Spinelli Refugee Centre, Mannheim Germany, designed by the students of

Atelier U20, Faculty of Architecture, Technische Universität Kaiserslautern.

(Photo: Yannick Wenger – Mannheim)
First published in 2022 by
The Crowood Press Ltd
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Wiltshire SN8 2HR

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This e-book first published in 2022

© Fausto Sanna 2022

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 0 7198 4078 4

Cover design by Sergey Tsvetkov

Front cover image: Congress and Exhibition Centre in Agordo (Italy), designed
by Studio Botter and Studio Bressan. (Photo: Simone Bossi)

Back cover images: top left: house in Haute-Nendaz (Switzerland), designed

by Jean-Michel Martignoni, Ma Maison Bois. (Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison
Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland); top right and middle left: new FINSA
Headquarters in Santiago de Compostela (Spain), designed by MRM Arquitectos.
(Photo: MRM Arquitectos, Spain); bottom: Congress and Exhibition Centre in
Agordo (Italy), designed by Studio Bressan and Studio Botter. (Photo: Simone
Bossi)

Disclaimer
The information contained in this book is for guidance only and should only be
used in conjunction with professional advice. The author and publisher disclaim
all liability for any loss or damage, whether direct or indirect, arising as a result
of the use of this book or the information contained in it.
Dedication
To my mother and Josema
 Contents

Acknowledgements

List of abbreviations

Introduction

Chapter One Solid wood and silvicultural practice

Chapter Two Treated, modified and engineered wood

Chapter Three Environmental aspects

Chapter Four Designing with timber-framed panels

Chapter Five Designing with structural insulated panels

Chapter Six Designing with solid timber panels

Bibliography

Useful contacts

Index
 Acknowledgements

I
AM GRATEFUL TO THE PEOPLE WHO HAVE contributed to the
preparation of this book: Annalaura Fornasier, Adam
Primmer, Eleonora Piga, Liisa Murd and Alex Boyce.
A big thank-you to Nick Evans, Senior Lecturer at
Cardiff School of Art & Design, for his very useful
suggestions, and to The Crowood Press, for advice on, and
insight into, the content and structure of this publication.
Finally, I would like to thank all the architectural
practices, construction companies and institutions that
have provided images and information on their projects:
ABCP architecture (Canada); Alma-nac (United
Kingdom); Anton Varela García arquitecto (Spain); Andreas
Kretzer, Hochschule für Technik Stuttgart (Germany);
Atelier U20, Department of Architecture, Technische
Universität Kaiserslautern (Germany); BGLA architecture +
urban design (Canada); Catnic (United Kingdom), a Tata
Steel Enterprise, in particular Charmaine Dean; Dietrich |
Untertrifaller Architects (Austria); Dow Jones Architects
(United Kingdom); Feilden Fowles (United Kingdom);
Hemsec Manufacturing Ltd (United Kingdom), in particular
Lizz Clarke; HK Architekten (Austria); Kontio Log Houses
(Finland), in particular Pierre Vacherand; Lacol |
arquitectura cooperativa (Spain), in particular Carles
Baiges Camprubí and Cristina Gamboa; MAAJ Architectes
(France); Ma Maison Bois – Jean-Michel Martignoni
(Switzerland); Mirko Franzoso architetto (Italy); MRM
Arquitectos (Spain), in particular Miguel Alonso
Flamarique; Neumann Monson Architects (United States);
Scotts Timber Engineering Ltd (United Kingdom); Studio
Botter (Italy), in particular Andrea Botter; Studio Bressan
(Italy), in particular Emanuele Bressan; Studio Weave
(United Kingdom); Woodknowledge Wales (United
Kingdom), in particular Gary Newman and Diana Waldron.
List of Abbreviations

