MALAWI PRIMARY SCHOOLS STUDY NOTES

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AGRICULTURE

BIBLE KNOWLEDGE

ENGLISH

EXPRESSIVE ARTS

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

UNIT 2 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

UNIT 3 THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM

UNIT 4 IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD

UNIT 5 MEALS FOR INVALIDS, CONVALESCENTS, VEGETARIANS AND ELDERLY PEOPLE

UNIT 6 IMPROVING A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

UNIT 7 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS

UNIT 8 FOOD PROCESSING

UNIT 9 REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

UNIT 10 SOLUTIONS AND MIXTURES

UNIT 11 METHODS OF COOKING

UNIT 12 TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT

UNIT 13 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

UNIT 14 FAMILY SIZE INCOME AND FOOD SUPPLY

UNIT 15 LAUNDERING CLOTHES AND BED LINEN

UNIT 16 HIV AND AIDS

REFERENCES

UNIT 1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Scientific investigation is the process in which a scientist designs and carries out experiments to obtain
information
PLANNING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

There are a number of things that are involved when planning a scientific investigation. Planning a
scientific investigation involves the following things:

Identifying the problem

Stating the problem in the form of a question

Predicting the possible solution to a problem

Identifying what to observe or measure (variables)

Identifying and collecting the resources that would be required to carry out the investigation.

Deciding the steps to be followed in the process of collecting data

CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Once the investigation has been planned, it is then carried out.

This is when the hypotheses are tested by carrying out experiments.

Also, the variables to be investigated are deliberately changed while keeping the other variables
constant.

This is what is meant by controlling and manipulating variables.

The variables that are changed are observed and recorded as the investigation is being conducted. The
purpose of carrying out an investigation is to collect data through observation.

If one is not satisfied with the data collected, it is necessary to repeat the procedures.
When the data has been collected, it should be organised in such a way that it is meaningful. The data
may be presented in the form of tables.

The procedures of organising data are referred to as data analysis. One of the ways of analysing data is
the use of graphs.

After the data has been analysed, there is need to interpret it.

This may involve determining the relationship between variables using the analysed data.

The determination of the relationships between variables include:

looking for patterns of data in a table

interpreting the shapes of graph lines

Once the data has been analysed and interpreted, a conclusion can be drawn based on the results of the
investigation.

The conclusion then becomes the solution to the problem investigated.

Conducting a scientific investigation involves:

carrying out the investigation according to what has been planned

collecting data and presenting it in a meaningful way

analysing the data that have been collected

interpreting the analysed data

drawing a conclusion based on the results of the investigation

writing a report of the investigation

REPORTING THE FINDINGS OF A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

After the scientific investigation has been completed, it is important to write a report.

The report can include:

Topic of the investigation

An introduction

The methodology (methods used to conduct the investigation)

The results (findings)

The discussion of the results

The conclusion

The possible solution to the problem is called a hypothesis.

Examples of the questions that can be investigated in science and technology:

why does a fresh egg sink and a rotten one float on water?

what is the speed of sound in air?

what are the factors that affect the speed of sound in air?
how different is the life cycle of grasshopper from that of a housefly?

how can a particular variety of maize be improved in terms of yields?

how is the pitch of sound affected by different sizes of bottles?

which is the most effective biological control of aphids?

how can the components of a given mixture be separated?

Variables are factors that would affect the results in the investigation. Variables is anything that can
change.

THE PURPOSE OF WRITING A REPORT AFTER CONDUCTING A SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

to communicate the findings of the investigation to those who did not take part in the investigation.

It acts as a record of what was done

It gives people the opportunity to learn the findings, ask questions and comment on the investigation.

UNIT 2 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The main parts of human circulatory system and their function

PARTS
FUNCTION

The Heart

It pumps blood around the body

The Arteries

They carry blood away from the heart

The Veins

They carry blood to the heart

The Capillaries

They connect the arteries to the veins

THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood comes into the heart from all parts of the body through Posterior and Anterior vena cava and
from the lungs through the Pulmonary vein.
The blood goes out of the heart through the aorta to all parts of the body and through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs.

When blood comes from different parts of the body it is dark red in colour because it contains less
oxygen and more waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea.

The heart then pumps the blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.

In the lungs, carbon dioxide is excreted while oxygen is added to the blood making it look bright red.

The blood then goes back to the heart through the pulmonary vein where it is pumped to all parts of the
body.

