Chapter

Running Water and

5 Groundwater
5.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

 Water is constantly moving among Earth’s different

spheres—the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the
geosphere, and the biosphere. This unending
circulation of water is called the hydrologic cycle.
Earth’s Water
5.1 The Hydrologic Cycle
Water’s Paths
The hydrologic cycle is a gigantic, worldwide system
powered by energy from the Sun

• Hydrologic cycle is powered by the Sun

• Water enters atmosphere from the oceans via evaporation
• Winds transport water through the atmosphere
• Precipitation either falls to the ocean or continents
– Precipitation to the oceans completes the hydrologic
cycle
– Precipitation to the continents must return to the
ocean
5.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

• Some water soaks into the ground (infiltration)

• Surplus water flows over the surface (runoff)
• Water absorbed by plants is eventually released via
transpiration
• Evapotranspiration is the combined effects of
evaporation and transpiration
• Precipitation in cold regions becomes part of glaciers
– Significant reservoirs: melting all glaciers would cause
sea level rise of dozens of meters
Water and the Hydrologic Cycle
5.1 The Hydrologic Cycle

Hydrologic cycle is balanced

• Balance in the hydrologic cycle means that the average

annual precipitation worldwide must be equal to the
amount of water evaporated.

 Precipitation exceeds evaporation over land

 Evaporation exceeds precipitation over oceans
5.2 Running Water

The amount of water that runs off rather than soaking into
the ground depends on several factors:

(1) the intensity and duration of rainfall,

(2) the amount of water already in the soil,
(3) the nature of the surface material,
(4) the slope of the land, and
(5) The extent and type of vegetation.
5.2 Running Water

Drainage Basins

The land area that contributes water to a river

system is called a drainage basin

The drainage basin of one stream is separated from

the drainage basin of another by an imaginary line
called a divide.
Drainage Basin and divide
A drainage basin is the area
drained by a stream and its
tributaries. Boundaries
between basins are called
divides.
5.2 Running Water
River Systems
A river system carries water from an entire drainage basin.

It includes three zones:

 sediment production—
where erosion
dominates,
 sediment transport,
 sediment deposition

Zones of a river Each of the three zones is based

on the dominant process that is operating in that
part of the river system.
5.2 Running Water

Drainage Patterns

Drainage systems are networks of streams that together

form distinctive patterns.

The nature of a drainage pattern can vary greatly from one

type of terrain to another, primarily in response to:

• the kinds of rock on which the streams developed and/or

• the structural pattern of faults and folds.
Drainage Patterns Networks of streams form a variety of patterns.
5.3 Streamflow

Water may flow in one of two ways, either as laminar flow or

turbulent flow.

In slow-moving streams, the flow is often laminar, which

means that the water moves in roughly straight-line paths
that parallel the stream channel.

However, streamflow is usually turbulent, with the water

moving in an erratic fashion that can be characterized as a
swirling motion. Strong, turbulent flow may be seen in
whirlpools and eddies, as well as rolling whitewater rapids
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Most often streamflow is turbulent.
5.3 Streamflow

Factors Affecting Flow Velocity

• Flow velocity varies along a stream and through time

• Flow velocity depends on:
– Channel slope or gradient
– Channel size and cross-sectional shape
– Channel roughness
– Discharge or amount of water flowing in the channel
5.3 Streamflow
• Gradient is the vertical drop over a specified distance
– Varies from stream to stream and over a single stream’s
length
– Steeper gradient provides more energy for flow
• Shape, size, and roughness of channel affect the amount
of friction between channel and water
– Higher friction creates turbulence and slower flow
• Discharge is the volume of water flowing past a certain
point in a given unit of time (m3/s)
– Intermittent streams only flow during wet periods
– Ephemeral streams carry water after heavy rainfall (In
arid climates)
5.3 Streamflow