AP acidification potential
BRE Building Research Establishment
BS British standard
BSI British Standards Institution
CAD computer-aided design
European Committee for Standardization
CEN
(Comité Européen de Normalisation)
CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
CLT cross-laminated timber
Institute of Environmental Sciences (Centrum
CML
voor Milieuwetenschappen), Leiden University
CNC computer numerical control
DLT dowel-laminated timber
DPC damp-proof course
EC European Commission
EMC equilibrium moisture content
EN European Standards
EP eutrophication potential
EPD environmental product declaration
EPS expanded polystyrene
eq. equivalents
EU European Union
FMB Federation of Master Builders
FSC Forest Stewardship Council
GHGs greenhouse gases
glulam glued laminated timber
GWP global-warming potential
HFCs hydrogenated halocarbons
IES Institute for Environment and Sustainability
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LoW list of waste
LSL laminated-strand lumber
LVL laminated veneer lumber
MC moisture content
MDF medium-density fibreboard
MMC modern methods of construction
NLT nail-laminated timber
OSB oriented-strand board
ODP ozone-depletion potential
OPC ordinary Portland cement
PCR product-category rules
PD published document (BS, ISO, CEN standards)
PE primary energy
Programme for the Endorsement of Forest
PEFC
Certification
PIR polyisocyanurate
POCP photochemical ozone-creation potential
POE post-occupancy evaluation
PSL parallel-strand lumber
PUR polyurethane
PVC polyvinyl chloride
RIBA Royal Institute of British Architects
Sb antimony
SCL structural composite lumber
SIP(s) structural insulated panel(s)
SO2 sulphur dioxide
TF timber frame
TPP Timber Procurement Policy
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
US or USA United States of America
VCL vapour-control layer
VOCs volatile organic compounds
XPS extruded polystyrene
Introduction

Bring out the nature of the materials, let their

nature intimately into your scheme. Strip the wood
of varnish and let it alone – stain it. […] Reveal the
nature of wood, plaster, brick or stone in your
designs; they are all by nature friendly and
beautiful. No treatment can be really a matter of
fine art when these natural characteristics are, or
their nature is, outraged or neglected.

Frank Lloyd Wright (1908, p.157)

Timber Architecture Today

Over the last three decades, timber has undoubtedly known

a renaissance as a building material, especially when used
structurally. However, an important distinction should be
made between mainstream and one-off projects. The latter
have enjoyed a very positive reception by critics and the
profession at large, and favourable coverage in the media,
such as magazines, journals and TV programmes, aimed at
a variety of audiences. Timber architecture is also
encouraged by numerous ad hoc initiatives and awards(1),
organized by research institutions and professional or trade
associations, which tend to reward the overall merit of
timber-built projects, but also the level of innovation,
experimentation and environmental responsiveness that
they demonstrate.
 One-off projects are often commissioned by open-minded
clients, who wish to use sustainable resources and can
appreciate the aesthetic qualities of timber as a
construction material. Conversely, in the UK, mainstream
timber architecture, especially in the residential field,
tends not to exhibit its loadbearing structure but to mimic
masonry construction instead. Many dwellings constructed
of timber-framed or structural insulated panels adopt
heavyweight cladding systems, such as brickwork or
rendered blockwork (the former being particularly popular
in England, the latter in Scotland). This results in timber
dwellings not being easily identifiable as such, at least not
at first glance and not from the outside. The reason for this
preference is, on the one hand, a true appreciation for the
appearance of masonry cladding and, on the other hand, a
perception of masonry houses as more robust, more
durable, and thus safer than their timber counterparts. This
type of perception was reinforced in the 1980s, when a
couple of accidental fires destroyed timber houses in
Britain. This was widely covered by the media, resulting in
negative publicity for the timber housebuilding sector.
Unsurprisingly, developers involved in the delivery of
mainstream housing – and related large schemes – need to
expand their clientele, maximize their profit and therefore
aspire to accommodate people’s perceptions and
expectations of what a ‘good home’ (or a ‘good investment’)
is and looks like.
A problem often encountered by designers leading a
timber-based project arises from structural standards and
building regulations. Every time a project adopts materials
or techniques that are not conventional, meeting
performance requirements might not be straightforward
and may need special calculations or ad hoc assessments,
as there is no common practice or modus operandi to rely
on. This has immediate repercussions on how easily and
quickly planning permissions can be obtained from relevant
authorities. The same problem is also encountered in
countries where, for instance, timber construction is
mainstream in the residential low-rise sector, but is still
much less developed for tall residential buildings or for
non-domestic projects.
Another obstacle for those who embark on a timber-
based project is finding the relevant expertise needed for
each of its phases: requesting specialist consultancy at the
design stage, ordering and stocking materials through the
supply chain and using the skilled labour necessary to
guarantee the desired level of workmanship.
Many of the architects that we have interviewed for the
case studies presented in the book have lamented some
form of difficulty or delay associated with obtaining
approval for their proposed design, meeting the
requirements of local building codes or finding the right
expertise from amongst local tradesmen.

