Instrument Rating Study Guide

Instrument Rating
Study Guide

Starspeed Hangar 1, J Site, Kemble Aerodrome

Gloucestershire, GL7 6BA

T. +44 (0)1285 611000/771378

training@ starspeed .[Link] [Link]
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Record of Amendments

Amendment Amendment Page/s Date Incorporated

Number Date Affected Entered by (Initials)
1 16.2.2013 All - General revision, JAR 16.2.2013 DA
reference removed
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Checklist of Pages
Page Date Page Date Page Date
Cover February 2013 Chapter 5 85 February 2013
39 February 2013 86 February 2013
i February 2013 40 February 2013 87 February 2013
ii February 2013 41 February 2013 88 February 2013
iii February 2013 42 February 2013 89 February 2013
iv February 2013 Chapter 6 91 February 2013
v February 2013 43 February 2013 92 February 2013
vi February 2013 44 93 February 2013
vii February 2013 45 February 2013 94 February 2013
viii February 2013 46 February 2013 95 February 2013
47 February 2013 96 February 2013
Chapter 0 48 February 2013 97 February 2013
1 February 2013 49 February 2013 98 February 2013
Chapter 1 50 February 2013 99 February 2013
2 February 2013 51 February 2013 100 February 2013
3 February 2013 52 February 2013 101 February 2013
4 February 2013 Chapter 7 Chapter 13
5 February 2013 53 February 2013 102 February 2013
Chapter 2 54 February 2013 103 February 2013
6 February 2013 55 February 2013 Chapter 14
7 February 2013 56 February 2013 104 February 2013
8 February 2013 Chapter 8 105 February 2013
Chapter 3 57 February 2013 Chapter 15
9 February 2013 58 February 2013 106 February 2013
10 February 2013 59 February 2013 107 February 2013
11 February 2013 61 February 2013 Chapter 16
12 February 2013 62 February 2013 108 February 2013
13 February 2013 Chapter 9 109 February 2013
14 February 2013 63 February 2013 Chapter 17
15 February 2013 64 February 2013 110 February 2013
16 February 2013 65 February 2013 111 February 2013
17 February 2013 66 February 2013 Chapter 18 February 2013
18 February 2013 Chapter 10 112 February 2013
19 February 2013 67 February 2013 113 February 2013
20 February 2013 68 February 2013 114 February 2013
21 February 2013 69 February 2013 115 February 2013
22 February 2013 70 February 2013 116 February 2013
23 February 2013 Chapter 11A 117 February 2013
24 February 2013 71 February 2013 Chapter 19
25 February 2013 72 February 2013 118 February 2013
Chapter 4 73 February 2013 119 February 2013
26 February 2013 74 February 2013 120 February 2013
27 February 2013 Chapter 11B 121 February 2013
28 February 2013 75 February 2013 122 February 2013
29 February 2013 76 February 2013 123 February 2013
30 February 2013 77 February 2013 124 February 2013
31 February 2013 78 February 2013 125 February 2013
32 February 2013 Chapter 12 126 February 2013
33 February 2013 79 February 2013 127 February 2013
34 February 2013 80 February 2013 128 February 2013
35 February 2013 81 February 2013 129 February 2013
36 February 2013 82 February 2013 130 February 2013
37 February 2013 83 February 2013
38 February 2013 84 February 2013
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List Of Chapters

Chapter 0 Introduction

Chapter 1 The Instrument Rating Test

Chapter 2 Abbreviations

Chapter 3 Basic Instrument flying

Chapter 4 Tracking

Chapter 5 Holding Pattern

Chapter 6 The Holding Pattern – Entry Procedures

Chapter 7 Radiotelephony Procedures

Chapter 8 Approach Procedures

Chapter 9 Calculation of Approach Minima

Chapter 10 Altimeter Management

Chapter 11 Reversal Procedure

Chapter 12 AERAD Approach Plates

Chapter 13 VOR Tracking and Holds

Chapter 14 Pre-Flight Checks of Radios, Instruments and Navaids

Chapter 15 In-Flight Checks

Chapter 16 Flying En-Route in Controlled Airspace

Chapter 17 Flight Plan Form

Chapter 18 DME Arc Procedures

Chapter 19 Direction finding (DF)

Chapter 20 Briefs, Single Pilot and Two Crew Operations

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Index

0. Introduction

Purpose
Publications
Training Aids

1. The Instrument Rating Test

The Instrument Rating Test

Limits
Conduct of Test

2. Abbreviations

3. Basic Instrument Flying

4. Tracking

Rule of Thumb Suggestion

Track Interception
Intercepting a QDM
Intercepting a QDR
Four Steps
Tracking from Overhead
Calculation in Flight

5. The Holding Pattern

Definition
Corrections for Wind Effect
Timing Corrections
Drift Corrections

6. The Holding Pattern – Entry Procedures

Sector 1
Sector 2
Sector 3
Non Holding side Procedure
Holding side Procedure

7. Radiotelephony Procedures

Procedures
Summary
RT Quiz

8. Approach Procedures

State Minima
Missed Approach
Missed Approach Point
The Instrument Landing System (ILS)
The Non-Precision Approach
Helicopter Procedures
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9. Calculation Of Approach Minima

Aircraft Categories
ILS Categories
Calculation of Decision Height/Altitude /Minimum Descent Height/Altitude
Calculation of RVR
Calculation of Minima at RAF Airfields

10. Altimeter Management

Baralt
Altimeter Checks
Radalt

11A. Reversal Procedure

Procedure Turn (45o)

Procedure Turn (80o)
Base Turn
Racetrack Procedure
Entry to Reversal Procedure
General Information

11B Racetrack Procedures

Identifying a racetrack
Entry procedures
Outbound leg
ATC

12. Aerad Approach Plates

13. VOR Tracking And Holds

14. Pre-Flight Checks Of Radios, Instruments And Nav Aids

15. In-Flight Checks

16. Flying En-Route In Controlled Airspace

17. Flight Plan Form – CA 48

18. DME Arc Procedures

Preparation
Flying the Arc – Still Air
Flying the Arc – Wind Effects
Leaving the Arc
Problems

19 Direction Finding. (DF)

Introduction
QGH procedures
VDF procedures

20 Briefs, Single Pilot And Two Crew Operations.

Introduction
Single Pilot IFR and IR test
Two crew operations
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0. Introduction

Purpose

These notes are designed to provide pilots with the required knowledge to embark
upon a course of training in order to undertake procedural IFR flight and lead to the
initial issue of an Instrument Rating (H).

Publications

In addition to this manual, you are expected to read and familiarise yourself with the
relevant sections of the following documents:

Company FTO Operations Manual

The Air Navigation Order (or JAR OPS)
Integrated Aeronautical Information Package (AIP)
PANS OPS Doc 8168
The Aerad Flight Guide
JAR-FCL2

Training Aids

You will receive a number of lectures and presentations on the skills and techniques
required for IFR flight, which will then be consolidated on the FNPT trainer. The flying
stage of the course will be undertaken with a qualified IRI in a suitably equipped
helicopter
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1. The Instrument Rating Test

The privileges of the Instrument Rating (Helicopters) are specified in JAR-FCL 2.180.

All applicants for the grant of an Instrument Rating (Helicopters) will be required to
pass a flight test conducted by an approved Instrument Rating Examiner (IRE) - this
will normally be a Training Inspector from the Authority.

The Instrument Rating Test – Multi Engine (ME)

The flight test for the above rating comprises the following:

SECTION 1 - DEPARTURE

a. Use of flight manual (or equivalent) especially aircraft performance calcula

tion; mass and balance
b. Use of Air Traffic Services document, weather document
c. Preparation of ATC flight plan, IFR flight plan/log
d. Pre-flight inspection
e. Weather minima
f. Taxying/Air taxy in compliance with ATC or instructions of instructor
g. Pre-take off briefing, procedures and checks
h. Transition to instrument flight
i. Instrument departure procedures

SECTION 2 - GENERAL HANDLING

a. Control of the helicopter by reference solely to instruments, including:

i. Climbing and descending turns with sustained rate one turn

ii. Recoveries from unusual attitudes, including sustained 30º bank turns
and steep descending turns

SECTION 3 - EN-ROUTE IFR PROCEDURES

a. Tracking, including interception, e.g. NDB, VOR, RNAV

b. Use of radio aids
c. Level flight, control of heading, altitude and airspeed, power setting
d. Altimeter settings
e. Timing and revision of ETAs
f. Monitoring of flight progress, flight log, fuel usage, systems management
g. Ice protection procedures, simulated if necessary and applicable
h. ATC liaison and compliance, R/T procedures
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SECTION 4 - PRECISION APPROACH

a. Setting and checking of navigational aids, identification of facilities

b. Arrival procedures, altimeter checks
c. Approach and landing briefing, including descent/approach/landing checks
d. * Holding procedure
e. Compliance with published approach procedure
f. Approach timing
g. Altitude, speed, heading control, (stabilised approach)
h. * Go-around action
i. * Missed approach procedure / landing
j. ATC liaison - compliance, R/T procedures

* to be performed in Section 4 or Section 5

SECTION 5 - NON-PRECISION APPROACH

a. Setting and checking of navigational aids, identification of facilities

b. Arrival procedures, altimeter checks
c. Approach and landing briefing, including descent/approach/landing checks
d. * Holding procedure
e. Compliance with published approach procedure
f. Approach timing
g. Altitude, speed, heading control, (stabilised approach)
h. * Go-around action
i. * Missed approach procedure / landing
j. ATC liaison - compliance, R/T procedures

* to be performed in Section 4 or Section 5

SECTION 6 - ABNORMAL AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

This section may be combined with sections 1 through 5. The test shall have re-
gard to control of the helicopter, identification of the failed engine, immediate actions
(touch drills), follow up actions and checks, and flying accuracy, in the following situa-
tions:

a. Engine failure after go around and on/during approach

b. Limited panel
c. Autorotation and recovery to a pre-set altitude

*Only one item to be tested

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Notes:

1. At the conclusion of Section 4, the candidate will be asked to carry out a Missed Approach
from Decision Height/Altitude in the course of which, and at safe height, an engine failure will be simu-
lated. Section 5 will then be conducted on one engine and will terminate at Minimum Descent Height/
Altitude after the candidate has levelled the aircraft and has given the Flight Examiner an estimate of
the time, or distance, to run to the Missed Approach Point.

2. An applicant shall pass all six sections of the test. Failure in more than one section will
require the applicant to take the entire test again. An applicant failing only one section shall take
the failed section again. Failure in any section of the retest including those sections that have been
passed on a previous attempt will require the applicant to take the entire test again.

3. All sections of the test shall be completed within six months. There is no limit to the number
of tests that may be attempted, however failure to achieve a pass in all sections of the test in two at-
tempts shall require further training as determined by the Authority.

Limits

During the test you will be expected to fly within the following limits:

Height:

Generally ± 100 feet

At DH/DA Minus zero plus 50 feet
At DA/MDA/MAPt Minus zero plus 50 feet

Tracking:

On radio aids ± 5 degrees

ILS Approach: Within ½ scale in azimuth and glide path

Heading:

AEO ± 5 degrees
Simulated OEI ± 10 degrees

Speed:

AEO: ± 5 knots
Simulated OEI: +10/-5 knots

Due allowance will be made by the examiner if turbulent conditions are experienced.
You should remember that you are being tested as a potential Commercial Air Trans-
port (CAT) pilot – your flying must be smooth, and at no time should the angle of
bank exceed that required for a Rate 1 turn.
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Conduct of the Test

You should remember that any pre-planning is based on forecast winds. You must
be prepared to alter your flight plan in the light of the actual conditions that you are
experiencing. A flexible attitude of mind must be cultivated. Fly what you find, not
what you planned.

The routes used for the test are designed to enable you to show your ability to track
towards and from a VOR/NDB using the RMI needle only and towards or from a VOR
using the course beam bar (BB).

The use of navigation aids is a problem of anticipation – avoid last minute panic tun-
ing of any aid and develop the habit of using radio aids intelligently. If, at any time,
either the ADF or NAV receivers are not contributing to your navigation, you should
consider whether there is another radio facility you could tune to, which could contrib-
ute to the overall management of the flight.

The essence of good flying for the IRT is that sound instrument flying should be cou-
pled with a flexible mental attitude. Instrument flying must be practised and perfected
until the aircraft can be flown accurately regardless of the many distractions. It is
important to develop a systematic approach to reduce the mental workload to a mini-
mum and to distribute it evenly. A successful IRT is as much about organisation as it
is about flying. Have a plan for where you do checks, where you change Navaids etc.
This, too, will not be possible to stick to exactly, but an existing plan can be modi-
fied, wheras no plan means chaos.

Do not have useless information displayed. At best it will distract you at worst
positively mislead you. So when you come to ‘Navaids’ in a checklist, review your
selections and consider whether they are the best for that stage of the flight. Not just
the ADF and Nav receivers either. Check that the HSI display is appropriate. For ex-
ample what is the Beam Bar indicating, an ILS or a VOR?

Intelligent use of the aircraft checklists will assist in the overall management of the
flight. See Chapter 15 and the aircraft checklist.

Icing conditions are assumed throughout – make regular checks for icing every 500
feet change in altitude or at least every two minutes throughout the flight.
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2. Abbreviations

Many abbreviations will be found in the documentation to be studied and some will be
self-evident. The following list is not intended to be complete but will help the trainee
in the familiarisation process.

AAL Above Aerodrome Level

A/D Aerodrome
ADR Advisory Route
AEO All Engines Operating
AGL/agl Above Ground Level
APP Approach
ARA Airborne Radar Approach
ASR Altimeter Setting Region
ATA Actual Time of Arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATIS Automatic Terminal Information Service
A/W Airway
BB Back Beam
BCP Break Cloud Procedure
CAT Category
CAT Commercial Air Transport
CH Channel
C/L Centre Line
CLNC Clearance
CON Consol Beacon
CONT Continuous
C/S Call Sign
CTA Control Area
CTR Control Zone
DA Decision Altitude
DEP Departure
DER Departure End of the Runway
DH Decision Height
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
DOC Designated Operational Coverage
DT or DCT Direct Track
[Link] Displaced Threshold
EAT Expected Approach Time
ELEV Elevation
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETD Estimated Time of Departure
FAF Final Approach Fix
FAP Final Approach Point
FAT Final Approach Track
FIS Flight Information Service
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FIS Flight Information Supplement (Aerad)

FL Flight Level
FM Fan Marker
FPM Feet per Minute
FSD Full Scale Deflection
GP Glide Path
GS Glide Slope
h Pa Hecto Pascal
IAF Initial Approach Fix
IAS Indicated Airspeed
IF Intermediate Approach Fix
IFR Instrument Flight Rules
IGS Instrument Guidance System
ILS Instrument Landing System
IM Inner Marker
IMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions
IRE Instrument Rating Examiner
IRI Instrument Rating Instructor
Kt/kts Knots
L Locator Beacon (low powered NDB)
LOC/LLZ ILS Localiser
LMM Locator/Middle Marker
LOM Locator/Outer Marker
LPC Licence Proficiency Check
LST Licence Skill Test
MAP Missed Approach Point
mb Millibar
MDA Minimum Descent Altitude
MDH Minimum Descent Height
MESA Minimum En-route Safe Altitude
Mkr Marker
MM Middle Marker
MNR Minimum Noise Route
MOCA Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude
MORA Minimum Off Route Altitude
MPH Multi-Pilot Helicopter
MSA Minimum Safe Altitude
MSL/msl Mean Sea Level
NDB Non-Directional Beacon
OBI Omni-Bearing Indicator
OBS Omni-Bearing Selector
OCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude
OCH Obstacle Clearance Height
OEI One Engine Inoperative
OM Outer Marker
PAR Precision Approach Radar
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PF Pilot Flying
PNF Pilot Not Flying
QDM Magnetic Bearing to Facility
QDR Magnetic Bearing from Facility
QFE Altimeter will read height About Ground Datum
QNE Standard Pressure Setting (1013.2 h PA or 29.92 in)
QNH Altimeter will read Altitude Above Sea Level
RMI Radio Magnetic Indicator
RoC Rate of Climb
RoD Rate of Descent
RVR Runway Visual Range
R/W Runway
SCA Safe Clearance Altitude (see Aerad FIS section AER 16)
SDF Step Down Fix
SID Standard Instrument Departure
SMAP Standard Missed Approach Procedure
SPH Single Pilot Helicopter
SRA Surveillance Radar Approach
SSA Safe Sector Altitude
STAR Standard Arrival Route
TA Transition Altitude
TI Training Inspector (CAA)
TL Transition Level
TDZ Touchdown Zone
TDZE Touchdown Zone Elevation
THR Threshold
TMA Terminal Control Area
T/O Take Off
TP Turning Point
TRL see TL
UFN Until Further Notice
Var Variation
VBROC Best Rate of Climb Speed (VY)
VOR Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Radio Range
WEF With Effect From
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3. Basic Instrument flying Introduction

The increasing congestion in and around controlled air space means that a pilot must
spend a good deal of time referring to instruments, flying controlled procedures and
communicating with ground stations. Furthermore, when flying at night, external visual
references may be limited. Every pilot, therefore, should have sound basic skill in in-
strument flying.

During visual flight emphasis is placed on attitude flying; however, no matter how well
an attitude is maintained visually, at least one instrument must be consulted before the
attitude is known to be correct. If a correction is necessary the change is made against
the visual horizon. During instrument flying the real horizon is no longer visible so an
artificial horizon is used instead. Thus, there is no basic change in technique: the ar-
tificial horizon is used instead of the real horizon and becomes the master instrument.

This master instrument can be an artificial horizon (AH), attitude indicator (AI) or flight
director. For ease of presentation throughout this chapter this instrument will be re-
ferred to as the AI.

The combination of attitude and power is fundamental to aircraft performance and de-
termines IAS and the flight path, ie if attitude is selected to give an IAS, as in a climb,
power determines the flight path; similarly, if power is used to adjust the IAS, as in
straight and level flight, then attitude determines the flight path. Thus, because aircraft
performance is controlled by attitude and power, the AI and the instruments indicating
power (torque, in the case of most turbine helicopters) and balance (ball) are called the
control instruments.

The remainder of the flying instruments show what effect the power/attitude combina-
tion is having on the aircraft performance. They are known, therefore, as the perfor-
mance instruments.

