Chapter 02 - The Psychology and Economics of Employee Benefits

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Chapter 02
The Psychology and Economics of Employee Benefits

True / False Questions

1. Employee benefits act as a tool for recruiting and retaining desired employees for
companies. (How Employee Benefits Constitute Social Exchange)
TRUE

2. Social exchange is one where the nature of exchange has been specified at the time of
employment. (How Employee Benefits Constitute Social Exchange)
FALSE

3. Once the social exchange is set between employer and employee, it does not change
over time. (How Employee Benefits Constitute Social Exchange)
FALSE

4. Employee benefits need to be considered as economic exchange between employer

and employee rather than social exchange relationship. (How Employee Benefits
Constitute Social Exchange)
FALSE

5. Despite increasingly diverse workforce in the US workplace, traditional benefits

practices assuming similarity among workers can still work well for today’s
organizations. (Workforce Changes and the Employment Relationship)
FALSE

6. Relational psychological contracts can often be understood with an example of an

independent contractor or consultant hired by a firm. (Psychological Contracts)
FALSE
7. Long term relationship between employer and employee pertains to transactional
psychological contracts. (Psychological Contracts)
FALSE

8. Job security, recognition, and support in exchange for commitment and loyalty to the
employer more pertain to relational psychological contracts. (Psychological Contracts)
TRUE

2-1
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of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 02 - The Psychology and Economics of Employee Benefits

9. Employee benefits practices can fulfill either transactional or relational psychological

contracts. (Psychological Contracts)
TRUE

10. Legally required benefits would form a part of employees’ transactional expectation.
(Psychological Contracts)
TRUE

11. Retirement plans is a good example of benefits that fulfill both transactional and
relational expectations. (Psychological Contracts)
TRUE

12. Psychological contracts do not develop and change over time. (Psychological
Contracts)
FALSE

13. Violations of psychological contracts are basically the same as unmet expectations.
(Psychological Contract Violation)
FALSE

14. Violations of psychological contracts are likely to be more intense than unmet
expectations because of feelings of betrayal and the onset of mistrust. (Psychological
Contract Violation)
TRUE

15. Employer’s expectation of the employee is not as important as employee’s expectation

about the employer. (Employee Benefits as Constituting Psychological Contracts)
FALSE

16. Tax incentives are the only reason employers offer benefits to employees. (The
Economics of Employee Benefits: Why Do Employers Offer Benefits?)
FALSE

17. One reason for employer-provided health insurance is to avoid adverse selection. (Cost
Advantage)
TRUE

18. As the size of the insured group increases, so does the difficulty for the insurance
companies to predict the total medical expenses of the group. (Cost Advantage)
FALSE

2-2
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 02 - The Psychology and Economics of Employee Benefits

19. Economies of scale refers to the lower amount of co-pay required of employees in a
large company as opposed to those in a small company. (Cost Advantage)
FALSE

20.20.

21. The degree to which employers will decrease their hiring, if the market compensation
level increases, can affect how much of a benefit's increase cost will be passed on to
the employees. (Who Pays For Benefits?)
TRUE

22. Offering some benefits in a compensation package can attract qualified, but
undesirable job applicants. (Recruiting Certain Types of Workers)
TRUE

23. When health benefit costs rise for a single employer in a market, the employer will
likely be able to pass along the benefit costs to workers, even if the workers valuation
of the benefit has NOT changed. (Who Pays for Benefits?)
FALSE

24. The IRS offers tax benefits to companies that offer retirement plans. (Tax Incentives)
TRUE

25. The concept of justice in the work setting concerns the distribution of rewards,
information, and other resources. (Justice and Perceived Organizational Support)
TRUE

26. If health insurance premiums rise because of advances in medical care technology,
employees would probably perceive that the increase added value to their
insurance. (Who Pays For Benefits?)
TRUE

27. Employees in a large company are less likely to be subject to medical underwriting
than those in a small company. (Cost Advantage)
TRUE

28. Most small group health insurance policies are based on experience ratings. (Cost
Advantage)
TRUE

2-3
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent
of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 02 - The Psychology and Economics of Employee Benefits

29. Even if increased health insurance costs are NOT accompanied by an increase in
employees' valuation of the insurance, cash wages will probably be adjusted
downward anyway. (Who Pays for Benefits?)
FALSE

30. One of the drawbacks of Medicare and Social Security insurance, is that neither
program can avoid adverse selection. (Cost Advantage)
FALSE

31. Offering benefits to employees can be cost effective for employees, but NOT for
employers. (Cost Advantage)
FALSE

32. Perceived organizational support is an employee’s perception of the fairness of the

accounts given for certain procedures. (Justice and Perceived Organizational Support)
FALSE

33. Distributive justice is employees’ perceptions of fairness of the process by which

decisions are made and the extent to which employees can participate in the
process. (Justice and Perceived Organization Support)
FALSE

34. Medical expenses are higher for people with new medical histories. (Cost Advantage)
FALSE

35. Experience rating is the process of gathering information about employees' risk
profiles. (Cost Advantage)
TRUE

36. Organizational citizenship behavior is enforceable by management.. (Organizational

Citizenship Behavior)
FALSE

37. Offering certain types of benefits in combination with reduced compensation is one
way of recruiting desirable workers. (Recruiting Certain Types of Workers)
TRUE