Structure of the Book

The first two chapters provide an introduction to wood, by

explaining its natural properties and contemporary
silvicultural practice (Chapter 1) and by exposing current
developments in treated, modified and engineered timber
(Chapter 2). Chapter 3 deals with the environmental
aspects of timber architecture and illustrates some
practical tools and resources to interpret the ecological
credentials of wood-based products.
The remainder of the book delves into timber building
techniques. Chapter 4 discusses timber-framed panels,
Chapter 5 deals with structural insulated panels (SIPs), and
Chapter 6 offers guidance on massive timber techniques,
including cross-laminated timber (CLT).
Selection of Case Studies

The selection of cases studies presented throughout this

book aims to illustrate recent developments in timber
architecture, and spans different constructional techniques,
building types and geographical regions.
While some of the case studies employ construction
methods discussed in Chapters 4 to 6 (sometimes offering
interesting variations on those themes), others employ
hybrid methods or structural systems. For instance, we will
see hybrid systems whereby timber-based techniques are
complemented by steel or reinforced-concrete members,
either to augment the overall rigidity of the building or to
create an artificial platform, raised from the ground, that
supports the upper storeys.
The budgetary constraints within which the buildings
proposed were realized vary widely from case to case. For
instance, Case Study 7 revolves around social sustainability
and affordability of homes, and around novel living/housing
models that can encourage these.
Although, as mentioned, the choice of projects aspires to
illustrate the variety of present-day timber architecture,
there are also some common denominators, one of these
being the design team’s attempt to establish a strong
connection between the building and its place. This
connection has been achieved through different
approaches: while some projects make reference to local
building typology and provide an original re-interpretation
of traditional building types, others create an interesting
nexus with vernacular tradition by ‘citing’ just some of its
elements or forms in a more abstract or metaphorical
fashion.
All the selected projects, in addition, respond attentively
to the characteristics of the site and often offer ingenious
solutions to challenges such as very dense urban areas
(with poor accessibility and consequent logistical problems
for the construction phase), plots of irregular geometry, or
humble surroundings (car parks, for instance, as in Case
Study 9). Another aspect shared by all the projects is that
the architects have resisted the temptation to conform,
uncritically, to current design trends that leave little room
for consideration of the genius loci and the architectural
and constructional past of the place that hosts them.
For each case study, we will provide some general
information first, and explain the context in which the
design was commissioned and the brief generated, so that
the most salient aspects of the design strategy can be
appreciated. Then, we will deal with the technical aspects,
to explain the materiality of the designs and how these
were physically realized. We will discuss both the building
techniques employed and the construction processes
adopted, and how these were decided as part of a bespoke
response to the unique conditions posed by the brief.
As regards the locations, some of the buildings are
immersed in a rural landscape, while others attempt to
make the most of the precious space within high-density
urban areas. As a consequence, the residential buildings we
propose are of diverse types and sizes: from detached, self-
sufficient houses to flats that benefit from shared services
and spaces, thus encouraging the occupants to live closely
with one another and become part of a micro-community at
the apartment-block level.
Finally, some of the case studies have – though to a
different extent – an experimental nature and thus offer a
unique and valuable contribution to the advancement of
timber architecture. The details of the architectural
practices that have led the projects can be found in the
‘Useful Contacts’ section towards the end of the book.
Table 0.1 Summary of the case studies, showing building type, timber
techniques and geographical region.

Notes
(1) Timber competitions around the world include (but are
not limited to): the Wood Awards organized by TRADA
(UK), the Structural Timber Awards by the Structural
Timber Association (UK), Deutscher Holzbaupreis by
Holzbau Deutschland (Germany), Holzbaupreis Südtirol
– Premio Archilegno Alto Adige by South Tyrol
Architects’ Council (Italy), various regional awards in
Austria (Holzbaupreis Steiermark, Oberösterreichischer
Holzbaupreis, Niederösterreichische Holzbaupreis), Prix
Nationale de Construction Bois (France), Træprisen
(Danish Wood Award) by Træinformation (Denmark),
Träpriset (Swedish Wood Award) by Svenskt Trä
(Swedish Wood), Puupalkinto (Finnish Wood Award) by
Puuinfo (Finland), the Wood Design Awards by
WoodWorks (USA), the Building Excellence Awards by
the Structural Insulated Panel Association (USA), the
Wood Design & Building Awards by Wood Design &
Building magazine (Canada), and the Australian Timber
Design Awards by the Timber Development Association
(Australia).
 Chapter One

