C H A P T E R S E V E N

7
Metamorphism and
Metamorphic Rocks
 CONCEPTS
To assist you in learning

T HE FOLDED AND the important concepts in this

chapter, focus on the following
questions:
METAMORPHOSED ROCKS
What are metamorphic rocks,
SHOWN IN THE PHOTO and how do they form?
In which three geologic settings
to the left were once flat-lying is metamorphism most likely
to occur?
sedimentary strata. Compressional What are the agents of
metamorphism?
forces of unimaginable magnitude What are the two textural
divisions of metamorphic rocks
and temperatures hundreds of and the conditions associated
with each?
degrees above surface conditions What are the names, textures,
and compositions of the
common metamorphic rocks?
prevailed for perhaps thousands
How is the intensity, or degree,
or millions of years to produce the of metamorphism reflected in

ON
the texture and mineral content
of metamorphic rocks?
deformation displayed by these rocks.
Under such extreme conditions, solid
rock responds by folding, fracturing,
and often flowing. This chapter looks
at the tectonic forces that forge

FOCUS
metamorphic rocks and how these
rocks change in appearance, mineral
content, and sometimes even in
overall chemical composition.
Aerial view of metamorphic rocks
exposed in the Canadian Shield.
(Photo by Robert Hildebrand)
178 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

What Is those at which rocks melt. However, during metamorphism the rock remains essentially solid—
when complete melting occurs, we have entered the realm of igneous activity.
Metamorphism? CONCEPT CHECK 7.1
GEODe
Metamorphic Rocks
ESSENTIALS Introduction 1
OF GEOLOGY Metamorphism means to “change form.” Describe how a rock may change during
Recall from the discussion of the rock cycle metamorphism.
2 Briefly describe what is meant by the statement, “every metamorphic rock has a parent rock?”
that metamorphism is the transformation
of one rock type into another. Metamorphic
rocks are produced from preexisting
igneous, sedimentary, or even other meta-
morphic rocks. Thus, every metamorphic
What Drives Metamorphism?
GEODe
rock has a parent rock—the rock from Metamorphic Rocks
which it was formed. ESSENTIALS
OF GEOLOGY
Agents of Metamorphism
Metamorphism, which means to
The agents of metamorphism include heat, pressure (stress), and chemically active fluids.
“change form,” is a process that leads to During metamorphism, rocks are usually subjected to all three metamorphic agents simul-
changes in the mineral content, texture, taneously. However, the degree of metamorphism and the contribution of each agent vary
and sometimes the chemical composition greatly from one environment to another.
of rocks. Metamorphism takes place where
preexisting rock is subjected to new condi-
tions, usually elevated temperatures and Heat as a Metamorphic Agent
pressures, that are significantly different The most important factor driving metamorphism is heat because it provides the energy
from those in which it initially formed. In needed to drive the chemical reactions that result in the recrystallization of existing miner-
response to these new conditions, the rock als and/or the formation of new minerals. Recall from the discussion of igneous rocks that
gradually changes until a state of equilib- an increase in temperature causes the ions within a mineral to vibrate more rapidly.
rium with the new environment is Even in a crystalline solid, where ions are strongly bonded, this elevated
achieved. level of activity allows individual atoms to migrate more freely
The intensity of metamorphism can between sites in the crystalline structure.
vary substantially from one environment CHANGES CAUSED BY HEAT. When Earth
to another. For example, in low-grade materials are heated, especially those that
metamorphic environments, the common form in low-temperature
sedimentary rock shale becomes the more environments, they are affected in
compact metamorphic rock slate. Hand two ways. First, heating pro-
samples of these rocks are sometimes diffi- motes recrystallization of
cult to distinguish, illustrating that the mineral grains. This is
transition from sedimentary to metamor- particularly true of
phic is often gradual and the changes can sedimentary and
be subtle. volcanic
In more extreme environments,
metamorphism causes a transformation so
complete that the identity of the parent
rock cannot be determined. In high-grade
metamorphism, such features as bedding
planes, fossils, and vesicles that existed in
the parent rock are obliterated. Further,
when rocks deep in the crust (where
temperatures are high) are subjected to
directed pressure, the entire mass may
deform, producing large-scale structures,
mainly folds (FIGURE 7.1).
In the most extreme metamorphic
environments, the temperatures approach

FIGURE 7.1 Deformed and folded gneiss,

Anza Borrego Desert State Park, California.
(Photo by A. P. Trujillo/APT Photos)
 What Drives Metamorphism? 179

rocks that are composed of fine- Shallow crustal rocks

Subducting sediments
grained clay and silt sized particles. are metamorphosed due are metamorphosed by Deeply buried
to increase in pressure heat from rising magma sedimentary
Higher temperatures promote crys- and temperature strata are
tal growth in which fine particles metamorphosed
join together to form larger grains
Igneous
with the same mineral composi- intrusions Subsiding
tion. basin
Second, when rocks are heated,
300°C 300°C
they eventually reach a temperature Sub d u
c ti
600°C 600°C
at which one or more minerals ng
900°C oc
become chemically unstable. When ea 900°C
100 nic
this occurs, the constituent atoms km lith
os
begin to arrange themselves into ph
er
e
crystalline structures that are more
stable in the new high-temperature 200
km
environment. These chemical reac-
tions create new minerals with
stable configurations that have an FIGURE 7.2 The geothermal gradient and its role in metamorphism. Notice how the geothermal gradient is
overall composition roughly equiv- lowered by the subduction of relatively cool oceanic lithosphere. By contrast, thermal heating is evident where
alent to that of the original rock. magma intrudes the upper crust.
(In some environments ions may
actually migrate into or out of a To summarize, imagine being a rock the crystals in the rock samples you col-
rock, thereby changing its overall chemical collector who is crossing a region where lected would increase, and your analysis of
composition.) metamorphic rocks have been uplifted and the rocks would show a change in mineral
then exposed by erosional processes. If you content.
are traveling from an area where metamor- WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF HEAT? Earth’s
phism was less intense to one where it internal heat comes mainly from energy
had been more intense, you would that is continually being released by
expect to observe two changes radioactive decay and thermal energy that
that were largely attributa- remains from the time when our planet
ble to temperature. was forming. Recall that temperatures
The average increase with depth at a rate known as the
size of geothermal gradient. In the upper crust, this
increase in temperature averages about
25 °C per kilometer (FIGURE 7.2). Thus,
rocks that formed at Earth’s surface will
experience a gradual increase in tempera-
ture if they are transported to greater
depths. When buried to a depth of about
8 kilometers (5 miles), where temperatures
are about 200 °C, clay minerals tend to
become unstable and begin to recrystallize
into new minerals, such as chlorite and
muscovite, that are stable in this environ-
ment. Chlorite is a micalike mineral
formed by the metamorphism of dark (iron
and magnesium rich) silicate minerals.
However, many silicate minerals, particu-
larly those found in crystalline igneous
rocks—quartz and feldspar for example—
remain stable at these temperatures. Thus,
metamorphic changes in these minerals
generally occur at much greater depths.
Environments where rocks may be
carried to great depths and heated include
180 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