When the blood is circulating throughout the body, some of the following things happen:

excretion of waste products such as urea from the kidneys

diffusion of digested food particles around the intestines from where they are transported to the liver

It is the liver regulates or controls how much food should be transported by the blood. The liver also
stores excess food.

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Blood is composed of:

Plasma which is the liquid part of the blood

Red blood cells which transport oxygen

White blood cells which defend the body against disease causing organisms

Platelets which help in the process of blood clotting.

BLEEDING

Bleeding is the process whereby blood oozes from the body.

CAUSES OF BLEEDING

High blood pressure rapturing blood vessels especially in the nostrils

Disease

Tissue damage (injury)

EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE BLOOD LOSS FROM THE BODY

Anaemia

Death
WAYS OF CONTROLLING BLEEDING

Applying direct pressure on the injured part of the body

Raising the injured part so as to reduce the amount of blood flowing to it.

Clotting of blood (this is done naturally by the body)

Where there has been excessive loss of blood, a person may be given blood from other people through
a process called blood transfusion.

This is why it is important that people should donate blood to hospitals so as to save the lives of others
in cases of emergency.

UNIT 3 THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM

Breathing is a process through which air is pushed in and out of the lungs.

The air which enters the body contains a lot of oxygen which later diffuses into the blood stream
through the lungs.

The air which goes out of the body contains a lot of carbon dioxide which has diffused from the blood
into the lungs.

For breathing to take place, there are several parts and structures that are involved. For example,
nostrils, windpipe (trachea), lungs, ribs, and the diaphragm.
BREATHING MECHANISM

The breathing mechanism works in two phases which are Inspiration and Expiration.

INSPIRATION

This is a process of breathing in air and is also referred to as inhalation.

During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and becomes flat, the ribs move up and out due to the
contraction of the external intercostal muscles.

Due to the movement of the ribs, the volume of the thorax (chest cavity) increases.

Air pressure inside the chest cavity decreases thereby making it lower than the atmospheric pressure.

This causes the air to rush into the lungs

EXPIRATION

This is a process of breathing out air and is also referred to as exhalation.

During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upwards into the thorax, forming a dome shape.
The ribs move down and inwards due to the relaxation of the external intercostal muscles Due to the
inward movement of the ribs, the volume of the thorax decreases.

The air pressure inside the chest cavity therefore increases, making it higher than the atmospheric
pressure.

This forces air out of the lungs.

When the air enters through the nose (nostrils), it passes through the trachea (windpipe), then through
the bronchus, then into the lungs through the bronchioles.

Finally, it goes to air sacs or alveoli where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

PROBLEMS AND CARE FOR THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM

Problems that can affect breathing system are:

Smoking

Air pollution

Diseases

Suffocation

Smothering

WAYS OF CARING FOR THE HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM

Avoid Smoking

Tobacco smoking is dangerous to the breathing system

It can lead to diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis

Tobacco also contains a dangerous chemical known as nicotine

Smoking other substances such as Indian hemp and traditional medicines can lead to the same effects.
So smoking is hazardous to health and must be avoided.

Avoid air pollution

Being in a places where air is heavily polluted can lead to problems that can affect the breathing system.

It is important to avoid areas where the air is polluted.

Eat a balanced diet and go for regular medical check-ups to prevent diseases that can affect breathing
system

Diseases such as cancer, asthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis (TB) can affect breathing system

Live in well ventilated places to avoid suffocation

Suffocation is a situation whereby air cannot pass out of the lungs either through choking or
strangulation

Avoid covering oneself with air proof materials to prevent smothering

Smothering is a situation where air cannot get into the mouth or nose, for example, if clothing or plastic
bag covers the face.

UNIT 4 IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD

IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF FOOD

Various foods contain different types of nutrients.

For instance, meat contains proteins, fats, vitamins and mineral elements. The nutritional value of food
refers to the major nutrients the food contains.

Improving the nutritional value of food means enriching the food with other nutrients by preparing the
foods together.