Power Control

Most instrument flying procedures are flown using recommended power settings.
When flying manoeuvres other than the controlled procedures, eg steep turns, the
normal visual power settings should be used. To make these selections promptly and
accurately, without unduly disrupting the flight instrument scan, it is best to make an
estimated collective movement before including the power gauge into the scan. After
this initial change the power can be accurately adjusted during single glances inter-
mixed with the normal scan.

Attitude Control

To fly accurately, it is necessary to be able to change to and maintain the correct at-
titude. It is also necessary to know when and by how much a change should be made.
The AI meets the first two requirements but cannot indicate when and by how much the
change should be; this information can only be obtained from the performance
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instruments. If they show that the desired flight path is not being achieved, the power/
attitude combination should be adjusted. Thus all changes are made on the AI, power
gauge or the ball. The results of a change appear on the performance instruments.

Scanning

To take in all the information shown by the instruments, they should be scanned me-
thodically. An obvious method would be to look at each instrument in turn in a clock-
wise or anti-clockwise direction. Although no instruments would be omitted from this
scan, priority would be given to the master instrument or to the performance instru-
ments important for any particular manoeuvre, eg the compass or directional gyro on
rolling out from a turn. The technique therefore is to scan radially out from the AI to the
performance instruments and back to the AI.

Furthermore, since the performance information required differs for each manoeuvre,
the scan is made selective. Thus each performance instrument will be interrogated
according to its importance at any given moment. This method, illustrated in Fig 1,
is called the selective radial scan. Note that two performance instruments are never
scanned in succession; the route from one to another invariably goes through the mas-
ter instrument.

I00 II0
90
120
80
%
70
60
50 I0
40 30 20

160 40
AIRSPEED 20 20
140 60 10 10
1013
10 10
KNOTS
20 20
120
80
100 20000 FEET

N
33 3 CRS 360

N
3
33
30

30

V
O
W

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

1. Selective Radial Scan

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Note: In all the figures in this chapter:

a. A solid arrow denotes a constant scan.

b. An dotted arrow denotes a less frequent scan ratio of 1: 3.

c. A purple arrow denotes “as required”.

Rates of Scan and Attitude Control

The rate at which the instruments should be scanned will vary with manoeuvre and air-
craft type. During manoeuvre, the required rate is lowest when maintaining a trimmed
attitude and highest during power and attitude changes. The rate of scan should also
be increased with increased aircraft performance. Consequently, since required at-
titude changes are perceived only as the scan routes through the AI, the reaction time
varies directly with scan rate. However, when the AI is interrogated more frequently,
there is a risk of over controlling and perhaps hunting about a correct attitude. To obvi-
ate or reduce this risk during periods of high activity, AI adjustments should be limited
to 1-2º. Periods of low activity should be used to carry out airmanship checks, eg
engine and oxygen checks, when it is convenient to place an even greater reliance on
the AI.

Instrument Interpretation

The control instruments require no interpretation since their indications are direct and
respond immediately to control changes. On the other hand, the performance instru-
ments give both direct and indirect indications and most are subject to lag of one form
or another.

An example of a direct reading is air speed. However, for a given power setting and
aircraft configuration, if the speed is steady it also means that the pitch angle is con-
stant, thus giving an indirect indication of pitch. Listed below are the direct and indirect
indications of each instrument included in the standard “blind flying” panel:

Trimming

Instrument flying is made easier by accurate trimming. No change from the visual
technique is necessary; control pressures are removed in the same way. However,
to ensure a smooth flight (a necessary ingredient of instrument flying) hurried chang-
es and any temptation to fly on the trim should be avoided. The aircraft is properly
trimmed when the appropriate attitude is maintained on the AI “hands-off”.
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Balance

The only direct indication of aircraft in balance is shown by the ball, usually situated in
the turn and slip indicator. The indirect indications can be a loss of air speed, bank or
a changing heading if the wings are level.

If the wings are known to be level, the yaw pedal should be used to maintain a constant
heading on the compass thus ensuring the aircraft is in balance. This is of particular
importance during power changes which would otherwise cause yaw.

00 0
0
120
0
0
60
50 0
40
30 20

160 40
AIRSPEED 20 20
140 60 10 10
1013
10 10
KNOTS
20 20
120
80
100 20000 FEET

N
3 CRS 360
33
N
3
33
30

30

V
O
W

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

2. Straight and Level Flight

Basic Instrument Flying

General

The following explanations assume a knowledge of the visual flying techniques and
procedures relevant to a particular aircraft. Once again, where attitude indicator (AI)
is referred to in the text it is used as a generic term which includes artificial horizons.

Straight and level flight during instrument flying is best thought of in terms of three
separate actions: achieving, maintaining and correcting.
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To Achieve Straight and Level Flight

To achieve straight and level flight, cruising power should be set, the straight and level
attitude should be selected on the AI and a coarse trim change made. If the attitude
selected is correct, the altimeter and compass will become stationary. Any movement
in the altimeter should be stopped by altering the AI pitch indication by a half or whole
horizon bar width, the amount varying with aircraft type.

If the compass is moving

Ensure that the aircraft is in balance by noting the direction of movement and applying
a small bank correction to the AI even though it may be indicating wings level.
A correction of this sort is only necessary when the AI is erected to a false vertical;
normally it is not necessary.

Thus straight and level flight is achieved using the AI, altimeter, compass and, on those
aircraft prone to imbalance, an occasional glance at the ball (see Fig 2). For the sake
of simplicity air speed is dealt with later.

To Maintain Straight and Level Flight

To maintain straight and level flight the scan should include the VSI since it will directly
indicate the magnitude of an error. However, when making a correction because of the
VSI, adjustments should be limited to a maximum of 1-2º of pitch; larger correction may
result in over controlling. Thus, the altimeter is the means of knowing when to make a
coarse adjustment of half a horizon bar or more and the VSI provides for a fine vernier
adjustment of 1-2º of pitch or less. The VSI should be scanned more frequently than
the altimeter, but with the scan always routed through the AI. Heading is maintained
by keeping the wings level. During turbulent flights the VSI tends to oscillate; readings
should be visually integrated and the altimeter consulted before deciding to change the
attitude. Generally, however, as turbulence increases, the reliance placed on the AI
should be increased (see Fig 3).

To Regain a Specified Altitude

Should it be necessary to correct to an altitude, the correction to be applied will depend

upon the aircraft type and the magnitude of the error. A 50 ft error will require an ad-
justment of 1-2º of pitch, but for larger errors 3-4º of pitch and, possibly, a small power
adjustment may be needed.

Since the rate of closure is determined by the AI adjustment, once a correction is start-
ed the VSI should be ignored and reliance placed on the altimeter (the scan shown in
Fig 2). Fractionally before the desired altitude is reached the straight and level attitude
should be adopted on the AI.
The “achieving” scan should now be continued with the VSI included to show when it is
close enough to the zero mark for reversion to the “maintaining” scan (see Fig 3) and,
if necessary, cruising power may once again be set.
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I00 II0
90
120
80
%
70
60
50 I0
40 30 20

160 40
AIRSPEED 20 20
140 60 10 10
1013
10 10
KNOTS
20 20
120
80
100 20000 FEET

N CRS 360
33 3
N
3
33
30

30

V
O
W

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

3. Maintaining Straight and Level Flight

To Regain a Heading

To correct a heading, bank should be applied on the AI in the appropriate direction, the
amount varying according to TAS. At low speeds an angle of bank equal to half the
error may be used, ie for 10º heading error use 5º of bank; at high speeds an angle of
bank equal to the error may be used. When the aircraft is properly trimmed very little
back pressure will be required to maintain level flight, which should be monitored in the
normal way on the VSI. As the heading is regained, the wings should be levelled on
the AI and the “maintaining” scan continued. On aircraft prone to imbalance, once the
wings are levelled on the AI, the ball should be checked central.

Increasing Speed

To increase speed, the power should be increased as for visual flight and the attitude
on the AI maintained. As the speed increases the first deviation from straight and level
flight should be an indication of a slight climb on the VSI. This should be countered
by 1-2º of pitch AI adjustment downwards, to zero the VSI and maintain level flight. In
addition, the scan should be extended to include the ASI. During a speed change the
VSI should receive closer attention than when maintaining straight and level flight at
constant speed. Initially, therefore, the straight and level “maintaining” scan is used,
but as power and speed are increased the scan should be extended to include the ASI
and perhaps the power gauge (see Fig 4).
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I00 II0
90
120
80
%
70
60
50 I0
40
30 20

160 40
AIRSPEED 20 20
140 60 10 10
1013
10 10
KNOTS
20 20
120
80
100 20000 FEET

N
33 3 CRS 360

N
3
33
30

30

V
O
W

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

4. IAS Control in Straight and Level Flight

Reducing Speed

To reduce speed, the IAS attitude should be maintained and the power reduced to the
required setting. The maintaining scan should be continued with the ASI being pro-
gressively included.

Level Turning

Normally, instrument turns are flown at rate 1 (ie 3º per second) or 25º bank, whichever
is the lesser, but operational requirements may demand a higher rate. As a means of
increasing proficiency, steep turns at 45º to 60º bank are practised. For short turns, ie
through an angle smaller than the angle of bank used for a rate 1 turn, the bank should
be restricted to half the number of degrees of turn when flying at less than 100 kt; at
speeds in excess of 100 kt bank equal to the amount of turn should be used.

Medium Level Turns

Entry. To enter a turn, bank is applied on the AI and the pitch indication is supported
by cross checking the VSI to maintain level flight (see Fig 5).
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I00 II0
90
120
80
%
70
60
50 I0
40 30 20

160 40
20
AIRSPEED 10
140 60 20
10
10 20 1013
KNOTS 10
120 20
80
100 20000 FEET

N
33 3 CRS 360

N
3
30

33
6

30

V
W

O
E

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

5. Entering a Medium Level Turn

Maintaining

The AI is used to maintain both pitch and bank during turns. Bank is kept constant us-
ing the bank scale, and pitch using the pitch scale. When using a mark of instrument
not graduated in pitch, only experience can be used to assess the correct indication.
The VSI and altimeter should be used to support the AI in the same manner in which
they are used during straight and level flight. The technique for using the VSI is the
same, applying small AI adjustments only. As the turn proceeds, the compass is pro-
gressively included into the scan to monitor the roll-out heading (see Fig 6).
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00 0
0
120
0
0
60
50 0
40 30 20

160 40
20
AIRSPEED 10
140 60 20
10
10 20 1013
KNOTS 10
120 20
80
100 20000 FEET

3
N 6 CRS 360

3
N 6
33

E
33

V
30

O
12

12

R
30

1
15
W
W

15

S
24 21
24 S
21

6. Maintaining a Medium Level Turn

Roll-Out

To roll out on a heading, it should be anticipated by the amount normally used visually
and the straight and level attitude adopted on the AI, phasing the control movements to
maintain level flight. If the speed is allowed to reduce during the turn, a slightly higher
pitch attitude will be necessary for level flight until straight and level cruising speed is
regained, but this is of small account if the straight and level scan is started immedi-
ately.

Steep Turns

Entry. To enter a steep turn, bank should be applied on the AI with back pressure
introduced to adopt a steep turn attitude. Power should be increased to maintain the
entry air speed. The application of bank and power should be completed simultane-
ously (see Fig 7).
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00 0
0
120
0
0
60
50 0
40 30 20

160 40 20

AIRSPEED 10
140 60 10 20
20 10 1013
KNOTS
10
120
80 20
100 20000 FEET

N 3
CRS 360
33

N 3
6
33
30

V
E
30

O
R
12
W

12

1
15
4

2
24

S
15

21
21 S

7. Entering a Steep Turn

Maintaining

Whilst maintaining a steep turn, the scan is basically the same as that used during a
medium level turn except that it is extended to include the air speed indication. This is
necessary to determine the amount of power required; therefore it should be included
early. Judgement should determine throttle movements. The higher rate of turn makes
it necessary to scan the compass more frequently. (Fig.8)

Roll-Out

To roll out from a steep turn, the heading should be anticipated by the amount used in
visual flight. The roll-out is made on the AI, and as the bank is reduced through 30º
the power should also be reduced before being adjusted to the cruise setting as the
straight and level attitude is resumed.
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00 0
0
120
0
0
60
50 0
40 30 20

160 40 20

AIRSPEED 10
140 60 10 20
20 10 1013
KNOTS
10
120
80 20
100 20000 FEET

E CRS 360
6 12
E 12
6
15
3

15
3

V
O
N

R
S
N

1
21
33
33

21

24
30 W
30 24
W

8. Maintaining a steep turn

Climbing

Entry

The entry to a climb will vary with aircraft type. If the climbing speed is the same as or
less than the straight and level speed, the power and attitude can be changed simulta-
neously. If the climbing speed is greater than the straight and level speed, the speed
should be increased whilst straight and level before changing to the climbing attitude.
Climbing power should be applied and the attitude adopted when appropriate. If the
aircraft is in balance, heading will be maintained by keeping the wings level.

The initially selected attitude should be held constant on the AI until the air speed
settles or shows a reliable indirect indication of pitch before an attitude adjustment is
made. The scan is confined to the AI, ASI and compass (see Fig 9).32.
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00 0
0
120
0
0
60
50 0
40
30 20

160 40
AIRSPEED 20 20
140 60 10 10
1013
10 10
KNOTS
20 20
120
80
100 20000 FEET

N
3 CRS 360
33
N
3
33
30

30

V
O
W

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

9. Entering a Climb

Maintaining the Climb

The scan during a climb may be confined to the AI, ASI and compass. However, when
changes of air speed are required at specific flight levels and when nearing the level-
off, it will be necessary to include the altimeter. Pitch adjustments to correct the air
speed should not be hurried; at full power the air speed is relatively slow to react to
attitude changes and there is a temptation to hurry the process by making a larger
attitude change than that necessary to obtain the correction. To avoid over controlling
in pitch therefore, corrections should be limited to 2-3º.

Climbing Turns

No change of scan is necessary when turning during a climb. Bank should be applied
on the AI and the nose lowered fractionally to maintain the air speed. The roll-out
technique is the same as for a level roll-out except that the ASI is the main support
instrument for pitch.
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00 0
0
120
0
0
60
50 0
40
30 20

160 40
AIRSPEED 20 20
140 60 10 10
1013
10 10
KNOTS
20 20
120
80
100 20000 FEET

N
3 CRS 360
33
N
3
33
30

30

V
O
W

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

10. Maintaining a Climb

Levelling Off

The level-off height should be anticipated by 10% of the rate of climb and an attitude
change made to arrive at the desired flight level and the straight and level attitude
simultaneously. As the attitude change is commenced the scan should be changed
from “climbing” to “achieving straight and level” (see Figs 10 and 2). However, the
basic scan pattern should be extended to include the power gauge and ASI as power
is reduced.

As the altimeter reading steadies, the VSI should be included and the aircraft flown as
for straight and level flight at a predetermined air speed.

Descending

An instrument descent requires no change from the techniques and procedures ob-
served visually. Thus power should be used. The pilot should also be thoroughly con-
versant with the recommended power settings used for the descent. During descents
which can be affected by aircraft weight and the wind strength, eg when using a run-
way approach aid, the recommended power settings may require adjustment if an ac-
curate descent path is to be maintained. Usually these adjustments are small and may
be made by ‘feel’ as indicated in para 7.
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Entry

The descent should be entered from a level speed which will enable the descending
speed to be
attained during, or soon after, the power/attitude change. Thus, if the descending
speed is less than the level speed, the speed should be reduced before lowering the
nose. During the change the scan should be extended to include the power gauge as
and when necessary and on propeller-driven aircraft it will be necessary to maintain
heading (and therefore balance) with rudder. Once the descending attitude is select-
ed, the AI should be supported by the ASI and compass.

Maintaining

Air speed corrections during a descent should be made by adjustments to the AI us-
ing 1-2º of pitch and heading maintained by bank adjustments. When it is necessary
to maintain a specific power setting, the power gauge should be monitored, it may be
necessary to include the ball occasionally. The altimeter should be monitored through-
out the descent.

00 0
0
120
0
0
60
50 0
40 30 20

160 40
AIRSPEED 20 20
140 60 10 10
1013
10 10
KNOTS
20 20
120
80
100 20000 FEET

N
3 CRS 360
33
N
3
33
30

30

V
O
W

R
W

1
12
24
24

12

15
21 S
21 15
S

11 Descending
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Levelling Off

The level-off should be anticipated by 20% of the rate of descent and the straight and
level attitude set on the AI. Power should be re-introduced as appropriate for the air-
craft type. Once the attitude change is commenced the ‘achieving straight and level’
scan should be used, (see Fig 2) with a slow modification to ‘maintaining straight and
level’ as the VSI settles (see Fig 4).

Descending Turns

Descending turns are normally made using the rate 1 or 25º angle of bank.(whichever
is less) No change from the “descending” scan (see Fig 11) is required although dur-
ing the early stage of the turn, the frequency at which the compass is included can be
safely reduced. As the turn proceeds, the compass should be progressively re-includ-
ed into the scan to monitor the roll-out heading. The roll-out is the same as for a level
turn except that the ASI is the main pitch support instrument.

Unusual And Extreme Attitudes

General

An unusual position (UP) covers any case when the aircraft is not in the attitude the
pilot thinks it is, but this does not necessarily mean that the aircraft is in an extreme at-
titude. Some extreme or unusual attitudes will result in a very low or rapidly decreasing
air speed, and attempts to control the aircraft using large control inputs could worsen
the situation.

Regardless of the type of instrumentation involved, the recovery is made in three dis-
tinct stages, viz: bank and pitch, ball, power.

Use of Power

The use of power during a recovery from an extreme attitude will be determined by the
ASI trend. If the air speed is low (danger of vortex ring) airspeed (30 kts +) must be
regained before application of power
(collective)

Recovery Using the Attitude Indicator/Artificial Horizon

Since a banked attitude will delay or perhaps prevent a safe selection of a level pitch
attitude, the first action must be to level the wings. The serviceability of the AI/AH is
the prime factor which determines whether recovery action is made with or without its
reference. Such action is termed “full” or “limited panel” recovery respectively.

AIs/AHs, are extremely reliable. Power failure is clearly indicated by the “OFF” flag
warning, and the AI/AH can only be toppled with difficulty during manoeuvre.
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However, the toppled AI/AH may give a steady presentation, and it may only be pos-
sible to detect this false indication by reference to the performance instruments.

If, prior to a UP, the flight path was known, eg distraction leading to disorientation dur-
ing straight and level flight, climbs, descents and turns, it is beneficial to use full panel
techniques using the AI/AH as the master attitude reference. However when the UP
results from entering cloud from any situation where the serviceability of the AI/AH has
not been checked for a longer period than normal, a limited panel recovery using the
performance instruments is more suitable.