Solid Wood and Silvicultural

Practice
Wood Species and Anatomy

Classification of woods

Trees can be divided into two broad categories: softwoods

and hardwoods. However, this terminology can be
misleading, in that not all hardwoods are harder than
softwoods, and not all softwoods are less hard than
hardwoods. From a botanical point of view, softwoods are
gymnosperms (or conifers): they generally produce cones
and their leaves are evergreen and shaped as needles or
scales. The woody material produced by softwoods is non-
porous. Hardwoods are angiosperms, as the ovaries of their
flowers contain the seeds; they have broad leaves and are
usually deciduous – they lose their leaves in the autumn or
winter. The wood produced by hardwoods is porous.
Fig. 1.1. Redwood Grove at Leighton, in the Welsh county of Powys. (Photo:
Woodknowledge Wales & Rosie Anthony)

Anatomy – macroscopic level

A tree trunk is composed of different parts, from the centre
out:

• pith, which originated in the early growth of the trunk,

prior to wood formation;
• heartwood, which is made of dead cells but nonetheless
stores extractives (different types of biochemicals
produced by the plant);
• sapwood, which conducts sap from the roots to the
leaves, and also produces and stores substances that
are fundamental for the living plant. In sapwood,
parenchyma cells (which store nutrients) are alive;
• vascular cambium, a very thin layer that produces
wood and bark via cell division, and is thus responsible
for the growth of the tree;
• inner bark, through which the sugars produced by
photosynthesis are transported from the leaves to the
roots;
• outer bark, which protects the inner bark.

Heartwood and sapwood together constitute the largest

part of the trunk; however, their mutual proportions vary
greatly across wood species. Some species have a very thin
sapwood band, while in others these two types of tissue are
present in almost equal parts. When the cross-section of a
trunk is observed with the naked eye, the distinction
between heartwood and sapwood is very obvious in some
species, as the two tissues have different colours: typically,
sap is yellow and lighter, while heartwood is brown and
remarkably darker. In other species, however, colour
differentiation is much less pronounced and it is more
difficult to distinguish one type of tissue from the other.
The sapwood-heartwood proportion is important for
applications in the construction industry, since the physical
and mechanical properties of the two component parts are
quite different. Sapwood tends to have lower density and
lower strength than heartwood. Furthermore, in
preservative treatments, sapwood tends to be more
treatable than heartwood; consequently, the effectiveness
and level of penetration of the preservative chemicals used
depend on the proportion of these two types of tissue
within the piece of wood to be preserved.

Fig. 1.2. Cross-section of a trunk (pine tree) showing the component parts of
the woody material.

The anatomical axes and sections

It is very useful to consider the structure, physical

properties and mechanical behaviour of wood by analysing
the trunk relative to three different planes of section, which
reflect its anatomy:

• transverse plane, which shows the cross-section of the

trunk;
• radial plane, which is parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the trunk and passes through its centre (the pith);
• tangential plane, which is parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the trunk and tangent to any of its growth rings.

Fig. 1.3. The thermo-physical and mechanical properties of wood are better
understood in reference to the three anatomical sections: transverse, radial and
tangential.
Anatomy – microscopic level

At the microscopic level, the anatomical structure of wood

changes between softwoods and hardwoods, as these are
made of different cell types. Softwoods have two basic cell
types: tracheids and parenchyma cells. Tracheids are very
long cells (the length being around 100 times the width)
and form about nine-tenths of the woody material.
Hardwoods have a more complex structure, with a
larger number of basic types of cells, which show greater
variation in shape and dimension. Hardwoods have vessels,
which conduct water and are formed by cells (vessel
elements) aligned in the longitudinal direction of the trunk.
Vessels are much shorter than the tracheids present in
softwoods, can have a small or large diameter and can be
arranged in different patterns. The porous nature of
hardwoods is due to the abundant presence of vessels.
Fibres are another important cell type and offer mechanical
support within the woody material; this is why the density
and strength of timber depends upon the thickness of the
fibres’ cell walls. Parenchyma cells are arranged in a more
complex and varied manner than in softwoods.
Cell walls mostly consist of three different types of
materials: lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose. In very
simple terms, cellulose can be considered as a very long
molecule with great tensile strength, which makes up
macromolecules (microfibrils) that are part of the cell wall.
Lignin is a matrix material in which the microfibrils are
distributed; and hemicellulose is made of smaller molecules
that improve the bond between lignin and cellulose.