2-4
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of McGraw-Hill Education.
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atmospheric changes. So easily affected are the opals by the vicissitudes
of the weather that they are almost always brighter in summer than in
winter. But there are some varieties that are not so easily influenced, and
are not injured by contact with water. The fact that this variety of opal is
injured in course of time by contact with moisture or careless exposure is
not remarkable when some of the harder gems undergo a change from
similar exposure. The hard amethystine quartz, when worn as a finger
ornament, will completely bleach out and become colorless in a few
years. The black opal is the product of art, and for this purpose harlequin
opals are used. The harlequin opal is simply the matrix of other gems
spotted here and there with flakes of color dispersed over an opaque
ground, and its name was suggested by the resemblance to the motley
tints of the harlequin’s dress. Masses of the matrix, with fragments or
specks of opal interspersed in its substance, are soaked for a time in a
saccharine solution, and afterwards in diluted sulphuric acid. The porous
parts of the matrix absorb a minute quantity of the solution, which is
afterwards charred by the sulphuric acid; while the solid and transparent
parts remain unchanged and exhibit an increased play of colors upon the
black ground.
The ancients undoubtedly obtained their opals from Syria and Arabia
or other Eastern countries, for the Hungarian mines which now supply
the world with most of the finest gems were not discovered until the
fifteenth century. The famous mines are situated on a mountain which is
one of the spurs of the Carpathians. They belong to the Seignory Peklin,
and are near the village of Czernizka. In the early days of their discovery,
and for a long period afterwards, they were explored casually and from
time to time. At the present day, however, the explorations are conducted
with regularity and the appliances of skilled labor. The surface of the
mountain has been removed to a great extent during this long-continued
search of many centuries, but as yet no explorations have been attempted
into the interior of the ledges. The true matrix appears not to be more
than four to eight yards in depth below the alluvial soil. It is arranged in
continuous beds of little hardness, but resembling porphyry in color. The
opal formation appears to extend to a considerable distance beyond the
flanks of the mountain; for, in the cultivated fields below, the laborers
often find beautiful gems washed out by violent rain-storms from the
exposed and superficial soils.
The opals from these mines are the hardest and most enduring of all
the known localities of the earth, yet they have to be carefully tempered
to heat and moisture before they can be utilized. M. Frangoll Delius, the
Commissioner of the Austrian mines, states that these opals, when first
extracted from their rocky beds, are soft, friable, and tender, and not in a
condition to be worked. But after they have been exposed to the air and
sunlight for some days or a definite time, they become harder, and the
stones also become decidedly smaller from contraction. This exposure is
required to be carefully regulated lest the stone become fissured by
sudden contraction. When exposed to the effects of artificial heat, colors
appear sooner than when it is submitted to the action of the sun’s rays. It
is curious to watch the gradual unfolding and the display of these
beautiful hues. At first the stone is limpid and rayless as pellucid quartz.
But as the quarry water is evaporated by the effect of heat or time, and
the stone contracts in volume, the iridized reflections then begin to
appear, increasing in perfection and variety, until the requisite degree of
moisture is expelled. If this evaporation is carried too far by heat the
splendors of the gem vanish completely, never to be recalled. It is a
singular fact that exposure to the sun’s rays gives the opal much finer
hues than the action of artificial heat. And it is also a remarkable
circumstance that of all the variety of prismatic hues displayed by this
gem, the violet invariably appears the first, according to M. Delius.
The ancients rarely engraved upon the opal, influenced perhaps partly
from its enormous value in those times, and partly from its soft and
fragile nature. They imitated the gem, however, with such perfection that
Pliny declared that it was almost impossible to distinguish the false from
the real. Modern gem imitators have utterly failed in producing anything
approaching the precious opal in beauty. The assertion of Pliny in regard
to the imitation of the glories of this gem has always been received with
incredulity by the moderns on account of the failures of our most skilled
artisans; but the discoveries among the ancient Phœnician tombs in the
island of Cyprus by Di Cesnola rather strengthen Pliny’s remark.
In this collection we may view a great and elegant variety of glass-
ware exhumed from the tombs of the Phœnician nobility who lived three
thousand years ago or more. Many of these vessels gleam with what
appear to be iridescent tints of gold, blue, red, and other colors of the
loveliest tints, recalling to mind the most beautiful and gorgeous
reflections of the opal. Some of the articles are entirely of one color,
while others are composed of patches of various hues resembling
enormous opals with broad gleams of pure color. Peligot maintains that
these superb colors are clue to the effect of great age; and the substance
of the glass being separated into laminæ, the colors may be explained by
the law of iridescence. But we are half inclined to believe that they may
be due to the skill of the artisan in a great measure,—hence the variety of
color in different vessels of the same age. In the famous collection of
Signor Castellani there is a solid glass ring quite two inches in diameter
taken from the ancient Etruscan tombs. This interesting relic exhibits
patches of color as bright as the prismatic gleams, and they do not appear
to arise from any disintegration of the material, but rather to be produced
by the design of the workman. We surely will not ascribe to effect of age
the decided iridescent glaze which we see in the Maiolica pottery of
Hispano-Moresque objects of the thirteenth or fifteenth centuries, or in
the Gubbio products of the sixteenth century.
The famous opal of history was that which was worn in a ring by the
Roman Senator Nonius in the days of the Triumvirate. Its size scarcely
exceeded that of a hazel-nut, yet its beauty and perfection were such that
it was considered a marvel among the dilettanti of Rome, and valued at
the enormous sum of nearly a million dollars. Marc Antony,
remembering the sacrifice of the matchless pearl by Cleopatra, and still
enslaved by her irresistible charms, sought to obtain the opal, intending it
as a present to the siren queen of Egypt. But Nonius refused to part with
the treasure which was the idol of his heart, and sought safety in flight.
The beauty and charm of the gem may be estimated by the fact that
banishment then to a Roman was worse than death. History makes no
further mention of this wonderful opal, and even if preserved among the
spoils of ancient Byzantium its glories have probably vanished ere this,
yielding to the destructive effects of time.
The finest opal of modern times was that which was worn by the
Empress Josephine in the days of Imperial splendor. It was indeed a
magnificent gem. Its flashing beams of light were so strong and vivid as
to give the appearance of living flames of fire, and hence the name of
l’incendie de Troie,—“the burning of Troy,”—was bestowed upon it. The
base of this opal was completely opaque, but the superior portion was
perfectly transparent, and through it were reflected a multitude of fiery
gleams of red light. The fate of this beautiful gem is unknown. There are
two splendid opals still to be seen among the Crown jewels of France,
notwithstanding the frequent change of dynasties. One is placed in the
centre of the Order of the Toison d’Or, and the other forms the clasp of
the royal mantle.
 In the imperial cabinet at Vienna is exhibited the grandest specimen of
this gem yet discovered. It was found in the mines of Hungary in 1770,
and purchased by the Austrian Government. It measures 3³⁄₄ inches in
length, and is 2¹⁄₂ inches in thickness. Its weight is about seventeen
ounces, and its value is estimated at about $300,000. Although it is
injured by several cracks and fissures, it possesses a brilliant play of
color, and is justly regarded as the finest specimen known, even
surpassing the beautiful fire opal brought home from Mexico by
Humboldt, and which is still preserved in the museum at Berlin.
At the close of the last century, but before the Revolution broke out in
France, Mons. D’Auguy, a financier of Paris, came in possession of a
most remarkable opal of the harlequin variety. It was of oval form, ⁷⁄₈ of
an inch in length by ⁵⁄₈ in breadth. This gem was of wondrous beauty, and
was pronounced perfect by the connoisseurs. It is now in the hands of the
family of Count Waliski. At the same time the well-known amateur
Fleury owned a rival to Auguy’s opal, which it exceeded slightly in size.
Another magnificent opal is described by Jackson as having been
exhibited at Vienna. It was nearly an inch in length, and was of the
harlequin order, having three longitudinal bands from which flashed
resplendent flames of light and color. It was pronounced by the virtuosi
of Dresden and Vienna to be the third in rank of all the fine opals then
known.
In the Musée de Minéralogie of Paris may be seen a splendid opal
which has been carved into a bust of Louis XIII. when a child. King very
properly exclaims against the barbarism and extravagance where work
and material mutually destroy each other’s beauty and value. The
Spanish historians, in their marvellous stories of the wonders seen in
Mexico at the time of the Conquest, describe the image of the mystic
deity Quetzalcoatl (God of the air) on the great pyramid of Cholula, as
wearing a mitre waving with plumes of fire, and which was supposed to
have been produced by masses of the fire opal.
Dr. Le Conte brought home from his geological surveys in Honduras,
a number of beautiful opals from the mines in that country. They have
since been cut and mounted in gold with diamond settings, in the form of
a necklace, which is regarded by connoisseurs as one of the most
valuable jewels in the United States.
At the Centennial Exhibition of the United States, Austria exhibited
some very beautiful opals of various kinds, both polished and in the
