10
Metal–Semiconductor Contacts
10.1. Introduction
In this chapter, the basic device physics, the electrical and transport properties,
and the formation and characterization of various metal–semiconductor contacts
are presented. It is well known that the quality of metal–semiconductor contacts
plays an important role in the performance of various semiconductor devices and
integrated circuits. For example, good ohmic contacts are essential for achieving
excellent performance of a semiconductor device, while Schottky (i.e., rectifying)
contacts can be used for a wide variety of device applications. In addition to
different device and circuit applications, Schottky contacts can also be used as test
vehicles for investigating the physical and electrical properties of a semiconductor
material and its surfaces. For example, a Schottky diode can be used to study bulk
defects and interface properties of a metal–semiconductor system. Therefore, it is
essential to obtain a better understanding of the fundamental physical and electrical
properties of the metal–semiconductor systems so that technologies for preparing
good ohmic and Schottky contacts can be developed for a wide variety of device
applications.
Two types of metal–semiconductor contacts are commonly used in the fabri-
cation of semiconductor devices and integrated circuits. They are the Schottky
and ohmic contacts. A Schottky barrier contact exhibits an asymmetrical current–
voltage (I–V) characteristic when the polarity of a bias voltage applied to the
metal–semiconductor contacts is changed. The ohmic contact, on the other hand,
shows a linear I–V characteristic regardless of the polarity of the external bias
voltage. A good ohmic contact is referred to the case in which the voltage drop
across a metal–semiconductor contact is negligible compared to that of the bulk
semiconductor material.
The Schottky barrier diode is actually a variation of the point-contact diode
in which the metal–semiconductor junction is a surface rather than a point con-
tact. In fact, a large contact area between the metal and the semiconductor in a
Schottky barrier diode provides some advantages over the point-contact diode.
Lower forward resistance and lower noise generation are the most important
284
10.2. Metal Work Function and Schottky Effect 285
advantages of the Schottky barrier diode. The applications of a Schottky barrier
diode are similar to those of the point-contact diode. The low noise level generated
by Schottky diodes makes them especially suitable for uses in microwave receivers,
detectors, and mixers. The Schottky barrier diode is sometimes called the hot elec-
tron or hot carrier diode because the electrons flowing from the semiconductor
to the metal have a higher energy level than electrons in the metal. The effect is
the same as it would be if the metals were heated to a higher temperature than
normal.
Section 10.2 describes the metal work function and the Schottky effect at a
metal–vacuum interface. Thermionic emission theory, used to describe carrier
transport in a metal–semiconductor contact, is presented in Section 10.3. In Sec-
tion 10.4, the energy band diagram, the spatial distributions of the space charge,
potential, and electric field across the depletion layer of a Schottky barrier diode are
derived. Section 10.5 presents the diffusion and thermionic emission models for
carrier transport in a Schottky barrier diode. Section 10.6 describes the I–V charac-
teristics and fabrication schemes for a metal-Si and metal-GaAs Schottky barrier
diode. Section 10.7 describes three common methods for determining the barrier
height of a Schottky diode. Methods for the effective barrier height enhancement of
a metal–semiconductor Schottky contact are discussed in Section 10.8. In Section
10.9, applications of Schottky barrier diodes for photodetectors, microwave mix-
ers, clamped transistors, metal-gate field-effect transistors (MESFETs), and solar
cells are discussed. Finally, some conventional and novel approaches for forming
ohmic contacts on semiconductors are presented in Section 10.10.
10.2. Metal Work Function and Schottky Effect
The schematic energy band diagram under equilibrium conditions for a metal in
free space is shown in Figure 10.1. The energy difference between the vacuum level
and the Fermi level is known as the work function of a metal. The work function, φm ,
is defined as the minimum kinetic energy required for an electron to escape from
the metal surface (or the Fermi level) into free space at T = 0 K. The probability
for an electron to escape from the metal surface into the vacuum depends on the
velocity of electrons perpendicular to the metal surface. The minimum kinetic
energy required for an electron to escape from the metal surface into vacuum is
Figure 10.1. Energy band
diagram at a metal–vacuum
interface: φm is the metal work
function and E f is the Fermi
level.