Changes from Upstream to Downstream

• The cross-sectional view of a stream from headwaters

to mouth is called longitudinal profile
– Overall shape is concave curve with local irregularities
– Gradient, sediment size, and channel roughness
decreases from head to mouth
– Discharge and channel size increases
– Flow velocity increases
Longitudinal Profile California’s King’s River originates high in the Sierra Nevada
and flows into the San Joaquin Valley.
Channel Changes from Head to Mouth Although the gradient decreases toward the
mouth, increases in discharge and channel size and decreases in roughness more
than offset the decrease in slope. Consequently, flow velocity usually increases
toward the mouth.
5.4 The Work of Running Water
Stream Erosion
• Streams are an important erosional agent

• Raindrops knock sediment particles loose

• Flow of water in a stream can dislodge and lift particles
from the channel
– Erodes poorly consolidated material quickly
– Can undercut banks
• Hydraulic force can also cut bedrock
– Enhanced by particles carried in water
– Swirling pebbles can carve potholes in channel floors
Potholes The rotational motion of
swirling pebbles acts like a drill,
creating potholes.
5.4 The Work of Running Water
Transportation of Sediment
• Streams transport sediment in three ways:
– Dissolved load is material in solution
• Delivered by groundwater
• Not effected by velocity

– Suspended load is material suspended in the water

• Clay and silt particles
– Larger particles can be moved during floods
• Largest component of load
5.4 The Work of Running Water
‒ Bed load is material moving along the channel bed
• Sand, gravel, large boulders
• Only in motion intermittently
• Smaller particles move via
saltation
• Larger particles roll or slide
 Sediment Transport by Streams

How Streams Move Sediment

5.4 The Work of Running Water

Transportation of Sediment

A stream’s ability to carry solid particles is described using

two criteria: capacity and competence

• Capacity is the maximum load of solid particles a

stream can transport per unit time
– Increases with discharge
• Competence is a stream’s ability to transport particles
based on size
– Increases with flow velocity
5.4 The Work of Running Water

Deposition of Sediment by Streams

• As flow decreases competence is reduced

– Particles settle when flow reaches critical settling
velocity for that particle size
– Sorting separates particles of various sizes
• Alluvium is material deposited by a stream
5.5 Stream Channels

• Streamflow is confined to a channel

• Two types of stream channels:
– Bedrock channels are actively cut into solid
rock
– Alluvial channels are composed of
unconsolidated sediment
5.5 Stream Channels

• Bedrock channels are cut into rock

– Common in headwaters with steep gradient
– Transport coarse particles
– Alternate between gentle gradients (alluvium
accumulates) and steep segments (bedrock is
cut)
– Rapids and waterfalls common
– Channel pattern is controlled by underlying
geologic structure
• Often winding and irregular
5.5 Stream Channels

• Alluvial channels are composed of loosely

consolidated sediment
– Continually being eroded, transported, and
redeposited
• Shape is controlled by average sediment size,
gradient, and discharge
• Two common types
– Meandering channels
– Braided channels
5.5 Stream Channels

• Meandering channels have sweeping bends called

meanders
– High suspended load
– Deep, smooth channels
– Banks are resistant to erosion
• Most erosion occurs on the outside of the
meander, or the cut bank, where velocity is highest
• Sediment is deposited along the inside of the
meander where turbulence and velocity are low,
forming point bars
– Meanders migrate laterally and downstream
• May form a cutoff and oxbow lake through narrow
neck of land
Formation of Cut Banks and Point Bars
By eroding its outer bank and depositing material on the inside
of the bend, a stream is able to shift its channel.
Formation of an Oxbow lake
Oxbow lakes occupy abandoned meanders. Aerial view of an oxbow lake
created by the meandering Green River near Bronx, Wyoming.
An oxbow lake
Oxbow Lake
5.5 Stream Channels