Full Panel Technique

Having confirmed that the AI/AH has not suffered power failure, with the horizon bar
or pitch markings in view, the aircraft should be rolled until wings are level. Level flight
is then obtained by pitching the aircraft so that the aircraft datum moves towards the
horizon bar in the correct sense. Scanning of the performance instruments should be
made to confirm the action taken and to regain balanced straight and level flight. If,
having initiated full panel recovery, the performance instruments do not confirm the AI/
AH indications, or disorientation still remains, limited panel recovery should be imple-
mented without further analysis.

Limited Panel Technique

With an unserviceable AI/AH, the HSI is the master indication of bank. (as long as the
ball is in the
middle)

Level Flight

The third stage of the recovery should be made using the information displayed on
the altimeter - the only instrument which indicates level flight accurately and almost
instantaneously throughout the entire speed range. Positive cyclic should be applied
against altimeter movement, ensuring that the rotor disc is kept level. The control
pressure should be maintained until the altimeter slows almost to a standstill, then a
check movement made to hold a constant pitch attitude. The aircraft will then be in
an approximate straight and level attitude; the power can then be adjusted, and all the
instruments interrogated to achieve accurate flight and to assess their serviceability,
including re-erection of the AI/AH.

Emergencies

General

As the current trend is to duplicate or even triplicate vital instruments and power sup-
plies, a single instrument failure causes few problems. In the majority of cases an
emergency will develop in stages beginning with an apparently insignificant malfunc-
tion which only becomes critical in unforeseen circumstances, or in the event of an
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additional emergency. Thus the loss of both primary and standby flight instruments
must be considered.

If, during manoeuvre, apparently ambiguous instruments indications are observed or

the instruments do not respond correctly, the aircraft should be immediately recovered
to straight and level flight and the cause investigated. Manoeuvres should not be
continued while attempting to analyse the trouble, since delay could bring about other
complicating factors such as disorientation. The procedure for recovery will vary with
aircraft type and the attitude obtained. If a master instrument is available for use and
is not itself suspect, the straight and level attitude should be selected on that. If the
master instrument is not considered reliable, the standby AI can be used instead or, if
no standby instruments are carried, then a recovery on performance instruments will
be necessary.

Loss of Air Speed Indication

If all the air speed indications are lost at a safe height, the aircraft can still be effectively
operated using the basic power/attitude concept provided an accurate air speed is
not essential. Thus, by using the appropriate standard operating power settings and
attitudes, straight and level, turning and climbing will create no difficulty. Similarly, de-
scending would be safe at the higher speeds used during high rates of descent. Con-
sequently, the safest method of recovering to an airfield would be to formate upon, or
be shepherded by, another aircraft. When a join-up between aircraft is not practicable,
the continued use of the power/attitude concept down to break-off height may need to
be considered as an alternative to abandoning the aircraft.

Loss of Heading Information

In the event of losing all visual and instrument heading information, D/F and radar
facilities provide the only means of obtaining assistance. In these circumstances a
ground controller’s task is simplified if all turns are made at rate 1. On aircraft not fit-
ted with a turn needle it is desirable that turns are executed at the calculated angle of
bank for rate 1.

Loss of Direct Attitude Indication

The loss of all direct indications of attitude will vary in importance with the type of in-
strumentation. On aircraft fitted with the standard basic instrument panel, the attitude
can be deduced and controlled in all three planes without undue difficulty; in aircraft
with instrumentation which does not include a turn needle on which to control bank,
control is possible only in pitch with the wings kept level on the compass.
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4. Tracking

One of the basic essentials of procedural instrument flying is the ability of a pilot to
establish and accurately maintain his aircraft (within ± 5o) on a particular magnetic
track to, or from a radio beacon.

In nil wind conditions, flying along a particular QDM is simply a matter of flying a
compass heading exactly equal to the track. The RMI would display the scene as
shown below:

090˚

Figure 4-1

In reality, nil wind conditions very rarely occur so the heading flown must allow for drift.
If the drift factor is a known figure then the heading to fly to maintain a given track is
simply the QDM ± drift angle, the RMI now displaying, in a southerly wind, the scene
as shown below:

098˚

Figure 4-2

Wind direction and speed, however, are not normally constant figures, so the heading
flown will need to vary slightly in order to maintain a steady track. The size and direction
of the heading variations will be dependent upon the variations in wind velocity and the
distance of the aircraft from the navigation aid.
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Some simple rules will help the pilot to decide quickly and correctly which way to turn
if a track error becomes apparent:

a. When the RMI needle head is LEFT of the desired track turn to the left (or head LEFT)
– see Figure 4-3.

b. When the RMI needle head is RIGHT of the desired track, turn to the right (or head RIGHT)
– see Figure 4-4.

These rules apply only when tracking towards a beacon.

090° 090°

Figure 4-3 Figure 4-4

Desired Track 090o so turn left Desired track 090o to turn right

It is always preferable to anticipate drift rather than allow an aircraft to drift off track
before making a correction. Anticipation of events can greatly reduce a pilot’s workload.

Anticipation must become a natural input and, with experience, we will learn the
significance and end result when corrections, which include a level of anticipation, are
applied.

For example, the amount of anticipation required will vary dependent upon:

a. Your distance from the overhead of the facility. The closer you are to the station,
the faster will be the speed of rotation of the RMI needle.

b. The angle through which the aircraft has to be turned, i.e. the greater the
heading change, the greater the required anticipation.
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When tracking away from a beacon, the head of the needle will continue to point to the
navigation aid and the tail of the needle will point along the desired track. The nil wind
display for a track of 090o is shown below:
090°

Figure 4-5

If drift is included in the problem the display would possibly be as shown below with
the aircraft tracking 090o but flying a heading of 098o to compensate for a wind from
the right of the desired track.
098°

Figure 4-6

When a track error develops the pilot will again have to decide quickly and correctly
which way to turn:

a. When the RMI needle tail is LEFT of the desired track turn to the RIGHT
– see Figure 4-7 below.

b. When the RMI needs tail is RIGHT of the desired track turn to the LEFT
– see Figure 4.8 below.
c. These rules only apply when tracking away from the beacon
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090° 090°

Figure 4-7 Figure 4-8

Desired Track 090o so turn right Desired Track 090o to turn left

Rule of thumb: Always turn in the direction you want the tail of the needle to move.
This is the only single rule, which applies to tracking both to and from a facility.

Page 4.8 to this Chapter diagrammatically displays drift angles for an airspeed of 100
knots, however, be flexible. Remember that the wind velocity at altitude may not be
as forecast so you must be prepared to modify your planned figures and “fly what you
find”.

Track Interception

A common in-flight requirement is to join a particular track to or from a beacon, e.g. to

join an airway. The quickest method to achieve a particular QDM is to fly an intercept
track at 90o to that QDM. However, there is no progress towards the beacon.

Alternatively, if we make the interception angle too small, the aircraft will not establish
the desired QDM until almost overhead the beacon.

An efficient interception is one that allows the aircraft to make some progress towards
the beacon and also enables it to reach the desired track quickly. We need a rule,
which will assist the calculation of an efficient heading to turn on to when commencing
the interception.
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Intercepting a QDM

In most cases an intercept angle of 30°, relative to the QDM, which the aircraft is actually
on at the moment when the interception commences, provides the most efficient route.
Allowance must be made for wind effect when deciding on the heading, which will
maintain the 30° interception track. Once the heading has been decided, the aircraft
should be turned the shortest way round on to the new heading. The original heading,
prior to commencing the interception, is not relevant to the calculations, only to the
direction of the turn.

When looking at the RMI to determine the QDM the aircraft is actually on before
interception commences, it is possible to add or subtract 30° and therefore the calculate
the intercept incorrectly. To avoid this, always choose the 30° on the opposite side
of the RMI needle head to the desired QDM. e.g. If the RMI indicates 060°, and the
desired QDM is 090°, the intercept track will be 030° (see Figure 4-9).

Desired QDM 090˚

Beacon
Track To intercept = 30˚

Aircraft presently
heading 350˚

RMI Presently Indicating 060˚

30˚

Figure 4-9

This technique gives an efficient intercept only within a relatively narrow segment
about 45° either side of the required QDM. It may still be used outside this segment
provided that, as the QDM is approached, the calculation is repeated until an efficient
intercept is achieved.

As the aircraft approaches the desired QDM it will be necessary to anticipate the turn
on to the desired QDM. The level of anticipation required will dependent upon distance
from the beacon, wind effect, speed of aircraft etc. Start by anticipating the turn by 5°
and, as you gain experience, you will learn to judge the turn on to a finer level.

Five Steps
We can summarise the suggested technique by listing five steps:

1. Mark the desired QDM

2. Look at the actual QDM
3. Calculate 30° either side of the actual QDM
4. Select track furthers away from the desired QDM
5. Turn shortest way to make good this track
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Intercepting a QDR

When intercepting a QDR, there can be less urgency attached to reaching the desired
track, as the aircraft is moving away from the beacon. It is therefore possible to
make better progress in the required direction and reach the desired track rather later.
However, there will be specific instances where a greater degree of urgency will be
placed on the need to reach the desired track and each interception should be fully
reviewed in order to satisfy each particular case.

In order to determine the intercept track, apply the 30o angle to the desired QDR
figure. This will provide two possible answers. The correct intercept track will be the
figure that is on the opposite side of the desired QDR to the present reading on the
tail of the RMI needle, e.g. if the desires QDR is 090o and the RMI tail reads 140o then
the intercept track will be 060o (Figure 4-10). Now turn the shortest way to the new
heading. Remember, you have just calculated an intercept track; the heading to fly will
have to be corrected for wind effect.

Beacon Desired QDR 090˚

Aircraft presently
heading 350˚

Track To intercept = 60˚

RMI Presently indicating

320˚ (Needle tail 140˚)

Figure 4-10

Circumstances may arise where a greater degree of urgency has to be placed on

intercepting the desired QDR - many Standard Instrument Departure routes provide
typical examples. In such cases the angle of 30o used in Figure 4-10 just has to be
increased in order to accelerate the intercept process. We could choose 45o or even
60o to achieve our goal – judge each case and make your calculation dependent upon
the level of urgency. Figure 4-11 shows the same scenario but a greater degree of
urgency has been placed on the intercept: desired QDR is 090o, RMI tail reads 140o,
apply a 45o angle to calculate intercept track (answer 45o).
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Beacon
Desired QDR 090˚

Aircraft presently
heading 350˚

Track To intercept = 45˚

RMI Presently indicating 320˚

(Needle tail 140˚)

Figure 4-11

Four Steps

We can summarise the suggested technique by listing four steps:

1. Mark desired figure (QDR)

2. Calculate 30 o either side of desired QDR
3. Select track, which is furthest away from the actual QDR
4. Turn shortest way to make good this intercept track

Tracking from Overhead

When tracking to overhead a beacon followed by a turn to establish a new QDR from
the overhead, it will be necessary to reduce the intercept angle due to the effect of the
aircraft being very close to the facility. In this case, an intercept angle of approximately
20o (excluding any drift allowance) will be sufficient, depending on the angular difference
between the inbound and outbound tracks.

Heading 110˚ to intercept

Beacon

Desired QDR 090˚

Track to beacon 060˚

Figure 4-12

Note: HSI: Use of Course and Heading Setting Facilities

When a Heading Bug is fitted:

a. It should not be used in procedural flying as a wind indicator.

b. It may be used to indicate track or heading.

The Course Set is usually associated with the required navaid.

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Table 4-1 : Wind Component Table : For 100 kts

Windspeed – kts

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
10o 5 10 15 20 25 29 34 39 44
20o 5 9 14 19 23 28 33 38 42
30o 4 9 13 17 22 25 30 35 39
40o 4 8 11 15 19 23 27 31 34
50o 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29
60o 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23
70o 2 3 5 7 9 11 12 14 15
80o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8
90o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 4-2 – Single Drift Table

Windspeed - kts

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50
10o 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 4
20o 1 2 2 4 5 5 6 7 8
30o 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12
40o 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 14 15
50o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
60 o
2 4 6 9 11 13 16 18 20
70o 3 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
80o 4 5 7 10 13 16 18 21 23
90o 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 23

Single Drift (degrees)

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Calculation in Flight

While the Drift Tables are useful in pre-flight planning, they are inconvenient to use in
the air. The following method of mental calculation is offered, which will give results
very close to the tabled figures.

First assess the Maximum Drift (MD). This is given by:

Wind Speed (knots)

TAS (miles/minutes)

For a helicopter this is simple, as TAS will typically be close to 2 miles per minute, so
the MD is ½ wind speed, expressed in degrees.

Having established MD, we need to know how much of the maximum actually affects
us, on our track relative to the wind. To do this, we use and analogy of a clock face.

60/00

45 15

30

Figure 4-13

The segment marked represents a quarter of an hour. By calling the minutes “degrees”
we can say 15o off our heading will give a quarter of Maximum Drift. Similarly 30o
gives half MD, 40o gives two thirds MD and so on. Any wind at 60o or more relative to
our heading is considered to give maximum drift.

Example: Hold orientation 164o/344o

Wind velocity 310o/25 kts

Step 1: Max Drift = 25 ÷ 2 = 13o

Step 2: Wind Angle = 344o – 310o = 34o
34 minutes is about ½ hour so ½ MD = 6½o or more practically 7o.

Answer: Single Drift in the Hold is 7o. Compare this with the table.
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A similar method is available for finding the amount of head/tail wind component to use
in timing calculations. It is slightly less convenient as the extra step:

“90o – Wind Angle”

is necessary to change from an across track calculation to an along track one. Having
done this however, the resulting angle is used on the clock face in the same way to
obtain head or tailwind component.
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Wind component & drift calculations

Max Drift Calculations

Wind 270°/ 30kts

120 Kts Airspeed 120 Kts Max Drift = 1/2 Windspeed

100 Kts Aispeed 100Kts Max drift = 2/3rds Windspeed

60 kts Airspeed 60 Kts Max Drift = Windspeed

15°

30°
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Calculating drift using the HSI

Wind 045° / 30Kts

Max drift @ 100kts = 2/3rd windspeed = 20°

Imaginary line from centre of HSI to outside edge = 20° (Red Line)
Drop line from wind direction (Yellow line)
From bottom of yellow line to centre of HSI as a fraction or %
of Red line (ie. 3/4)
Blue line =15°

This is the same calculation you do when using your old E6B wizz wheel
If you want to be super accurate fly the heading you have just worked out
and do the calculation again just as you would on the E6B.
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Calculating Groundspeed using the HSI

Wind 045° / 30Kts

Max Headwind/tailwind componenet = 30 kts

Airspeed 100 kts
Imaginary line from centre of HSI to outside edge = 30 kts (Red Line)
Drop line from wind direction (Yellow line)
From bottom of yellow line to centre of HSI as a fraction or %
of Red line (ie. 3/4)
Blue line =approx 22 Kts. Threfore G/S approx 78Kts

This is the same calculation you do when using your old E6B wizz wheel
If you want to be super accurate fly the heading you have just worked out
and do the calculation again just as you would on the E6B.
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5. The Holding Pattern

Definition

A predetermined manoeuvre, which keeps an aircraft within a specified airspace while

awaiting further clearance. The shape and terminology associated with the standard
pattern are shown in Figure 5-1.
Abeam

Outbound 30˚

Fix End Outbound End

Inbound Holding side

30˚
QDM Non Holding Side
Holding Fix
Figure 5-1

All turns are to be made at a Rate 1 (3o per second) or at a bank angle of 25o whichever
requires the lesser bank. The bank angle for a Rate 1 turn = IAS/10 plus half this figure,
so at 100 kts, the AoB for a rate 1 turn is: 100/10 = 10, plus half this figure (5)
giving 15°. Where necessary, round up to the next degree.

a. All holding patterns are orientated to the RIGHT unless otherwise instructed by
ATC, or, as established at certain holding points.

b. Outbound timing commences abeam the holding fix. or wings level, whichever
is later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to
outbound leg is complete.

c. The outbound leg will be flown for 1 minute (still air) unless otherwise instructed
by ATC.

d. If the outbound leg length is based on a DME distance, the outbound leg
terminates as soon as the limiting DME distance is attained.

e. Figure 5-1 is a representation of a still air holding pattern – the 30o offset angle
at the end of the outbound leg can only be correct in a still air scenario.

Corrections for Wind Effect

Due allowance will be made by the pilot in heading and timing to compensate for the
effects of known wind.
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Timing Corrections

In determining the length of the outbound leg, a correction factor of one second for
every knot of wind component should be applied to the ABEAM or ON HEADING time.

Example:
If the wind in Figure 1 had been 090/20 the time for the outbound leg would be 1
minute 20 seconds from abeam.

If the wind had been 270/20 the outbound leg would be 40 seconds from abeam.

Drift Corrections

In an East/West orientated hold with a wind velocity of 360/20 the drift for the outbound/
inbound legs is approximately 10o. If no correction for drift is made for the two 180o
turns the hold will be shaped as in Figure 5-2.

Heading 080˚

Wind 360˚/20

Actual Aircraft Track

Heading 280˚

Figure 5-2

To allow for the wind effect during the two turns an additional allowance of single drift
for each turn is added to the drift on the outbound leg, making a total application of
TREBLE DRIFT on the outbound leg. Assuming a wind velocity of 360/20 the resultant
shape of the pattern will be as shown in Figure 5-3. However, when the heading takes
the aircraft into the hold DOUBLE DRIFT may be enough.
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RMI >30˚

Heading 060˚
Abeam 070˚

30˚
Wind 360˚/20

Heading 280˚
270˚
Holding Fix

Figure 5-3

By the same principle, if the wind velocity is 180/20, the shape of the hold will be as
in Figure 5-4.

Abeam

Heading 120˚ 110˚

30˚ RMI <30˚

Wind 360˚/20

270˚
Holding Fix Heading 260˚

Figure 5-4
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It should be noted that the application of treble drift does not always produce a correctly
shaped hold. In particular, when wind direction is within 30o of the QDM/QDR a drift
figure of between double and treble will result in a correctly shaped pattern.

As conditions will seldom be exactly as forecast, a certain amount of trial and error will
be necessary before establishing the correct headings, and times to fly.

During a Flight Test the primary goals of the Holding Pattern are:

a. To establish and track the QDM

b. To time the outbound leg for one still air minute, adjusting the timing with
knowledge of actual conditions.