as confining pressure increases some min- Figure 7.3B, rocks subjected to differential
DID YOU KNOW? erals recrystallize into new minerals that stress are shortened in the direction of
Some low-grade metamorphic rocks have the same chemical composition but greatest stress and elongated, or length-
actually contain fossils. When fossils are a more compact crystalline form. Confining ened, in the direction perpendicular to that
present in metamorphic rocks, they
pressure does not, however, fold and stress. As a result, the rocks involved are
provide useful clues for determining
the original rock type and its deform rocks like those shown in often folded or flattened (similar to when
depositional environment. In addition, Figure 7.1. you step on a rubber ball). Along conver-
fossils whose shapes have been In addition to confining pressure, rocks gent plate boundaries the greatest differen-
distorted during metamorphism may be subjected to directed pressure. This tial stress is directed roughly horizontal in
provide insight into the extent to which occurs, for example, at convergent plate the direction of plate motion, and the least
the rock has been deformed. boundaries where slabs of lithosphere pressure is in the vertical direction. Conse-
collide. Here the forces that deform rock quently, in these settings the crust is greatly
are unequal in different directions and are shortened (horizontally) and thickened
convergent plate boundaries where slabs of referred to as differential stress (vertically). Although, differential stresses
sediment-laden oceanic crust are being sub- (Figure 7.3B). (A more in-depth discussion are generally small when compared to
ducted. Rocks may also become deeply of differential stress is provided in confining pressure, they are important in
buried in large basins where gradual subsi- Chapter 17). creating the various large scale structures
dence results in very thick accumulations of Unlike confining pressure, which and textures exhibited by metamorphic
sediment (see Figure 7.2).These basins, “squeezes” rock equally in all directions, rocks.
exemplified by the Gulf of Mexico, are differential stresses are greater in one
known to develop low-grade metamorphic direction than in others. As shown in
conditions near the base of the pile. In addi-
tion, continental collisions, which result in
crustal thickening by folding and faulting,
cause some rocks to be uplifted while others
are thrust downward where elevated tem-
Undeformed
peratures may cause metamorphism. strata
Increasing
Heat may also be transported from the confining
mantle into even the shallowest layers of pressure
the crust by igneous intrusions. Rising
mantle plumes, upwelling at mid-ocean
ridges, and magma generated by partial
melting of mantle rock at subduction zones
are three examples. Whenever magma
forms and buoyantly rises toward the sur-
face, metamorphism occurs. When magma A. Confining pressure
intrudes relatively cool rocks at shallow
depths, the host rock is “baked.” This
process, called contact metamorphism, will
be considered later in the chapter.
Undeformed
Confining Pressure and Deformed strata
strata
Differential Stress
Pressure, like temperature, also increases
with depth as the thickness of the overlying
rock increases. Buried rocks are subjected
to confining pressure, which is analogous
to water pressure, in which the forces
are applied equally in all directions
(FIGURE 7.3A). The deeper you go in the
ocean, the greater the confining pressure. B. Differential stress
The same is true for buried rock. Confining FIGURE 7.3 Confining pressure and differential stress as metamorphic agents. A. In a depositional
pressure causes the spaces between mineral environment, as confining pressure increases, rocks deform by decreasing in volume. B. During mountain
grains to close, producing a more compact building, rocks subjected to differential stress are shortened in the direction that pressure is applied and
rock having a greater density. Furthermore, lengthened in the direction perpendicular to that force.
 Metamorphic Textures 181

FIGURE 7.4 Metaconglomerate, also called stretched pebble

conglomerate. These once nearly spherical pebbles have DID YOU KNOW?
been heated and flattened into elongated structures. Glacial ice is a metamorphic rock that
(Photo by E. J. Tarbuck) exhibits ductile flow much like hot rocks
buried deep within Earth’s crust.
Although we think of glacial ice as
In surface environments where tempera-
being cold, it is in fact “hot,” relative to
tures are comparatively low, rocks are brittle its melting temperature. Therefore, we
and tend to fracture when subjected to should not be surprised that the ice
differential stress. Continued deformation within a glacier gradually flows
grinds and pulverizes the mineral grains downslope in response to the force of
into small fragments. By contrast, in high- gravity.
temperature environments rocks are ductile.
When rocks exhibit ductile behavior, their
mineral grains tend to flatten and elongate when
subjected to differential stress (FIGURE 7.4). This CONCEPT CHECK 7.2
accounts for their ability to deform by flowing (rather
1 What drives metamorphism?
than fracturing) to generate intricate folds.
2 Why is heat considered the most important
agent of metamorphism?
Chemically Active Fluids 3 How is confining pressure different from
Many minerals, including clays, micas, and amphiboles, are hydrated—meaning they con- differential stress?
tain water in their crystalline structures. Elevated temperatures and pressures cause the 4 What role do chemically active fluids play
dehydration of these minerals. Once expelled, these hot fluids promote recrystallization by in metamorphism?
enhancing the migration of mineral matter. 5 In what two ways can the parent rock affect
As discussed earlier, the metamorphism of shale to slate involves clay minerals that the metamorphic process?
recrystallize to form mica and chlorite minerals. Hot fluids enhance this process by dissolv-
ing and transporting ions from one site in the crystal structure to another. In increasingly
hotter environments these fluids become correspondingly more reactive.
In some metamorphic environments, hot fluids transport mineral matter over consider-
able distances. This occurs, for example, when hot, mineral-rich fluids are expelled from a
Metamorphic
magma body as it cools and solidifies. If the rocks that surround the pluton differ markedly Textures
in composition from the invading fluids, there may be an exchange of ions between the GEODe

fluids and host rocks. When this occurs, the overall chemical composition of the surround- Metamorphic Rocks
ESSENTIALS Textural and Mineralogical Changes
ing rock changes. When substantial chemical change accompanies metamorphism the OF GEOLOGY

process is called metasomatism. Recall that the term texture is used to

describe the size, shape, and arrangement
The Importance of Parent Rock of grains within a rock. Most igneous
Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall chemical composition as the parent rock
from which they formed, except for the possible loss or acquisition of volatiles such as
water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Therefore, when trying to establish the parent Earth’s interior is the source
material from which metamorphic rocks were derived, the most important clue comes of heat that drives
metamorphism. (Photo
from their chemical composition.
by Hubert Stadler/
Consider the large exposures of the metamorphic rock marble found high in the Alps Corbis)
of southern Europe. Because marble and the common sedimentary rock limestone have the
same mineral content (calcite, CaCO3), it seems reasonable to conclude that limestone is

heat
the parent rock of marble. Furthermore, because limestone usually forms in warm, shallow
marine environments we can surmise that considerable deformation must have occurred to
convert limy deposits in a shallow sea into marble crags in the lofty Alps.
The mineral makeup of the parent rock also largely determines the degree to
which each metamorphic agent will cause change. For example, when magma forces
its way into surrounding rock, high temperatures and hot fluids may alter the
host rock. If the host rock is composed of minerals that are comparatively
unreactive, such as quartz grains in sandstone, any alterations that may
occur will be confined to a narrow zone next to the pluton. However,
when the host rock is limestone, which is highly reactive, the zone of
metamorphism may extend far from the intrusion.
182 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

