time t1 at distance b from mean position.
∴ x = Asinωt ⇒ b = 2bsint1 ⇒ t1 = sin-1(1/2) = π/2
Let to cover further distance particle taken time t2. ∴ 2b = 2bsint2 ⇒ t2 = sin-1(1) ⇒ t2 = π/6
∴ Required time, t = t1 – t2 = π/2 – π/6 = π/3
18. The period of oscillation of a body of mass m1 suspended from a light spring is T. When a
body of mass m2 is tied to the first body and the system is made to oscillate, the period is
2T. Compare the masses m1 and m2. [Ans: 1/3]
m
Soln: T = 2π ⇒ For given spring, T ∝ m1/2 ∴ T1/T2 = [m1/(m1 + m2)]1/2
k

⇒ [T/2T]2 = m1/(m1 + m2) ⇒ 4 = (m1 + m2) / m1 ⇒ m1 / m2 = 1/3

19. The displacement of an oscillating particle is given by x = asinωt + bcosωt where a, b and
ω are constants. Prove that the particle performs a linear SHM with amplitude,
A = a2 + b 2
Soln: Given equation of displacement can be written as, x = asinωt + bsin(ωt + π/2). Therefore
this is the combination of two SHMs having the amplitudes a and b and phase difference of
π/2. Hence the resultant amplitude is given by:

[RSG/XII/PHY/OSCILLATIONS] Page 14
 R = a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos⁡
(ϕ1 − ϕ2 ) here a1 = a, a2 = b, ϕ1 = 0, ϕ2 = π/2
Using these values and solving we get R = A = a2 + b 2 which is given. Hence proof.
20. Two parallel SHMs represented by x1 = 5sin(4πt + π/3) cm and x2 = 3sin(4πt + π/4) cm are
superposed on a particle. Determine the amplitude and epoch of the resultant SHM.
Soln: Here, a1 = 5cm, a2 = 3 cm, ϕ1 = π/3, ϕ2 = π/4 ∴ ϕ1 – ϕ2 = π/12 and cos(ϕ1 – ϕ2) = 0.9999
∴ Amplitude of the resultant SHM, R = a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos⁡
(ϕ1 − ϕ2 )
∴ R = 25 + 9 + 2 x 5 x 3 x 0.9999 = 7.936 cm
π π
a 1 sin ϕ 1 + a 2 sin ϕ 2 5 x sin +3 x sin ⁡
( )
The epoch of resultant SHM, δ = tan-1 = tan-1 π
3 4
a 1 cos ϕ 1 + a 2 cos ϕ 2 5 x cos + 3 𝑥 cos ⁡
(𝜋/4)
3
5 x 0.866 + (3 x 0.7071 )
∴ δ = tan-1 = tan-1(1.388) = 54.230
5 x 0.5 + (3 x 0.7071 )
21. A 20 cm wide thin circular disc of mass 200g is suspended to a rigid support from a thin
metallic string. By holding the rim of the disc, the string is twisted through 600 and
released. It now performs angular oscillations of period 1s. Calculate maximum restoring
torque generated in the string under undamped conditions. (π3 ≈ 31) [Ans: 0.04133 Nm]
Soln: For disc M.I. about standard axis (coinciding with string), I = MR2/2 = 0.2 x 0.1 x 0.1 / 2
∴ I = 10-3 kg m2
Now for torsional oscillations, period, T = 2π I/C ⇒ C = 4π2I / T = 4π2 x 10-3
Now, restoring torque, | τ | = Cθ = 4π2 x 10-3 x (π/3) = 0.04133 Nm
22. Find the number of oscillations performed per minute by a magnet vibrating in the plane of
a uniform field of 1.6 x 10-5 Wb/m2. The magnet has moment of inertia 3 x 10-6 kg m2 and
magnetic moment 3Am2. [Ans: 38.19 oscillations per minute]
1 MB 1 3 x 1.6 x 10 −5 2
Soln: n = 2π = 2π = π revolutions per second.
I 3 x 10 −6
Revolutions per minute, N = n x 60 = 120 / π = 120 / 3.142 = 38.19 osci/min
23. A wooden block of mass m is kept on a piston than can perform vertical vibrations of
adjustable frequency and amplitude. During vibrations, we don‟t want the block to leave
the contact with the piston. How much maximum frequency is possible if the amplitude of
vibrations is restricted to 25 cm? In this case, how much is the energy per unit mass of the
block? (g ≈ π2 ≈ 10 m/s2) [Ans: nmax = 1 Hz, E/m = 1.25 J/kg]
Soln: The possibility of getting separating the block from piston is at lowermost position, where
the force due to motion is in the upward direction and weight of block is in downward
direction. To avoid the separation, Weight of block = Force due to motion
1 g 1 π2
∴ mg = kA = mω2A ⇒ ω = [g/A]1/2 ⇒ n = 2π = 2π = 1 Hz
A 0.25

E = ½ mω2A2 ⇒ E/m = ½ (4π2n2) A2 = 2π2x 0.25 x 0.25 = 1.25 J/kg

* * * * *

[RSG/XII/PHY/OSCILLATIONS] Page 15