Warning: Application of drift on the outbound leg does not normally exceed 45o i.e.
an accurate hold cannot be expected in winds requiring such large drift corrections.

Much of the workload in the hold can be reduced by using a good routine such as the
following. Upon arrival over the holding fix:

T-Time (Stop clock – check time – restart clock abeam)

T-Turn (Rate 1 to outbound heading)
T-Talk (Transmit to ATC – ref Page 7.2)
T-Torque (Descend if appropriate and when cleared)
T- Twiddle (Set inbound QDM if using OBS for hold orientation)

Some differences of technique will be necessary if holding on a VOR. Read Chapter

13.
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6. The Holding Pattern – Entry Procedures

The entry into the holding pattern shall be according to the magnetic heading being
flown at the holding fix, in relation to the three entry sectors shown in Figure 6-1. A
zone of flexibility of 5o exists of either side of the sector boundaries.

Sector 1

270˚ Sector 3

Sector 2

70˚

Figure 6-1

The three sectors radiating from a facility are devised by:

a. Extending the QDM through the facility and:

b. Drawing a line at 70o through the facility.

For a right hand hold (STARBOARD) subtract 70o from the QDM. For a left-hand
hold (PORT) add 70o to the QDM.
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Sector 1 Procedure – Parallel Entry

Having reached the holding fix the aircraft is turned on to an outbound heading, which
will parallel the QDR. The outbound leg is flown for 1 still air minute before turning into
the holding side to intercept the QDM or return directly to the holding fix.

Sector 1

270˚

70˚

Figure 6-2

Sector 2 Procedure – Offset Entry

Having reached the holding fix, the aircraft is turned onto a heading to make good a
track making an angle of 30o from the QDR on the holding side. The aircraft is flown
for 1 still air minute elapsed time from the holding fix before turning to intercept the
QDM of the hold.

060˚

30˚
270˚
Sector 2

Figure 6-3
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Sector 3 Procedure – Direct Entry.

Having reached the holding fix, the aircraft is turned to follow the holding pattern.

However, as the aircraft can be anything up to 110o off the QDM on arrival at the
holding fix, considerable errors can be built into the procedure. It is necessary to
make adjustments to the normal hold procedure if the aircraft crosses the holding fix
displaced from the QDM by 30o or over. We will consider the problem from the non-
holding side and from the holding side.

Non Holding Side Procedure: If the aircraft arrives at the holding fix displaced by
30o or more from the hold QDM, it will be necessary to maintain the heading flown
at the holding fix for 5 seconds for each 30o of displacement before turning onto the
outbound heading. Timing is taken from abeam or, if this is not possible, from ON
HEADING. Figure 6-4 shows an example of an aircraft approaching the facility at
90o to the inbound track. The heading flown at the facility will therefore be flown for a
period of 15 seconds before turning to follow the holding pattern.

Turn 1 still air minute

from ’abeam’ or ‘on
heading’

15”

270˚

Sector 3
70˚

360°

Figure 6-4
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Holding Side Procedure: An aircraft can cross the holding fix at anything up to 70o
displaced from the inbound track and must of necessity initially turn outside the still air
holding pattern. Thus, if a Rate 1 turn were to be flown onto the outbound leg heading,
the resultant hold would be flown inside the still air pattern. To compensate for this,
the Rate 1 turn is stopped at 90o to the QDM/QDR for a period of 5 seconds for each
30o displacement at the facility. In figure 6-5 the turn is stopped for 10 seconds due to
the aircraft’s heading of 210o at the facility.

Abeam
Turn 1 still air minute
from ’abeam’ or ‘on
210° heading’

10 ” 360°

270˚
Sector 3

70˚

Figure 6-5

The assessment of timing corrections and application of treble drift remains as for a
normal hold.
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As with all instrument procedures, the use of a ‘routine’ or ‘aide memoire’ can be a
great help. The following examples may be of use:

Example 1 – To join a Right Hand Hold

Assume the aircraft heading is 360° and the holding pattern is right hand with an
outbound leg of 243° (QDM is 063°). Look at the compass card. As it is a right hand
hold, imagine a line across the card at 70° to the RIGHT of the heading index to the
centre of the card. The card is now in 3 sections; number them as you would for hold
entry sectors. The section that the hold outbound heading falls in is the type of join
required. In example 1 therefore, a Direct Entry is required.

360°

2 070°
1

063° 3
270° 243°

360°

243°

Figure 6-6 Example 1

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Example 2 – To join a Left Hand Hold

Draw a line across the card at 70° to the LEFT f the aircraft heading. Hold entry sectors
are again numbered (the smallest must always be Sector 2 (Offset) and largest must
always be Sector 3 (Direct). The outbound heading falls in Sector 1 so in example 2
therefore, a Parallel Entry is required.

090° 090°

135°
2
020°
1

3 200°
315°

360°

135°

Figure 6-7 Example 2

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Example 3 – Aircraft equipped with an HSI

This method is relatively easy to follow. Use the CRSE (beam bar) to lay along the
line drawn at 70° to the aircraft heading and use the heading bug (HDG) to lay on the
outbound heading of the hold. Imagine a line drawn from the heading index to the
centre of the HSI and read the entry procedure off the heading bug (HDG).

034° 355° Heading bug

to 034°

2
214° 1 065°

Course set
3 to 065°

355°

Figure 6-8 Example 3

NB. During the test you will be expected to use the RMI only for holding.

Remember that it is your heading at the facility, which will determine your entry
procedure.
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Hold Hints - Long and wide

30-45 degrees to go
ADF Needle 100°

Roll out early 90 degrees to go

Wait fo rneedle to drop ADF Needle 104°
then turn onto
inbound heading

No correction 134°

At end of outbound timing

40° cut. ADF needle 134°
40° Therefore : wide

Wind 150°/20
094° I min still air

Abeam
GST
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Hold Hints - Short and tight

Wind 320°/20
30-45° to go
ADF Needle 074°

Continue turn past QDM

Wait for
needle to drop
then turn onto
inbound heading 90° to go
ADF Needle 084°

114°

At end of outbound timing

20° cut. ADF needle 114°
Therefore : tight
20°

No correction

094°

GST Abeam
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More Hold Tips

Wind 230/20

C.
If very tight or have reached the 30°
cut before the outbound time turn onto
in this case 274°+30° = 304° for the
remaining time then turn

274°

B
094° B.
50° 50° Cut at 1/2 outbound timing
This will allow you adjust before
you get to to your turn

A Abeam
GST

Wings level

A.
1. Fly standard rate turn against the clock
2. Note time at wings level or abeam
3. Note time at abeam or wings level
4. Time between in seconds is you adjustment for the outbound leg
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7. RT Procedures

It is important, particularly during IFR operations, to adhere to accurate and standard

R/T phraseology. When visual separation of aircraft is not possible, your safety
depends upon strict adherence to correct procedures. CAP 413 is the reference for
all R/T procedures. There should be no conflictions, but if any are found, CAP 413
overrides this manual.

Procedures

Readback: The following ATC instructions must be read back in full and concluded
with a transmission of the aircraft callsign:

En-Route Clearances
Altimeter Settings
Frequency Changes
Heading Instructions
Level Instructions
Speed Instructions
SSR Operating Instructions
Clearance to enter or cross an active runway
Clearance to take off or land
VDF Information

Acknowledgement: If an ATC transmission simply requires an acknowledgement,

the transmission of the aircraft identification with no other word/phrase is the correct
procedure.

Transmission of Time: When transmitting time by radiotelephony, only the minutes of

the hour are normally required. However, if there is any possibility of misunderstanding,
the hour is to be included.

Position Reporting: Position reports must be passed under the following circumstances:

After transfer of communication

On reaching the limit of ATS clearance
When instructed by ATC
At compulsory reporting points
When operating in the North Sea Low Level Radar Advisory and Flight Information
areas
When operating within the London Control Zone and London/City Control Zone
When operating flights across the English Channel
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Altitude Reporting: When reporting your height / altitude / FL, do not use the phrase
“Level at”, as this could be confused with “flight level”. Instead use “Maintaining”.

The initial call after changing radio frequency shall contain only the aircraft identification
and flight level. Unless otherwise instructed, a standard position report must contain
the following elements:

Aircraft Identification e.g. Starspeed 01

Position and Time Newent 25
Flight Level or Altitude FL 60
Next Position and Estimated Time BCN 40

Note: It disrupts ATC if the order of such reports is not closely adhered to, and the likely result will be
a request for repetition.

The Holding Pattern: Aircraft need only make calls to ATC on initially passing over the
beacon when joining the hold and when leaving the hold to continue en-route, or to
commence an instrument approach. No other calls whilst holding are required, unless
requested by ATC.

Ist Pass Last Pass

Starspeed 01 Starspeed 01
GST Leaving the Hold
4000 feet or
Entering the Hold Beacon Outbound

Table 7-1 Example

Instrument Approaches: A standard list of radio calls is difficult to list due to the variety
of types of Instrument Approaches that are liable to be encountered. A number of
examples are shown below but do remember to always make the call that ATC has
requested.

LOCATION RADIO CALL

1. “Beacon Outbound” or
Commencing the Initial Approach
2. “Outer Marker Outbound”
1. “Base Turn Complete” or
2. “Procedure Turn Complete” or
Completion of the Inbound Turn
3. “Localiser Established”
4. “Established on the Final Approach Track” (DME Arc)

1. “Beacon Inbound” or
Overhead Final Approach Fix 2. “Outer Marker Inbound” or
3. “4 dme” (or other DME fix designated)

Commencing Missed Approach 1. “Going Around”

Table 7-2 Radio Calls

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Changing Altitude: Each time a climb or descent is commenced, ATC must be informed
that the aircraft is leaving its present level or altitude, and again informed when the
aircraft reaches its assigned level or altitude.

Summary

The efficient use of radiotelephony depends to a great extent on the user. Over the
years we tend to develop bad habits, so to ensure we maintain a high standard of R/T
discipline, the following points should be remembered:

Listen out before transmitting

Listen to the reply - do not assume it will be the expected acknowledgement
If in doubt about a clearance – double check
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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8. Approach Procedures

The design of an instrument approach procedure is in general dictated by the terrain

surrounding the airfield, the performance of the aircraft and the type of operations
contemplated. The type and siting of navigation aids in relation to the airfield will be
influenced by these factors and also by any relevant airspace restrictions.

An instrument approach procedure may have up to five separate segments:

Arrival Initial Intermediate Final Missed Approach

These segments begin and end at designated fixes but may under some
circumstances, begin at specified points where no fixes are available, e.g. the
interception of final approach may originate at the point of intersection of the
designated intermediate approach altitude with the normal glidepath.

Each segment of an approach procedure can be briefly defined as follows:

Arrival: The part of the route from the point when an aircraft departs its en-route
phase and is cleared to an initial approach fix. The arrival route ends at the initial
approach fix. Obstacle clearance is at least 1000’

Initial: This segment commences at the initial approach fix (IAF) and ends at the
intermediate fix. During this phase the aircraft will adhere to the published track
guidance and descent profile information. Obstacle clearance is at least 1000’

Intermediate: This is the segment during which the aircraft speed and configuration
should be adjusted to prepare the aircraft for final approach. The segment begins
when the aircraft is on the inbound track having completed its course reversal and
ends at the Final Approach Fix (FAF).Obstacle clearance is at least 492’

Where no approach FAF is specified the Intermediate Approach Segment becomes

part of the Final Approach Segment. Obsticale Clearnce reduces progreeively to
the published OCA/H

Final: This segment begins at the FAF and ends at the Missed Approach Point
(MAP).

‘Not below altitudes’

Profile altitudes with an underline or words ‘Not below or ‘minimum (depending on

format) have atolerance of zero feet. Ther is no plus limit. If these words or symbols
do not appear, tha altitude has a +/-100 ft tolerance up to the Final Approach Fix
(or point) ans a +50/-0 ft tolerance thereafter.
Descent guidance in the form of altitude against distance or time are only advisory
and no limits are applied to them
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Note: AERAD charts do not always make this clear.

Instrument approaches are divided into two categories, Precision and Non-Precision.
The Precision Approach provides the pilot with guidance in both plan and profile, e.g.
ILS or PAR. The Non-Precision approach provides guidance only in plan with advisory
heights provided in written or spoken form, e.g. NDB, VOR, and SRA.

All approaches will follow the basic format previously discussed but there are many
possible designs due to the variety of navigation aid positioning in relation to the
airfield. Appendix A shows a variety of possible designs.

In the diagrams shown at Fig 8-1, the segments are shown as:

A to B = Arrival
B to C = Initial
C to D* = Intermediate
D to E* = Final
E to F = Missed Approach

• In the case of Example 3 there is no FAF so there is no intermediate approach

segment. Therefore:

C to E = Final

Missed Approach

During this phase you are faced with the demanding task of changing the aircraft
configuration, attitude and altitude. For this reason Missed Approaches are kept as
simple as possible. The segment commences at the MAP and will provide protection
from obstacles throughout the manoeuvre.

Missed Approach Point

If the required visual reference is not established a missed approach must be initiated
at once in order for protection from obstacles to be maintained. The point at which the
Missed Approach is initiated will vary dependent on the type of procedure flown.

Possible examples are:

a. Overhead a navigational facility

b. A specified distance from the Final Approach Fix
c. A fix (e.g. using DME)
d. The point of intersection of an electronic guide path with the applicable
Decision Height or Altitude
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C
C
Example 2
Example 1

D
D
B
B
E
E

A
A

F
F

A C
C
Example 3

B
D

Example 4

B
E E

A F

Figure 8-1
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The Instrument Landing System (ILS)

The ILS is the primary approach aid at all major airports. The ground installation is
constantly monitored by ATC and the Authority carry out regular calibration checks.
There are various categories of ILS and these are fully described in Chapter 9.

The system comprises of three main elements in addition to the lighting system:

a. The Localiser (LOC or LLZ) - provides tracking guidance usually along the
extended centre line of the runway, though occasionally it may be offset by a small
amount.

b. The Glideslope (GS or GP) - provides vertical guidance towards the runway
touchdown point, usually at a slope of approximately 3o to the horizontal.

c. Marker Beacons - provide accurate range fixes along the approach. On some
ILS approaches, Locator Beacons (low powered NDB’s) may be substituted for
Marker Beacons. Increasingly, these devices are being replaced by Airfield DMEs,
which provide much more flexible ranging information.

Serviceability of the system can be checked by confirming the correct morse

identification is heard and that the red warning flags adjacent to the LOC and GS
indicators on the HSI are not in view. Some aircraft have a built in test sequence
so that the aircraft equipment can be fully tested before flight. EFIS displays simply
reproduce this presentation electronically

The cockpit display will take the form of a deviation indicator with horizontal and vertical
needles or bugs displaying glideslope and localiser information. Although the left/right
indications appear similar to those for a VOR, it is vitally important to appreciate that
the left/right indications for a Localiser are only relevant to the published centreline of
the approach and may only read in the correct sense when flying towards touchdown.
However, most aircraft now use a HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator), which will always
read in the correct sense, regardless of whether the aircraft is flying towards or away
from the airfield. EFIS displays simply reproduce this presentation electronically.

Always select the track of the ILS final approach on the course set in order to interpret
the correct sense, regardless of flying to or away from the field. This holds true for the
rare occasions when flying a Back Beam (Reverse Course) procedure. It should be
noted that there are no approved Back Beam approaches in the UK.

The technique of flying an ILS beam will become easier to master if you can imagine
flying down a cone towards its narrow end. Both needles become progressively more
sensitive as the approach nears the touchdown point so the risk of over-correcting is
high. When correcting Localiser or Glideslope errors, remember, “Small is Beautiful”.
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The segments of an ILS approach are built up as described on Pages 8/1, and 8/2 but
it is also possible for ATC to provide Radar Vectoring in order to position an aircraft
on final approach. In such cases ATC will pass instructions on heading and altitude/
height to fly – these must be read back and then accurately flown. ATC will ultimately
advise the aircraft to adopt a heading ‘to close the localiser’ at an angle to the final
approach of between 30o and 45o The pilot then monitors his Localiser indications and
completes his own turn on to the final approach.

The approach terminates at the Missed Approach Point, which in the case of an ILS
is Decision Height (DH) or Decision Altitude (DA). Based on the OCH or OCA, this is
the height or altitude below which the approach must not be continued unless certain
visual references are obtained; i.e. a missed approach must be initiated.

The Non-Precision Approach

Any approach procedure that does not provide the pilot with electronically derived
glidepath information is classified as non-precision approach. Examples of such a
procedure are:

a. NDB approach
b. VOR approach
c. Localiser only approach

All of these approaches provide the pilot with the means to display the aircraft’s track
electronically by an RMI needle, Track Bar or verbal instructions from ATC. The altitude
/ height of the aircraft in the procedure is determined by reference to a chart or from
advice passed from ATC.

Because there is no electronic glidepath to follow, the minimum altitude to which a

non-precision approach may be flown will always be higher than that for a precision
approach. The lowest altitude to which an aircraft may descend in a non-precision
approach is known as the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA). Under no circumstances
can an aircraft descend below this height unless the visual criteria for landing have
been achieved.

For the purposes of the Initial Instrument Rating Test the examiner will require you
to fly a Non-Precision approach. This will normally be an NDB approach, but he can
substitute a VOR approach if no suitable NDB procedure is available. The Localiser
only procedure will be covered during training but will not be part of the IRT.

Pictorial examples of typical plan views of non-precision approach paths may be found
in Chapter 12. This chapter also provides guidance on the interpretation of a Non-
Precision approach.
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Helicopter Procedures

The capabilities of helicopters can mean that the criteria designated for a particular
approach segment can be easily exceeded. Pilots must be aware of the following
situations when carrying out a procedure designated for Category A aeroplanes.

Departures

Straight departures:

It is important that helicopters cross the Departure End of the Runway (DER) within
150 meters latrerally of the runway centreline

Turning or omni-directional departures:

Straight flight is assumed until reaching a height of at least 394 feet above the
elevation of the DER. For a turn designated at an altitude / height the turn initiation
area begins at a point located 600 metres from the beginning of the runway.
However, when it is unnecessary to accommodate turns initiated as early as 600
metres from the beginning of the runway, the turn initiation area begins at the DER
and this information shall be noted on the departure chart

Final Approach:

The minimum final approach speed considered for Category A aeroplanes is 70 knots
(IAS) A slower speed can result in the helicopter leaving its protected area during
final approach and also risk a reduction of obstacle clearance in the missed approach
segment. Therefore, speed should be reduced below 70 knots only after the visual
references necessary for landing have been acquired.