split into tabular slabs. These diverse types

DID YOU KNOW? of foliation can form in many different DID YOU KNOW?
The temperature of Earth’s crust ways, including: Although rare, metamorphic rocks that
increases with depth, an idea that can contain microscopic diamonds have
be expressed as the deeper one goes, 1. Rotation of platy and/or elongated been discovered at Earth’s surface. The
the hotter it gets. This causes mineral grains into a parallel or nearly existence of diamonds in metamorphic
considerable problems for parallel orientation. rocks indicates that these rocks formed
underground mining efforts. In the 2. Recrystallization that produces new at very high pressures found at depths
Western Deep Levels mine in South of at least 100 kilometers (60 miles).
minerals with grains that exhibit a
Africa, which is 2.5 miles deep, the How these metamorphic rocks were
temperature of the rock is hot enough
preferred orientation. buried to these great depths and later
to scorch human skin. Here, the miners 3. Mechanisms that change spherically returned to the surface is still a mystery.
work in groups of two: one to mine the shaped grains into elongated shapes
rock, and the other to operate the fan that are aligned in a preferred
that keeps them cool. orientation.
Recall that recrystallization is the cre-
The rotation of existing mineral grains ation of new mineral grains out of old ones.
is the easiest of these mechanisms to envi- When recrystallization occurs as rock is
sion. FIGURE 7.5 illustrates the mechanics by being subjected to differential stresses, any
and many sedimentary rocks consist of which platy or elongated minerals are elongated and platy minerals that form
mineral grains that have a random orienta- rotated. Note that the new alignment is tend to recrystallize perpendicular to the
tion and thus appear the same when roughly perpendicular to the direction of direction of maximum stress. Thus, the
viewed from any direction. By contrast, maximum shortening. Although physical newly formed mineral grains will possess
deformed metamorphic rocks that contain rotation of platy minerals contributes to the a parallel alignment and the metamorphic
platy minerals (micas) and/or elongated development of foliation in low-grade rock containing them will exhibit foliation.
minerals (amphiboles), typically display metamorphism, other mechanisms domi- Mechanisms that change the shapes of
some kind of preferred orientation in which nate in more extreme environments. existing grains are especially important for
the mineral grains exhibit a parallel to sub-
parallel alignment. Like a fistful of pencils,
rocks containing elongated minerals that
are oriented parallel to each other will
appear different when viewed from the side
M
than when they are viewed head-on. A rock E
that exhibits a preferred orientation of its T
minerals is said to possess foliation. A
M
O
Foliation R
P
The term foliation refers to any planar H
(nearly flat) arrangement of mineral grains I
or structural features within a rock. S
Although foliation may occur in some sedi- M
mentary and even a few types of igneous A. Before metamorphism B. After metamorphism
(Uniform stress) (Differential stress)
rocks, it is a fundamental characteristic of
regionally metamorphosed rocks—that is,
rock units that have been strongly
deformed, mainly by folding. In metamor-
phic environments, foliation is ultimately
driven by compressional stresses that
shorten rock units, causing mineral grains
in preexisting rocks to develop parallel, or
nearly parallel, alignments. Examples of
foliation include the parallel alignment of
platy minerals; the parallel alignment of
flattened pebbles; compositional banding
in which the separation of dark and light FIGURE 7.5 Mechanical rotation of platy or elongated mineral grains. A. Existing mineral grains keep
minerals generates a layered appearance; their random orientation if force is uniformly applied. B. As differential stress causes rocks to flatten,
and rock cleavage where rocks can be easily mineral grains rotate toward the plane of flattening. (Photos by E. J. Tarbuck)
 Metamorphic Textures 183

stress) and precipitates in pore spaces develop where beds of shale (and related
(areas of low stress). As a result, the sedimentary rocks) are strongly folded and
A. Original
nearly spherical mineral grains tend to become elongated in metamorphosed to form slate. The process
quartz grains the direction of maximum stress. This begins as platy grains are kinked and
mechanism is aided by hot, chemically bent—generating microscopic folds having
active fluids. limbs (sides) that are roughly aligned
(FIGURE 7.7). With further deformation, this
new alignment is enhanced as old grains
Foliated Textures break down and recrystallize preferentially
Various types of foliation exist, depending in the direction of the newly developed ori-
largely upon the grade of metamorphism entation. In this manner the rock develops
and the mineral content of the parent rock. narrow parallel zones where mica flakes are
We will look at three: rock or slaty cleavage, concentrated. These features alternate with
schistosity, and gneissic texture. zones containing quartz and other mineral
B. Slippage along ROCK OR SLATY CLEAVAGE. Rock grains that do not exhibit a pronounced
crystal structures linear orientation. It is along these very thin
causes grains to cleavage refers to closely spaced, flat
elongate perpendicular surfaces along which rocks split into thin zones of platy mineral that slate splits
to direction of maximum (FIGURE 7.8).
stress slabs when hit with a hammer. Rock
cleavage develops in various metamorphic Because slate typically forms during the
rocks but is best displayed in slates, which low-grade metamorphism of shale, evi-
exhibit an excellent splitting property dence of the original sedimentary bedding
called slaty cleavage. planes is often preserved. However, as
Depending on the metamorphic envi- Figure 7.7D illustrates, the orientation of
ronment and the composition of the parent slate’s cleavage usually develops at an
D. Flattened rock containing elongated
rock, rock cleavage develops in a number oblique angle to the original sedimentary
quartz grains
of ways. In a low-grade metamorphic envi- layers. Thus, unlike shale, which splits
FIGURE 7.6 Development of preferred along bedding planes, slate often splits
ronment, rock cleavage is known to
orientations of minerals that have roughly
spherical crystals, such as quartz. This mechanism
for changing the shape of mineral grains occurs
when units of the mineral’s crystalline structure
slide relative to one another.

the development of preferred orientations

in rocks that contain minerals such as Relic
quartz, calcite, and olivine—minerals that bedding
planes
normally develop roughly spherical
crystals. Bedding
These processes operate in metamor- Bedding planes
planes
phic environments where differential
stresses exist. A change in grain shape can Rock
occur as units of a mineral’s crystalline cleavage
surfaces
structure slide relative to one another along
discrete planes, thereby distorting the grain
as shown in FIGURE 7.6. This type of grad-
ual solid-state flow involves slippage that D. Hand sample
disrupts the crystal lattice as atoms shift
positions. This process involves the
breaking of existing chemical bonds and
the formation of new ones.
The shape of a mineral may also
change as ions move from a highly stressed A. B. C.
location along the margin of the grain to a FIGURE 7.7 Development of rock cleavage. As shale is strongly folded (A., B.) and metamorphosed to
less-stressed position on the same grain. form slate, the developing mica flakes are bent into microfolds. C. Further metamorphism results in the
Mineral matter dissolves where grains are recrystallization of mica grains along the limbs of these folds to enhance the foliation. D. This hand
in contact with each other (areas of high sample of slate illustrates rock cleavage and its orientation to relic bedding surfaces.
184 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

grains that are randomly oriented, similar

to those in a coarse-grained igneous rock.
Another texture common to metamor-
phic rocks consists of unusually large
grains, called porphyroblasts, that are sur-
rounded by a fine-grained matrix of other
minerals. Porphyroblastic textures develop
in a wide range of rock types and metamor-
phic environments when minerals in the
parent rock recrystallize to form new
minerals. During recrystallization certain
metamorphic minerals, including garnet,
staurolite, and andalusite, often develop a
small number of very large crystals. By con-
trast, minerals such as muscovite, biotite,
and quartz typically form a large number of
very small grains. As a result, when meta-
FIGURE 7.8 Excellent slaty morphism generates the minerals garnet,
cleavage is exhibited by the rock biotite, and muscovite in the same setting,
in this slate quarry. Because slate the rock will contain large crystals (porphy-
breaks into flat slabs, it has many roblasts) of garnet embedded in a finer-
uses. (Photo by Fred Bruemmer/
grained matrix of biotite and muscovite
Photolibrary) The inset photo
shows the use of slate for the (FIGURE 7.10).
roof of this house in Switzerland.
(Photo by E. J. Tarbuck) CONCEPT CHECK 7.3