• Braided Channels are a complex network of

converging and diverging channels
– Form where most of stream load is coarse
(sand and gravel) and discharge is variable
– Wide and shallow (bank material erodes easily)
– Common at the end of glaciers
Braided Stream
The Knik River is a classic braided stream with multiple channels separated
by migrating gravel bars. The Knik is choked with sediment from four
melting glaciers in the Chugach Mountains north of Anchorage, Alaska.
5.6 Shaping Stream Valleys

• A stream valley is the channel and surrounding terrain

that contributes water to the stream
– Includes valley bottom and sloping walls
– Top is generally broader than channel width because of
mass wasting
– Divided into two general types:
• Narrow, V-shaped valleys
• Wide valleys with flat floors
5.6 Shaping Stream Valleys

• Base level is the lower limit to how deep a stream can

erode
– Usually occurs where a stream enters another body of
water
• Velocity and ability to erode are greatly reduced
– Sea level is the ultimate base level
– Temporary or local base level includes lakes, resistant
rock layers, main streams, etc.
• Change in base level causes readjustment of stream
Building a dam
The base level upstream from the reservoir is raised, which reduces the
stream’s flow velocity and leads to deposition and a reduced gradient.
5.6 Shaping Stream Valleys

Valley Deepening

• Downcutting is dominant when gradient is steep and

channel is above base level
– Abrasion and hydraulic power
– Produces V-shaped valley with steep sides
• Rapids and waterfalls common
Yellowstone River
The V-shaped valley, rapids, and
waterfalls indicate that the river is
vigorously downcutting
5.6 Shaping Stream Valleys

Valley Widening

• Downward erosion becomes less dominant as channel

reaches base level
– Channel becomes meandering
– Lateral erosion creates a broad, flat valley floor called
a floodplain
Development of an Erosional Floodplain
Continuous side-to-side erosion by shifting meanders gradually produces a
broad, flat valley floor. Alluvium deposited during floods covers the valley
floor.
Stream Valley Widening
5.6 Shaping Stream Valleys
Incised Meanders and Stream Terraces

• Incised meanders flow in steep, narrow valleys

– Meanders develop when stream is near base level, but
base level falls and stream starts downcutting again
• Sea level fall
• Uplift
• Stream terraces are the remnants of former floodplains
– Form after river adjusts to relative drop in base level
then floods again
– Floodplain is produced at a level below the old one
Incised Meanders Aerial view of incised meanders of the Colorado River on
the Colorado Plateau.
Stream terraces Terraces
result when a stream adjusts
to a relative drop in base level.
Stream Terrace Development
5.7 Depositional Landforms

• Streams transport sediment and deposit it downstream

– Bars are deposits of sand and gravel
• Temporary: material will eventually be carried to the
ocean
– Longer life span depositional features:
• Deltas
• Natural levees
5.7 Depositional Landforms

Deltas

• Deltas form where streams enter still bodies of water

– Flow decreases and sediment falls
– Delta grows outward and gradient lessens
– Channel chokes with sediment, divides, and moves to
higher-gradient areas
– Distributaries carry water and sediment away from main
channel
Formation of a simple Delta Structure and growth of a simple delta that
forms in relatively quiet waters.
5.7 Depositional Landforms

Natural Levees

• Natural levees are built by successive floods on rivers in

broad floodplains
– Flow decreases when streams overflow
– Coarse sediment deposited in thin strips parallel to
channels
– Fine sediment distributed across floodplain
– Back swamps form because drainage is poor behind
levees
• Yazoo tributaries parallel the river until they can
breach the levee
Formation of a Natural levee These gently sloping structures that parallel a
river channel are created by repeated floods. Because the ground next to
the channel is higher than the adjacent floodplain, back swamps and yazoo
tributaries may develop.
Levee Formation Animation
Groundwater
5.9 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

Groundwater exists in tiny pore spaces between grains of

soil and sediment plus narrow joints and fractures in bedrock

The Importance of Groundwater

• Groundwater is the largest reservoir of freshwater readily
available to humans
– Source of 40% of water
– Drinking water for ~50% of population
– 40% of irrigation water
– 25% of water used in industry
• Overuse can cause streamflow depletion, land
subsidence, and increased pumping cost
5.9 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