If a lower final approach speed is required, it can only be safely and legally carried out
if the procedure is specifically designed for helicopters. In this case the minima will be
shown as ‘Category H or ‘Heli Specific. The minimum final approach speed on a Cat
H is 60 kts.

Rates of descent must be limited in accordance with the recommended profile in

order to avoid losing obstacle clearance protection. In other words, a constant angle
of approach must be maintained, rather than a stepped descent to the next limiting
altitude. We do not ‘Dive and Drive’ !
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9. Calculation Of Approach Minima

Before investigating the method used to calculate approach minima, we must be aware
of how both aircraft and approach aids are categorised.

Aircraft Categories

There are five separate categories of aircraft. The performance of an aircraft has a
direct effect on the airspace and visibility needed to perform the various manoeuvres
associated with an instrument approach procedure. The most significant performance
factor is aircraft speed and categorisation is based on 1.3 times stall speed in the
landing configuration. As helicopters do not have a stall speed, Category H is based
on a set of speeds appropriate to most helicopters.

Category H Between 60 and 90 Kts IAS

Category A Less than 91 knots IAS
Category B Between 91 and 120 knots IAS
Category C Between 121 and 140 knots IAS
Category D Between 141 and 165 knots IAS
Category E Between 166 and 210 knots IAS

ILS Categories

ILS ground installations are divided into three separate categories dependent upon
the quality and accuracy of the transmitted signal and the standard of the associated
approach and runway lighting.

Category 1 Provides guidance down to a height of not less than 200 feet above
the optimum point of touch down.

Category 2 Provides guidance down to a height of not less than 50 feet above
the optimum point of touch down.

Category 3 Provides guidance down to the surface of the runway. This ILS
category will normally require the aid of ancillary equipment within
the aircraft.

Values of OCA/OCH are published on each approach chart for each relevant category
of ILS.

Note: Current helicopter equipment levels are such that they may only use OCA/OCH values
annotated against Category 1 ILS, even through the ground installation may be of a superior category.
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Calculation of Decision Altitude/Minimum Descent Altitude

The minima to be found on Approach plates can be misleading. Except in the case of
Category H (helicopter Sspecific) approaches, the minima are for fixed wing aircraft,
calculated under JAR-OPS 1. At military airfields they may be calculated using a
different convention, known as AATCP-1B. Therefore the only reliable place to find
the DA/MDA and minimum RVR in Aerads is on the page, titled “Heliport Minima’
(as opposed to ‘Aerodrome Operating Minima’)

The published minima should be greater than the ‘System Minima’ given in Table
9-1 below. These minima are Heights, that is base on QFE. If there is any doubt the
published Decision or Minimum Descent Height should be compared with these
figures.

Table 9-1 System Minima for Non-Precision Approach Aids

Approach Aid System Minimum (ft)

ILS (No Glide Path – LLZ) 250
SRA (terminating at ½ nm) 250
SRA (terminating a 1 nm) 300
SRA (terminating at 2 nm) 350
VOR 300
VOR/DME 250
NDB 300
VDF (QDM and QGH) 300

Calculation of RVR

The RVR will also be found in the Heliport minima page. They are derived from the
JAR-OPS 3 tables shown below. Note that these are also based on the DH ofr MDH

Table 9-2 Precision Approach Minima – Category 1 ILS

DH (ft) Facilities/RVR
Full Intermediate Basic Nil
(1) (2) (3) (4)
200 500 m 600 m 700 m 1000 m
201-250 550 m 650 m 750 m 1000 m
251-300 600 m 700 m 800 m 1000 m
301 and above 750 m 800 m 900 m 1000 m

For single pilot operations the minimum RVR is 800m or above criteria, whichever is
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greater.
Table 9-3 Non-Precision Approach Minima

MDH (ft) Facilities/RVR

Full Intermediate Basic Nil
(1) (2) (3) (4)
250-299 600 m 800 m 1000 m 1000 m
300-449 800 m 1000 m 1000 m 1000 m
450 and above 1000 m 1000 m 1000 m 1000 m

For single pilot operations the minimum RVR is 800m or above criteria whichever is
greater.

Notes:
1. Full facilities comprise FATO/runway markings, 720m or more HI/MI approach lights, FATO/
runway edge lights, threshold lights, end lights and FATO/runway markings. Lights must be
on.

2. Intermediate facilities comprise 420/719m HI/MI approach lights, FATO/runway edge lights,
threshold lights, end lights and FATO/runway markings. Lights must be on.

3. Basic facilities comprise FATO/runway markings, <420m HI/MI approach lights, any length of LI
approach lights, FATO runway edge lights, threshold lights and FATO /runway end lights. Lights
must be on.

4. Nil approach light facilities comprise FATO/runway markings, FATO/runway edge lights, threshold
lights, FATO/runway end lights or no lights at all.

5. When operating in marginal conditions, refer to Operations Manual for instructions on

“Commencement and Continuation of Approach” (Approach Ban).
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10. Altimeter Management

Baralt

When under test, all altimeters are your responsibility throughout the flight and there
are no allowances made for errors in altimeter settings during test flights.

Great care must be exercised in the setting of altimeters and any change of setting
must be cross-referred to ensure accuracy. A systematic approach to altimeter checks
will greatly reduce the risk of an incorrectly set subscale.

The configuration for the various stages of a flight can best be shown in tabular form:

Table 10-1 Flight Configuration - Altimeters

PRIMARY SECONDARY
CONFIGURATION
ALTIMETER ALTIMETER

Before take-off Aerodrome QNH Aerodrome QNH

On departure - cruise below TA Regional QNH Regional QNH
Passing TA - climbing 1013 Regional QNH
Passing TA - descending Aerodrome QNH Aerodrome QNH
Initial approach Aerodrome QNH Aerodrome QNH
Final approach Aerodrome QNH Aerodrome QNH
Missed approach Aerodrome QNH Aerodrome QNH

En-route (below TA) Regional QNH Regional QNH

En-route (above TA) 1013 Regional QNH

Notes:

1. Providing the aircraft has been cleared to climb to a Flight Level, 1013 mb (SPS) may be set
below the Transition Altitude.

2. The term QNH used in the table means Airfield QNH unless otherwise specified.

3. The term Regional QNH is the pressure setting obtained from the UK system of Altimeter
Setting Regions as set out in the United Kingdom AIP Section RAC Page 2-1.
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Altimeter Checks

During flight, altimeter checks should be conducted in accordance with the aircraft
checklist and particular attention should be paid to the following points:

a. On the same mb setting all altimeters should read within 60 feet of each other.

b. On different mb settings a comparison of the different readings should be

made using the simplified equation of 1 mb = 30 feet.
c. On the same altimeter reading the subscales should be within 2mb of each
other

If these routines are carefully followed, an incorrectly set mb subscale will immediately
be detected.

Pilots must also familiarise themselves with the relevant section of the their Operations
Manual.

Regulations covering the use of Radio Altimeters are published in Company Operations
Manuals, but as a guide, set the bug to 200 ft on departure, 1000’ en-route, 50ft below
DH and 100ft below MDH on final approach. This latter setting is because use of
the bug to alert the approach of DH/MDH is not permitted due to the possibility of
undulating ground, but it may be used as an “Oh dear I’ve bust DH but at least I won’t
hit the ground” device. Remember this refers to DH/MDH NOT DA/MDA.

Pre-flight checks of altimeters must be completed in accordance with the Operations

Manual and an example is shown in Chapter 14 of this Manual. Providing they are
satisfactory, it can be assumed that the altimeter is accurate for IFR flight reference.

Radalt

The radalt is also incorporated as an aid for IFR flights and should be tested in
accordance with the equipment checks as laid out in the Aircraft Flight Manual or
Check list. It is used to give additional information of height above ground, so 1000
feet is normally set to provide a warning of being within 1000 feet of the ground.
This is useful in the event of a double engine failure and could be the point in the
autorotation when the aircraft is converted from a normal minimum rate of descent
speed to constant attitude rate of descent speed. It could also be used to alert the pilot
that he should be preparing for the engines off landing.

The radalt must not be used to give prior warning of approaching IFR minima (which
are determined by the baralt). However, it may be used to alert the pilot of his proximity
to the ground should he inadvertently pass through minima. Set the radalt to 50 feet
below the actual DH -100 ft below the MDH, although we fly to DA/MDA minima.
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Table 10-2 Flight Configuration - Radalt

Phase of Flight Radalt Setting

Before take-off 200 feet

On departure - cruise below TA 1000 feet
Passing TA - climbing 1000 feet
Passing TA - descending 1000 feet
Initial approach 1000 feet
Final approach 50’below DH/100’ below MDH
Missed approach 1000 feet

En-route (below TA) 1000 feet

En-route (above TA) 1000 feet
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11A. Reversal Procedure

During the flying of an instrument approach, it is usually necessary to complete a course

reversal turn in order to establish on to the final approach. The types of manoeuvre
employed are specified for each approach procedure and must be strictly adhered to.

The recognised manoeuvres each have their own airspace characteristics and to
remain with in the airspace provided requires careful interpretation of the charted
procedure and strict adherence to the directions and timing specified. The individual
manoeuvres are:

Procedure Turn (45o)

I Minute

This consists of a specified outbound track and timing from the radio facility; a 45o turn
away from the outbound track for one minute, followed by a 180o turn in the opposite
direction to intercept the final approach track.

Figure 11-1

Procedure Turn (80o)

This consists of a specified outbound track and timing from the radio facility, an 80o
turn away from the outbound track, followed by a turn of 260o in the opposite direction,
to intercept the inbound track. This manoeuvre is an alternative to the 45o procedure
turn unless specifically excluded. However, if a choice exists, it is recommended that
the 45o procedure be used due to the small radius of turn of helicopters.

NDB 090˚

Figure 11-2
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Base Turn

This consists of a specified outbound track and timing from a radio facility, followed by
a turn to intercept the final approach track.

1 Min 070° 2 Min

060°

NDB
270˚

Figure 11-3

Racetrack Procedure

A racetrack procedure consists of a turn from the inbound track through 180o from
overhead the facility. Outbound timing commences from abeam the facility and may
be for 1, 2 or 3 minutes followed by a turn in the same direction to establish the final
approach track.

1 Min 2 Min 3 Min

NDB
270˚ 270˚ 270˚

Figure 11-4

As an alternative to timing, the outbound leg may be limited by a DME distance or an

intersecting radial. Racetrack procedures are used where sufficient distance is not
available in a straight segment to accommodate the required loss of altitude and when
entry into a procedure (or base) turn is not practical. They may also be specified as
alternatives to procedure (or base) turns in order to increase operational flexibility.
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Aircraft are expected to enter a racetrack procedure in a manner comparable to that

prescribed for entering the hold, with the following considerations:

Offset Entry: The time on the 30o offset track shall be limited to 1 minute 30 seconds
after which the pilot is expected to turn to a heading parallel to the outbound track for
the remainder of the outbound time. If the outbound time is only one minute, the time
on the 30o offset track shall also be one minute.

Parallel Entry: The aircraft shall not return directly to the facility without first intercepting
the inbound track when proceeding to the final segment of the approach procedure.

Entry to Reversal Procedure

Unless the procedure specifies particular entry restrictions, reversal procedures shall
be entered from a track within +/- 30° of the outbound track.

Procedure turn

Entry to procedure turn

within+/- 30°

Facility
30°
30°

Base Turn

Facility

Entry sector to 30°

Base Turn 30°

Figure 11-5
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General Information

Due allowance for the effects of known wind will be made by the pilot in both heading
and timing to achieve correct tracks.

Times and/or distances to be flown from the radio beacon to commencement of turn
will be shown on the chart.

Reversal procedures must be flown on the same side of the approach path as shown
on the chart. The turns are designated LEFT or RIGHT accordingly, dependent upon
the direction of the initial turn.

Note: Users of Aerad approach charts should be aware that all procedure turns are taken to be 45o
unless otherwise designated.
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11 B Racetrack Procedures

Chapter 11A, "Reversal Procedures" gave an outline of the definition and rules ap-
plying to Racetrack Procedures (RPs). This is sufficient for general purposes and
puts them in their proper context as a form of Reversal. This Chapter is intended to
provide more depth (a) for those who are interested and (b) because they are be-
coming more common in published procedures.

Racetrack Procedures are generally poorly understood, despite having been in exist-
ence for several years now. Yet understanding how to apply them can allow you to
carry out a much more expeditious approach, benefiting the crew, the passengers, A
TC and (of course) the Company. At the same time, there are some disadvantages
and traps to be aware of.

The most readily available source of information on Racetrack Procedures is the

Aerad Flight Information Supplement. This describes RPs, at page AER 68, para
2.4 as "a new type of Intermediate Procedure". As the source for this is PANS-OPS
Vo11, dated 1993 - they are not that new!

Essentially, Racetrack Procedures allow you to use Hold Entry techniques to fly a
course reversal pattern so as to put the aircraft onto the Final Approach Track (FAT)
without needing first to enter the hold. In other words, you are "Beacon Outbound"
on the joining leg.

Identifying A Racetrack

On a chart, a Racetrack is an oval shape like a Hold. In fact, a Holdcan be the small-
est kind of Racetrack. They can also be elongated to more than 10 miles. On Aerad
charts, they are easily identifiable by the thick "Intermediate Approach" line, but
note that in the AlP they only carry a thick line where they are the "Main Procedure".
Some Racetracks are extensions to holding patterns which ad: as "Alternative Proce-
dures" and so do not carry the thick line.
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A better way to identify a Racetrack is that its inbound leg (a) lies on the Final Ap-
proach Track AND (b) includes the Final Approach Fix (or Point). Obviously, a one
minute Hold at 2000ft, based on a beacon on the airfield and aligned with the FAT
will not serve as a Racetrack as there would be insufficient space to descend.

The examples below show how Racetracks vary in size. A standard one minute pat-
tern at Aberdeen, and a 12.1 nm pattern at Glasgow. But both conform to the condi-
tion described.

Aberdeen ILS 16 Glasgow ILS 23

It should be noted that the Hold at GLW could not be treated as a Racetrack, be-
cause although the Inbound Track aligns with the FAT, it does not include the FAF
and would therefore not allow room to descend. It is only the extension to the hold
which is a Racetrack, whereas in the Aberdeen example a Racetrack is formed with-
out an extension to the hold because the FAF is included.
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Entry Procedures

The chief advantage of RPs is they allow arrival from any direction, rather than hav-
ing to be within 30° of an outbound leg. Entry sectors and join patterns are the same
as those for the Hold. The same allowances are made for wind and approach angle.

Parallel. An important limitation is imposed on parallel joins. The FAT must be

achieved before the FAF. There is no question of going direct to the beacon as in a
parallel join to a Hold. This obviously makes sense, as the aircraft must be stable on
track before commencing the final descent.

This shows up a disadvantage of RPs. Take the case of Aberdeen, illustrated above.
The short (1 min) parallel leg only allows enough room to establish if the wind is
favourable. Failure to achieve it will result in a short notice entry into the hold incon-
venient to ATC and wasting time.

In the case of Glasgow, the FAF is at 8.9d (ILS). The parallel leg has to extend far
enough to allow the FAT to be achieved by 8.9d. However, the parallel cannot extend
beyond the limit of the procedure, which in this case is 12.1 d. This leaves 3.2 nm,
which is just enough room to achieve the FAT in normal wind conditions.

In UK, the AlP advises against (but does not prohibit) using Sector 1 to enter a RP
(EN R 1-5-4, 3.14) because of this very problem. However, in many cases overseas
(and increasingly in UK) the procedures are drawn to allow all entry sectors to be
used.

Offset. As described in Ch.11A, the time on the Offset leg of a Sector 2 join is limited
to 1 m 30s. This is the same as the maximum time on an offset join to a Hold,above
14000 ft. At these altitudes turning circles are very large. The length of the Offset leg
sets the displacement of the aircraft from the FAT so that it has room to turn on to it.
Therefore, for helicopters, the "1 m 30s" rule may be disregarded. Timing will always
be 1 minute (still air) at helicopter speeds and altitudes. After that, the aircraft is
turned to parallel for the remainder of the time, or the appropriate DME limit.

Direct. The difference between RPs and Holds in a Direct entry is that Outbound tim-
ing starts "abeam the facility, or on attaining the outbound heading whichever is the
later'. (PANS-OPS Vol1 Ch 3, para [Link].)
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Outbound Leg

The chief disadvantage of RPs is that in almost all of them there is no track guidance
on the outbound leg. This is always a problem with a procedure wHch uses an exten-
sion to the outbound leg of a hold, as it is not tracking directly to or from a beacon.
In the case of the Glasgow example, drift errors may be quite large by the end of
the outbound leg, leading to further difficulty in achieving the FAT in the short space
available (see above). For this reason, the preferred option for an approach should
always be a Base Turn or a Procedure Turn where these are specified as a main or
alternative procedure.

On the subject of drift, it is particularly important to remember that a 1 minute Race-

track requires 3x drift, a 2 minute racetrack requires 2x drift and anything over 2
minutes requires single drift on the outbound leg.

Air Traffic Considerations

Racetrack Procedures fit best into a Procedural environment, in which ATC are not
concerned with how you get into a Procedure, only with clearing you for the various
stages. I n a Racetrack, you are "Beacon Outbound" when you cross the beacon to
start the joining leg, be it parallel, offset or direct. "Base Turn Complete" is when you
establish on the FAT (or "Localiser Established" in the case of an ILS).
In a radar environment, RPs are more problematical. Modern controllers, unless they
are based at a Procedural airport, have little training in Procedural methods. The
parallel join especially, will cause some confusion as they watch the manoeuvre on
radar. It is also unlikely that an RP will be more expeditious than a radar pattern. The
only occasions on which it should be necessary to fly RPs in a radar environment
are training flights. In this event it is well to brief ATC on your intentions, and to pick a
quiet time for the flight.

Summary

Advantages: RPs allow omnidirectional arrivals and so save time.

Disadvantages: Timing point different from Holds

Parallels must establish FAT/LLZ before FAF/FAP
No track guidance on O/B leg, with drift a problem on long RPs.
Not suitable for Radar environment
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12. Aerad Approach Plates

Approach Plates are amended regularly. You must

not use out of date plates. If photocopies are used,
they must be up to date and unmarked for test
purposes.

Aerad

Proficiency in the reading of Approach Charts is an essential part of IFR operations.