1 What is foliation? Distinguish between slaty

across them. Other metamorphic rocks, GNEISSIC TEXTURE. During high-grade cleavage, schistosity, and gneissic textures.
2 Briefly describe the three mechanisms
such as schists and gneisses, may also split metamorphism, ion migration can result in
along planar surfaces and exhibit rock the segregation of minerals as shown in by which minerals develop a preferred
orientation.
cleavage. FIGURE 7.9. Notice that the dark biotite
3 List some changes that might occur to
crystals and light silicate minerals (quartz
SCHISTOSITY. Under higher temperature- a rock in response to metamorphic
and feldspar) have separated, giving the
pressure regimes, the minute mica and processes.
rock a banded appearance called gneissic
chlorite crystals in slate begin to grow.
texture. A metamorphic rock with this
When these platy minerals are large
texture is called gneiss (pronounced “nice”).
enough to be discernible with the unaided
Although foliated, gneisses will not usually
eye and exhibit a planar or layered struc-
split as easily as slates and some schists.
ture, the rock is said to exhibit a type of
foliation called schistosity. Rocks having
this texture are referred to as schists. In Other Metamorphic
addition to platy minerals, schists often
contain deformed quartz and feldspar
Textures
Not all metamorphic rocks exhibit a
crystals that appear flat or lens-shaped
foliated texture. Those that do not are
and are hidden among the mica grains.
referred to as nonfoliated. Nonfoliated
metamorphic rocks typically develop in
environments where deformation is mini-
mal and the parent rocks are composed of
DID YOU KNOW? minerals that exhibit equidimensional
The reason high-quality billiard tables
crystals, such as quartz or calcite. For
are so heavy is that they have surfaces
made of a thick slab of the metamorphic
example, when a fine-grained limestone
rock, slate. Because slate splits easily (made of calcite) is metamorphosed by the
into slabs, it is highly prized for use as intrusion of a hot magma body, the small FIGURE 7.9 This rock displays a gneissic texture.
billiard-table surfaces as well as building calcite grains recrystallize to form larger Notice that the dark biotite flakes and light silicate
materials such as floor and roof tiles. interlocking crystals. The resulting rock, minerals are segregated, giving the rock a banded
marble, exhibits large, equidimensional or layered appearance. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck)
 Common Metamorphic Rocks 185

Common Metamorphic Rocks

GEODe
Metamorphic Rocks
ESSENTIALS Common Metamorphic Rocks
OF GEOLOGY

Recall that metamorphism causes many changes in rocks, including increased

density, change in grain size, reorientation of mineral grains into a planar
arrangement known as foliation, and the transformation of low-temperature
minerals into high-temperature minerals. Moreover, the introduction of ions
may generate new minerals, some of which are economically important.
The major characteristics of some common metamorphic rocks are
summarized in FIGURE 7.11. Notice that metamorphic rocks can be broadly
classified by the type of foliation exhibited and to a lesser extent on the
chemical composition of the parent rock.
FIGURE 7.10 Garnet-mica schist. The dark red
Close up
garnet crystals (porphyroblasts) are embedded in a
of porphyroblast
matrix of fine-grained micas. (Photo by E. J. Tarbuck)

Original
Rock Name Texture Grain Size Comments Parent Rock
Shale,
Very fine Excellent rock cleavage, mudstone,
Slate smooth dull surfaces
F or siltstone
I M o
n e l Shale,
c t Fine Breaks along wavy mudstone,
Phyllite i surfaces, glossy sheen
r a a or siltstone
e m t
a o Medium Shale,
e to Micaceous minerals mudstone,
Schist s r dominate, scaly foliation
d Coarse or siltstone
i p
n h Medium Compositional banding Shale, granite,
Gneiss g i to due to segregation of or volcanic
s Coarse minerals rocks
m
Medium Banded rock with zones Shale, granite,
Migmatite to of light-colored crystalline or volcanic
Coarse minerals rocks
W F When very fine-grained,
Mylonite e o Fine resembles chert, often Any rock type
a l breaks into slabs
k i
l a
y t Coarse- Stretched pebbles with Quartz-rich
Metaconglomerate e grained preferred orientation conglomerate
d
Medium
to Interlocking calcite Limestone,
Marble or dolomite grains dolostone
N coarse
o Medium
n to Fused quartz grains, Quartz
Quartzite massive, very hard sandstone
f coarse
o
l Usually, dark massive
Hornfels i Fine Any rock type
rock with dull luster
a
t
e Fine Shiny black rock that may Bituminous
Anthracite exhibit conchoidal fracture coal
d
FIGURE 7.11
Medium
to very Broken fragments in a Any rock type
Classification of
Fault breccia haphazard arrangement
coarse common metamorphic
rocks.
186 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated metamorphic rocks Foliated Rocks minerals predominate. These flat compo-
SLATE. Slate is a very fine-grained nents commonly include the micas (mus-
(less than 0.5 millimeter) foliated rock covite and biotite), which display a planar
composed of minute mica flakes alignment that gives the rock its foliated
that are too small to be visible texture. In addition, schists contain smaller
(FIGURE 7.12). Thus, slate generally amounts of other minerals, often quartz
Slate and feldspar. Schists composed mostly of
appears dull and closely resembles
shale. A noteworthy characteristic of dark minerals (amphiboles) are known.
slate is its excellent rock cleavage, or Like slate, the parent rock of many schists
tendency to break into flat slabs (see is shale, which has undergone medium- to
Figure 7.8). high-grade metamorphism during major
Slate is most often generated by mountain-building episodes.
the low-grade metamorphism of shale, The term schist describes the texture of
mudstone, or siltstone. Less frequently a rock and as such it is used to describe
Phyllite
it is produced when volcanic ash is rocks having a wide variety of chemical
metamorphosed. Slate’s color depends compositions. To indicate the composition,
on its mineral constituents. Black mineral names are used. For example,
(carbonaceous) slate contains organic schists composed primarily of muscovite
material; red slate gets its color from and biotite are called mica schist
iron oxide; and green slate usually (Figure 7.12). Depending upon the degree
contains chlorite. of metamorphism and composition of the
Schist
parent rock, mica schists often contain
PHYLLITE. Phyllite represents a accessory minerals, some of which are
gradation in the degree of metamor- unique to metamorphic rocks. Some
phism between slate and schist. Its common accessory minerals that occur as
constituent platy minerals are porphyroblasts include garnet, staurolite,
larger than those in slate but not and sillimanite, in which case the rock is
yet large enough to be readily called garnet-mica schist, staurolite-mica
identifiable with the unaided schist, and so forth (see Figure 7.10).
Gneiss
eye. Although phyllite appears In addition, schists may be
similar to slate, it can be easily composed largely of the min-
distinguished from slate by its erals chlorite or talc, in
glossy sheen and its sometimes
wavy surface (Figure 7.12).
Phyllite usually exhibits rock
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks cleavage and is composed
mainly of very fine crystals of
either muscovite or chlorite,
or both.

