ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

• Fundamental units
• You will already know that the units that we now use to describe such things as length,
mass and time are standardized within the International System of Units.
• SI system is based upon the seven fundamental units
Quantity Unit Abbreviation
• Current ampere A
• Length meter m
• Luminous intensity candela cd
• Mass kilogram kg
• Temperature Kelvin K
• Time second s
• Matter mol mol
Following table shows different electrical quantities
with units
 Module -1
A . Electronic Circuits
Power Supplies: Block diagram, Rectifiers, Reservoir and smoothing
circuits, Full-wave rectifiers, Bi-phase rectifier circuits, Bridge rectifier
circuits, Voltage regulators, Output resistance and voltage regulation,
Voltage multipliers.
[Link]
• Types of amplifiers, Gain, Input and output resistance, Frequency
response, Band-width, Phase shift, Negative feedback, multi-stage
amplifiers (Text 1)

3
 Text Book

Text - Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals &

Applications’, 4th Edition, Elsevier, 2015. DOI
[Link] eBook ISBN9781315737980.

Chapters 6, 7(only As per syllabus)

4
 POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is a device that supplies electric power to a load.
The requirement for a reliable source of constant voltage in
virtually all electronics systems has led to many advances in
power supply design.
Block diagram of DC power supply is as shown in figure.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DC POWER SUPPLY

High Voltage AC Low Voltage AC Unsmoothed DC Smoothed DC Regulated DC

RESERVOIR/
STEP-DOWN VOLTAGE
RECTIFIER SMOOTHING
TRANSFORMER REGULATOR
FILTER
- Step-Down Transformer – Steps down the AC main voltage which is
usually high (220V) to a lower value (9V, 12V, 15V, 20V, 30V). This is
achieved by varying the turns ratio on the transformer.
- Rectifier – The AC output from transformer secondary is then rectified
using conventional silicon rectifier diodes to produce an unsmoothed
output (pulsating DC).
- Reservoir/Filtering Circuit – The unsmoothed output from rectifier is
smoothened by reservoir/filtering circuit (a high value capacitor). The
high value capacitor stores a considerable charge. The capacitor helps
smooth out the voltage pulses produced by the rectifier.
- Voltage Regulator – A series transistor regulator using a Zener diode as a
fixed voltage source stabilizes and provides a constant voltage.
7
A SIMPLE DC SUPPLY

8
 RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (ac) to
direct current (dc).
RECTIFIERS

HALF WAVE RECTIFIERS FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

BI-PHASE RECTIFIERS BRIDGE RECTIFIERS

 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and,
since it operates on only either positive or negative half-cycles of the
supply, it is known as a half-wave rectifier.

Alternating Voltage

Pulsating DC Voltage
 OPERATION OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
• Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert Alternating
Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC), also referred as Rectifiers.
• The simplest form of rectifier circuit uses a single diode and operates
only in positive or negative half cycles of the supply, known as half-wave
rectifier.
• The mains voltage (220 to 240V) applied to primary of step-down
transformer.

11
• The secondary of transformer steps down the 240V rms to 12V rms
(the turns ratio 20:1).
• Diode D1 will allow the current to flow in the direction is shown
below.
• The Diode D1 will be forward biased during each positive half-cycle
and behaves as a closed switch as shown in fig (a).
• When the circuit current flows in opposite direction, the voltage bias
across the diode will be reversed, causing the diode to be reverse
biased and act like an open switch as shown in fig (b).

12
 D1 FWD Biased
Vin T1
+
+A
+ VL

RL t
t Current Flow
- -
B
-
 D1 REV Biased
Vin T1
-
- A
VL

RL t
t

+B
+
 WAVEFORMS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Vin

VL D1 FWD D1 REV D1 FWD D1 REV

Biased Biased Biased Biased

Pulsating Output Voltage

t
• The switching action of D1 results in a pulsating output voltage
developed across the load RL.
• Since the mains supply is at 50Hz, the pulses of the voltage developed
across RL will also be at 50Hz.
• During the positive half-cycle, the diode will drop the 0.6 to 0.7V
forward threshold voltage normally associated with silicon diodes.

16
•However, during the negative half-cycle the peak ac voltage
will be dropped across D1 when it is reverse biased.