Ways of improving the nutritional value of food

Combining several foods when cooking

Adding enriching food to dishes

Overcooking fish to soften the bones so that they can be eaten together with the flesh

Cooking some foods in their skins or together with the skin

Using one pot meals

Factors to consider when planning, preparing, cooking and serving dishes with improved nutritional
value

The method of cooking

Colour, texture and flavour of food

Season of the year

Ensure that the meals are nutritionally balanced

THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF POOR NUTRITION ON THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND THE NATION

Malnutrition

Stunted growth among children

Poor mental capacity

Increased risk of chronic illnesses

High mortality rate among children

Low productivity in everyday activities

Strain on the economy of the country

Low standards of living

THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF GOOD NUTRITION ON THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND THE NATION

Healthy population

Proper growth in children

High productivity in everyday activities

Good nutritional status of the population

High standards of living

UNIT 5 MEALS FOR INVALIDS, CONVALESCENTS, VEGETARIANS AND ELDERLY PEOPLE

People can be categorized into different groups depending on their nutritional needs. These include:

Invalids

Convalescents

Vegetarians

The elderly

Invalids

Invalids are people who are ill

Convalescents

Convalescents are people recovering from an illness

Vegetarians

Vegetarians are people who do not eat meat or animal products

The elderly
The elderly are people above the age of 65 years

MEALS FOR INDIVIDUAL NUTRITIONAL NEEDS

INVALIDS

Invalids use less energy therefore they require fewer carbohydrates and fats.

Their meals should contain more proteins and protective foods for the replacement of damaged tissues
and cells.

GUIDELINES TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING MEALS FOR AN INVALID

The meal should be easy to digest

Liquid diet should be given

Following doctor's instructions on meals

Taking into account particular likes and dislikes for food

Not serving leftover food to avoid contamination

Paying careful attention to food hygiene

Preparing food away from the patient

Serving meals in a tray and in small portions

Convalescents
The guidelines for planning meals for convalescents are similar to those of the invalids. The only
difference is that the convalescent's appetite is better and serving is easier.

Vegetarians

There are two types of vegetarians.

Lacto-vegetarians

Strict vegetarians

Lacto-vegetarians are those who eat vegetables and animal products such as eggs, milk, cheese,
yoghurt, ghee and sour milk (chambiko).

Strict vegetarians are people who eat vegetables only.

Reasons for becoming vegetarians

Religion

Health

Animal welfare

Taste

Allergy
Planning meals for vegetarians can be difficult because of lack of proteins, vitamins A and D, calcium and
iron from animal sources.

POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING MEALS FOR VEGETARIANS

Providing sufficient proteins from animal products for lacto-vegetarians

Using plenty of vegetable proteins such as peas, beans and groundnuts for strict vegetarians

Providing foods rich in oils and fats from plant sources

Using a variety of methods of cooking and serving with different combinations to bring variety to
vegetarian diets

Serving large portions for maximum supply of proteins

Elderly people

Elderly people need a special diet because their bodies do not function as efficiently as when they were
young.

GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING PLANNING MEALS FOR THE ELDERLY PEOPLE

An adequate supply of calcium and vitamins is needed for healthy bones and preventing infections

Iron is needed as elderly people may suffer from anaemia

Food should be easy to eat because their teeth may not be very strong

Ensuring a good supply of dietary fibre to help in the digestion of food

Meals should contain more fruits, vegetables and less fat

Providing plenty of fluids in the form of water and other beverages

Meals should be served attractively

UNIT 6 IMPROVING A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

TYPES OF KITCHENS

The modern kitchen

Traditional kitchen

These kitchens are found in both urban and rural areas.

THE MODERN KITCHEN

The modern kitchen is part of the main house. It is found inside the house.

Though a modern kitchen is built as part of the main house, the outside walls must have sufficient
windows for good lighting and ventilation to avoid eye strain.

The kitchen should also be closed off from the rest of the house to prevent cooking odours from
entering the rest of the rooms in the house.
MAIN FEATURES OF A MODERN KITCHEN

Preparing centre

Cooking centre

Storage centre

Washing centre

THE TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

The traditional kitchen is the most common type of kitchen in Malawi.

TYPES OF TRADITIONAL KITCHENS

The open-air kitchen

An enclosed kitchen

THE OPEN-AIR KITCHEN

This type of kitchen is usually in the open outside the house.

It is common in the dry season mainly to boil water for domestic purposes and cook food. The following
illustration on the next page shows an open-air kitchen.
AN ENCLOSED KITCHEN

This kitchen is in the form of a hut and is located outside the main house. It is constructed of materials
such as poles, bricks, reeds and mud.

The roof is made of poles and thatched with grass. In some cases, the kitchen does not have windows.
As such, the main source of ventilation is the door.