These notes are intended to give you guidelines on the use of the Aerad Flight
Manual with its associated charts but for a full understanding of the document it will be
necessary to refer in detail to the manual itself.

The charts used in this chapter as examples, are not necessarily current and must
only be used as a reference for study purposes.

Layout of the Aerad Flight Guide

The Aerad Flight Information Supplement provides the user with a brief description of
the layout of individual charts, a description of the various approach light systems and
an abbreviated summary of instrument procedures as defined in ICAO Doc 8168.

The main part of the Guide is made up of the necessary descriptive aeronautical
charts for all airfields within the geographical area covered by the document. Airfields
are arranged in alphabetical order and each chart is annotated with a coded reference
letter/number and date.

The date is an indication of when that particular chart became current. Therefore, if
no changes are made to a chart, it is quite possible to retain charts in the manual for a
number of years. Charts are only re-issued when information changes.

The coded reference consists of a letter and a number and has two uses:

a. It allows the user to replace a chart in the manual in the correct place so that
charts will always be presented to the user in a standard order, i.e. alphabetically
and then numerically.

b. It allows for a speedy amendment system.

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The letter is an indication of the type of chart and the number shows how many charts
of that type are issued for a given aerodrome. The meaning of the first letter used is:

A Aerodrome Briefing and Advisory Notes – Temporary Charts

B Special Procedures
C Noise Abatement Procedures
D Aerodrome Chart
E Taxi Chart
F Ramp Chart
G Standard Instrument Departures (SID) Outbound Routes. Departure Terrain
H Arrival or Standard Arrival (STAR) Inbound Routes. Arrival Terrain
K Terminal Radar Procedures. Terrain Clearance
M ILS Approaches (including Localiser Only)
N VOR Approaches
P NDB Approaches
Q VDF
T Helicopter Procedures
V Visual

This first letter is followed by a number showing the place of the chart within its group.
Finally, on plan diagrams which extend beyond the immediate vicinity of the airport, a
letter, ‘M’ or ‘C’ will be shown. This indicates the method of showing terrain clearance,
either by ‘MSA Contour Envelopes’ (M) or Contours (C).
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Looking at a particular aerodrome the first page is coloured green and has the identifier
‘AH1’ or ‘AH2’ with no suffix as it is text only (AH refers to helicopters and AJ to
aeroplanes). This page contains the helicopter minima details for all the approaches
at that aerodrome in various conditions of runway lighting. The example below is for
Gloucestershire. Note that Gloucester only has Basic approach lighting, RVR minima
can be found on the columns headed ‘Basic’ or ‘No ALS’ as Gloucestershire is not
equipped with a longer Approach Lighting System

Figure 12-1
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The next plates are those with identifiers A, B or C and are self-explanatory text
instructions or advice. Nonetheless, it is worth noting the more general aspects of
these plates.

Plates ‘A’. Temporary or Trial Information. Printed on yellow paper these

procedures may be restricted to authorised operators/pilots etc.

Plates ‘B’. Special Procedures. This chart is laid out in text form and is used to
explain procedures not covered by the other types of chart. Examples of information
covered are:

Start clearances
General rulings applying to Departures/Arrivals

A wide variety of subject matter can be covered and it follows that larger and more
complex aerodromes will tend to provide more information. It is a self-explanatory
chart.

Plates ‘C’. Noise Abatement Procedures. This chart is normally laid out in text
form and provides a clear description of the relevant noise abatement procedures to
be followed. A simple plan diagram is sometimes included. Crews must be aware
that Noise Abatement Procedures may be applicable to arriving aircraft as well as
departing aircraft.

It is a self-explanatory chart but requires careful study to ensure you follow the correct
procedure. Figure 12-2 shows a typical example:

Figure 12-2
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All charts start with a strip of information at the top, which sets the context for the chart.
To understand what is meant by this compare the top strip of a ‘D’ chart (Fig 12- 3) for
Gloucestershire with an ‘M’ for Cardiff International (Fig 12-4).

Figure 12-3

The ‘aerodrome’ strip shown at Fig 12-3, contains the information you need when
reading a ground map of the airfield. Elevation, Variation, and the co-ordinates of
the Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP) are shown and as always, the chart date and
identifier are at the right hand end of the strip. Only one frequency is shown, as this is
the only one that is relevant to this plate.

Figure 12-4

In the ILS plate, elevation and variation are still relevant, but additionally Transition
Altitude TA) and Transition Level (TRL/TL) information can be found, as well as the
frequency and ident of the main Navaid used in the approach. During the course of
the approach several RT frequencies may be used, so they are shown on the lower
line of the strip.

Plates ‘D’. Aerodrome Chart. The aerodrome chart is used for reference,
orientation and ground manoeuvring (unless a separate Taxi Chart is given). A map
of the Runways is shown along with Taxiways, Aprons, Buildings and Lighting, with
any significant topographical features out to an approximate distance beyond the
aerodrome boundary. It is orientated to True North and has Lat/Long marks around
the edge and a Feet/Metre scale on the plan. Threshold co-ordinates can be found
here, and underneath the map are tabulated runway data.

Notes relevant to ground and Visual circuit operations appear at the foot of the plate.
Fig 12-5 shows the Aerodrome plate ‘D1’ for Gloucestershire.
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Figure 12-5

Plates ‘E’ Taxi Chart. The taxi chart shows all aprons, taxiways, holding points
etc. and is self-explanatory. Some detail may be presented in text form. These charts
are orientated according to layout, rather than geographically and so they will also
carry a True North symbol.
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Plates ‘F’. Ramp Chart. The ramp chart shows all aprons in more detail and
displays individual parking stands. At larger aerodromes there may be considerable
text information supplied in addition to the normal diagrammatic presentation, giving
stand co-ordinates for GPS/INS use. . These charts are orientated according to layout,
rather than geographically and so they will also carry a true North symbol (see Fig 12-
6).

Figure 12-6
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Note: All the following plate charts have a vertical dimension. Bold type refers to
Altitudes (QNH) and normal type refers to Heights (QFE).

Plates ‘G’. Standard Instrument Departure (SID). A SID allows what is often a
complex procedure to be given a short, simple name, so that it may be easily referred to
on RT and studied before take-off with less possibility of misunderstanding. Therefore,
because departure details are not spelt out in the clearance, SID charts demand
maximum familiarity and understanding. The chart is divided into four sections: Title
Strip, Plan View, Notes, and Narrative.

Title This conforms to the description of title strips already given. Some
aerodromes use a single ‘Departures’ chart, as opposed to a specific
‘SID’ chart.

Plan View The plan view of an SID may cover a very large area, so is not drawn
to scale,nor does it show topographical features. The departure tracks
are shown in heavy print, with the SID name appropriate to that track in
a box beside it. Significant Navaids are given by standard symbol
including frequency, Ident letters, the Morse code for the Ident, and co-
ordinates.

An MSA circle is shown, giving an MSA calculated out to 25nm

usually from the Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP), but
exceptionally from a designated Navigation aid. No other terrain
avoidance information is given.

Of critical importance are the altitudes shown in boxes at various

stages for the SID. These have an underline for “not below”,a
line above for “not above”, and a line above and below for “at”
the stated altitude. In addition, a “reverse type” (white numbers,
black background) lozenge shape contains the altitude consid
ered to be the first potential “altitude bust”. All these altitudes have to
be strictly adhered to unless otherwise cleared by ATC.

Notes Self-explanatory amplifying notes.

Narrative This is a most important section of the chart, as it contains a narrative

description of the procedure to be followed. Careful study of this sec
tion will usually clarify the Plan View and help to avoid any pitfalls it
may contain.

The Birmingham Compton SID Plate G1 is shown at Fig 12-7 and shows most of the
points referred to above. Note particularly the relative ease of understanding the
narrative section at the very bottom of the chart.
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Figure 12-7
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Plates ‘H’. Arrivals or Standard Arrivals (STARs). Standard Arrivals are more
relevant to the busier airports and are mainly designed for fixed wing aircraft, typically
describing a procedure that covers over 100 nm. Like SIDs, for this reason they are
not drawn to scale, nor do they show topographical features. A typical Arrivals chart is
shown below (Fig 12-8).

Figure 12-8
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There are, however, “Copter” arrival procedures at some airfields. These are quite
rare, so no detailed description will be offered here, other than an example shown
below.

Figure 12-9
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Plates ‘K’. Radar Procedures. These are shown as plan diagrams (Fig 12-10), or
tabulated data (Fig 12-11), or a combination of both. Be aware that the RVR minima
given are JAR - OPS 1, which is fixed wing minima. Radar Procedure minima for
helicopters are found on the green page ‘AH1’, already referred to.

Figure 12-10
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Figure 12-11
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Plates ‘M’ to ‘P’. Now we come to the ‘Approach Charts’ proper. These are divided
into four parts, as follows:

Title Strip
Plan View
Profile View
Minima and Notes

Title Strip As described already with the addition, in brackets after the name of the
approach, of the aircraft categories covered by that [Link] charts cover all cat-
egories, some only one. It is a common error to use charts for the wrong category.

Plan View The chart is drawn to scale (1:500 000) and has a standard 10nm range
ring around the ARP. It shows topographical features and an MSA circle like the other
charts, but additional terrain clearance information is provided in the form of “MSA
contours”. The Aerad Flight Information Supplement refers to them as “Safe Clear-
ance Altitudes”, and it is important to recognise that these are not MSA’s in the sense
of including relief data 5 miles beyond the position [Link] altitudes are however,
calculated according to standard MSA clearance above terrain and obstacles. The
figures shown are Safe Altitudes in 100s of feet, and may be used for reference and
terrain awareness in the procedure.

Onto this background is laid the plan of the procedure itself, showing relevant Navaids
with ident letters, the Morse code for the ident, and Co-ordinates, Tracks, significant
DME ranges and any other information there is space for. Such information is shown
in the notes if it would clutter the map too much.

There are too many differences of detail in chart conventions to cover everything here,
and continuing study over the years is necessary for full familiarity. However, there are
a couple of general points, which should be noted to make things easier.

First, pay careful attention to the thickness of the track lines. Thin lines show Holds
and Initial Approach tracks. Thick lines show Intermediate and Final Approach tracks.
Dashed lines show Missed Approach Procedure tracks. Other tracks are shown by
various kinds of line (such as that marking the arc procedure in Fig 12-12). This
knowledge can be used to avoid pitfalls such as those that are contained in the
Aberdeen 34 LLZ/DME, shown at Fig 12-12 below.
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Figure 12-12
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It is worth following this potential pitfall a little further, as it illustrates the level of care
needed for correct interpretation of the charts. The problem is expressed in the
question “Why can’t I arrive overhead the ATF, fly a Parallel or Offset join and once
established on the inbound QDM, continue on the localizer to land?”

Study of the track lines shows that the sequence of the procedure is:
Initial Approach Fix (ATF) followed by Initial Approach Track to abeam the beacon,
then Intermediate Approach Track, then turn right back to ATF, then Final Approach on
the ILS from the Final Approach Point at 7 miles.

ATC will assume when ‘sequencing’ aircraft for approaches, that they will follow this
procedure. Naturally, if there is no other traffic, they may allow short cuts but pilots
must be aware of the basic procedure as that is what they must follow in the absence
of specific clearance to do otherwise.

Holds. Note that whereas procedures are drawn at 180 kts, holds are drawn at
220 kts. They therefore appear to cover much more ground than would be the case in
a helicopter. Entry sectors are shown by pecked lines. Minimum altitudes for the hold
are shown, but be aware that these are sometimes lower than the altitude for starting
the approach procedure. This is because the lowest altitude is reserved for aircraft,
which are returning to the hold from a missed approach.

Arcs. Altitude information around an arc can be confusing, as it has changed

significantly in the last few years. Altitude boxes are now shown against the radial,
which marks the start of each segment of arc. Like any other ‘fix’ altitude, they indicate
the altitude that applies at that point. So, in Fig 12-12, on the 20 DME arc altitude must
be not below 3200 ft passing the 189 Radial, at 2500 ft by the 174 Lead Radial and so
on.

Notes. Look out for black spots containing white numbers. These refer to
explanatory notes, which can be read in the lowest strip of the chart. They often
contain vital information.

Profile View

Figure 12-12
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It is worth following this potential pitfall a little further, as it illustrates the level of care
needed for correct interpretation of the charts. The problem is expressed in the ques-
tion “Why can’t I arrive overhead the ATF, fly a Parallel or Offset join and once estab-
lished on the inbound QDM, continue on the localizer to land?”

Study of the track lines shows that the sequence of the procedure is:
Initial Approach Fix (ATF) followed by Initial Approach Track to abeam the beacon,
then Intermediate Approach Track, then turn right back to ATF, then Final Approach on
the ILS from the Final Approach Point at 7 miles.

ATC will assume when ‘sequencing’ aircraft for approaches, that they will follow this
procedure. Naturally, if there is no other traffic, they may allow short cuts but pilots
must be aware of the basic procedure as that is what they must follow in the absence
of specific clearance to do otherwise.

[Link] that whereas procedures are drawn at 180 kts, holds are drawn at 220
kts. They therefore appear to cover much more ground than would be the case in a
helicopter. Entry sectors are shown by pecked lines. Minimum altitudes for the hold
are shown, but be aware that these are sometimes lower than the altitude for starting
the approach procedure. This is because the lowest altitude is reserved for aircraft,
which are returning to the hold from a missed approach.

Arcs. Altitude information around an arc can be confusing, as it has changed signifi-
cantly in the last few years. Altitude boxes are now shown against the radial, which
marks the start of each segment of arc. Like any other ‘fix’ altitude, they indicate the
altitude that applies at that point. So, in Fig 12-12, on the 20 DME arc altitude must
be not below 3200 ft passing the 189 Radial, at 2500 ft by the 174 Lead Radial and so
on.
[Link] out for black spots containing white numbers. These refer to explana-
tory notes, which can be read in the lowest strip of the chart. They often contain vital
information.

Figure12-13

Profile View This is self explanatory (see Fig 12-13), but it often clarifies parts of
the plan view, which may be unclear. The FAF or FAP is easier to find on the profile
as are many of the vertical elements of the approach. Although the eye is naturally
attracted to the plan view, the profile should not be under-rated. It will always con-
tain a ‘reverse-type’ block showing the first potential ‘altitude bust’.
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A couple of frequently asked questions concern some of the abbreviations used in

this part of the plate:

QFU is the magnetic orientation of the runway. This is set on the HSI for the
precision approach.

MEHT is the Minimum Eye Height at the Threshold. Using any visual glide
path indicator (e.g. PAPIs, VASIs etc.) when you are showing ‘on glide
path’ this is the lowest height you can be as you cross the threshold.

RDH is only shown on ILS plates and stands for Reference Datum Height,
which is the height of the ILS Glidepath above the threshold.

Note also that you can find the millibar correction to apply to the QNH in order to
obtain the QFE.

Minima and Notes

Figure 12-14

The Minima (Decision Height/Altitude or Minimum Descent Height/Altitude) are shown,

according to aircraft Category A. A minimum RVR is also shown, but as for Plates ‘K’
BEWARE, as this is a JAR-OPS 1 (i.e. fixed wing) figure. The only place to find
the correct figure is on the green AH pages, which is calculated for helicopters un-
der JAR-OPS 3.

The columns referring to Circling Minima may be ignored, as these do not apply to
helicopters.

Note 1: In the above example is a good illustration of how important it is to pay careful
attention to this part of the plate.
Those notes numbered within a black spot refer to similar numbered spots on the
graphical parts of the chart.

The foregoing describes Plates ‘M’ to ‘P’, Approach Charts generally. More specific
notes on each type are given below.
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Plates ‘M’, ILS procedures. Figure 12-12 to 12-14 is taken from an ILS plate. Note
the Localiser arrow showing the Localiser QDM.

The point where the Intermediate Approach intercepts the glidepath and becomes the
Final Approach is designated the Final Approach Point (FAP). This does not have
quite the same meaning as the Final Approach Fix (FAF) in a non-precision approach,
as it does not mark a point where an immediate descent may be made to the next ‘Not
Below’ height.

Note the ‘GP’ Altitude/Height figures shown at 4 miles and 1 mile in figure 12-13. They
do not have underlines and are therefore not Not Below heights, but the 2 mile one is.
The purpose of these fixes is to allow you to ‘verify the glidepath/altimeter relationship’
(ICAO PANS-OPS document). In other words, if you are on the glidepath that is what
the altimeter should read. If it doesn’t you may need to check the pressure setting,
the instruments, off flags and so on. A 1 mile fix is really too late for any practical use
but a check should be made at any earlier fix.

Plates N, P and Q. These are for non-precision approaches, ‘N’ for VOR, ‘P’ for
NDB, and ‘Q’ for VDF procedures. These contain the standard information already
described, plus the Final Approach Fix and the Missed Approach Point (MAPt) both of
which are only required for non-precision approaches.

Figure 12-15
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A non-precision approach, by definition has no glidepath signal. Therefore, where

there is a DME associated with the approach, guidance is provided in the form of a
table that relates distance to height (or altitude) to define a nominal, constant slope,
approach. That is its only purpose, and it is advisory. Although most operators would
advocate a policy of following this “nominal glidepath”, the legal position is that de-
scent on the final approach is limited only by the MDH and any intervening “Step-
Down Fixes” (SDF).

Thus, in Fig 12-15 above, there is a SDF at 3 nm / 750 ft (QFE). An aircraft on

passing the FAF at 5 miles can, strictly speaking, descend to 750 feet (QFE) at any
convenient rate. It can only descend further, to MDH, once it has passed the 3 DME
point. An aircraft following the Advisory Height table will be at 880 ft (QFE) over that
fix, which is well above this “Not Below” height.

Plates ‘P’, NDB charts do not differ very much from VOR charts, but the example
below is included to illustrate a procedure, which does not use a DME and has no
timing or height advice. Note the timing mark of 2 minutes shown on the outbound
phase from the ‘GST’ and also note the fact that Cat A, B aircraft go out for 2 mins
30secs.

Figure 12-16
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Plates ‘Q’, VDF, are similar to the example given in Fig 12-16. However the control-
ler uses the VDF equipment to give relative bearings from the aircraft and directs the
aircraft in order to get it onto the outbound and inbound tracks.

Plates ‘T’, These are Helicopter procedures and usually take the form of a chart with
topographical features and special approach lanes, plus notes describing any par-
ticular rules for using them.

Plates 'V’, Visual procedures. Similar to Plates ‘T’.