• Assuming that the secondary of T1 provides 12V rms, the peak

voltage output from transformer’s secondary winding will be given by
Vpeak = 1.414 x Vrms = 1.414 x 12V = 16.97V

17
• The peak voltage applied to D1 will be approximately 17V.
• The negative half cycles are blocked by D1 and thus only positive half
cycles appear across RL.
• The actual peak voltage across RL will be 17V supplied from secondary
of transformer minus the 0.7V forward threshold voltage.
• Therefore 16.3V will appear across RL.
 Problem 1
A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s.
mains supply. If the secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine
the peak voltage that will appear across a load.
The r.m.s. secondary voltage will be given by:

The peak voltage developed after rectification will be given by:

Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a forward voltage drop
of 0.6 V, the actual peak voltage dropped across the load will be:
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH A RESERVOIR CAPACITOR

Half wave Rectifier with Reservoir

Capacitor

Voltage waveforms at various points

in Half-wave Rectifier

20
 Operation Of Half Wave Rectifier With A Reservoir
Capacitor
D1 FWD Biased
Vin T1
+
+A
+ VL
+ Vp
Vp
RL
t - t
Current Flow
- -
B
-
 Operation of Half Wave Rectifier with a Reservoir
Capacitor
D1 REV Biased
Vin T1
+
-A
+ VL
+ Vp
vp
RL
t - t
+ -
B
-
Half wave Rectifier with Smoothing Circuit
• Smoothing Circuit
• This circuit employs two additional components,
which act as a filter to remove the ripple. The value
of additional capacitor is chosen so that the
component exhibits a negligible reactance at the
ripple frequency.

RC Smoothing Circuit

• LC Smoothing Circuit
• At ripple frequency, L exhibits high inductive
reactance while C exhibits a low value of capacitive
reactance.
• The combined effect reduces the amplitude of
LC Smoothing Circuit ripple, while having negligible effect on the direct
voltage
23
 Problem 2
The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit
consists of R1 = 100ohm and C 2 = 1,000μF. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of
the circuit, determine the amount of ripple appearing at the output.
First we must determine the reactance of the capacitor, C2, at the ripple frequency
(50 Hz):

The amount of ripple at the output of the circuit will be given by:
 FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS
• Unfortunately, the half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as
conduction takes place only on alternate half-cycles. A better rectifier
arrangement would make use of both positive and negative
half-cycles.
• Full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable improvement over
their half-wave counterparts. They are not only more efficient but are
significantly less demanding in terms of the reservoir and smoothing
components.
• There are two basic forms of full wave rectifier;
[Link] bi-phase type and
[Link] bridge rectifier type.
BI-PHASE FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

26
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
• On the positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to
point B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point C.
• In this condition D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive
with respect to its cathode) while D2 will not allow conduction (its
anode will be negative with respect to its cathode). Thus, D1 alone
conducts on positive half-cycles.

27
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point B.
Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point A. In this
condition D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with
respect to its cathode). Thus, D2 alone conducts on negative
half-cycles.
The result is that current is routed through the load in the same
direction on successive half-cycles. Furthermore, this current is derived
alternately from the two secondary windings.
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
D1 FWD Biased

Vin T1
A + + VL

RL

B -
-
t +

C
-

D2 REV Biased
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
D1 REV Biased

vin T1
A - + vout

RL

B + -
t -

C
+

D2 FWD Biased
 WAVEFORMS OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
Vin

D1 FWD D1 FWD
D2 REV D2 REV
VL D2 FWD D2 FWD
D1 REV D1 REV

Pulsating Output Voltage

t
 OPERATION OF BI-PHASE RECTIFIER
• As with the half-wave rectifier, the switching action of the two diodes results in a
pulsating output voltage being developed across the load resistor (RL).

• However, unlike the half-wave circuit the pulses of voltage developed across RL
will occur at a frequency of 100Hz (not 50Hz).

• This doubling of ripple frequency allows us to use smaller values of reservoir and
smoothing capacitor to obtain the same degree of ripple reduction (reactance of
a capacitor is reduced as frequency increases).

• As before, the peak voltage produced by each of the secondary windings will be
approximately 17V and the peak voltage across RL will be 16.3V (i.e., 17V-0.7V
forward threshold voltage dropped by the diodes)

32
BI-PHASE FWR WITH RESERVOIR CIRCUIT
∙ The reservoir capacitor C1 can be connected to
ensure that the output voltage remains at or near
the peak voltage even when the diodes are not
conducting.
∙ The capacitor charges to peak value of 16.3V in
the positive cycle and holds the voltage at this
level when the diodes are non-conducting.
∙ The time required by C1 to charge to the
maximum (peak) level is determined by the
charging circuit time constant (the series
resistance multiplied by capacitance value).