natural state. One of the polished gems was two inches in diameter and
valued at $25,000. It was of a faint milky white tint, like most of the
Hungarian opals, and displayed a charming arrangement of colors.
The splendors of the opal are best seen when exposed to the direct
rays of the sun, and viewed through a magnifying glass of low power.
The dazzling scene has no equal in art or nature, for the vivid hues of the
solar spectrum are here displayed with the most charming effect. The
colors are in broad patches and not blended with their complementary
hues as seen in the continuous spectrum, and the effects of the pure
green, red, blue, and yellow, flashing forth in perfect purity and intensity,
without definite arrangement, remind the observer of the brilliancy of the
kaleidoscope. In this fascinating display of hues one might expect to see
the colors pass into each other as in the solar spectrum, and as the field
of view is changed; but such is not always the result. The red may
exhibit a tinge of yellow, or the green a shade of blue before they
disappear from view; but generally the patch of color ends abruptly,
preserving its purity of tint to the last.
The alternate and irregular flashing of all these varied hues always
presents a harmonious spectacle, such is the wondrous power of Nature
in all her arrangements and groupings. The stone, when arranged by the
art of the lapidary, is almost always cut with a convex surface. However,
when the opal is attached to an opaque substance which serves as a
reflector to the rays of light, the stone may then have its surface cut
almost flat. The colors displayed by this gem embrace quite all of the
tints seen in the solar spectrum, and they are as pure. The shades of
green, blue, yellow, and red will bear comparison with the hues of the
solar spectrum, and the gems of other minerals are rare that can bear this
decisive test. Sometimes but one color is visible in the stone, and then it
is called emerald or golden opal, according to the tint exhibited.
The purchase of opals in the rough natural state is attended with
danger, for often the glittering mass, after being shaped and polished by
the lapidary, is transformed into a transparent but hueless stone. The
cutting of the opal is always a hazardous operation, from the fragility of
the material and the special tact required in determining the shape to be
given the gem. We will relate an instance to illustrate the history of the
whole.
A traveller from Central America brought home a splendid rough fire
opal which dazzled the eye with its fiery reflections. We took it to an
honest lapidary, who received it with a doubtful look. The next day the
opal was returned, having been shaped into the usual oval form, but only
a faint gleam of any of the colored rays flashed from its surface, or the
interior. “Is this the gem we gave you yesterday?” we demanded of the
artisan. With a smile the lapidary took the transparent stone and
roughened its finely polished surface upon the wooden wheel. In an
instant the lost fire returned as if directed by magic’s wand. The perfect
transparency of the gem, with its high polish, had allowed the rays of
light to pass directly through it, and there was but little refraction, but on
roughening the surface the light was interrupted and the peculiar
property of the mineral displayed. Unfortunately the lesson was not
concluded here. At the last touch of the wheel the beautiful gem flew
into two parts, and its glories departed in an instant. Saddened with the
day’s experience, we took the two fragments, cemented them together,
and tossed the stone into a drawer which contained other mineral
specimens of no great value. Some months after, while searching for a
misplaced mineral, a gleam of light suddenly flashed out as we opened
the drawer. It was the neglected and abused opal, which now gleamed
with the energy of a living coal of fire. It had recovered its beautiful
reflections, and still adorns, notwithstanding its fracture, a most
cherished jewel.
Whence this mysterious change? the reader may ask. We can only say
that the complete transparency of the stone had been lessened, and
perhaps the change was due to the action of some of the ingredients of
the cement with which we united the fragments of the broken gem.
Some of the Central American opals have the reputation of fading and
becoming translucent and opaque in course of time, or according to the
circumstances of exposure. We will relate an instance which forms a part
of our experience and education in the study of gems.
A few years ago, two Spaniards arrived in New York with a bag of
rough opals brought from Central America, but from what particular
locality we never learned. The specimens varied in size from that of a
bean to that of an English walnut, and were extremely beautiful. They
had a fresh appearance, as though they had been recently extracted from
the mines, and many of them had portions of the soft sandy matrix still
attached to them. They excited suspicions of not having been properly
tempered and hardened by exposure; but their beauty, which reminded
one of the perfect glow-worm, or lumps of phosphorus moistened with
oil, did not allow the spectator to hesitate about the purchase of them,
especially as they were offered at a moderate price. We invested in the
purchase of several charming specimens, and never wearied in
examining their exquisite effects. Still, we felt a vague suspicion of the
enduring qualities of our newly acquired treasures. The most beautiful
stone, the size of a small almond, we carried in our pocket for a long
time, not only for our gratification but for the purpose of studying the
effect of the atmosphere upon its reflections. Soon after our acquisition,
we fancied a slight shadow or nebulosity appearing in one end of the
stone. We carefully watched it, and before long an indistinct cloudiness
began to appear, like the dim and distant haze of a summer sky on the
commencement of a storm. Even then we thought it might be mere fancy
on our part. But when the shadow changed to opacity, and the
transparency of the gem, with its beautiful reflections, vanished, never to
return, we were compelled to admit that even substances of the mineral
kingdom had their diseases as well as forms of the organic world.
This is indeed but one example to illustrate a theory; but most of those
we purchased at that time of the Spaniards have altered in appearance,
and some of them quite as seriously. Therefore we have arrived at the
conclusion that recently mined opals should be bought with caution; and
that the perfection of a rough opal as a gem cannot be safely estimated
until after it has been cut by the lapidary.
No definite idea can be given in relation to the price of the opal, so
much depends upon the degree of its brilliancy and play of colors. The
gem is not sold by weight, but its value is estimated by its size and the
perfection of its charms. An opal half an inch in diameter exhibiting fair
colors may be worth $5, and another of the same size, of greater
perfection, may bring $5,000, or more. The palmy days of the opal were
during the period of Roman luxury, as the beauties of the diamond were
not then fully revealed, and the opal flashed forth its marvellous beams
of color both by daylight and artificial light. The gem then commanded
enormous prices. According to the tables of Dureau de la Malle, the opal
of Nonius was valued at twenty million sesterces, or about eight hundred
thousand dollars. Enormous as this sum of money appears, Catherine of
Russia would have given as much for the gem, if its beauty had been in
keeping with its reputation.
The commerce of the opal affords a curious example of credulity and
superstition, which is in singular contrast with the progressive ideas of
our advanced civilization. In times past the changes that sometimes
occur in the opal from physical causes have impressed the minds of some
excessively superstitious people as due to supernatural causes. And from
these trivial fancies the most beautiful and recherché of all that Nature
has offered to us in the mineral kingdom has been placed under ban. This
superstitious dread may be of ancient origin, and whence its source we
know not. But it is a matter of history that the opal was the favorite gem
among the Romans in their best periods of intelligence and refinement.
So far from being feared at that time, it was eagerly sought for, as it was
supposed to possess the power of warning against disaster, and
exhibiting the rosy herald of joy. Hence it has been thought that a feeling
of superstition as well as of avarice influenced Nonius when his paragon
was demanded of him.
It is possible that the dread of the opal may be derived from the
superstitious fancies that have descended to us from neolithic times, like
the superstitions connected with the ancient stone implements which are
now called in Western Europe elf-stones. In Scotland at the present day
the ancient arrow-heads of stone are known as elf-bolts or fairy shots,
and believed to protect the wearer from disease or misfortune. Thus it
appears that stone weapons of an extinct race are used as ridiculous
charms by later nations far advanced in civilization. History shows us
how elves and fairies were created in the popular imagination from
neolithic sources, and how weapons and ornaments of stone, amber, and
metal became invested with mystic powers as objects of handicraft of the
elves themselves. These objects are not only regarded as fairy charms
among the races of the East, but the belief in their powers and use is
quite as strong and tenacious among the Celtic portions of Europe. In
other countries these primitive ideas of fairies and charms have become
modified, and blossomed into poetic fancies to please chiefly the
innocence of childhood. Some of these the genius of Shakspeare and
other poets have made beautiful, and to these we offer no objection.
Poetic license may sometimes invest an object with a positive effect
which eventually may assume the appearance of fact. Thus the allusion
to changes in the beauty of the opal in connection with misfortune,
which was made by Sir Walter Scott, in his novel “Anne of Geierstein,”
was taken to heart seriously by many of his readers, and the gem was
placed under ban. The popular imagination became so strongly affected
that the commerce of the opal in England became very seriously injured;
and even at the present day many a timid maiden hesitates over the
selection of the opal for ornamentation. Every mineralogist and man of
science will rejoice to learn that Queen Victoria exhibits sterling good
sense in selecting the opal among her choicest family gifts, thereby
presenting a pleasing contrast to the superstitious and foolish fancies of
the Empress Eugénie.