The three-stone fireplace is the one commonly used as the cooking centre.

Both open and enclosed kitchens have the kitchen centres located far away from each other. This
arrangement is not good.

A lot of time and energy is spent walking between the centres. This makes the traditional kitchen not
efficient.

The centres are:

The storage centre

The preparation centre

The cooking centre

The washing centre

COMPARISON OF A MODERN AND A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

Modern kitchen

Traditional kitchen

expensive to construct

adequate ventilation and lighting

enough space

has working surfaces

expensive to maintain

it is cheap and easy to construct

sometimes there is little ventilation

poor lighting

sometimes there is limited space

no working surface

easy to maintain

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF A TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

The strengths of a traditional kitchen are;

easy to construct

easy to maintain
LIMITATIONS OF TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

a lot of smoke is produced

the food cooked in a three-stone fireplace can have a smoky flavour if not cooked properly

there is wastage of fuel energy

space is limited

the traditional kitchen does not have work surfaces and there is no running water.

WAYS OF IMPROVING THE TRADITIONAL KITCHEN

making a kitchen with a window and a chimney

fixing surfaces and shelves to an already existing kitchen

making a drying rack outside the kitchen for drying pots and plates

constructing a mud stove with more than one cooking place to save fuel and time

CONSTRUCTING A MUD CUPBOARD

The materials and equipment required for constructing a mud cupboard are:

Poles

Soil

Bamboo

Water

Nails
Panga knives

Buckets

Strings

A piece of rope

A hoe

CONSTRUCTING A SHELF

The materials and equipment required for constructing a shelf are

Bamboo strips

Reeds

Grass

Millet or maize stems

Sticks

Poles

Pieces of string

CONSTRUCTING A DRYING RACK WITH A SOAK PIT

The materials and equipment required for constructing a drying rack are:

Poles

Bamboo strips

Pieces of string

A hoe
Chilaya (a tool for digging hoes)

Panga knives

Nails

A hammer

UNIT 7 IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS

Some of the locally produced products in the community such as wood carvings, mats, clay pots, mortar
and hoe handles may not be of high quality.

It is therefore important to improve their quality.

Quality guarantees that the products are of a high standard.

There are many ways of improving the quality of a product. These ways include:

improving the smell

improving the taste

improving the appearance

improving the colour

improving the volume

improving the shape

packaging

decorating

labelling
The following table shows some suggestions of how the quality of products can be improved:

THE IMPORTANCE OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS

Products of high quality can help to build confidence in the consumer.

The producer is assured of high sales at a better price.

Quality assurance ensures that the products are manufactured consistently and are attractive.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS

the products may become expensive and slow to sell

some materials used for improving the quality of the products may not be found locally and can be
expensive

UNIT 8 FOOD PROCESSING

Food processing refers to the methods that are used to change raw ingredients into food products for
human and animal consumption.
REASONS FOR PROCESSING FOOD

improving flavour, texture and appearance

preserving the food

improving the quality of food

preventing wastage

improving the livelihood of people

WAYS OF PROCESSING FOOD

There are two main ways of processing food. These are primary and secondary processing.

PRIMARY PROCESSING

Primary processing involves raw ingredients for sale, consumption or making them ready for cooking.

Examples include:

grinding grain into flour

sorting and washing vegetables

extracting oil from seeds and nuts

soaking cassava

fermenting cereals such as millet, sorghum and making for making chimera

soaking mphale to make flour

pounding cereals such as rice and maize

SECONDARY PROCESSING

Secondary processing involves turning basic processed foods into new products.

Examples include:

making margarine from oil

making bread, cakes and biscuits from flour

making jam from fruits

making juices from fruits

making thobwa from chimera

making thobwa, starch, nsima from cassava flour

making chambiko/cheese from milk

making peanut butter from groundnuts

ADVANTAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING

improving the taste, flavour and appearance of food

preserving the food

improving the quality of food

DISADVANTAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING

loss of nutrients during processing

some of the methods used in processing food are not hygienic

some methods used in processing can lead to wastage

food processing can lead to increase in the cost of food

UNIT 9 REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Human life begins at the moment of conception.

During sexual intercourse, a man ejaculates millions of sperms contained in a liquid called semen. The
sperms are deposited in the vagina.

From there, they swim up to the uterus through the cervix into the fallopian tubes to meet the egg
(ovum).