Marble
SCHIST. Schists are medium-
to coarse-grained metamor-
phic rocks in which platy

Quartzite
FIGURE 7.13 Marble,
because of its workability, is a
widely used building stone.
The exterior of the Taj Mahal
is constructed primarily of the
metamorphic rock marble.
FIGURE 7.12 Common metamorphic rocks. (Photo by Steve
(Photos by E. J. Tarbuck) Vider/Superstock)
 Common Metamorphic Rocks 187

which case they are called chlorite schist and These banded gneisses often exhibit evidence of
talc schist, respectively. Both chlorite and deformation, including folds and sometimes faults DID YOU KNOW?
talc schists can form when rocks with a (see Figure 7.1). One of America’s worst civil-
basaltic composition undergo metamor- Most gneisses have a felsic composition and are engineering disasters occurred
in 1928 when the St. Francis
phism. Others contain the mineral graphite, often derived from granite or its fine-grained equiva-
dam in southern California
which is used as pencil “lead,” graphite lent, rhyolite. However, many form from the high- failed. Huge torrents of water
fibers (used in fishing rods), and lubricant grade metamorphism of shale. In this instance, washed down San Francesquito
(commonly for locks). gneiss represents the last rock in the sequence of Canyon, destroying 900
shale, slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss. Like schists, buildings and taking nearly
GNEISS. Gneiss is the term applied to 500 lives. The eastern part of
gneisses may also include large crystals of accessory
medium- to coarse-grained banded meta- the dam was built on highly
minerals such as garnet and staurolite. Gneisses
morphic rocks in which granular and foliated mica schist that was
made up primarily of dark minerals such as those
elongated (as opposed to platy) minerals prone to slippage, as evidenced
that compose basalt also occur. For example, an by an earlier landslide in that
predominate. The most common minerals
amphibole-rich rock that exhibits a gneissic texture area. The immense water
in gneiss are quartz, potassium feldspar,
is called amphibolite. pressure at the base of the dam
and sodium-rich plagioclase feldspar. Most
and the weak schist to which it
gneisses also contain lesser amounts of
was anchored are thought to
biotite, muscovite, and amphibole that Nonfoliated Rocks have contributed to the failure.
develop a preferred orientation. Some MARBLE. Marble is a coarse, crystalline metamor-
gneisses will split along the layers of platy phic rock whose parent was limestone or dolostone
minerals, but most break in an irregular (Figure 7.12). Pure marble is white and composed essentially of the mineral calcite.
fashion. Recall that during high-grade Because of its relative softness (hardness of 3), marble is easy to cut and shape. White
metamorphism the light and dark marble is particularly prized as a stone from which to create monuments and statues, such
components separate, giving gneisses as the Taj Mahal in India (FIGURE 7.13). Unfortunately, marble’s composition of calcium
their characteristic banded or lay- carbonate causes it to weather when exposed to acid rain.
ered appearance. Thus, most The parent rocks from which most marbles form contain
gneisses consist of alternating impurities that color the stone. Thus, marble can be pink, gray,
bands of white or reddish green, or even black and may contain a variety of accessory
feldspar-rich zones and minerals (chlorite, mica, garnet, and wollastonite). When
layers of dark ferromag- marble forms from limestone interbedded with shales, it will
nesian minerals appear banded and exhibit visible foliation. When deformed,
(Figure 7.12). these banded marbles may develop highly contorted mica-rich
folds that give the rock a rather artistic design. Hence, these
decorative marbles have been used as a building stone since
prehistoric times.
QUARTZITE. Quartzite is a very hard metamorphic rock
formed from quartz sandstone (Figure 7.12). Under moderate-
to high-grade metamorphism, the quartz grains in sandstone
fuse together. The recrystallization is often so complete that
when broken, quartzite will split through the quartz grains
rather than along their boundaries. In some instances, sedi-
mentary features such as cross-bedding are preserved and
give the rock a banded appearance. Pure quartzite is white,
but iron oxide may produce reddish or pinkish stains, while
dark mineral grains may impart a gray color.

CONCEPT CHECK 7.4

1 Slate and phyllite resemble each other. How

might you distinguish one from the other?
2 In the rock mica schist, what does mica
indicate and what does schist indicate?
3 How are marble and quartzite similar? How
are they different?
188 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic therefore altered from their origi-

nal state. The altered rocks occur
Environments in a zone called a metamorphic
aureole (FIGURE 7.14). The
There are many environments in which emplacement of small intrusions
metamorphism occurs. Most are in the such as dikes and sills typically
vicinity of plate margins, and several are form aureoles only a few cen-
associated with igneous activity. We will Shale Hornfels
timeters thick, while large
consider the following types of metamor- igneous plutons that generate Quartz
phism: (1) contact or thermal metamorphism; batholiths can produce aureoles sandstone
Quartzite
(2) hydrothermal metamorphism; (3) burial extending outward for several
and subduction zone metamorphism; kilometers. Limestone Marble
Magma
(4) regional metamorphism; (5) metamor- In addition to the size of the chamber
Shale Hornfels
phism along faults; (6) impact metamorphism magma body, the mineral com-
and with the exception of impact metamor- position of the host rock and the
phism, there is considerable overlap among Increasing metamorphic grade
availability of water greatly affect
the types. the size of the aureole produced. FIGURE 7.15 Contact metamorphism of shale yields hornfels,
while contact metamorphism of quartz sandstone and
In chemically active rock such as
limestone produces quartzite and marble, respectively.
Contact or Thermal limestone, the zone of alteration
can be 10 kilometers (6 miles)
Metamorphism thick. These large aureoles often consist of
Contact or thermal metamorphism occurs distinct zones of metamorphism. Near the DID YOU KNOW?
when rocks immediately surrounding a Because marble can be carved readily,
magma body, high-temperature minerals
molten igneous body are “baked” and it has been used for centuries for
such as garnet may form, whereas farther buildings and memorials. Examples of
away low-grade minerals such as chlorite important structures whose exteriors
are produced. are clad in marble include the
Although contact metamorphism is not Parthenon in Greece, the Taj Mahal in
entirely restricted to shallow crustal depths, India, and the Washington Monument
Host it is most easily recognized when it occurs in the United States.
rock
Metamorphic in this setting. Here, the temperature con-
aureole trast between the molten body and the sur-
Magma rounding host rock is large. Because contact During contact metamorphism of
chamber mudstones and shales, the clay minerals are
metamorphism does not
A. Implacement of involve directed pres- baked as if placed in a kiln. The result is a
igneous body and very hard, fine-grained metamorphic rock
metamorphism sure, rocks found
Host within a metamorphic called hornfels (FIGURE 7.15). Hornfels can
rock aureole are usually not form from a variety of materials
Metamorphic foliated.
aureole
Igneous
pluton FIGURE 7.16 Hydrothermal
metamorphism can occur at
B. Crystallization of pluton
shallow crustal depths in regions
where hot springs and geysers
FIGURE 7.14 Contact are active. (Photo by Philippe
metamorphism produces a zone Clement/Nature Picture
of alteration called an aureole Library)
around an intrusive igneous Roof pendant
body. In the photo, the dark (metamorphic aureole)
layer, called a roof pendant,
consists of metamorphosed
host rock adjacent to the upper
part of the light-colored
igneous pluton. The term roof
pendant implies that the rock Igneous
was once the roof of a magma pluton
chamber. Sierra Nevada, near
Bishop, California. (Photo by
John S. Shelton) C. Uplift and erosion expose pluton and metamorphic cap rock
 Metamorphic Environments 189

including volcanic ash and basalt. In some cases,

large grains of metamorphic minerals, such as garnet
and staurolite, may form, giving the hornfels a Black
Hot
smoker
porphyroblastic texture (see Figure 7.10). mineral-rich
water rises to
the seafloor