To the amateur who loves the rare and beautiful, with a feeling
untrammelled by any of the misty traditions of the past or the caprices of
fashion of the present, the opal is the dearest of all the gems. For it is not
only rare, but it displays the glories of all the other gems; and it is the
only one that defies the skill of the modern artisan to imitate. Its flash
instantly betrays its character, and places it above suspicion, while quite
all of the precious stones regarded as gems are now imitated so perfectly
as to require close and careful inspection, and sometimes the application
of scientific tests.
When we recall the phenomena of the opal, and the wonders of its
reflections, with their strange and sudden disappearance, we may pardon
the credulity of the Arabian romance writers in ascribing to the gem
supernatural powers. It was a beautiful theory with them that it falls from
heaven in the lightning’s flash, and is the veritable Ceraunia. Its
charming and mysterious play of colors suggested to their ardent
imaginations the glories of Paradise, and hence they invested it with
wonderful talismanic properties, and believed it to be the abode of
afreets and genii. Alas for romance! Science clearly demonstrates that
many of the phenomena which puzzle the superstitious are simply due to
atmospheric influences and to the natural laws which regulate the decay
of organic and inorganic forms.
 THE SAPPHIRE.
“The azure light of sapphire stone
Resembles that celestial throne,
A symbol of each simple heart
That grasps in hope the better part,
Whose life each holy deed combines,
And in the light of virtue shines.”
M .
 THE SAPPHIRE.
The colored varieties of sapphire were probably known to primitive
man, and were gathered in their rough state to serve as rude ornaments
long before the diamond, with its less attractive natural appearance, was
recognized as a treasure or a gem. The mountain torrents, laying bare the
superficial strata of the gem beds, early exposed to view the sapphires of
bright and attractive colors, which readily caught the close, observing
eye of the savage; while the diamond, lustreless within its apparent crust,
was unnoticed and unknown until civilization became far advanced and
revealed the hidden splendors of the gem by the application of art.
We may therefore infer with a reasonable degree of probability that the
colored sapphires, though perhaps not the most ancient in mineralogy,
were in reality among the earliest gems known to man. The researches of
the antiquary and the archæologist rather strengthen this view, for
specimens of these stones are found among the ruins of the ancient and
long-forgotten cities of Arabia and Persia, while the diamond is not.
This beautiful mineral has been known in the land of its birth from
time immemorial as “korund;” and under this harsh name were included
all those beautiful gems known to commerce as the Oriental ruby, topaz,
emerald, and sapphire. The ancients in the days of Pliny bestowed upon
the blue variety the more euphonious name of “hyacinthus.” Modern
nomenclature, however, has adopted the term “sapphire” for all the
transparent forms of the mineral, reserving the name “corundum” for the
opaque and translucent or non-crystallized varieties.
In making use of this word, we have another illustration of the strange
adoption of a term which is destitute of any relationship to the characters
of the object it is intended to describe. The “sapphirus” of the ancients
referred to lapis-lazuli, a blue opaque mineral spotted with minute
metallic flakes; and the only significance it bears in connection with any
of the forms of corundum is the simple fact that it means azure. If we
follow the antiquaries still farther into the mists of early language, in
seeking the etymology of the name, we shall probably find even less
satisfaction. The nature of this gem, as well as most of the other precious
stones, was mere conjecture to the ancients, and they formed their
estimate of them chiefly from their hardness and color.
 Among the early Greeks, Theophrastus strove in vain to discover
some satisfactory basis of arrangement for these minerals, and to explain
their forms, their constituents, and the manner of their creation. But his
efforts and those of his contemporaries were of little avail; and so
Ictinus, when he constructed the marvellous façade of the Parthenon, and
Phidias, while he adorned it with immortal statues of marble and other
stones, were alike ignorant of the nature of the materials they employed
in their work. Several centuries later the treatises of the Latin
philosopher Pliny show that science had made but little progress in this
respect. The people of India and of the valley of the Euphrates, however,
undoubtedly studied at a very early period the internal structure of the
precious stones, and the revelations thus obtained had some effect in
shaping their religion and their views of civilization.
In searching for the mysterious in the gems, the Assyrians discovered
the cuneiform crystals in the interior of transparent sapphires, and
adopted the forms for their own use, believing them to be the language of
the genii. We have little doubt but that the cuneiform character which
now reveals the history of the extinct Oriental empires had its origin
from the wonderful crystallizations sometimes seen in the internal
structure of the sapphire. These crystals are sometimes visible to the
naked eye; but when the polished surface of the mineral is exposed to a
magnifying lens of even low power, they appear with startling
distinctness, and exhibit forms of perfect arrow-head shape of all colors.
The field of vision may at first include but a single arrow-head crystal of
perfect symmetrical outline floating in the azure of the stone; but as the
field is shifted myriads of crystals may suddenly come into view,
presenting a scene of such remarkable beauty and fascination that the
observer ceases to wonder at the credulity of Arabian superstition. These
crystallizations may occur in sapphires of any hue, and then again we
may search in vain for them in many other specimens of the same
mineral. Some specimens may contain a very few of these arrow-head
forms, while others seem to be composed of multitudes and masses of
them. One large red sapphire of four karats weight submitted to our
inspection appears to be composed of clouds of these cuneiform crystals;
and under the magnifying power of about twenty diameters it presents
fields of arrow-heads flashing forth the most brilliant hues, and changing
into new scenes of startling and transcendent beauty as the focus is
varied. Whatever startled the imagination of the ancients with a new and
mysterious beauty was at once invested with supernatural power.
 In connection with this theme it is interesting and instructive to trace
back the history of the gems and precious stones even within the period
of the past two hundred years, and read the descriptions and definitions
bestowed upon them by mineralogists. Some of the most gifted of men,
like Linnæus and Wallerius, labored diligently to place them correctly in
science; but their efforts to define and arrange them properly seem at the
present day like schoolboy fancies. Daubenton conceived the brilliant but
erroneous idea of arranging them according to their color, taking the
solar spectrum for a standard. His idea was to place them in seven
genera, according to the seven principal prismatic colors, and constitute
species according to the different shades. This able man was not then
aware that the sapphire and the tourmaline exhibit quite all of the colors
of his seven genera.
Romè de L’Isle was the first mineralogical writer who classed the
gems systematically; but it has since appeared that the amateur,
Chevalier Baillou, preceded him in his crystallogical ideas; for in 1747
this observer described, in the catalogue of his collection, his views in
relation to the properties of gems, and how their characters might be
readily ascertained by the tests of hardness and specific gravity, and also
by the form of their crystallizations. The distinguished and learned Abbé
Haüy became interested and even fascinated with the study of the history
and physical properties of the gems and the precious stones; and to his
genius we are indebted for much of the information we have at the
present day on this subject. He was deeply interested in the nature and
characteristics of the Oriental precious stones; and being dissatisfied
with the harsh term and the vague synonomy of “korund,” as applied to
some of them, he proposed the more elegant name, “telesie.” But
science, often disdainful of new terms, finally adopted the name
proposed by Wallerius; and at the present time all of the fine and
transparent varieties of corundum are called sapphire.
This remarkable mineral is found in mineralogical specimens in
China, Siberia, America, and other parts of the world; but all of the fine
gems, with perhaps few exceptions, come from Burmah, Pegu, Siam,
lower Bengal, and Ceylon.
The island of Ceylon is the most famous of all the localities thus far
known, and it is in reality the most wonderful gem deposit in the world.
It was known in the period of the Roman Empire, as the land of the
luminous carbuncle. This island, which is situated at the southeast
extremity of the peninsula of Bengal, and separated from it by a broad
but shallow strait, is about as large as England in its area. In the southern
centre of the island a group of lofty mountains appears, rising to the
height of about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. On one side this
great upheaval descends in successive ranges of hills until the flanks of
the mountains subside into the alluvial plains; whilst on the other side the
mountain range is characterized by abrupt precipices sometimes of
several thousand feet in height. The great gem-producing districts of the
island extend along the base of this mountain range for about fifty miles;
and the central and richest part is considered to be located around
Ratnapoora, which is scarcely two hundred feet above the level of the
sea. This want of elevation in the Ceylon gem strata or placers becomes a
marked feature when considering the high plateaux in which the
diamond occurs in other parts of the world, also coupled with the fact
that the two gems are not found together in the same placers. Here are
situated the celebrated mines which have yielded vast quantities of the
sapphire, especially the blue variety, for an indefinite period of time.
They are not small and trivial deposits, but extend over large areas. Some
of the plains which cover the deposits are more than thirty miles in
extent, and form a large tract of country. Among them are the