The sperm unites with the egg.

This is called conception or fertilisation.

The union of the sperm and egg results in the formation of a single cell called a zygote.
Once the successful sperm has entered the egg, no other sperm can get in. Eventually, all the
unsuccessful sperms die.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO

Once fertilisation has taken place, the zygote passes from the fallopian tube to the uterus. As it does so,
it develops into an embryo.

It takes about five days for the embryo to reach the uterus to which it is attached.

This is called implantation

A membrane known as the amnion encloses the embryo in a fluid-filled cavity.

The fluid protects the embryo, supports it and allows it to move freely during growth. During birth the
fluid lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina.

During implantation the placenta develops in the walls of the uterus.

The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA

it allows dissolved food substances and oxygen to diffuse from the mother's blood into that of the
embryo

it allows waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood capillaries of the
embryo to the mother's blood stream

it allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother's blood into the blood capillaries of the embryo. The
antibodies protect the embryo against diseases.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS

The embryo continues to grow and forms tissues and organs.

After eight weeks, when all the organs are formed, the embryo is called foetus. By the fifth month, the
heart can be heard beating through a stethoscope.

By the end of the sixth month, the baby has grown eyelashes and eyebrows.

During the first six to seven months, the foetus moves freely in the uterus and its movements can be felt
by the mother.

The placenta continues to grow as the foetus grows bigger.

About nine months from conception, the baby is ready to be born.

THE SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF PREGNANCY

menstruation stops to occur

morning sickness

increase in body weight

enlargement of breasts and abdomen

In some cases the following signs and symptoms of pregnancy can also occur

vomiting

nausea

being choosy about food

feeling dizziness

swelling of legs

craving for unusual food and other substances like soil and sour things

change in appetite

teeth problems due to loss of calcium to the baby

changing moods

changes in the pigmentation of the skin

anaemia

maternal morbidity
Some of the signs and symptoms will disappear in the early stages of pregnancy, but others will
disappear soon after delivery.

While the above signs and symptoms are indicators of pregnancy, it is important to have a medical
examination for confirmation.

THE NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN AND AN UNBORN BABY

DIETARY NEEDS

a balanced diet

plenty of clean and safe drinking water and other fluids but not alcoholic drinks

HEALTH NEEDS

undergoing regular medical check-ups at antenatal clinics

taking regular baths and wearing clean clothes

not smoking or taking of drugs without prescription by a medical doctor

PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS

love

care

understanding from all people around her

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

proper attire such as loose clothes and flat shoes

regular moderate physical exercises

CARE FOR THE BABY

Caring for the baby involves:

following good feeding habits

the provision of complementary feeding at the appropriate age of the baby

weighing the baby to monitor growth and development at a clinic or health centre

immunisation against diseases such as polio, tuberculosis (TB) and measles

provision of vitamin A and deworming tablets

diagnosis and treatment of infections

regular baths and wearing of clean clothes

adequate sleep

THE COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN AND THEIR EFFECTS COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN

whooping cough

tetanus

TB
malaria

diphtheria

polio

measles

diarrhoeal diseases such as dysentery

EFFECTS OF THE DISEASES IN CHILDREN

paralysis and deformity of limbs in the case of polio

deafness in the case of measles

dehydration in the case of diarrhoeal diseases

pneumonia

anaemia

death resulting from any of these diseases

PREVENTION OF THE COMMON DISEASES OF CHILDREN

immunisation against polio, whooping cough, TB, tetanus, diphtheria and measles

following general rules of hygiene against diarrhoeal diseases

sleeping under a treated mosquito net to prevent malaria

THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDER-FIVE CLINICS

routine check-ups on the health of children

routine monitoring of the weight of children

giving advice on feeding, vaccination and nutrition for both the mother and the baby

administering BCG vaccine to prevent TB, DPT vaccine to prevent diphtheria, whooping cough and
tetanus, and other vaccines to prevent polio and measles

provision of vitamin A

treatment of common infections

FAMILY PLANNING

Family planning is practicing some form of birth control to space out births and limit the size of the
family.