Hydrothermal Metamorphism
When hot, ion-rich fluids circulate through fissures
and cracks in rock, a chemical alteration called
hydrothermal metamorphism occurs (FIGURE 7.16). Cold seawater Black smoker
percolates into spewing hot,
This type of metamorphism is often closely associated the hot newly mineral-rich
with the emplacement of magma. As large magma bod- formed crust seawater
ies cool and solidify, silica-rich fluids (mainly water)
are driven into the host rocks. When the host rock is Mid-ocean ridge
highly fractured, mineral matter contained in these
hydrothermal solutions may precipitate to form a
variety of minerals, some of which are economically
important. If the host rocks are permeable and highly
reactive, such as the carbonate rock limestone, silicate-
rich hydrothermal solutions react to produce a variety
of calcium-rich silicate minerals. Recall that a meta- FIGURE 7.17 Hydrothermal metamorphism along a mid-ocean ridge.
morphic process that alters the overall chemical (Photo by R. Ballard/Woods Hole)
composition of a rock unit is called metasomatism.
As our understanding of hydrothermal metamorphism is along the axis of the mid-ocean ridge system. As
plate tectonics grew, it plates move apart, upwelling magma from the mantle generates new seafloor. As
became clear that the seawater percolates through the young, hot oceanic crust, it is heated and chem-
most widespread ically reacts with the newly formed basaltic rocks (FIGURE 7.17). The result is the
occurrence of conversion of ferromagnesian minerals, such as olivine and pyroxene, into
hydrated silicates, such as serpentine, chlorite, and talc. In addition, calcium-
rich plagioclase feldspars in basalt become increasingly sodium enriched as the
salt (NaCl) in seawater exchanges Na ions for Ca ions.
Hydrothermal solutions circulating through the seafloor also remove
large amounts of metals, such as iron, cobalt, nickel, silver, gold, and cop-
per, from the newly formed crust. These hot, metal-rich fluids eventually
rise along fractures and gush from the seafloor at temperatures of
about 350 °C, generating particle-filled clouds called black
smokers. Upon mixing with the cold seawater, sulfides
and carbonate minerals containing these heavy
metals precipitate to form metallic deposits,
some of which are economically
valuable. This process
is believed
190 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

Regional Metamorphism
DID YOU KNOW? Most metamorphic rock is produced by DID YOU KNOW?
Most pigment, which gives paint its Rocks of the Acasta Gneiss Complex,
regional metamorphism during mountain
color and its ability to hide previous exposed just east of Great Slave Lake
coats, comes from various natural building when large segments of Earth’s in the Northwest Territories of Canada,
Earth materials. For example, umber, crust are intensely deformed along conver- have yielded radiometric dates of up
which produces a rich chestnut-brown gent plate boundaries (FIGURE 7.18). This to 4.03 billion years. Currently, these
color, is mined on the island of Cyprus. activity occurs most often during continen- are the oldest-known rocks in the
This material was formed on an ancient tal collisions. Sediments and crustal rocks world.
seafloor by the hydrothermal alteration that form the margins of the colliding
of iron- and manganese-rich basaltic
continental blocks are folded and faulted,
lavas. and intrude the overlying metamorphic and
causing them to shorten and thicken like a
rumpled carpet (Figure 7.18B). Continental sedimentary rocks (Figure 7.18B). Conse-
to be the origin of the copper ores mined collisions also involve crystalline continen- quently, the cores of many mountain ranges
today on the Mediterranean island of tal basement rocks, as well as slices of consist of folded and faulted metamorphic
Cyprus. oceanic crust that once floored the rocks, often intertwined with igneous bod-
intervening ocean basin. ies. Over time, these deformed rock masses
Burial and Subduction Zone The general thickening of the crust that are uplifted, and erosion removes the overly-
occurs during mountain building results in ing material to expose the igneous and meta-
Metamorphism buoyant lifting, in which deformed rocks are morphic rocks that comprise the central core
Burial metamorphism tends to occur where of the mountain range.
elevated high above sea level. Crustal thick-
massive amounts of sedimentary or vol-
ening also results in the deep burial of large
canic material accumulates in a subsiding
basin (see Figure 7.2). Here, low-grade
quantities of rock as crustal blocks are thrust Other Metamorphic
one beneath another. Deep in the roots of
metamorphic conditions may be attained
mountains, elevated temperatures caused by
Environments
within the deepest layers. Confining Other types of metamorphism, that
deep burial are responsible for the most pro-
pressure and geothermal heat drive the generate relatively small amounts of meta-
ductive and intense metamorphic activity
recrystallization of the constituent miner- morphic rock, tend to be localized.
within a mountain belt. Often, these deeply
als—changing the texture and/or mineral
buried rocks become heated to their melting METAMORPHISM ALONG FAULT ZONES.
content of the rock without appreciable
point. As a result, magma collects until it Near the surface, rock behaves like a brittle
deformation.
forms bodies large enough to rise buoyantly solid. Consequently, movement along a
The depth required for burial meta-
morphism varies from one location to Sediments deposited on
another, depending mainly on the prevail- continental margins
ing geothermal gradient. Metamorphism
typically begins at depths of about 8 kilo-
meters (5 miles), where temperatures are Ocean
basin
about 200 °C. However, in areas that Continental
exhibit large geothermal gradients and crust
Subducting oce
where molten rock has been emplaced near anic
lith
o sp
the surface, such as near the Salton Sea in h er
California and in northern New Zealand, e
drilling operations have collected metamor- Asthenosphere
A.
phic minerals from depths of only a few
kilometers. Region of intense
metamorphism
Rocks and sediments can also be car-
ried to great depths along convergent
boundaries where oceanic lithosphere is
being subducted. This phenomenon, called
subduction zone metamorphism, differs Continental
crust
from burial metamorphism in that differen-
tial stresses play a major role in deforming Partial
melting
rock as it is metamorphosed. Furthermore, of crust
metamorphic rocks that form along sub- Asthenosphere
B.
duction zones are often further metamor-
phosed by the collision of two continental FIGURE 7.18 Regional metamorphism occurs where rocks are squeezed between two converging
blocks. lithospheric plates during mountain building.
 Metamorphic Zones 191

Zone of fault breccia and gouge FIGURE 7.19 Metamorphism along a fault zone.
(A. Photo by A. P. Trujillo, B. Photo by Ann Bykerk-Kauffman)