Kondapalle, Elk, Tolapella, Horton, Bopatalava, Moonstone, Newera
Ellia, and many others.
The amount of labor expended in excavations on these plains is
stupendous, and evidences still remain which indicate vast operations
and remunerative labor in far distant times. The eastern portion of the
plain at Newera Ellia furnishes a good example of the extent of the
explorations. This region is still called the vale of rubies, and was mined
on a grand scale by the ancient kings of Kandy. Many acres of this plain
have been completely upturned, and the surface is still indented with
numberless pits of large size, varying from three to seventeen feet in
depth. The period of these extensive operations is unknown, and is so far
distant as to be beyond the mention of history or tradition.
Most of the gem-bearing districts are classed as wild lands, and belong
to the English Crown. As yet the authorities have never bestowed a
thought upon their value as a source of revenue, and the search for gems
is free to the world. Although much territory has been mined in a rude
manner in past times, the fields are by no means exhausted, and offer
excellent inducements to skilled labor. If some of the energy and
determination now exhibited in the South Africa diamond mines could
be transported to Ceylon, the gem marts would soon display the
splendors of ancient times.
Ratnapoora, which is the gem mart of Ceylon, and situated in the
midst of the mines, means literally the city of rubies. The mines adjacent
to it and in the district of Saffragan are the principal ones now worked in
the island, but the gems are found under the western plains that extend
from Adams Peak to the sea. The plains and valleys southeast of
Ratnapoora are all gem fields; and the beds of the torrents sometimes
contain so great a quantity of broken fragments of sapphire, garnet,
zircon, etc., that the sifted sands are used by the lapidaries in polishing
gems.
The mining operations are generally carried on by the native
Cingalese, who labor in the light of a pastime and only during intervals
of their agricultural employments. Some few, however, undertake the
labor as a regular business, but they belong to a low and dissipated class,
and do not work systematically or with regularity. Therefore, the gem-
mining of Ceylon cannot be regarded as a fixed and permanent business.
When an exploration has been determined upon, a small party of
villagers set out for the promising region provided with the implements
of mining and the means of camping out. The times selected for the
operations are after the heavy rains which prevail in June and October,
and the floods have subsided. The beds of rivers or smaller streams are
often chosen as easier of access than the plains. If the river-bed is
selected, the first act of the explorers is to seek for the proper locality
where the gem-bearing strata may be found. To ascertain this, the
Cingalese thrust a long iron rod of ten or twelve feet in length into the
earth, and test the nature of the sub-soil. By means of long practice, the
natives can adroitly penetrate the earth to a considerable depth, and, by
the resistance to the movement of the rod, can detect the gem deposit of
which they are in search.
If the indications are good, the natives proceed to build a hut if they
are at a distance from their village, and prepare for the operations, which
often extend over many weeks. After diverting a part of the force of the
stream so as to form a quiet pool, they proceed to excavate the sand and
gravel within a certain area. In order to accomplish this they use hoes
with handles fifteen or more feet in length. The top strata are hurriedly
raked up and thrown away; but as the pit deepens and the gem stratum is
approached, the work is performed with greater care. As soon as the hoes
bring up fragments and bowlders of white quartz, or strike a thin
ferruginous crust, every particle of the gravel drawn up is carefully
preserved. The gravel and sand thus obtained are then placed in large
baskets woven of split bamboo and shaped to a conical point at the
bottom. The basket thus filled is placed in the current of water, and its
contents washed by imparting to it a circular motion. This washing
process is kept up until the stones, gravel, and lesser particles are
cleansed. During this operation the gems, which are much heavier than
common stones, settle at the bottom of the basket, and are there collected
together, so that when the superincumbent gravel is removed, the
sapphires, garnets, zircons, etc., are easily discovered at the bottom and
removed. This is the manner in which the wet diggings are carried on,
and is the easiest mode of exploration; but it is by no means as sure or
often as profitable as the operations in dry ground on the river banks or
in the plains. The dry diggings are much more laborious, as the soil is
firmer and the gem strata must be transported to water to be washed and
sifted. These dry deposits are found the richest beneath the alluvial
plains, which seem to have been in distant times shallow lakes and
lagoons.
The gem stratum called mellan is always well defined, and occurs at a
certain depth, which seems to correspond to the bottom of the lake at a
definite period. This depth varies from two to twenty feet, and is perhaps
even greater; but the natives rarely excavate below the depth of twenty
feet. This peculiar formation, which is generally horizontal, is composed
of a conglomerate of quartz gravel resting upon or mixed with a stiff
clay, often indurated by a ferruginous oxide. In among this cascalho, or
just below it and adhering to it, are found the fine pebbles and crystals of
sapphire, tourmaline, garnet, zircon, spinel, and chrysoberyl. Under these
rocks and in peculiar hollows in the plastic clay, which the natives call
elephants’ footsteps, the gems are found clustered together
heterogeneously, and often so perfect in form as to appear as though
created there. At other places they are collected together in these pockets
in such a manner as to suggest the idea that they had been washed in by a
current of water.
All these varieties of gems, some of them widely differing from each
other in composition and form of crystallization, are here embedded
together, and seem to have one common origin. This is the true matrix,
and the gems are not found in other portions of the soil unless some
disturbing force has removed them, like a strong current of water
breaking up the cascalho and transporting the gems to alluvions of its
own deposit.
It is maintained and generally believed by mineralogists that the
sapphire is formed in crystalline rocks; that in process of time the matrix
is disintegrated, the gems set free, and washed down to the alluvial soils
where they are now found. It is also thought that the gem-seekers might
with patient care trace the precious stones to their source in the primitive
ledges or the mountains, as the gold miner often follows for long
distances the particles of gold in the soil until he discovers the parent
vein in the solid ledge. But in Ceylon this view is not entertained by the
natives; and all scientific efforts to find the sapphires in the mountain
ledges have utterly failed. All trace of the sapphire and its attendant
gems ceases as soon as we reach the limit of the gem stratum, and what
seems to have once formed the shore of the lagoon. Beyond this plainly
marked outline we may search in vain for the least sign of a connection
with the older rocks either adjoining or at a distance. The result is the
same if we examine the ledges on the same level or those of a higher
elevation.
In some countries, in the granular limestone of New Jersey for
instance, or the ripidolite of North Carolina, the granite of Siberia, or the
dolomites of Switzerland, we find sapphire, or more properly corundum,
of undecided colors, of inferior transparency or even of opacity; but it is
very rare that a specimen is found of sufficient purity for ornamentation.
The most transparent and perfect of these sapphires are generally
impaired by cleavage planes which traverse the stone in several
directions, preventing refraction of light, and often so marked as to
appear like flaws. This circumstance indicates that the forces that
deposited corundum and the fine sapphires were certainly different in
character, or that the conditions in which they were exerted were not the
same. For in Burmah, Pegu, India, or Ceylon, and wherever the perfect
sapphires are found, they have one common matrix, and that is the
peculiar ferruginous conglomerate.
This conglomerate is recognized as a recent formation; and how came
these gems, which are believed to be as old as creation itself, to be found
among it? This formation is not only recent, but it is actually taking place
all over the world at the present day, and examples may be found in
almost every country. We find in many places the peculiar strata of sand,
gravel, and masses of stone in proper position to change into
conglomerate, which requires the action of water highly charged with
iron and lime or silica. Darwin found these stony layers in process of
forming on the beaches of the Cape de Verde Islands, and in vain
attempted to knock out a bolt of iron which had been cast ashore from
some wreck not long before, and had in a short space of time become
firmly fixed in the conglomerate. We may observe the same process
taking place to-day on the coast of Cornwall, and among the débris of
the ledges of the Abrolhos Islands. In dredging rivers large masses of
solid conglomerate are often brought to light. The Thames has furnished
many examples; and not many years ago a cannon-ball embedded in a
crystalline calcareous rock was taken from the bed of the Mediterranean
not far from the mouth of the Rhone. Fresh water laden with débris of
vegetable matter also possesses the same cementing action as sea water,
and an excellent example is seen in the allios now forming in the Landes
of southern France. This allios is also a conglomerate, which has formed
and is now forming at the depth of about three feet below the surface.
Here the conglomerate of sand, pebbles, and angular fragments of rock is
firmly cemented together by the rain-water, which filters down from the
surface of the earth laden with vegetable matter. The cascalho in which
the diamond is found is of similar character, and has a similar origin, for
we likewise find there traces of vegetable débris, and the diamond itself
contains germs of fungi and vegetable fibres of higher organizations.
But whence come the elements which form the gems? the inquirer will
say. Can we gather figs from thistles? Marco Polo in the thirteenth
century visited these gem beds, and has left his views in the following