SOME REASONS FOR FAMILY PLANNING

it can improve the well-being of families because couples can have fewer children who can be provided
with enough food, clothing and schooling

women can protect themselves from unplanned pregnancies

it helps to save the lives of children because parents can properly take care of them

it can help nations to develop because the people's economic situation improves greatly in countries
where women have fewer children
FAMILY PLANNING METHODS

natural methods

use of condom

use of contraceptive pill

Vasectomy

Spermicides

The diaphragm

Intra-uterine device (IUD)

Tubal ligation (TL)

Norplant implants

NATURAL METHODS

The natural methods of family planning depend on knowing when ovulation occurs.

USE OF CONDOM

A male condom is worn on an erect penis before sexual intercourse.

or

A female condom is inserted in the vagina before sexual intercourse. This prevents sperm from reaching
the egg.
USE OF CONTRACEPTIVE PILL

Contraceptive pills are taken each day between menstrual periods. The pills suppress ovulation and so
prevent conception.

VASECTOMY

This involves a surgical operation in which the man’s sperm ducts are cut and the ends sealed or tied.

SPERMICIDES

Spermicides are chemicals in the form of a cream, gel or foam that are used to kill or immobilise sperms.

THE DIAPHRAGM

This is a rubber disc that can be placed in the vagina before sexual intercourse. It covers the cervix and
so prevents sperms from entering the uterus.

INTRA-UTERINE DEVICE (IUD)

This is a small metal or plastic strip bent into a loop or coil that is inserted in the uterus where it
prevents implantation of the embryo.
TUBAL LIGATION (TL)

This involves sterilising a woman by an operation in which the oviducts are cut and tied.

This operation does not affect the ovaries, sexual desire or menstruation, but sperms cannot reach the
egg.

The eggs that are released break down in the upper part of the oviduct.

NORPLANT IMPLANTS

This is a set of six small plastic capsules that are placed under the skin of a woman’s upper arm.
UNIT 10 SOLUTIONS AND MIXTURES

MIXTURES

When two or more types of substances are put together, a mixture can be formed. Mixtures can be
formed in a number of ways.

These include:

mixing a liquid with another liquid

mixing a solid with another solid

mixing a solid and a liquid

mixing a liquid and a gas

mixing a gas and another gas

In some mixtures, the components can easily be seen like a mixture of maize flour and water. Such
mixtures are called suspensions

In some mixtures, like salt and water, its components cannot be recognised. Salt disappears in water.
The mixture appears as if it were one substance. Such mixtures are called solutions.

When sugar is mixed with water and stirred, it disappears in the water. The visible particles of sugar
break down into invisible particles. These particles spread throughout the water producing a clear
solution. This process is called dissolving.

A substance that dissolves in another substance is called a solute. A substance in which something
dissolves is called a solvent.

Substances that dissolve in water are said to be soluble in water. Those that do not dissolve in water are
said to be insoluble in water.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF SOLUBILITY OF SUBSTANCES IN WATER

size of particles

temperature

stirring

nature of substance

SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

Components that form mixtures can be separated using different methods.

METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES

handpicking

winnowing

sieving

decanting

filtration

evaporation

distillation

magnetism
HANDPICKING

Large components in a mixture can be separated by picking.

For example beans can easily be handpicked from a mixture of beans and sand.

WINNOWING

This method is used to separate solid mixtures.

During winnowing the lighter solids are carried away by sand. The heavier ones remain in the winnower.

SIEVING

Solid mixtures can be separated using this method.

Smaller particles pass through the sieve while the bigger ones remain behind. Solid particles can also be
separated from a liquid using this method.

For example tea leaves from tea.

DECANTING

When a liquid forms a clear boundary with another liquid one liquid can be poured off leaving the other
liquid behind.

A mixture of water and paraffin or suspensions can be separated using this method.
FILTRATION

Filtration is a method of separating a solid substance from a liquid or a gas using a filter. The liquid or
gas passes through the filter while the solid ones remain behind.

The substance that passes through a filter is called a filtrate.

The substance that does not pass through a filter is called a residue.

EVAPORATION

A solution is heated gently to evaporate the liquid part and leave behind the solid part in the container.

For example a solution of salt and water can be separated using this method.

DISTILLATION

This is used to separate liquid mixtures with components of different boiling points.

The liquid that boils first evaporates and its gas is passed through a delivery tube via a condenser where
it is cooled and changed into a liquid again.

This liquid is then collected in the container as a distillate, for example kachaso.
MAGNETISM

Magnetism can be used to separate magnetic materials from non-magnetic ones.

The magnet attracts magnetic materials only from the mixture leaving the non-magnetic ones behind.

