MODULE 2 : TISSUES o Lining of the digestive tract from stomach

 Tissues to anus
- Groups of cells with similar structure and function o Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body
cavities opening to the exterior
Four primary types of Tissues - Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types
propel mucus or reproductive cells
 Epithelial Tissue  Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
 Locations: - All cells rest on a basement membrane
- Body coverings - Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others
- Body linings giving a false (pseudo) impression of stratification
- Glandular tissue - Location
 Functions: o respiratory tract, where it is ciliated and
- Protection known as pseudostratified ciliated columnar
- Absorption epithelium
- Filtration - Functions in absorption or secretion
- Secretion
 Stratified epithelia
 Hallmarks of epithelial tissues: - Consist of two or more cell layers
- Cover and line body surfaces - Function primarily in protection
- Often form sheets with one free surface, the apical  Stratified squamous epithelium
surface, and an anchored surface, the basement - Most common stratified epithelium
membrane - Named for cells present at the free (apical) surface,
- Avascular (no blood supply) which are squamous
- Regenerate easily if well nourished - Functions as a protective covering where friction is
common
Classification of epithelia - Locations
 Number of cell layers o lining of the skin (outer portion), mouth,
 Simple—one layer esophagus
 Stratified—more than one layer  Stratified cuboidal epithelium—two layers of cuboidal
 Shape of cells cells; functions in protection
 Squamous—flattened, like fish scales  Stratified columnar epithelium—surface cells are
 Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice columnar, and cells underneath vary in size and shape;
 Columnar—shaped like columns functions in protection
 Stratified cuboidal and columnar
 Simple epithelia - Rare in human body
- Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration - Found mainly in ducts of large glands
- Very thin (so not suited for protection)  Transitional epithelium
 Simple squamous epithelium - Composed of modified stratified squamous
- Single layer of flat cells epithelium
- Locations—usually forms membranes - Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
- Lines air sacs of the lungs stretching
- Forms walls of capillaries - Functions in stretching and the ability to return to
- Forms serous membranes (serosae) that line and normal shape
cover organs in ventral cavity - Location
- Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in o lining of urinary system organs
membranes  Glandular epithelia
 Simple cuboidal epithelium - One or more cells responsible for secreting a
- Single layer of cubelike cells particular product
- Locations - Secretions contain protein molecules in an aqueous
o Common in glands and their ducts (water-based) fluid
o Forms walls of kidney tubules - Secretion is an active process
o Covers the surface of ovaries Two major gland types develop from epithelial sheets
- Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated types  Endocrine glands
propel mucus or reproductive cells - Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into blood
 Simple columnar epithelium vessels
- Single layer of tall cells - Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and pituitary
- Goblet cells secrete mucus  Exocrine glands
- Locations
 - Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial - Highly compressible
surface - Location: forms cushionlike discs between vertebrae
- Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas of the spinal column
(both internal and external)

Connective Tissue 3. Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)