lines: “In ista insula nascuntur boni et nobiles rubini et non nascuntur in
aliquo loco plus. Et hic nascuntur safri et topazii, amethisti et aliquæ aliæ
petræ pretiosæ et rex istius insulæ habet pulchriorem rubinum de
mundo.” Buffon, four centuries later, in seeking for the causes of the
formation of this mineral, observed the peculiarities of the matrix on this
island, and boldly stated that the origin of the precious stones like the
rubies, the sapphires, and topazes of the East is the same as that of the
diamond. He also stoutly maintained that these stones form and are
found in the conglomerate in which is collected the débris of other
matters. The researches of Sir Samuel Baker and others on these deposits
seem to indicate, if they do not prove, that the sapphire in particular was
formed in the sands, clay, or conglomerate where it is now found, and
was not set free by the disintegration of the old crystalline rocks.
Nordenskiold recognized these gem beds as true placers, but was
inclined to think the gem strata had decayed and left the gems free. An
article published some years ago in “Once a Week,” and supposed to
have been from the pen of Sir Samuel Baker, who had lived many years
at Ratnapoora, and had attentively examined the gem-bearing
formations, gave the following account:—
“A common but erroneous belief is that the gems are formed in
the mountains and washed down by the abrasion of the rocks and
deposited in the alluvial bottoms. If it were so, they would have
been traced to their source and sought for in the mountains, where
they would naturally be found in greater quantities; but the
natives never think of searching for precious stones in such
places, and in the localities where they are found there does not
appear to have been any local alteration in the veins of gravel
since they were first thrown there; and my own conviction
formed from observation on the spot, and for this and other
reasons following, is that the sapphire and other gems have been
formed and are still forming in the places where they are now
found. In the first place, rounded sapphires and sapphire crystals
with facets of brilliant lustre are found lying side by side.
Secondly, both the rounded stones and the numerous perfect
crystals, with their pyramids unbroken, show that they were never
broken from other rocks, but were formed unattached to any
matrix, in a soft medium such as fine sand or clay. I have seen
hundreds of these taken loose from the same spot. Thirdly,
crystals of sapphire are found with their edges reduced, yet with
brilliant facets, which is inconsistent with their reduction by
rolling. Fourthly, sapphire being much harder than any other
stone with which it could come in contact, it is not easy to
understand how any attrition could be brought to bear upon it to
bring it to the beautifully translucent polish which the rounded
stones usually bear more especially considering the short distance
from the mountains to the alluvial bottoms between which the
water-wearing process is supposed to be effected.
“It is remarkable that the rounded sapphires and rubies are
always the densest and of the finest water and color; showing that
they were formed by different chemical forces from the others. In
short, there is no more reason for supposing rounded sapphires to
be water-worn than for supposing that the bowlders of jasper, for
instance, on the Egyptian desert were so formed, when a fracture
shows them to have been formed in concentric layers and to be in
 their original state. The same remarks apply to the crystals of
some other minerals, as zircon, tourmaline, and spinel.”
The mineralogist, in contesting this opinion, will point to the round
pebbles of sapphire as evidence of disintegration and subsequent
aqueous action. But upon careful inquiry we shall find that these nodular
masses are regular concretions and natural formations, which do not owe
their form to the abrasion of exterior force, but are the results of
crystalline action. We shall also find that these peculiar stones always
form the finest specimens of the class of gems to which they belong,
whether sapphire, diamond, tourmaline, topaz, or chrysoberyl.
In regard to beauty of color, density, hardness of texture, and
brilliancy, these apparently water-worn masses are decidedly superior to
the perfectly shaped crystals, and among all the true gem mines of the
world this rule is observed. In the conglomerate of Ceylon we often find
gems whose appearance indicates the shock and abrasion of waves or
currents of water, while we find in adjoining places perfectly formed
crystals whose facets display a lustre as brilliant as on the day of their
creation. Some, then, have perhaps been moved about by aqueous action,
while others have never stirred from their first position.
Among all the multitudes of sapphires taken from the mines of
Ceylon, we have never seen or heard of a specimen fairly attached to any
rock as a matrix. Sometimes the ferruginous cement which is one of the
necessary components of the matrix unites accidentally the rough gem to
a mass of quartz, but all the sapphires we have seen exhibit no sign of
having been attached permanently to any mineral substance. In fact, all
the rounded stones and the more perfect crystallized specimens have the
appearance of having been formed in a soft medium like sand or clay.
Whence come the masses of quartz that are always found in the
conglomerate, and which sometimes occur of a large size? may be asked
by the inquirer. This is a question which cannot be answered
satisfactorily, especially when the adjoining ledges do not contain the
material. We can, however, solve the problem by supposing that beds of
quartz have been formed on the beds of the lagoons, and were afterwards
broken up by the action of the waves, frost, or other agencies. The clay,
which is often a component of this matrix, is sometimes argillaceous and
at other times kaolin. We are generally inclined to believe that these
substances are always the results of decomposition; yet there are
abundant evidences to show that they may be original deposits. The
distinguished geologist Jameson was forced to admit this from his
extended observations. We find blue, reddish, and yellowish mud in
cavities of the hard crystalline rocks enveloping crystals of quartz and
topaz, as at Greenwood, in Maine, or Schneckenstein, in Germany. The
phenomena are well marked in the felspar quarries at Bowdoinham, in
Maine, and also at Schemnitz, in Hungary, in a vein four or five inches
wide traversing porphyry. Whence comes this substance, when there is
no opportunity for infiltration, if it is not an original deposition? Perhaps
by pseudomorphism.
How and why were these sapphires deposited in globular forms when
the law of crystallization is so rigid and inflexible? This is a question
which requires considerable assurance to answer, in the view that they
are original depositions; but Nature offers many examples to sustain the
theory if we search her domain; for instance, how were the rounded
nodules of flint formed in the chalk-beds? Their shape is not due to
attrition, and their peculiar arrangement forbids the belief that they have
been rolled or abraded by the agency of water. In the interior of solid
ledges we find nodules of quartz with rounded edges, as though they had
been exposed to some dissolving agency or abrading force; yet they have
been beyond the reach of external violence. Hence we must conclude
that their globular form is perhaps due to some deviation in the usual
process of deposition or crystallization. Huronite occurs in spherical
masses in hornblendic bowlders; and we may find nodules of tourmaline
in the interior of the most perfect crystals of the mineral. There are other
examples.
The Cingalese do the mining and sell the gems to Moors, who resort to
Ratnapoora to attend the jewel fair, which is held at the annual Buddhist
festival of the Pera. Purchasers not only from all parts of Ceylon, but
India, come to buy gems at this time. It has therefore become the great
jewel mart of the world; and one can find there many of the rare and
beautiful gems found in other parts of the world: the emeralds of Peru,
the topazes of Brazil, the opals of Honduras, the turquoises of Persia, the
jade of China; in fact, most of the gems that have a commercial value, or
any tradition attached thereto, are to be found at these fairs. They are of
greater importance than the famous fairs at Novgorod in Russia, to which
the gems and precious stones of Northern and Central Asia are annually
sent.
The Hindoos are the best buyers of gems of all the nations of the
world. Their rajahs and princes pay the highest prices for the paragons;
and the poor native had rather invest in a gem, which to his simple belief
adds to his security and happiness, than hoard gold coins, which are no
better for concealment. The Moors are also generally the lapidaries. The
tools which they use in cutting the gems are rude and primitive, and
often the stones are much impaired under their hands; but some of the
workmen are skilful and are able to copy with exactness the most
perfectly cut gems of the European lapidaries. Workmen of the inferior
class may be found in the little towns all over the island; but the artists of
the first rank are located at Callatura and Colombo. Immense numbers of
garnets, zircons, and inferior sapphires, with other gems, are cut by these
rude artisans, who place but little value on their time, and therefore work
for a trifle. These precious stones are then sold on the island or exported
to foreign lands, but are generally taken to India by travelling merchants,
who exchange them for produce or money. The demand is so great from
the populous Mohammedan nations, that many of these gems are really
higher in price in India than in the gem marts in Europe, as in the time of
Tavernier, three hundred years ago. Another potent reason prevents the
market from being glutted: the Hindoo parts with his gem reluctantly,
and only in case of necessity or in hope of greater gain; and the wealthy
Parsee prides himself upon his display of gems, as well as upon his
degree of caste. The quantity of gems treasured up by the inhabitants of
India must be immense.
The composition of the sapphire, when found in the clear, transparent
form, is pure alumina. Its degree of hardness is 9, being inferior only to
the diamond; and its range of colors is very extensive, embracing most of
those seen in the solar spectrum. Its specific gravity varies from 3.9 to
4.3; and, with the exception of the zircon, it is the heaviest of all the
gems. It is also compact and exceedingly tough in its texture, and resists
the shocks and wear of time better than any other gem, not excepting
even the diamond, which is harder, but far more fragile. In point of