For example iron particles cab be removed from sand in this way.

UNIT 11 METHODS OF COOKING

Methods of cooking can be categorized into dry and moist heat methods. Dry methods include frying,
baking and roasting.

Moist methods include boiling, steaming and stewing.

BAKING METHOD

This is a method of cooking food using dry heat in an oven or in a pot.

When baking using a pot, hot charcoal is placed on top and underneath or hot sand is placed beneath
and hot charcoal on top.

Examples of the food that can be cooked using baking method include scones, cakes,
chigumu/chikondamoyo, chimimina, biscuits, pudding, fish and root vegetables.
ADVANTAGES OF BAKING FOOD

food does not break up if cooked well

no soluble nutrients are lost

the food looks attractive

flavour is improved

DISADVANTAGES OF BAKING FOOD

uses a lot of fuel

most baking ingredients are expensive

needs careful attention

not suitable for cooking food for the sick

ROASTING METHOD

Roasting is cooking food with a little oil or fat in an oven or saucepan or without oil or fat over glowing
charcoal fire.
Examples of food that can be roasted include meat, fish, green maize, potatoes and cassava.

ADVANTAGES OF ROASTING

the food looks attractive

a cheap method of cooking food

only few soluble nutrients are lost

the flavour of the food is improved

DISADVANTAGES OF ROASTING FOOD

incorrect roasting can harden the inside proteins

roasting causes food to lose much of its moisture

not suitable for cooking food with a high percentage of water like root vegetables

does not make food tender

the method demands more attention

the food shrinks during roasting

over-roasting burns or spoils the food

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BAKING AND ROASTING FOOD

they are both dry methods of cooking food

cooking can be done inside an oven or in a saucepan over a fire

in both methods cooked food is attractive

the flavour of the food is improved

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BAKING AND ROASTING FOOD

oil in baking is used for greasing baking tins so that the food does not stick to the tin whereas oil in
roasting is used to aid stewing

ingredients in baking are more expensive than in roasting

UNIT 12 TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT

MEANING OF ENVIRONMENT

The term 'environment' refers to the total surrounding of living things. It includes land, soil, water, air,
vegetation, animals and buildings.

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT

The environment is vital for the survival of living things.

All living things depend on the environment for basic necessities such as food, shelter, air, warmth and
water.

For living things to survive, they need a sustainable environment.

ACTIVITIES THAT CAN LEAD TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

deforestation

setting bushfires

overgrazing

poor land husbandry practices

poor waste disposal

excessive use of inorganic fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides

emissions of harmful gases

poaching

charcoal production

use of inefficient energy stoves

discharge of untreated sewage into water bodies

EFFECTS OF DESTROYING THE ENVIRONMENT

desertification

erratic rains leading to droughts and floods

global warming

adverse change in weather and seasons

outbreak of diseases such as cancer and cholera

low agricultural output leading to famine

soil erosion
scarcity of water

decrease of animal population

siltation

loss of tourism

TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONSERVING THE ENVIRONMENT

solar driers

solar cookers

biogas

fuel saving stoves

compositing

solar panels (photovoltaics)

solar heaters

A-frame

paper recycling

briquettes

dam

MAKING A SOLAR HEATER/COOKER

Materials needed for making a solar hear or cooker are:

Two cardboard boxes, one slightly bigger than the other

One cardboard sheet for the lid. This must be large enough to cover the top of the finished heater

One roll of aluminium foil

Black paint or charcoal paste

1 cup of glue

A sheet of glass or transparent plastic paper

A knife

UNIT 13 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY

There are many sources of electricity. These are primary and secondary sources.

Primary sources produce electricity directly, that is, by connecting a source to a load. Secondary sources
produce electricity through an intermediary such as a generator.

Some of the sources of electricity are:

wind power

geo-thermal power

hydro-power

chemical energy

thermocouple which is a junction of two different metals

solar energy
USES OF ELECTRICITY

heating

ironing

cooking

lighting

cooling

cleaning

drying

communication

entertainment

mixing things

propelling machines

air conditioning

washing

Devices that use electricity must be part of a complete circuit.

The symbols are used to represent parts of the electric circuits such as cells, bulbs, switches, wires or
connectors and fuses.
The symbol for a cell has one long line representing the positive terminal and the short one for the
negative terminal.

A cell

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS

A series circuit is constructed by connecting components such that they lie along one conducting path.