- Found everywhere in the body to connect body parts - Main matrix element is collagen fiber
- Includes the most abundant and widely distributed - Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers
tissues - Locations
 Functions o Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone
- Protection o Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints and
- Support are more elastic than tendons
- Binding o Dermis—lower layers of the skin
Characteristics of connective tissue
- Variations in blood supply 4. Loose connective tissue
o Some tissue types are well vascularized - Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than other
o Some have a poor blood supply or are connective tissues (except blood)
avascular Types of Loose Connective Tissue
- Extracellular matrix  Areolar connective tissue
o Nonliving material that surrounds living - Most widely distributed connective tissue
cells - Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
Two (2) main elements of the extracellular matrix - Functions as a universal packing tissue and “glue” to
1. Ground substance hold organs in place
- mostly water, along with adhesion proteins and - Layer of areolar tissue called lamina propria
polysaccharide underlies all membranes
molecules - All fiber types form a loose network
2. Fibers - Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)
- Collagen (white) fibers  Adipose connective tissue
- Elastic (yellow) fibers - An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells
- Reticular fibers (a type of collagen) dominate
Five (5) Types of connective tissue from most rigid to softest, - Functions
or most fluid: o Insulates the body
1. Bone (osseous tissue) o Protects some organs
- Composed of: o Serves as a site of fuel storage
o Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae - Locations
(cavities) o Subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin
o Hard matrix of calcium salts o Protects organs, such as the kidneys
o Large numbers of collagen fibers o Fat “depots” include hips, breasts, and belly
- Functions to protect and support the body  Reticular connective tissue
2. Cartilage - Delicate network of interwoven fibers with reticular
- Less hard and more flexible than bone cells (like fibroblasts)
- Found in only a few places in the body - Forms stroma (internal framework) of organs
- Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type - Locations
Types of Cartilages - Lymph nodes
 Hyaline cartilage - Spleen
- Most widespread type of cartilage - Bone marrow
- Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy, rubbery
matrix
- Locations
o Trachea 5. Blood (vascular tissue)
o Attaches ribs to the breastbone - Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known as
o Covers ends of long bones blood plasma
o Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth - Soluble fibers are visible only during clotting
o Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones - Functions as the transport vehicle for the
 Elastic cartilage (not pictured) cardiovascular system, carrying:
- Provides elasticity o Nutrients
- Location: supports the external ear o Wastes
 Fibrocartilage o Respiratory gases
 Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on:
Muscle Tissue  Type of tissue damaged
- Function is to contract, or shorten, to produce  Severity of the injury
movement
Three (3) types of muscle tissue  Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than ragged
[Link] muscle tissue tears of the tissue
- Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton and pull
on bones or skin
- Voluntarily (consciously) controlled Events of tissue repair
- Produces gross body movements or facial  Inflammation sets the stage
expressions - Capillaries become very permeable
- Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells - Clotting proteins migrate into the area from the
o Striations (stripes) bloodstream
o Multinucleate (more than one nucleus) - A clot walls off the injured area
o Long, cylindrical shape  Granulation tissue forms
2. Cardiac muscle tissue - Growth of new capillaries
- Involuntarily controlled - Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and fibroblasts
- Found only in the heart - Rebuild collagen fibers
- Pumps blood through blood vessels - Events of tissue repair (continued)
- Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells  Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent repair
o Striations - Scab detaches
o One nucleus per cell - Whether scar is visible or invisible depends on
o Short, branching cells severity of wound
o Intercalated discs contain gap junctions to  Tissues that regenerate easily
connect cells together - Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
- Fibrous connective tissues and bone
 Tissues that regenerate poorly
3. Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue - Skeletal muscle
- Involuntarily controlled  Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
- Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach, - Cardiac muscle
uterus, and blood vessels - Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
- Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a typical activity Developmental Aspects of Cells and Tissues
- Characteristics of smooth muscle cells - Growth through cell division continues through
o No visible striations puberty
o One nucleus per cell - Cell populations exposed to friction (such as
o Spindle-shaped cells epithelium) replace lost cells throughout life
- Connective tissue remains mitotic and forms repair
Nervous Tissue (scar) tissue
- Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical - With some exceptions, muscle tissue becomes
impulses to and from body parts amitotic by the end of puberty
o Irritability - Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly after birth
o Conductivity - Injury can severely handicap amitotic tissues
- Composed of neurons and nerve support cells - The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical and
o Support cells called neuroglia insulate, physical insults, as well as genetic programming,
protect, and support neurons have been proposed as possible causes
- Neoplasms, both benign and cancerous, represent
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing) abnormal cell masses in which normal controls on
Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two (2) ways: cell division are not working
1. Regeneration - Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a tissue or organ
- Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of may occur when tissue is strongly stimulated or
cells irritated
2. Fibrosis - Atrophy (decrease in size) of a tissue or organ occurs
- Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue (scar when the organ
tissue)
- is no longer stimulated normally