Brittle
fracture

y
lle Offset
r va
ea drainage
Lin

Active
fault
zone
A. Fault breccia, California

fault zone fractures and pulverizes rock. Ductile

The result is a loosely coherent rock called flow
fault breccia that is composed of broken
B. Mylonite
and crushed rock fragments (FIGURE 7.19A).
Displacements along California’s San Zone of mylonite
Andreas Fault have created a zone of fault
breccia and related rock types more than
1000 kilometers long and up to 3 kilome- IMPACT METAMORPHISM. Impact (or shock) metamorphism occurs when high-speed
ters wide. projectiles called meteorites (fragments of comets or asteroids) strike Earth’s surface. Upon
In some shallow fault zones a soft, unce- impact the energy of the once rapidly moving meteorite is transformed into heat energy
mented claylike material called fault gouge is and shock waves that pass through the surrounding rocks. The result is pulverized, shat-
also produced. Fault gouge is formed by the tered, and sometimes melted rock.
crushing and grinding of rock material dur- The products of these impacts, called impactiles, include mixtures of fused fragmented
ing fault movement. The resulting crushed rock plus glass-rich ejecta that resemble volcanic bombs. In some cases, a very dense form
material is further altered by groundwater of quartz (coesite) and minute diamonds are found. These high-pressure minerals provide
that infiltrates the porous fault zone. convincing evidence that pressures and temperatures as great as those existing in the upper
Much of the deformation associated mantle must have been attained for at least a brief moment.
with fault zones occurs at great depth and
CONCEPT CHECK 7.5
thus at high temperatures. In this environ-
ment preexisting minerals deform by 1 Distinguish between contact metamorphism and regional metamorphism. Which creates the
ductile flow. As large slabs of rock move in
greater quantity of metamorphic rock?
opposite directions, the minerals in the 2 Where does most hydrothermal metamorphism occur?
fault zone between them tend to form elon-
3 Describe burial metamorphism.
gated grains that give the rock a foliated or
4 With which type of plate boundary is regional metamorphism associated?
lineated appearance (Figure 7.19B). Rocks
formed in these zones of intense ductile 5 Why do metamorphic rocks often comprise the interiors of Earth’s major mountain belts?
deformation are termed mylonites
(mylo = a mill, ite = a stone).

Metamorphic Zones
DID YOU KNOW?
Although most of central North
In areas affected by metamorphism, there are usually systematic variations in the mineral
America has a rather subdued content and texture of the rocks that can be observed as we traverse the region. These dif-
topography, the underlying bedrock is ferences are clearly related to variations in the degree of metamorphism experienced in each
similar to rocks found in the cores of metamorphic zone.
metamorphosed mountain belts. This
strongly supports the view that these
rocks once formed the roots of ancient
Textural Variations
mountain chains that may have risen as When we begin with a clay-rich sedimentary rock such as shale or mudstone, a gradual
high as the present-day Himalayas. increase in metamorphic intensity is accompanied by a general coarsening of the grain size.
Thus, we observe shale changing to a fine-grained slate, which then forms phyllite and,
192 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

broadly folded Appalachians of central Pennsylvania,

the rocks that once formed flat-lying beds are folded
and display a preferred orientation of platy mineral
grains as exhibited by well-developed slaty cleavage.
As we move farther eastward into the intensely
deformed crystalline Appalachians, we find large out-
crops of schists. The most intense zones of metamor-
phism are found in Vermont and New Hampshire,
where gneissic rocks outcrop.

Slate Index Minerals and Metamorphic

Phyllite
Grade
In addition to textural changes, we encounter corre-
Schist sponding changes in mineral content as we shift from
Gneiss regions of low-grade metamorphism to regions of
high-grade metamorphism. An idealized transition in
mineralogy that results from the regional metamor-
phism of shale is shown in FIGURE 7.21. The first new
mineral to form as shale changes to slate is chlorite. At
FIGURE 7.20 Idealized illustration of progressive regional metamorphism.
From left to right, we progress from low-grade metamorphism (slate)
higher temperatures flakes of muscovite and biotite
to high-grade metamorphism (gneiss). (Photos by E. J. Tarbuck) begin to dominate. Under more extreme conditions, metamorphic rocks
may contain garnet and staurolite crystals. At temperatures approaching
through continued recrystallization, gener- the melting point of rock, sillimanite forms. Sillimanite is a high-tempera-
ates a coarse-grained schist (FIGURE 7.20). ture metamorphic mineral used to make refractory porcelains such as those used in spark
Under more intense conditions a gneissic plugs.
texture that exhibits layers of dark and light Through the study of metamorphic rocks in their natural settings (called field studies)
minerals may develop. This systematic and through experimental studies, researchers have learned that certain minerals, such as
transition in metamorphic textures can be those in Figure 7.21, are good indicators of the metamorphic environment in which they
observed as we approach the Appalachian formed. Using these index minerals, geologists distinguish among different zones of
Mountains from the west. Beds of shale, regional metamorphism. For example, the mineral chlorite begins to form when tempera-
which once extended over large areas of the tures are relatively low, less than 200 °C (FIGURE 7.22). Thus, rocks that contain chlorite
eastern United States, still occur as nearly (usually slates) are referred to as low-grade. By contrast, the mineral sillimanite only forms
flat-lying strata in Ohio. However, in the in extreme environments where temperatures exceed 500 °C, and rocks containing it are

I n c re a s i n g Me t a m o r p h i s m

Low Grade (200°) Intermediate Grade High Grade (800°)

Chlorite

Muscovite (mica)

Biotite (mica)

Garnet
Mineral
Composition Staurolite

Sillimanite

Quartz
FIGURE 7.21 The
typical transition in Feldspar
mineral content that
results from the
No
progressive alteration Slate Phyllite Schist Gneiss Melting
Rock Type
metamorphism
of shale.
 Chapter in Review 193

FIGURE 7.23 Migmatite. The lightest-

colored layers are igneous rock
N composed of quartz and feldspar,
whereas the darker layers have a
metamorphic origin.
Canada Maine (Photo by Harlan H. Roepke)
United States

minerals melt at
Vermont
different tempera-
New Hampshire tures. The light-col-
Key ored silicates, usually
A Low quartz and potassium
grade
B
feldspar, have the lowest
New York Medium melting temperatures and
grade
begin to melt first, whereas
High the mafic silicates, such as amphi-
Massachusets grade
bole and biotite, remain solid. When this partially melted rock
cools, the light bands will be composed of igneous, or igneous-
Rhode
appearing components, while the dark bands will consist of
Conneticut Island unmelted metamorphic material. Rocks of this type are called
migmatites (migma = mixture, ite = a stone) (FIGURE 7.23). The
FIGURE 7.22 Generalized map showing zones of metamorphic light-colored bands in migmatites often form tortuous folds and
intensities across New England. may contain tabular inclusions of the dark components. Migmatites
serve to illustrate the fact that some rocks are transitional and do
considered high-grade. By mapping the occurrences of index miner- not clearly belong to any one of the three basic rock groups.
als, geologists are in effect mapping zones of varying metamorphic
grade. Grade is a term used in a relative sense to refer to the condi- CONCEPT CHECK 7.6
tions of temperature (or sometimes pressure) to which a rock has
been subjected. 1 Briefly describe the textural changes that occur in the transforma-
tion of slate to phyllite, phyllite to schist, and then schist to gneiss.
MIGMATITES. In the most extreme environments, even the
2 How do geologists use index minerals?
highest-grade metamorphic rocks undergo change. For example,
3 How are gneisses and migmatites related?
gneissic rocks may be heated sufficiently to cause melting to begin.
However, recall from our discussion of igneous rocks that different