33
BI-PHASE FWR WITH RESERVOIR CIRCUIT
∙ The series resistance in this circuit is the secondary winding
resistance and forward resistance of the diode and minimal
resistance of wiring and the connections.
∙ Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as either D1 or D2
starts to conduct.
∙ The time required for C1 to discharge is in contrast, very
much larger. The discharge time is equal to product of the
capacitance value and RL. In practice, RL is very large and
greater than secondary winding, hence capacitor takes
longer to discharge.
∙ During this stage D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and held
in non-conducting state. As a consequence, the only
discharge path for C1 is through RL.
VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

35
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is that of using a
four-diode bridge rectifier in which opposite pairs of diode conduct on
alternate half-cycles. This arrangement avoids the need to have two
separate secondary windings.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER

37
 Operation of Bridge Rectifier

+
vin T1 A
D4 +
REV
D1 FWD

+ vout
t D2
B D3
FWD -
- REV RL t

-
 Operation of Bridge Rectifier

A -
vin T1 FWD
D4
D1 REV

t + vout
D2
REV D3
B+ FWD RL

- t
 OPERATION OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER
- Avoids 2 separate secondary windings
- 240V Main voltage is applied to primary of the step-down transformer (T1).
- The secondary winding provides 12Vrms of 20:1
- On positive half cycles, point A will be positive with respect to B. D1 and D2
will conduct and D3 and D4 will not conduct
- On negative half cycles, point B will be positive with respect to A, D3 and D4
will conduct and D1 and D2 will not conduct.
- The current is routed through the load in the same direction on successive
half cycles.
- Similar to bi-phase rectifier, the switching action of the two diodes results in a
pulsating output voltage being developed across (RL)
- The peak voltage is approximately 16.3V (i.e 17V less the 0.7V forward
threshold voltage)
40
BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH RESERVOIR CAPACITOR
 Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator provides a constant DC output voltage
that is independent of AC line voltage variations, load current
and temperature.
The input to a voltage regulator comes from the filtered
output of a rectifier derived from an AC voltage.
 Voltage Regulator

- Rs limits the Zener current to safe limit

- The source current is divided as Iz
(current through Zener) and IL (current
through RL)
- It is usual to allow 2-5mA to ensure
Zener diode conducts
- The output voltage is equal to Zener
breakdown voltage.

43
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
•

44
 Output Resistance And Voltage Regulation
• The internal resistance appears at the output of the supply and defined
as change in output voltage to change in output current

• The regulation is given as

45
Example
The following data was obtained during a test carried out on a d.c.
power supply:
(i) Load test
Output voltage (no-load) = 12 V
Output voltage (2 A load current) = 11.5 V
(ii) Regulation test
Output voltage (mains input, 220 V) = 12 V
Output voltage (mains input, 200 V) = 11.9 V
Determine (a) the equivalent output resistance of the power supply
and (b) the regulation of the power supply.
 Practical power supply circuits
Figure shows a simple power supply circuit capable of delivering an
output current of up to 250 mA. The circuit uses a full-wave bridge
rectifier arrangement (Dl to D4) and a simple C–R filter. The output
voltage is regulated by the shunt connected12 V zener diode.
 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS
A. Voltage Doubler
• By adding a second diode and
capacitor, the output of half wave
rectifier is increased.

• C1 will charge to positive peak of

secondary and C2 will charge to
negative peak of secondary
voltage.

• Since the output is taken from C1

and C2 connected in series the
Voltage doubler resulting output voltage is twice
that produced by one diode alone.
49
 OPERATION OF VOLTAGE DOUBLER
D1 FWD Biased

vin T1
+
+ +
Vp C1
- RL
t -
-
C2

D2 REV Biased
 Operation of Voltage Doubler
D1 REV Biased

vin T1
+
+ +
Vp C1
- RL
t -
+ -
Vp C2
-

D2 FWD Biased
 [Link] TRIPLER
∙ C1 charges to positive peak secondary voltage,
while C2 and C3 charges to twice the positive peak
secondary voltage.
∙ The result is that the output voltage is the sum of
the voltages across C1 and C3 which is 3 times the
voltage that would be produced by a single diode.
∙ The ladder arrangement can be easily extended to
provide even higher voltages but the efficiency of
the circuit becomes increasingly impaired and
high order voltage multipliers of this type are only
suitable for providing relatively small currents.

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Vm-Vm+Vc3-2Vm = 0
THANK YOU