If an electric circuit has more than one conducting path, it is called a parallel circuit.

A series circuit

a parallel circuit

A parallel circuit is better than a series circuit because in a parallel circuit:

the components can be controlled separately

each component uses the total voltage from the source

HOW BULBS GIVE LIGHT

A bulb gives light when, for example, it is connected to a cell.

The electric current that flows in the electric circuit causes the bulb to give light.

The electric current in the tungsten wire in the bulb meets resistance which results in the production of
heat.

The tungsten wire glows and gives off light because of the heat.

WAYS OF GENERATING ELECTRICITY USING LOCALLY AVAILABLE RESOURCES

Electricity can be generated by using locally available resources.

UNIT 14 FAMILY SIZE, INCOME AND FOOD SUPPLY

FAMILY SIZE

Family size refers to the number of people in a family. Some families are generally big while others are
small.
INCOME

This is the amount of money one gets regularly as payment for work or from trading, sale of farm
produce or other forms of livelihood.

FOOD SUPPLY

This is the amount of food available for consumption.

Food can be made available to a family by producing their own or buying. This can ensure food security
at the household level.

RELATIONSHIP AMONG FAMILY SIZE, INCOME AND FOOD SUPPLY

Family size determines the amount of food to be available to family members for consumption.

The amount of food available to a family depends on the amount of money available for buying food or
how much food the family can produce.

UNIT 15 LAUNDERING CLOTHES AND BED LINEN

TYPES OF FABRICS
Fabrics from which clothes and bed linen are made are classified into two main groups. These are
natural and synthetic fibres.

NATURAL FIBRES

These are made from plants, animals and minerals.

For example:

plant fibres - cotton and linen

animal fibres - wool, silk and leather

mineral fibres - fibreglass, aluminium and asbestos

SYNTHETIC FIBRES

These are fibres that are made by people.

Examples include polyester, nylon, rayon and acetate. These are made from chemicals.

LAUNDERING CLOTHES AND BED LINEN

When laundering clothes and bed linen, the following are required: water, soap, bleaches, starch and
stain removals.

Laundry equipment that can be used include pails, basins, bathtubs, sinks, pegs, line on which clothes
can be dried, pressing iron, ironing table or ironing board, mats, ironing stands, angers, ironing blankets
and sheets.
The main processes in laundry are sorting, mending, soaking, washing, drying, pressing, airing and
storing.

It is important to sort out articles according to colour, degree of dirt, types and uses of fabric.

UNIT 16 HIV AND AIDS

AIDS is a killer as well as a contagious disease.

AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. The disease is caused by a virus called HIV.

HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

The virus destroys the immune system of the body making it prone to different infections. The word
human means that the disease affects people only.

HIV TRANSMISSION
HIV can be transmitted in the following ways:

unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person

infected pregnant mother passing the virus to the child during pregnancy, birth or breastfeeding

through blood transfusion when the donor is infected

transfer of the virus through the blood of an infected person to an uninfected person through sharing of
skin cutting objects such as razor blades and needles

COMMON INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH HIV AND AIDS

TB

meningitis

cancer

skin infections

HIV AND AIDS PREVENTION

HIV and AIDS can be prevented in the following ways:

abstinence from sex

being faithful to one life-long uninfected sexual partner

using condoms correctly and consistently during sexual intercourse

avoiding having more than one sexual partner

avoiding certain behaviours such as taking intoxicating drugs and substances

avoiding sharing skin cutting objects such as razor blades and needles

infected females should avoid getting pregnant or should seek medication so that the virus is not
transmitted to the unborn child

avoiding cultural practices that can lead to the transmission of HIV such as chokolo and kulowa kufa

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF PEOPLE LIVING WITH HIV AND AIDS

A person with HIV and AIDS should have a balanced diet that can help one to remain strong and healthy.

The following should be avoided:

processed foods

foods containing preservatives, artificial flavours or artificial colourants

canned foods

junk food

alcoholic drinks

smoking

People living with HIV and AIDS should be given food such as the following:

meat

dairy products

fish

seafood
cereals

food containing fats and oils

vegetables, garlic and onions

REFERENCES

Malawi Institute of Education (2009), Science & Technology Teachers` Guide for standard 8, Domasi
Malawi Institute of Education (2009), Science & Technology Learners Book for standard 8, Domasi

SOCIAL STUDIES

CHICHEWA

LIFE SKILLS