The preceding pages are intended to give an introduction to the interpretation of Ter-
minal Charts and point out the more serious pitfalls. These charts continue to evolve
and there is, therefore, a need to continue to study and understand them.

Finally, they are produced by fallible human beings and can contain errors. Pilots
must crosscheck against other sources, particularly national AIPs, wherever possi-
ble.
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The chart displayed in Figure 12-17 can be used to test your skills of interpretation.
Study the chart and answer the listed questions.

Figure 12-17
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The chart displayed in Figure 12-18 can be used to test your ability to interpret a
chart correctly.

Figure 12-18
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13. VOR Tracking And Holds

VOR ground stations provide certain advantages over a NDB:

a. They have a much reduced susceptibility to electrical and atmospheric

interference.

b. Night effect is eliminated, as VHF signals are line of sight.

VOR signals are therefore more reliable and offer superior accuracy compared to
ADF, and can be used with confidence for tracking, holds, instrument approaches and
position fixing. The maximum range of a VOR is normally 200 nm but this is further
reduced by the fact that VHF signals are limited to line of sight. An aircraft flying at
5000 ft would only receive a VOR signal when within approximately 85 nm of the
station.
Different VORs may operate on the same frequency but should be well separated
geographically so that the possibility of interference is reduced. The higher an aircraft
flies, however, the greater the possibility of experiencing interference. Each VOR
is therefore allocated a Designated Operational Coverage (DOC) - interference-free
reception is guaranteed within this range.

In addition to an RMI, the aircraft cockpit display will normally use one of two possible
instruments: the Omni Bearing Indicator (OBI) or the Horizontal Situation Indicator
(HSI). Both instruments provide an angular deviation display in terms of off-track
information.

Tracking: The principles of tracking do not differ from ADF but the displayed information
is easier for the pilot to interpret, particularly if a HSI is utilised as it always acts as a
Command instrument.

Holding Pattern: Once again the principles do not differ greatly from an ADF hold apart
from the overhead. Because a VOR emits a cone of silence/confusion the overhead
is difficult to assess – this problem is discussed in the following paragraph. Use of an
HSI will otherwise ease problems in a VOR hold as the Deviation Bar can be used for
tracking the QDM and the RMI needle used for general interpretation of the aircraft’s
position in relation to the facility.

Cone of silence/Confusion: As an aircraft approaches the overhead of a VOR the

instrument display may become agitated and confused. The Deviation Bar may tend
to flick from side to side. The RMI needle may behave in an erratic manner, the TO/
FROM flag may become unsettled and the OFF flag may tend to flicker in and out of
view. As this area is shaped like a cone the period to transit the zone will be dependent
upon the height of the aircraft. At the heights normally used by helicopters we can
expect the period of confusion to last approximately 10 to 15 seconds so assess the
overhead point as being about 5-7 seconds from when the OFF flag totally disappears.
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045 045
...

...
090 270
.

TO
...

...
FR

.
OM

A B

090 FROM
...

...
00990

27
0
.

.
0

270 TO
...

...
.

FIGURE 13-1
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14. Pre-Flight Checks Of Radios, Instruments And Navaids

The following checks must be carried out. Note that they may need to be modified for
specific aircraft avionic/instrument installations:

Radios. Switch on, select frequency, test call, ATIS as required. Ensure both radios
are checked on two frequencies.

Instruments. All instruments should be checked for damage, cracked glass and
moisture. In addition to this general check of serviceability, the following specific
checks on individual instruments must be carried out and in particular, each altimeter
should be checked for freedom of operation by setting + 300 ft and - 300 ft (10 mbs)
from the initial value.

ADI Erect, wings level, flags clear, test as required

Compass shows sensible heading, flags clear, correction
HSI
card
Obtain Airfield QNH (and QFE if available). Then:

a) Set altimeters to zero.

b) Check readings are within 2 mbs of each other and of
QFE if available.
BARALT c) Increase and decrease each altimeter subscale by 10
mbs.
d) Check indications increase and decrease by 270, +/- 60
feet.
Set both altimeters to QNH for take-off (Check site
elevation) Altimeters +/- 60 feet of each other
RAD ALT On, test, set bug as required.
VSI Within +/- 200 feet of zero.
STANDBY HORIZON As for ADI
STANDBY Shows sensible heading, no bubbles or discolouration,
COMPASS correction card
ASI Check
OAT Check
CLOCK Checked and set
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Navigational Aids.

NAV 1 a) Switch on, select VOR frequency and ident.

b) Check RMI needle shows a sensible bearing.
c) Centralise HSI beam bar and check it agrees with RMI
needle.
d) Deflect beam bar 10o left and 10o right and confirm full scale
deflection is obtained.
e) Check TO/FROM flag reads TO.
f) Rotate beam bar and check flag changes from TO to FROM
through 90o.
g) Continue to rotate the beam bar and check that it centralises
on reciprocal bearing.
h) If out of range a VOR signal, use self-test facility to generate
a signal if available.
i) Select ILS frequency and ident.
j) Check sensible indications.
k) Self-test if available and check localiser and glideslope de
viation.
l) Set for departure.
NAV 2 As for NAV 1
Check according to aircraft type, ensuring both lights and audio
MARKERS
operative.
Switch on, select frequency (or switch to appropriate nav box)
DME and ident. Check sensible reading. Press self-test and check
response if available.
Switch on, select frequency and ident. Check sensible needle
ADF indication and loop test, then checking that it returns to within
+/-5o.
TRANSPONDER Check switched to STANDBY and set code 7000. Operate “test”
if available and check response. Switch to “ALT” and check
level shown is correct.
Set code as instructed by ATC. Ensure “ALT” selected prior to
take-off.

Notes:
1. Pilots should familiarise themselves with any “test” facilities available on the relevant aircraft
type.
2. One full ident is the minimum criterion before using any aid.
3. VOR/ILS checks may be transposed depending on which is to be used on departure.
4. The actual aircraft checklist should be used during the flight training part of the course.
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15. In-Flight Checks

The skill of ensuring that the appropriate checks are completed at the optimum point in
the flight needs to be developed during the course. Carrying out the checks correctly
and appropriately ensures that the aircraft cockpit is managed efficiently and effectively
to ensure the safe operation of the aircraft. Specific checks should be carried out in
accordance with Company Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).

After Take-Off and Go-Around Checks. Action may be taken as soon as the aircraft
is safely established in the climb. However, the checks should not normally be
confirmed by reference to the check list until the aircraft is at 500 feet agl or above and
should ideally be completed before passing 100 ft agl.

Cruise/Climb/Descent Checks. Carry out on reaching cruising level, and thereafter

at approximately 15-minute intervals, passing turning points, and during cruise climbs
and descents.

Descent to Destination Checks. Conduct prior to commencing descent from cruise

to terminal facility.

Initial Approach Checks. Should not be carried out until the aircraft has been cleared
to commence the approach. This will not preclude any approach actions being taken
prior to the full checks being confirmed when, for example, an EAT has been given by
ATC.

Final Checks. Final checks should be carried out before the Final Approach Fix and:

a. On approach when within +/- 5o RMI or half scale deflection Localiser/Beam-

Bar of the QDM and approaching descent point

or

b. When under positive radar guidance to intercept QDM and being instructed to
adjust to an altitude to commence final approach.
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After Take Off/Go Around

Gear/Brakes/Floats Up/Off/disarmed
Altimeters QNH/QNH Set Radalt Bug
Radalt/Radar Set Radalt Bug 1000’ Radar A/R
Navigation Aids Tuned/Ident
Time/Txp Note - A/R
Icing Check/Check OAT
Landing Light Off

Climb-Enroute

Get The weather

Altimeters QNH/QNH (1013/QNH if FL)
Radalt/Radar Set Radalt Bug 1000’ - Radar A/R
Navigation Aids Tuned/Ident - Check MSA
Time/Txp Note - A/R
Icing Check/Check OAT
Landing Light Off

Initial Approach

Get The weather

Altimeters QNH/QNH - App Brief
Radalt/Radar Set Radalt Bug 1000’ - Radar A/R
Navigation Aids Tuned/Ident - Hold QDM or Inbound QDM
set on HSINote - A/R
Time/Txp Note - A/R
Icing Check/Check OAT
Landing Light Off
Final Approach

Gear/Brakes/Floats Down/As required/Armed-if required

Altimeters QNH/QNH
Radalt/Radar Set Radalt Bug 50’ below DH 100’below’ MDH
Navigation - Radar-STBY

Time/Txp Note - A/R

Icing Check/Check OAT
Landing Light On

For the AS 355 during training the ‘G’ in the above and the ‘L’ can be removed to make remembering
it even easier. ARNTI (altimeters, Radalt, Nav, Time (think fuel) and icing)

The finals check and do around can be reduced even further to RIL (radalt, icing and landing light) if
you are pushed.
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16. Flying En-Route In Controlled Airspace

This part of instrument flying is primarily an exercise in cockpit management. During

the Instrument Rating Test, attention to the following points will allow you the maximum
possible time to concentrate on the flying of your aircraft.

Check List. The sensible use of the aircraft check list can greatly reduce the overall
workload. A CRUISE check allows you to update the management of your aircraft
and this check should be carried out at points in flight where the scenario is liable to
change. Significant points should be chosen for the inclusion of a CRUISE CHECK
and typical examples are Turning Points and Reporting Points.

Altimeter Checks. Care must be exercised in the management of both altimeters. If

cruising at a Flight Level, the main altimeter will be set the to 1013 mb; the second/
standby altimeter will be used for checking terrain clearance. Normally, the best setting
for the standby altimeter will be the appropriate ASR pressure (Regional QNH). This
will have to be reviewed as boundaries are crossed and hourly as ASR pressures are
updated.

Tracking. Although tracking is no longer a separate test requirement, and is assessed

during Instrument Procedures, beacon tracking may still be necessary en-route to
the airfield where the procedures are to be carried out. In these circumstances it is
advisable to demonstrate accurate flying and appropriate selection of navigation aids.
Be aware of the promulgated DOC or protected range of the facility in use and also
that a signal can be shielded or distorted. Your decision and choice of navigational aid
may be affected by these factors.

ATC Liaison. During the Instrument Rating Test you will be expected to make your
own radio calls. Read Chapter 7 and follow advice. You must be able to copy and
read back any clearances.

Weather. Whilst en-route make use of VOLMET and/or ATIS to monitor your destination
and diversion weather.
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17. Flight Plan Form

General

Your IRT examiner will expect to see a flight plan for the IRT even though you may not
be required to actually file it. Remember:

a. Use BLOCK CAPITALS throughout.

b. Adhere closely to the prescribed format and manner of specifying data.

c. Insert all clock times in four figure UTC.

d. Commence inserting data in the first space provided. Where excess space is
available leave unused spaces blank.

e. Do not use obliques or spaces where they are not required.

f. All estimated elapsed times (EET) are to be in four figures (hours and
minutes), e.g. 0055.

g. Do not write in shaded areas – this will be completed by ATS and COM
services.

Further specific information can be obtained from:

CAA Aeronautical Information Circulars

Aerad Flight Information Supplements (ATC Section)
LASORS

Example next page

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18. DME Arc Procedures

The ability to fly a DME arc is not assessed on IRTs, nor is it a requirement of the LST/
LPC. However, as DME arc procedures are relatively common it is felt appropriate
that some guidance on flying them is given here.

The aim in flying a DME arc is to remain within 0.5 nm of the published arc range.
The problem is to find a consistent method for achieving that. Theoretically, it should
be possible to apply a basic angle of bank to maintain the curved track as published,
but this angle would be small and difficult to maintain accurately. It would also vary
according to the radius of the arc (typically between about 9 and 20 nm: PANSOPS
gives a minimum of 7 nm) and, as always, according to the wind.

The recommended method is to fly a series of chords, of approximately 20° of arc,

using radials from the central beacon (NDB or VOR).

Preparation

At the planning stage (pre-flight or en-route to the procedure) first establish the point
at which you will intercept the arc. This may be along a prescribed track (e.g. from an
ATS route) or a “free” join wherever your direct arrival hits the arc. Note whether you
turn left or right to join the arc.

The distance at which you turn will be published, if on a prescribed track, but most (non
“copter”) procedures will be drawn for fixed wing aircraft at 180 knots and you should
halve the turn allowance to achieve a neat join. For example, the usual published
distance is 2 nm before the arc – helicopters should use 1 nm.

The heading you initially turn on to should be that to make good the tangent to the arc
at that point. This should be estimated or measured at the planning stage.

Finally, check the altitude at which the arc should be flown. Arcs are sometimes broken
into different altitude segments. These segments are separated by radials, shown on
the Approach Plate, with the appropriate altitudes shown along the arc between the
radials.

Flying the Arc – Still Air

On reaching the turn range, make sure at least one RMI needle is selected to the
central beacon and turn on to the tangential heading. Figure 18-1 below shows how
the RMI should now look.
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BEACON ARC

RMI

Figure 18-1

The head of the RMI needle is pointing approximately to the abeam position.

Now turn to fly a chord across the arc; this will enable you to fly a fixed heading for a
few minutes, allowing you to carry out other tasks, e.g. checks R/T etc. To do this, turn
inwards, across the circle, which means turning towards the head of the needle. The
needle head will now point ahead of the abeam position. Let us refer to this as “Lead”.
The picture should now look like Figure 18-2.
BEACON ARC

RMI

Figure 18-2
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The needle “leads” the abeam mark by about 10o. Now fly the resultant heading.

This will take you across the chord of the arc. You will observe that:

a. The needle slowly passes through the abeam until it points behind you, and

b. The DME numbers slowly count down as you cut inside the arc, then count up
again after the mid point.

The decrease in DME reading will be approximately 0.2 nm at the mid point of the arc,
which is well within the limit of 0.5 nm.

BEACON ARC

RMI

Figure 18-3

Note: the above diagrams are not to scale in order to show the effect more easily. In Figure 18-3 the
aircraft appears to have flown about 90o of arc and the needle leads and lags by about 45o.

When the needle “lags” the abeam mark by approximately 10o and the DME is back up
to the published range, you will have completed the chord and it is time to repeat the
process, if necessary, by once again turning until you achieve 10o lead.

It may be that you will reach the desired DME range before or after you have achieved
the desired needle “lag”. This will be due to wind (see below) or inaccurate flying, e.g.
out of balance. It is important to remember that it is the DME range, which is the
critical parameter. Therefore, turn on to the next chord when you reach the desired
range (this may mean continuing past the anticipated “lag” situation until you reach the
desired range.
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Flying the Arc – Wind Effects

The basic technique described above will obviously be affected by the wind. It may
be possible to start the first chord with an idea of the drift to expect, but that estimate
may need to be revised, and anyway will not apply to subsequent chords as they are
on different tracks. It is better to have an idea of the wind strength and direction in the
back of your mind and then to observe the DME readout as you cross the chord.
It will then be helpful simply to think in terms of “In” and “Out”. You will see from the
behaviour of the numbers whether you are crossing the chord as expected. If the
numbers do not initially decrease as advertised, then you are being blown Out. If they
decrease rapidly, so that it appears you will exceed 0.5 nm decrease by the time the
needle points abeam, then you are being blown In and need to turn Out a few degrees.
It may be that the wind is responsible for this error, or it may be that your own flying
accuracy is at fault. If you restrict yourself to assessing “In” or “Out”, the reason for
the error does not matter – or at least becomes of secondary importance. All you
have to do is make an appropriate inwards or outwards correction. However, the
more accurate and consistent your flying, the more able you will be to revise your
assessment of the wind.
The basic technique of flying a series of straight tracks around the arc will enable you
to carry out other tasks while observing the behaviour of the DME readings. Any errors
will show themselves relatively slowly so that you have time to make a correction and
then return to your other tasks while the correction takes place.

Leaving the Arc

The point where you leave the arc is shown on approach plates by a “Lead in” (or
simply “Lead”) Radial. Once you have passed this radial you are free to turn for
the Localiser or Final Approach Track and, if necessary to descend to the published
altitude for approaching the Final Approach Fix. Once again, because of their lower
speed, helicopters should not actually make the turn until about the half-way point
between the Lead Radial and the inbound Radial.

Problems

The above paragraphs describe a good basic technique to us. Be aware that not all
DME arc procedures have a central beacon. There are two possible solutions to this.
One is to continue to fly estimated chords using tangential headings based on where
you are on the arc as shown by other navaids. The other, in the absence of any other
navaids, is to establish the initial heading from your known point of arrival on the arc
and then simply to observe the behaviour of the DME numbers. If they are increasing
too much, turn inwards and vice versa. This is not really difficult but does require
significantly more attention to the DME leaving you less time for other tasks.

Another situation, which occasionally arises, is where the arc starts at a specified
range from the central beacon. In other words, from a fix defined by radial range. The
direct route to that fix may well achieve the arc DME before the arc procedure starts,
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as in the following example. Arc flying should not start until the published radial.
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INTENTIONALLY BLANK
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19. Direction Finding (DF)

To ascertain whether an aeronautical station offers a VHF Direction Finding (VDF)

service you will have to refer to the Aerodrome (AD) volume of the UK AlP. Once you
have found the relevant aerodrome, look at section 2.19-Radio Navigation and Land-
ing Aids.

VDF bearing information will only be given when 1he conditions are satisfactory and
the radio bearing falls within calibrated limits. If the provision of a bearing is not pos-
sible the pilot will be told the reason why.

NOTE: Some VDF stations stipulate that the service is not available for en-route
navigation except in an emergency.

VDF stations provide bearing and heading information on request from the pilot, us-
ing the appropriate Q code. Each transmission from the pilot shall end in the aircraft
callsign. A VDF station can give the following.

1. QDR-Magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the station. (i.e. Approach Starspeed 01
request QDR Starspeed 01).

2. QDM-Magnetic heading to be steered by the aircraft, still wind, to reach the VDF
station. (i.e. Approach Starspeed 01 request QDM Starspeed 01).

3. QTE-True bearing of the aircraft from the station. (i.e. Approach Starspeed 01
request true bearing or QTE Starspeed 01).

The Direction Finding station will reply with the following.

1. The appropriate phrase or Q code.

2. The bearing or heading in degrees in relation to the Direction Finding station.
3. The class of bearing.
4. The time of observation if required.

The accuracy of the observation is as follows.

Class A +/- 2° Class B +/- 5° Class C +/- 10°

Class D Accuracy less than class C

NOTE: Normally no better than Class B will be provided.