Groundwater’s Geologic Roles

• Important erosional agent
– Forms sinkholes and caves
– Stabilizes streamflow

Caverns Sinkholes
5.9 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

Distribution of Groundwater

• Comes from infiltration of rainfall into the ground

– Amount is influenced by slope, surface material,
intensity of rainfall, vegetation
• Belt of soil moisture
– Film of water on soil particles near the surface
• Zone of saturation
– All pore space is filled with water: groundwater
– Upper limit is water table
• Area above the water table is called the unsaturated
zone
Water Beneath the Surface
This diagram illustrates the relative positions of many features associated with
subsurface water.
5.9 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

Water table

• Water table is irregular

– Subdued replica of the surface
• Highest below hills
– Contributing factors:
• Groundwater moves slowly
• Water “piles up” between stream valleys
• Variations in rainfall
• Changes in permeability of sediment
• Water table falls during droughts
Water Table Formation
5.9 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement

of Groundwater

• Porosity
– “Percentage of total volume of rock or sediment that
consists of open pore space”
– Spaces between particles, joints, faults, dissolution
cavities, vesicles
– Depends on size and shape, packing, and sorting of
grains
– 10–50% in sediment
– Quantity of groundwater depends on porosity
Porosity Demonstration Porosity is the percentage of the total volume of
rock or sediment that consists of pore spaces.
5.9 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

• Permeability
– A material’s ability to transmit fluid
– If spaces are too small, water can’t move through
– Aquitards
• Impermeable clay layers that prevent water
movement
– Aquifers
• Rock or sediment that water moves through
easily
 PERMEABILITY

GRAVEL FINE SAND CLAY

Rapid Moderate Slow
drainage drainage drainage
Clay is impermeable – water will not flow through easily
5.9 Groundwater: Water Beneath the Surface

Groundwater Movement

• Groundwater moves slowly from pore to pore

– Typical rate is a few cm/day
– Moves from high water table to low water table because
of gravity
• Usually towards a stream channel, lake, or spring
– Pressure increases with depth in zone of saturation
Groundwater Movement Arrows show paths of groundwater movement
through uniformly permeable material.
5.10 Springs, Wells, and Artesian Systems

Springs

• A spring is a natural outflow of groundwater

– Occurs where the water table intersects Earth’s surface
– Aquitard prevents downward movement of water
• A perched water table is a localized zone of saturation
above an aquitard
Thunder Spring Water gushes from a bedrock wall in the Grand Canyon.
This spring in the Grand Canyon is fed by
water from the porous Redwall and Muav
Limestones. These cavernous limestones are
the water source for many springs. The
impermeable shale unit beneath them, the
aquiclude, is the Bright Angel Shale
5.10 Springs, Wells, and Artesian Systems

Wells
• A well is a hole drilled into the zone of saturation to
remove groundwater
• Drawdown is the lowering of a water table when water
is withdrawn
– Decreases with increasing distance from the well
– Creates a cone of depression
Cone of Depression For most small domestic wells, the cone of depression is
negligible. When wells are heavily pumped, the cone of depression can be large and
may lower the water table such that nearby shallower wells may be left dry
Formation of a Cone of Depression
5.10 Springs, Wells, and Artesian Systems

Artesian Systems

• An artesian system
‒ Groundwater rises in a well above the level where it was
initially encountered.
• A confined aquifer
– The aquifer is inclined
– Aquitards border above and below an aquifer
• Increased pressure in a confined aquifer causes water
to rise and create an artesian system
Artesian Systems These groundwater systems occur where an inclined
aquifer is surrounded by impermeable beds (aquitards). Such aquifers are
called confined aquifers. The photo shows a flowing artesian well.
City Water Systems City water systems can be considered to be artificial
artesian systems.
5.11 Environmental Problems of Groundwater