brilliancy, it is below the zircon, garnet, and the spinel, its refractive
index being 1.77 to 1.79. This mineral possesses remarkable electrical
properties, but not so marked in degree as in the tourmaline or topaz;
when this property is excited in the polished specimen, the attraction
continues for a considerable length of time. The property of double
refraction is not often very distinct, and by means of this peculiarity it is
sometimes detected from the spinel.
The term corundum is now applied to the coarser and less transparent
kinds of the stone, which have been used as a polishing material from
time immemorial. The granular variety known as emery is largely mixed
with iron ores, and is far inferior to the transparent and purer varieties as
an abrading agent. It is always of a blackish or dark-gray hue, and is
often mistaken for iron ore. Asia Minor furnishes nearly all of the emery
used in the arts. It is found there in masses or bowlders, either free or in
granular limestone. In the United States it is found along the gold belt in
the Southern States; and in Chester, a town of Massachusetts, it occurs in
a large and valuable vein associated with diaspore, ripidolite, etc., which
generally accompany it. At this mine at Chester, translucent sapphires of
bi-pyramidal form are sometimes found. Dr. C. J. Jackson found one
small blue crystal quite transparent and doubly terminated.
The corundum belt of the United States has been traced, with wide
intervals, however, from Philadelphia to Northern Georgia. All along this
distance of several hundred miles, masses of corundum, more or less
transparent, have been found during the past forty years, but active
search failed to reveal the mineral in its matrix. A few years ago
exploration in the extreme southwestern part of North Carolina
discovered the long-looked-for corundum in situ. It was found on the
side of a mountain, in a mica-like substance called ripidolite. The
corundum from this locality appears in geodes and also in well-marked
crystals, ranging from small size to even the weight of three hundred
pounds. It is often of perfect transparency, but may be translucent or
opaque. The transparent crystals and masses, although possessing
limpidity, are traversed in all directions with cleavage planes, which
prevent their use in ornamentation. The colors are also irregularly
distributed in patches, clouds, or in thin veneers; many specimens have
been seen of variegated hues,—red, white, yellow, and blue,—and even
the whole of these colors have been seen in a single specimen.
From the great number of specimens submitted to our examination we
have no hesitation in saying that gems cannot be quarried at will from
these mines. The inequality of color and the frequency of cleavage
planes will forbid. Small gems of few grains weight may be cut from
some of the transparent masses if the clear portions are selected with
care, and cut with that skill which is required in the shaping of gems
whose color is unequally distributed. But it is doubtful if fine gems are
found in this formation, for the conditions which deposited the corundum
here, and the more perfect specimens in the true gem strata elsewhere,
are quite different.
 The colors of the North Carolina corundum are often very fine, and we
have seen specimens of a superb blue that retain their hues by
candlelight. None of the reds we have ever seen have the true pigeons’-
blood tint, but are tinged with blue, and are therefore of a finer shade
when seen by artificial light than by daylight. The yellows are also of a
decided shade, and generally form a portion only of the crystal or mass
of sapphire.
Some fine crystals have been found here, but we have seen none so
perfectly crystallized as the pyramidal specimens from the Asiatic mines.
Several large crystals have been exhumed, one of which weighs three
hundred pounds, and is well defined in its form of crystallization. It is
now preserved in the valuable cabinet of Professor Shepherd, of Amherst
College.
A few years ago the gold-miners, while seeking for gold in the river-
beds and alluvial deposits among the mountains of Montana, observed
little transparent crystals of stone among the nuggets and flakes of gold,
as they cleared out their rude apparatus used in washing the auriferous
soils. But little notice was taken of these limpid stones, as their colors
were generally faint; but the observing gold-seekers remarked their great
weight and the remarkable coldness to the touch, as they passed them
around to each other in wonderment. For a long time the miners flung
these minerals away with other refuse, unconscious of their character or
their value; but one day there appeared in the dark sands of the gold-pans
a stone which flashed forth such brilliant red gleams as to excite anew
the curiosity and cupidity of the miners. This discovery led to inquiry,
and the gold-seekers learned too late concerning the value of the
treasures they had carelessly thrown away. Afterwards the gems were
preserved and sent with the gold-dust to the States. They proved to be
sapphires. Some of them were finely crystallized in long, regular prisms,
but the most of them were without definite form. None of the several
hundred specimens that have been submitted to us exhibited smooth
faces, like the brilliant facets of crystals found in cavities of the
crystalline rocks or in the gem mines of Ceylon; but all exhibited a
roughness of the exterior, as though they had been abraded by aqueous
action.
The colors of these sapphires are generally faded or faint; some are
snow-white, but the most of them are of a faint bluish or greenish cast.
We have, however, seen small gems of fine red, yellow, hyacinth, light-
blue, and celadine green. We have also information of a beautiful red
sapphire of six karats, but failed to trace it after it was sent from
Montana.
This discovery establishes the fact beyond a doubt that the gem occurs
in quite perfect form in the territories of the United States. Most of the
specimens we have seen were collected at El Dorado Bar, which has
since been abandoned by the gold-seekers. From this superficial search
and incomplete information concerning the locality of the gem, we are
unable to determine whether regular gem mines are to be found in this
country, or along the slope of the mountains, which extend either north
or south to a great distance. We have been assured, however, by officers
of the army, that fine sapphires have been brought to them by the Indians
in Colorado living on the same range and formation that stretches into
Montana. Therefore we shall not be surprised if well-directed search
along this formation should reveal gem beds of value; and the mere
circumstance that the gold-washers do not discover them is of but little
weight; for gem-seeking and gold-mining are two different explorations.
It is a little singular that none of the beautiful gems occur in huge
specimens, like some of the products of the vegetable kingdom. Nature,
however, in the mineral line, or certainly with the gems, creates her
perfections in small bodies. We sometimes find a clear crystal of topaz,
tourmaline, or emerald of a few ounces or even pounds in weight, but
they are very rare; while the generality of all the choice specimens are
comparatively of a diminutive size. When occurring above a certain
weight they become defective either in color, limpidity, or form. They
are precious stones, it is true, so far as composition is concerned, but
they are not gems according to the acceptance of the word. By the word
gem we not only mean a precious stone, but its transformation into a
form possessing limpidity, brilliancy, attractive color, or some other
charm.
As regards the sapphire, its perfect forms occur in diminutive size.
This mineral is also found in Bohemia, near Merowitz, in an argillaceous
or marly cement, with garnets, zircons, and even fossil shells. Tavernier
relates that he saw in possession of General Wallenstein, when at Prague,
some beautiful rubies, which were obtained in Bohemia. Fine stones of
even five karats weight have been discovered at these mines. Concerning
the mines of Lower Bengal we have but little information, and will not
venture to give a description. We think they have the same characteristics
as those of the gem beds of Ceylon. The Ilmenes Mountains, in Siberia,
furnish sapphires of a strong blue. In Greece and Saxony they are also
found in small quantities of undecided colors, and generally opaque.
Impure specimens of well-defined colors are found in the volcanic débris
of Expailly, in France, or among the snow-white dolomites of St.
Gothard; in the granite ledges close to the base of the glacier of Bois, in
the Alps of Savoy, we may observe regular prisms of sapphire, quite
transparent and sometimes of a decided blue or a tender green.
The massive and opaque varieties known as adamantine spar are said
to be found in granitic rocks in China, and on the coast of Malabar; but
very little is known concerning the exact condition of these localities.
Fibrolite and magnetic iron are said to accompany the corundum in
several of its localities. Brard believes that the blue diamond of Pliny of
the Island of Cyprus is no other than the blue sapphire. And this belief is
not without foundation, as some of the varieties of corundum are found
on the islands and coasts not far distant. Occasionally stones of fine blue
tints and of considerable size are found. In 1853, a large and beautiful
piece was found in the gem strata near Ratnapoora, and sold to a Moor at
Colombo for $20,000. Fragments as large as goose eggs are also
sometimes found in the Saffragan district, but are of an inferior
character, according to Dr. Davy. Mawe describes one of three hundred
and ten karats. We have in our collection a transparent, light-blue, and
finely shaped crystal of three hundred and eight karats, but we fear that it
will not match the distinct crystal of three inches in length which
belonged to Sir Abram Hume.
The suite of blues exhibited by this gem is very extensive, and
embraces all known shades and even the purest prismatic hue. The deep
regal blue is too intense a color for a night gem, as by artificial light it
becomes black. But there are sapphires of a celestial blue possessing
perfect limpidity and rich velvety reflections that retain their splendid
colors by night as well as by day, and they merit the distinction bestowed
upon them by the ancients when they consecrated them to Jupiter. These
superb gems are, however, exceedingly rare, and are eagerly sought for
by amateurs at prices far above that of the colorless diamond. The
general color of the blue sapphire is a light shade, from which it passes
through various gradations to a blue black. Perfect stones of fine colors