C H A P T E R 7

Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

in Review
Metamorphism is the transformation of one rock type into tion of minerals. Pressure, like temperature, also increases with
another. Metamorphic rocks form from preexisting rocks (either depth. When subjected to confining pressure, minerals may recrys-
igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) that have been tallize into more compact forms. During mountain building, rocks
altered by the agents of metamorphism, which include heat, pres- are subjected to differential stress, which tends to shorten them in
sure (stress), and chemically active fluids. During metamorphism the the direction pressure is applied and lengthen them in the direc-
material essentially remains solid. The changes that occur in meta- tion perpendicular to that force. At depth, rocks are warm and
morphosed rocks are textural as well as mineralogical. ductile, which accounts for their ability to deform by flowing when
The mineral makeup of the parent rock determines, to a large subjected to differential stresses. Chemically active fluids, most
extent, the degree to which each metamorphic agent will cause commonly water containing ions in solution, also enhance the
change. Heat is the most important agent because it provides the metamorphic process by dissolving minerals and aiding the migra-
energy to drive chemical reactions that result in the recrystalliza- tion and precipitation of this material at other sites.
194 CHAPTER 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks

The grade of metamorphism is reflected in the texture and mineral The four geologic environments in which metamorphism
content of metamorphic rocks. During regional metamorphism, commonly occurs are (1) contact or thermal metamorphism,
rocks typically display a preferred orientation called foliation. (2) hydrothermal metamorphism, (3) burial and subduction zone meta-
Foliation develops as platy or elongated minerals are rotated into morphism, and (4) regional metamorphism. Contact metamorphism
parallel alignment, recrystallize to form new grains that exhibit a occurs when rocks are in contact with an igneous body, resulting
preferred orientation, or are plastically deformed into flattened in the formation of zones of alteration around the magma called
grains that exhibit a planar alignment. Rock cleavage is a type of aureoles. Most contact metamorphic rocks are fine-grained, dense,
foliation in which rocks split cleanly into thin slabs along tough rocks of various chemical compositions. Because directional
surfaces where platy minerals are aligned. Schistosity is a type pressure is not a major factor, these rocks are not generally foli-
of foliation defined by the parallel alignment of medium- to ated. Hydrothermal metamorphism occurs where hot, ion-rich
coarse-grained platy minerals. During high-grade metamorphism, fluids circulate through rock and cause chemical alteration of the
ion migrations can cause minerals to segregate into distinct layers constituent minerals. Most hydrothermal alteration occurs along
or bands. Metamorphic rocks with a banded texture are called the mid-ocean ridge system, where seawater migrates through hot
gneiss. Metamorphic rocks composed of only one mineral oceanic crust and chemically alters newly formed basaltic rocks.
forming equidimensional crystals often appear nonfoliated. Marble Metallic ions that are removed from the crust are eventually car-
(metamorphosed limestone) is often nonfoliated. Further, ried to the floor of the ocean, where they precipitate from black
metamorphism can cause the transformation of low-temperature smokers to form metallic deposits, some of which may be eco-
minerals into high-temperature minerals and, through the nomically important. Regional metamorphism takes place at con-
introduction of ions from hydrothermal solutions, generate new siderable depths over an extensive area and is associated with the
minerals, some of which form economically important metallic process of mountain building. A gradation in the degree of change
ore deposits. usually exists in association with regional metamorphism, in
which the intensity of metamorphism (low- to high-grade) is
Common foliated metamorphic rocks include slate, phyllite, reflected in the texture and mineral content of the rocks. In the
various types of schists (e.g., garnet-mica schist), and gneiss. most extreme metamorphic environments, rocks called migmatites
Nonfoliated rocks include marble (parent rock—limestone) and fall into a transition zone somewhere between “true” igneous rocks
quartzite (most often formed from quartz sandstone). and “true” metamorphic rocks.

Key Terms
aureole (p. 188) hydrothermal metamorphism migmatites (p. 193) shock metamorphism (p. 191)
burial metamorphism (p. 190) (p. 189) nonfoliated (p. 184) slaty cleavage (p. 183)
confining pressure (p. 180) hydrothermal solutions (p. 189) parent rock (p. 178) subduction zone metamorphism
contact metamorphism (p. 188) impact metamorphism (p. 191) porphyroblastic textures (p. 184) (p. 190)
differential stress (p. 180) index minerals (p. 192) regional metamorphism (p. 190) texture (p. 181)
foliation (p. 182) metamorphism (p. 178) rock cleavage (p. 183) thermal metamorphism (p. 188)
gneissic texture (p. 184) metasomatism (p. 181) schistosity (p. 184)

GIVE IT SOME THOUGHT

1 Each of the following statements describes one or more characteris- experiencing or may have experienced the metamorphic conditions
tics of a particular metamorphic rock. For each statement, identify necessary to form foliation. Describe the location, and explain what
the metamorphic rock that is being described: is happening or has happened that would result in foliated rocks.
a. calcite-rich and often nonfoliated
b. loosely coherent and composed of broken fragments that formed 3 Refer to Figure 7.11, the classification chart for common metamor-
along a fault zone phic rocks, and answer the following:
c. represents a grade of metamorphism between slate and schist a. Identify a case in which the metamorphic rock may be stronger
d. very fine-grained and foliated; excellent rock cleavage than its parent rock, and explain why.
e. foliated and composed predominately of platy materials b. Identify a case in which the metamorphic rock may be weaker
f. composed of alternating bands of light and dark silicate minerals than its parent rock, and explain why.
g. hard and nonfoliated; resulting from contact metamorphism c. In general, do you think metamorphic rocks are stronger or
2 Refer to Figure 7.5 showing the formation of foliation in response to weaker than igneous rocks? How about sedimentary rocks?
differential stress. Select a location on Earth where rocks may be Explain your answers.
 Companion Website 195

4 One of the rock outcrops in the accompanying photos consists

mainly of metamorphic rock. Which do you think it is? Explain why
you ruled out the other rock bodies.

5 Examine the accompanying photos that show the geology of the 6 Refer to the accompanying diagram and match each labeled area
Grand Canyon. Notice that most of the canyon consists of layers of with the appropriate environment listed below:
sedimentary rocks, but if you were to hike into the inner gorge you a. contact metamorphism
would encounter the Vishnu schist, a metamorphic rock. b. subduction metamorphism
a. What process might have been responsible for the formation of c. regional metamorphism
the Vishnu schist? How does this process differ from the d. burial metamorphism
processes that formed the sedimentary rocks that are atop the
e. hydrothermal metamorphism
Vishnu schist?
b. What does the Vishnu schist tell you about the history of the
Grand Canyon prior to the formation of the canyon itself?
c. Why is the Vishnu schist visible at Earth’s surface?
d. Is it likely that rocks similar to the Vishnu schist exist elsewhere
but are not exposed at Earth’s surface? Explain.

Inner
gorge

7 Based on the information provided in Figure 7.22, complete the

following:
a. Describe how the metamorphic grade changes from west to east
across New England along line A-B.
A. Grand Canyon b. How might these metamorphic rocks have formed?
c. Are these zones of metamorphism consistent with the current
tectonic setting of New England?
B. Close up of Vishnu
Schist (dark color)

Companion Website
www.mygeoscienceplace.com
The Essentials of Geology, 11e companion Website contains numerous multimedia resources accompanied by assessments
to aid in your study of the topics in this chapter. The use of this site's learning tools will help improve your understanding
of geology. Utilizing the access code that accompanies this text, visit www.mygeoscienceplace.com in order to:
• Review key chapter concepts.
• Read with links to the Pearson eText and to chapter-specific web resources.
• Visualize and comprehend challenging topics using the learning activities in GEODe: Essentials of Geology and the
Geoscience Animations Library.
• Test yourself with online quizzes.