• Overuse threatens groundwater supply

• Excessive groundwater withdrawal causes land surface
to sink (subsidence)
• Contamination

Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource

• Groundwater system is at equilibrium
– Imbalance raises or lowers water table
– Long-term drop can occur with a prolonged drought
or an increase in discharge or withdrawal
• Depletion of groundwater can be severe in regions
of intense irrigation
Mining Groundwater A. The High Plains aquifer is one of the largest aquifers in the
United States. B. In parts of the High Plains aquifer, water is pumped from the
ground faster than it is replenished. In such instances, groundwater is being treated
as a nonrenewable resource. This aerial view shows circular crop fields irrigated by
center-pivot irrigating systems in semiarid eastern Colorado. C. Groundwater
provides more than 54 billion gallons per day in support of agriculture in the United
States.
5.11 Environmental Problems of Groundwater

Land Subsidence Caused

by Groundwater Withdrawal

• Ground subsidence occurs

when water is removed
faster than it is replenished
– Pronounced in areas
underlain by thick layers
of loose sediments
5.11 Environmental Problems of Groundwater

Groundwater Contamination

• Common sources of contamination include septic tanks,

sewer systems, and farm wastes
• Purification by natural processes can occur with correct
aquifer composition
– Sand or permeable sandstone
• Once pollution is identified water supply can be
abandoned or treated
Comparing Two Aquifers In this example, the limestone aquifer allowed
the contamination to reach a well but the sandstone aquifer did not.
Potential Sources of Groundwater Contamination Sometimes leaking
gasoline storage tanks and materials leached from landfills contaminate
aquifers.
5.12 The Geologic Work of Groundwater

• Most groundwater contains carbonic acid

– CO2 dissolved from air and decaying plants
– Dissolves limestone
– Forms caverns, sinkholes, and karst landscapes
5.12 The Geologic Work of Groundwater

Caverns

• Caverns form due to the erosional work of

groundwater
– Created in the zone of saturation
– Dissolved load is discharged into streams
• Decorated by calcium carbonate deposits
– Form when cavern is above water table
– Stalactites hang from the ceiling
– Stalagmites develop upward from the floor
Cave Decorations A. Close-up of a delicate live soda-straw stalactite in
Chinn Springs Cave, Independence County, Arkansas. B. Stalagmites
and stalactites in Carlsbad Caverns National Park, New Mexico.
5.12 The Geologic Work of Groundwater

Karst Topography

• Karst topography results from groundwater dissolution

• Common in Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Indiana, and
Florida
– Not enough groundwater in arid or semiarid regions
KARST TOPOGRAPHY FEATURES
Disappearing
Streams
Development of a Karst
Landscape
5.12 The Geologic Work of Groundwater

• Sinkholes, or sinks, are depressions where limestone

has been dissolved
• Tower karst landscapes have isolated, steep-sided hills
 Tower Karst Landscape in China One of
the best-known and most distinctive
Sinkholes Can Be Geologic Hazards regions of tower karst development is
This sinkhole formed suddenly in the along the Li River in the Guilin District of
backyard of a home in Lake City, Florida. southeastern China.
Sinkholes such as this one form when the
roof of a cavern collapses
• 100 m across
One day
Sinkhole - Winter Park, Florida
•
• Due to water table
lowering
• Now an urban lake.
 Groundwater
Flow
Mapping the water table. The water
level in wells coincides with the
water table.
A. The locations of wells and the
elevation of the water table above
sea level are plotted on a map.
B. These data points are used to
guide the drawing of water table
contour lines at regular intervals
(10 ft). Flow lines (dashed) are
added to show water movement in
the zone of saturation.
Assignment # 5

Earth Science

Give It Some Thought on Pages 187 and 188

Q1, Q2, Q3, Q5, Q9 and Q10