are quite rare, for they are apt to be clouded, and the color distributed
unevenly in the mass. Frequently the color is in one extremity of the
crystal, or appears as a spot on the surface of a nodule. In other
specimens it is arranged in bands or thin clouds. Hence much skill is
often required to cut them so that the gem may display a proper
distribution. Frequently the color is left in the bottom of the gem, and
when the stone is set the color is diffused by refraction through the upper
portions, so as to give the gem the appearance of being colored
throughout.
One of the most perfect and beautiful specimens of sapphire is the
magnificent blue gem now in the Natural History Museum of Paris. It
was given by M. Weiss in exchange for a collection of choice minerals. It
is of the form of an oblique angular parallelopipedon of 132¹⁄₁₆ karats.
Haüy thought it had been cut and polished; but Satrin believed that only
its natural faces were polished, and that the form of the primitive crystal
was not altered. This is the most probable view, for no lapidary of even
ordinary skill would select the rhomboidal form for so beautiful and
valuable a gem. This remarkable gem, without defects, notwithstanding
its great size, was found in Bengal by a poor wooden-spoon maker. It
finally was acquired by Rospoli, of Rome, but was purchased for the
French Crown after several vicissitudes. It was obtained at the price of
170,000 francs, which price is certainly below its true value. France also
possesses several other superb sapphires of large size. There is also in
Dresden a fine sapphire, a gift from Peter the Great.
There was in the ancient Hungarian crown a fine large sapphire,
surrounded with four oblong green gems, the nature of which has not yet
been made known. These mysterious green stones, rendered still more
interesting by the disappearance of the crown, are perhaps of modern
introduction, as they are not mentioned in the inventory of the jewel
when Queen Elizabeth pledged it to the Emperor Frederick IV. Hence the
inquiry arises, are they green sapphires, emeralds, tourmalines, or
antique glass?
In the Universal Exhibition at London, in 1855, two immense and
beautiful sapphires were displayed among the collection of gems and
jewels which had been gathered from all parts of the world; they
belonged to Miss Burdett Coutts, and were valued at nearly $200,000. At
the same exhibition might have been seen a beautiful oval sapphire, and
another in the form of a drop, and of very unusual size and beauty,
belonging to a rich Russian countess.
The Imperial Crown of the First Order of the Czar of Russia contains
an enormous blue sapphire of great beauty and value. The Russian
treasury also possesses some others of great size and rare beauty. Among
them is the famous light-blue stone which formerly belonged to the
cabinet of the English banker, the late Mr. Hope. There is also a very
large and celebrated sapphire, said to be of marvellous beauty in the
Vienna Kronenschatze. Most of the treasuries and regalias of Europe
contain fine sapphires of value and beauty. Among the Crown jewels of
France, there are two superb gems of twenty-seven karats each, one of
nineteen karats, and about a dozen ranging in weight from nine to
thirteen karats each.
The Hindoos took great pleasure in carving images of their idols, and
in making grotesque forms as well as talismans, from the precious stones
found in their country; and very many examples are shown to the
traveller. The sapphire was often chosen for this purpose; and neither its
excessive hardness nor its high price offered any serious obstacles to the
determined votary or the superstitious grandee. There is a statuette of
Buddha, one inch in height, carved by the Hindoos out of a perfect
sapphire, in the British Museum, which came from the sack of India.
One of the richest reliquaries of any age or any country is the golden
case at Kandy in Ceylon, which contains a tooth of Buddha, but which
the naturalists declare to be the tooth of a monkey. Never was fancied
sanctity so dearly enshrined. The dental specimen is enclosed in five
golden cases fitting each other en suite and incrusted with the finest
rubies, sapphires, and other gems Ceylon and India has afforded.
Philostratus describes a chamber in the ancient Royal Palace of the
Parthians at Babylon as follows: “It has a roof fashioned into a vault like
the heaven, composed entirely of sapphires, which are the bluest of
stones, and resemble the sky in color. This is the chamber in which the
King delivers his judgment.” The Asiatics, in all periods of their semi-
civilized history, made a lavish use of this gem in the decorations of their
dwellings and their temples. Even the partial ruins of some of these
edifices still to be seen in various parts of India, exhibit great beauty in
their impaired mosaics of precious stones.
The red sapphire is known in commerce as the Oriental ruby, and
when in perfection is the most magnificent of gems, and is rarely
approached in the beauty of its gorgeous hue by any other gem. The term
ruby is an indefinite one, and refers to any stone of a rich red color. All
these gems were classed together in the time of Pliny, under the generic
name of “carbunculus,” but the red sapphire was reckoned a variety, and
especially referred to under the name of “lychnis.” It is seldom found
exceeding three karats in weight, and the distinguished mineralogist,
Beudant, declares that a perfect red sapphire of thirty troy grains is
unknown, and would be of inestimable value. It is a singular fact that
while the blue variety should occur in masses and crystals of even
several ounces in weight, the red is rare even at four karats. Modern
mineralogists now maintain that all of the large historic rubies are
spinels, but it is within the bounds of possibility that large red sapphires
do occur sometimes as exceptions to an apparently rigid rule; for we
have lately received from the Ceylon mines a transparent crystal of pink
color which weighs two hundred and forty-one karats. It is also stated
that the King of Arrakan possesses two magnificent prisms of one and a
half inches in length and an inch in diameter.
But of all the fine red sapphires which are known and proved, there
are but few above five karats. The largest one of which we have any
definite knowledge is the beautiful gem set in the Toison d’Or of the
French Regalia, and which weighs 8³⁄₁₆ karats (= 26 grains troy). The
inventory of the French gems in 1791 justly illustrates the comparative
rarity and diminutive size of the stone; for in this splendid collection,
which had accumulated during a long period of time, and was then the
richest in Europe, there were but four red sapphires above five karats,
and only five above four karats. This variety is singularly liable to
imperfections, and far more so than either the blue or the yellow. It is
rare to find a ruby of the pure and characteristic pigeons’-blood tint that
does not in some degree exhibit silky and opalescent fibres. This defect,
which generally appears as a milkiness in the interior of the gem, is due
to minute crystals dispersed throughout the stone, and which become
apparent when the mineral is viewed parallel to the primitive axis of the
crystal. Hence, in cutting the rough stone, considerable care must be
exercised by the lapidary, so as to shape the gem and render its
opalescence invisible. Rubies of exquisite color are often rendered
comparatively valueless on account of fibres, clouds, and chalcedony-
like bands. All the red sapphires, however, are not affected in this way.
The blood-red are much more liable than those which have a tinge of
blue. We have examined a number of red sapphires perceptibly tinted
with violet, which were completely free from internal defects. This
opalescence is never possessed by the spinel, and is therefore one of the
distinguishing marks in testing the nature of the red gems. The red
tourmaline is also strangely liable to internal fibres, hollow threads,
clouds, and longitudinal streaks, and sometimes presents an appearance
similar to that of the ruby. The red sapphire is also distinguished from the
other varieties by being decidedly heavier, and also by being softer than
the deep-blue.
Ceylon is famous for the abundance of blue sapphires, while the red
variety is comparatively rare. In Burmah, however, the red variety is the
most abundant and of the finest hue. The Ceylon rubies are regarded as
inferior in tint to those found in Ava and Pegu of the Burmese Empire;
but they are less inclined to be opalescent, and are therefore more
brilliant. The violet tinge of the Ceylon rubies lessens their beauty when
viewed by daylight; but it disappears in a great measure by artificial
light, and the hue then becomes of a fine prismatic red, accompanied by
the most vivid lustre; therefore we may say in general terms that the
Burmese rubies are the most beautiful by daylight, and that the
Ceylonese are superior by night.
The finest mines of rubies in the world are near the Capelan
Mountains in Ava. But concerning their extent, history, and exploration,
very little is known. Colonel Symes, who visited the country in 1795,
with the British Embassy, stated that the richest and most valuable of the
mines were then situated in the vicinity of the capital; but that there were
many other mines in various parts of the kingdom. The information
concerning these remarkable deposits is vague and uncertain even at the
present day; but sufficient is known to establish the fact that the
geological formation is very similar to the gem beds of Ceylon and
Lower Bengal. According to the publications of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, the principal mines of Burmah are situated about seventy miles
east of the capital; and the deposits are discovered by sinking pits at
various depths in the earth until the gem stratum is reached. It appears to
be precisely like the conglomerate of Ceylon, and occurs at a depth
varying from two to forty feet below the surface.
It is stated that all of the fine gems above a certain weight are
monopolized by the king, who styles himself “Lord of the rubies,” and
consequently but very few find their way to the marts of other nations. It
is also stated that the gems are polished at Amarapoora, where there are
about twenty lapidary establishments; and that pulverized blue sapphire,
or the massive corundum spar, which is a trifle harder than the red
variety, is used as the abrading material. All of the mines are jealously
guarded from the visits of Europeans; and when Professor Oldham was
allowed to examine some of them in 1855, he could learn of but one
European who had previously seen them. This favored person was a