There are two types of Direction Finding procedures, the QGH and the VDF proce-
dure.
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QGH Procedures

The OGH procedure is flown following heading instructions from the controller. The
pilot will be asked to transmit for DF (i.e. Starspeed 01 transmitting for DF Starspeed
01) the controller will then pass heading corrections if required.
During the approach the pilot is told when he/she is in the DF overhead. He/she will
be told when to descend outbound. The controller will time the outbound leg and the
pilot will be told when to turn inbound. In other words once requested the entire pro-
cedure is controller interpreted, to the extent of informing the pilot when to initiate the
Missed Approach Procedure.

VDF Procedures

This is a procedure where a series of ODM's are requested and received so that the
aircraft can home to the VDF station in order to carry out a published VDF proce-
dure.
Requests for ODM's are usually initiated by the pilot at intervals of about 1 minute.
The frequency of requests increases as the VDF overhead is approached.

The VDF procedure is totally pilot interpreted.

On initial contact a ODM is given and from this it is determined which way to turn in
order to arrive in the VDF overhead within ± 30° of the outbound leg.

From the example over leaf the initial ODM is 005°. This bearing is left of the out-
bound track, therefore the aircraft must be turned left in order to intercept an inbound
ODM within 30° of the outbound track of 045°. Having achieved this, maintain a track
to the station. The frequency of ODM requests increases as the overhead is ap-
proached. Once you receive a call of 'NO BEARING' twice you can assume that you
are in the overhead and can proceed outbound on the prescribed track.

During the outbound leg ODM's are requested in order to maintain track. These
ODM's need to be converted to ODR's so as to ensure that the aircraft is turned in
the correct direction for any given error ( in the same way as you would drag the tail
of the RMI to correct a track error).

In Fig. 21 - 1, we have wandered of track. The ODM is 230°. Take the reciprocal
which is 050°. This is right of your desired track; therefore the aircraft needs to be
turned left in order to intercept the outbound track.

At the end of the outbound leg which is based on time corrected for wind the aircraft
commences a rate one turn to establish on the inbound track. Requests for ODM's
are made throughout the inbound turn in order to capture the FAT.
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Once established on the inbound ODM the aircraft is descended to MDH/A. In our
example during the inbound leg the aircraft has drifted off track and receives a ODM
of 200°. We can see that the aircraft is right of our desired track and must therefore
be tuned left in order to re-establish 205°. Track is maintained to MAPt, which will
usually be the VDF overhead. At the MAPt the missed approach procedure is flown
in accordance with the published procedure or as directed by ATC.

For the correct RT phraseology to be used whist carrying out a VDF procedure refer
to CAP 413

Note:

1. Request a QDM to the station. In this case 005°. The aircraft must now be posi-
tioned within 30° of the outbound track,
2. Confirmation of the station overhead is determined by receiving 2 transmissions
of ‘NO BEARING’ from the controller. The aircraft then proceeds outbound in ac-
cordance with the published procedure, NOTE: QDM’s will need to be converted to
QDR’s so that the aircraft is turned the right way when correcting errors.
3. At the end of the outbound leg a Rate one turn is commenced. During the inbound
turn QDM’s are still required in order that the FAT is achieved.
4. Once established inbound QDM’sare requested to maintain track.

Note:

1. Request a QDM to the station. In this case 005°. The aircraft must now be posi-
tioned within 30° of the outbound track,

2. Confirmation of the station overhead is determined by receiving 2 transmissions

of ‘NO BEARING’ from the controller. The aircraft then proceeds outbound in ac-
cordance with the published procedure, NOTE: QDM’s will need to be converted to
QDR’s so that the aircraft is turned the right way when correcting errors.

3. At the end of the outbound leg a Rate one turn is commenced. During the inbound
turn QDM’s are still required in order that the FAT is achieved.

4. Once established inbound QDM’sare requested to maintain track.

(Diagram next page)

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4
205°
QDM
225°

QDM
230°

045°
2

QDM
225°

075°

045°
QDM
015°

1 QDM
005°
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20. Briefs, Single Pilot Ifr And Multi Pilot Operations

The Company that employs you will have an Operations Manual (Corporate or Pri-
vate Pilots will have to write their own procedures) that contains the requirements for
IFR monitoring procedures.

This Section aims to draw together the Operations Manual requirements into a prac-
tical, rather than legal, format for instrument flights and should therefore be read in
conjunction with an Operations Manual Part ‘A’ or procedures that have been put in
place.

It is easy to forget, in the pressure to remember all the ingredients, that a brief is
done in order either brief yourself in a SP IFR environment (so that you don’t miss
anything) to brief the examiner or TRE in a SP IFR LST, LPC or OPC or maximise
the help you get from your co-pilot. You should keep it formal, certainly, as that will
assist clarity. However, you should think of it as a conversation in which you are
saying ‘’This is what I want you to do, (even to yourself) these are my intentions and
these are the numbers I want you to monitor”.

Beware the expression “SOP”. If you haven’t come across it before, it means “Stand-
ard Operating Procedures”. It can be a useful abbreviation if the standard procedures
really are standard. However, the accident reports are full of misunderstandings of
what the “standard” procedure actually was! If a procedure, call, duty, etc is specified
in the Ops Manual, it may be taken as Standard.

Pilot Flying (PF) Briefs

Taxy and Take-Off

The taxy brief and much of the take-off brief is type-specific and is therefore to be
found in the Part ‘B’ of an Operations Manual. The Part ‘A’ requires additional items
for an IFR departure as follows:

a. Departure runway designation

b. Standard Instrument Departure (SID) procedure details or departure clearance
details. Emphasize any restrictions on altitude, speed, or heading.
c. Use of anti-ice systems in the climb.
d. Actions in the event of an emergency, particularly after the option of a rejected
take-off has passed.

Some SIDs are very long and complicated and consequently difficult to remember.
It is best in these cases to brief only the first two or three ‘gates’ to be reached and
then read (SP) or ask the PNF to read out the subsequent details from the plate as
each point is reached. This request forms part of the brief.
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Approach and Landing Brief

This is a most important brief in the context of IFR flight. The ONLY way you can
safely descend from MSA is by carrying out an approved Instrument Approach Pro-
cedure (lAP). At the end of an instrument approach you will be very close to the
ground, possibly in cloud, with little time to hesitate and no room at all for confusion.

For most types, the Approach Brief is the final item in the Initial Approach Checks.
That does not mean it has to be left until that point. As soon as the weather and the
type of approach is known (or reasonably probable) the approach can be briefed.

Using QNH as the altimeter setting for landing, it is obviously important to brief the
Threshold Elevation, because that is the altimeter reading at which, one way or an-
other, the aircraft will hit the ground!

The minimum altitude (DA or MDA) is also important, as that is as close as you can
safely get to the ground without seeing it. Furthermore, all the standard altimeter
calls derive from it. It is therefore a good idea to brief all the calls when you brief the
minimum altitude.

If you have altimeter bugs, these will help in indicating your proximity to the ground.
The AS 355 does not, and for these the RadAlt Bugs should be used to give warning
of ground proximity. RadAlts measure height from the surface and have no idea of al-
titude at all! Therefore, the settings are based on minimum height (DH/MDH) and are
set to DH-50’ or MDH-100’.

Although RadAlt bugs are not set to these values until the Final Approach Checks,
they are briefed in the Approach Brief. That is because finding the DH or MDH at a
late stage of the approach could cause confusion.

Other areas to be briefed should include Final Approach Track, Descent point (e.g.
FAF), Missed Approach Point and Missed Approach Procedure. The Part ‘A’ of an
Operations Manual contains a selection of other items which may require inclusion in
the brief.

Note that at least the Threshold Elevation and Minimum Altitude are to be entered in
the Navigation Log (if required) It is common practice to log all critical altitudes, and
the RadAlt Bug settings.
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Example Briefs

The examples which follow are intended to illustrate, for those who have never heard
one, the format of a briefing for a precision approach and a non-precision approach.
THE FORMAT IS NOT MANDATORY. Your Instructor orTraining Captain may prefer
a different way of doing it, and is perfectly entitled to his preference. However, the
elements contained in it should be the same. Read them in conjunction with the ap-
propriate approach plates.

The following have been broken down into Single Pilot and Multi Pilot environments.

Single Pilot

Precision Approach

“This will be an ILS approach, Cat A to runway 27 at Bristol/Filton

The Localiser Track is 273, (Set it at this point so you don’t forget) with a Final
Approach Fix at 4.5 DME with a GP check at 1690’
Decision Altitude is 500’. I will call “1000 for 500’: and “100 to go” at 600’
If we go around, the Missed Approach Procedure is to 4D then right to hold at OF at
3000 ft.
The RadAlt bug will be set to 240’ on Finals.
Note the Threshold Elevation, which is 185 ft. “

Multi Pilot

Precision Approach

“This will be an ILS approach to runway 16 at Aberdeen. The Plate is M3M dated 23
Nov 06.
The Localiser Track is 162, with a Final Approach Point at 6.3 DME.
It’s a 3 degree glidepath, with a GP check of 1530 ft at 4DME. Decision Altitude is
410 ft, so call “910 for 410’: and “100 to go” at 510.
When I call Decide, either take control if you see the lights or call ‘Go Around’ if you
don’t.
If we go around, the Missed Approach Procedure is straight ahead to 3000 ft. RadAlt
bugs will be set to 200 (me) and 150 (you) on Finals.
Note the Threshold Elevation, which is 203 ft. “
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Single Pilot

Non-Precision Approach

“This will be an NDBIDME approach to runway 09, CAT A at Gloucestershire.

QDM for the approach is 094 (Set QDM on Beam bar of either the hold orienta-
tion or approach at this point so you don’t forget)
The final approach fix is at 5D at 1650’
The Minimum Descent Altitude is 480 ft and the rrinimum RVR 1000 metres with a
MAPT at 1d.
I will call “980 for 480’: and “100 to go” at 580’.
The Missed Approach Procedure is to turn left onto track 080 to 900’ , then left onto
track 359 to 2800 then left to GST
Note the Threshold Elevation of 117ft. “

Multi Pilot

Non-Precision Approach

"This will be an NDBIDME approach to runway 09 at Norwich. The Plate is P1 M

dated 3rd August '06.
We'll be doing a Direct Arrival on the 8 DME arc at 2000ft. After the 262 Lead Bear-
ing we can descend not below 1500ft and turn onto the Final Approach Track of 089,
with a Final Approach Fix at 4DME.
After the FAF, it is a normal 3 degree approach, please read the advisory altitudes for
me from the table.
The Minimum Descent Altitude is 560 ft and the rrinimum RVR 1000 metres. I'd like
altitude calls at "1060 for 560': and "100 to go" at 660.
Advise me when we become visual with the lights, otherwise call at the Missed Ap-
proach Point, which is the NWI. 111 call "Decide': and if you are still not visual, call
"Go Around".
The Missed Approach Procedure is to intercept the 093 to NH and clirrb to 2000ft, so
we'll need to change the ADF to 371.5 if we go around.
Note the Threshold Elevation of 117ft. "

These are just examples, but I have used the opportunity to point out how approach
briefs are not predictably “scripted”. In the second example, the opportunity is taken
to brief an NDB frequency change for go-around. Also, because the Missed Ap-
proach point is an NDB at the upwind end of the runway, the briefer asks the looker-
out to call if he is visual before the MAPt. Because if he waited until the MAPt, it
would be too late to land!
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So, a brief must be carefully considered and clearly expressed. That takes time, so
do it in advance of the busy arrival phase of the approach. There will be a temptation
initially to "get it out of the way" and gabble a few numbers at your colleague. If you
are going to do that, you might as well save even more time by not doing it at all! The
briefing is your chance to avoid error and misunderstanding. Make the most of it.

MULTI CREW ONLY

Pilot Not Flying (PNF) Duties

If you are new to two-crew ops, you should be aware that your performance in the
PNF role is assessable. You will have many duties which are outside the scope of
this guide, which is only concerned with Instrument Flying procedures.

In this context, your main duty is monitoring the PF's flying both for safety and for
correct adherence to procedures (which, of course, means safety). You must find a
balance between commenting on every slight deviation from perfection ("nagging")
and not raising your voice until the aircraft is almost out of control ("useless")!

Start by learning the standard monitoring calls you are expected to make. They are
published in the Ops Manual Part 'A' para [Link]. The General and Instrument Ap-
proach parts are reproduced here.

Standard Calls by PNF

General

Event Call (PNF)

During all climbs and descents 100 FEET TO GO

All deviations in height, during cruise,
HEIGHT 200 FEET LOW/HIGH
Approaching error of 200 feet
HEIGHT BUST OF (Designated height/
All Height Busts
altitude/FL)
If any parameter is incorrect for any (e.g.) AIRSPEED HIGH/LOW or Nr
stage of flight HIGH/LOW
If the PNF considers it imperative to dis-
GO AROUND
continue an approach
If the PNF considers emergency “Go
Around” action is required to avoid con- PULL UP
tact with the surface
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Instrument Approach
Event Call (PNF)

Positive inward movement of the Local-

LOCALISER LIVE
iser bar (flag cleared)
Positive downward movement of the
GLIDESLOPE LIVE
glideslope bar (flag cleared)
APPROACHING HALF SCALE LOCALI-
Approaching Limits of Tracking SERI GLiDESLOPE Or APPROACHING
5 degrees LEFT/RIGHT

At GP Check fix (If published) INDICATING ** FEET HIGH/LOW

AXX. (passing alt) FOR BXX (minimum

alt). (N.B: If no reply, take control and
At DA or MDA plus 500 feet
continue to single pilot minima or GO
AROUND

At DA or MDA plus 100 feet 100 FEET TO GO

At Missed Approach Point MISSED APPROACH POINT

Either I HAVE CONTROL Or GO

PF calls “Decide” (At DA or MAPt as ap- AROUND
propriate)

These calls, being standard, need not be briefed.

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Airborne Radar Approach

Only the PNF will operate and monitor the radar and give the necessary talkdown in-
structions. The Commander will normally assume this role and will brief accordingly.

Range: This will be called at least every 1/2 nautical mile down to approach Offset
Point (OP) at 1 1/2 nautical miles and thereafter at least every % nautical mile until
Missed Approach Point (MAPt) is reached.

Heading: Heading instructions will be passed as the actual heading to fly and altera-
tion will be in the format of "TURN LEFT/RIGHT ... degrees".

RADALT: RADALT heights will be called every 100 feet passing below 600 feet:
when within 100 feet of Minimum Descent Height (MDH) then frequent calls will be
included until reaching MAPt.

lAS: This will be monitored at all times wi1h calls at least every 10 knots during
speed reduction phase. Routine confirmatory calls should be made after 2 nautical
miles with a warning if speed varies ± 5 knots from declared final lAS.

"Talkdown" will normally commence when Final Approach Checks have been com-
pleted and no later than 4 nm range. Pauses in talkdown will not normally exceed 10
seconds.

Ideal Talkdown Example

Event Call (PNF)

Rig ahead
Heading is good at 2400
Range 4 nm
Height 750 feet
Speed good at 90 knots
Rig slightly left
Turn left 3 degres heading 237
Range 3.5 nm
Height 650 feet
Speed still 90 knots
Rig ahead
Heading is good
Range 3 nm
Height 570 feet
Speed now 80 knots
Rig slightly right
Range 2.5 nm
Turn right 20 heading 239 degrees
Height 500 feet
Speed good at 70 knots
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Rig still slightly right

Turn right 2 degrees
heading 241degrees
Range 2 nm
Height 300 feet
Speed still good at 70 knots
100 feet to go
Rig offsetting to the left Turn right 10
degrees
heading 251 degrees
Range 1.5 nm Height 230 feet
Speed 75 knots

Heading good - good offset from rig

Range 1.25 nm Height 210 feet
Speed 70 knots
Heading still good - offset good
Range 1 nm Height good 200 feet
Speed good
Go around - nothing seen Turn right
Range 0.75 nm
heading 3000 Climb to (MESA)

Further monitoring information should be passed from the PNF to the PF as relevant,
with the objective of providing a good accurate flow of information. This will enable
the PF to concentrate on his IF Scan and discourage him from looking at the radar at
the expense of a good scan.

As mentioned, the commander will normally take the responsibility in IMC conditions
to:

Adjust and monitor the radar

Provide the talkdown
Monitor the scan of the PF
Look for the visual reference

Make the executive decision to either go around or to take control for a visual ap-
proach once in visual contact flying conditions
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Aircraft Checks in Flight (Single Pilot and Multi Pilot)

It is a crew responsibility to ensure that in flight checks are carried out at the appro-
priate times. Again, the Operations Manual, Part 'A' is the reference document for the
details. The more important details are reproduced below.

After Take-off and Go-Around Checks:

Action may be taken as soon as the aircraft is safely established in the climb. How-
ever, the checks should not normally be confirmed by reference to the check lists
until the aircraft is at 500 feet agl or above.

Climb/Descent Checks:

a. Appropriate Climb Checks should be carried out subsequent to After Takeoff/Go-

around checks, and during extended climb for a SID. If required to climb from the
cruise, then they should be carried out just prior to climbing.

b. Descent checks should be carried out just prior to descent, unless Initial Approach
checks have already been completed when no further Descent checks should be
required.

Cruise (En Route) Checks:

It is recommended that these checks are carried out once settled in the cruise, and
thereafter approximately every 20 minutes. It is also useful to carry out the check
during cruise flight after reporting points, beacon passage, way-points, Area pressure
setting boundaries etc. as relevant.

Approach Checks:

(IFR) Initial Approach Checks should be carried out at any suitable time between
obtaining a full weather update for the approach and starting the turn (base turn, pro-
cedure turn or Radar Vectored turn "to close the localiser") onto the Final Approach
Track.

The key to this Operations Manual Rule is the word "suitable". It is for the crew to
judge (by the complexity of the procedure, the cockpit activity level, the fuel penalty
from lowering the undercarriage, etc) what is a suitable moment to do the checks.
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Final Checks:

Final checks should be carried out:

(IFR ONSHORE) When on an intercept heading for the Final Approach Track.

This means, on a vectored approach, when you are given a heading "to close the
Localiser" (or Final Approach Track). On a procedural approach, it means when you
are steady on heading after your procedure turn, base turn, etc.

OFFSHORE: When established on finals with the correct radar target identified.

There is obviously much more to two-crew operations than is described here. It in-
volves CRM, Close Monitoring, Normal Monitoring, Sterile Cockpit, Log keeping and
many other things. The above is intended to get you started, in an IFR context, so
that you can pass an initial OPC(I). The rest will be provided in Line Training.