Durability

Wood is vulnerable to different types of biological attack,

by bacteria, insects, fungi and marine borers. Some insects
attack wood because they feed on it (for example longhorn
beetles and common furniture beetles); others because
they form their nest inside it, but do not eat it. Fungi can
cause different types of rot, depending on the components
of the woody material that they can decompose and
consume. For instance, brown rot is caused by fungi that
break down cellulose and hemicellulose, and leave lignin
intact; white rot, conversely, is caused by fungi that
decompose lignin. Most types of fungi can only proliferate
in moist wood: this means that the level of vulnerability of
wood is directly proportional to its moisture content.

Natural defects

Wood is a highly variable material and can contain a

number of natural defects, most of which originate from the
history of the plant in the forest and the environmental
conditions under which it grew and lived. Among other
important factors that can be related to the presence of
defects in the woody material sourced from a tree are: its
growth on flat or sloping terrain, prolonged exposure to
strong winds, and wide seasonal or diurnal variations in
hygrothermal conditions (temperature and relative
humidity of the air).
The size and number of natural defects have a
noticeable effect on the properties of wood, especially
mechanical ones: this is the reason why wood needs to be
attentively inspected, graded and selected for structural
applications. In each country, codes and structural
standards set out the rules for the structural classification
of wood and dictate what defects, and in what size or
concentration, can be accepted for each structural class.
The method by which the presence of defects is quantified
can also vary from country to country.
In structural applications of wood, the presence of
defects becomes particularly critical in the proximity of
connections between members, where high stresses can
form and need to be adequately resisted by the wood to
avoid damage or failure.

Knots

The presence of knots is associated with the growth of

branches from the trunk. A knot is the part of a branch that
is incorporated in the trunk. Knots can be grouped into two
types: encased and intergrown.
The extent to which knots can affect the mechanical
response of a structural member depends on many
parameters, such as their size, whether they are isolated or
clustered, their soundness and their position within the
member itself, and the type and magnitude of stresses in
that location.
The detrimental effect of knots is much more evident in
tension than it is in compression. For instance, in a simply
supported beam that is subjected to gravitational loads and
is bending as a consequence, a knot will have much greater
impact if it is located at the bottom of the member (which is
in tension) than at the top (which is in compression). In
long columns, knots have been demonstrated to lower
stiffness values. The influence of knots in roundwood is less
pronounced than in sawnwood, chiefly because of the
material discontinuity in the latter.

Cross grain

In the idealized tree, the direction of grain is perfectly

parallel to the longitudinal direction of the trunk. However,
this is often not the case in reality and cross grain is a
common defect where the grain is at an angle to the
longitudinal direction. Cross grain can be found in both
softwoods and hardwoods and can present itself in a variety
of configurations; spiral grain is one of the most common
and is caused by spiral growth of the fibres around the
trunk. Sometimes, cross grain is localized and limited to
the area where the growth of a branch disturbed the
regular orientation of the fibres around the longitudinal
axis of the trunk. This is also the reason why the grain
appears deviated around knots. Cross grain heavily affects
the mechanical properties of wood, and experimental
studies have demonstrated the relationship between the
angle of slope and property loss.

Cracks and fissures

Cracks and fissures consist in discontinuity within the

woody material. They can be caused by a variety of factors,
some of which are associated with the felling and drying
processes, others with the history of the living plant in the
forest and related events. Once a trunk has been felled, the
magnitude and distribution of internal stresses change and
might result in cracks. Similarly, when wood loses part of
its moisture content during the drying season or process, it
is prone to the formation of cracks.

Reaction wood

Reaction wood is abnormal tissue that can grow within the

leaning trunk of a tree. This tissue is called compression
wood in softwoods, and tension wood in hardwoods.
Compression wood forms on the lower side of the inclined
trunk, while tension wood forms mostly, but not
exclusively, on the upper side. Unsurprisingly, the tendency
to develop reaction wood differs across species. Although
not all the mechanical properties of reaction wood are
poorer than those of clear wood, it is generally preferable
(if not compulsory) to eliminate it, due to its abnormal
behaviour and altered workability.
A pitch pocket (or resin pocket) is an opening within the
woody material that contains resin; they can be found in
some softwoods such as pine, spruce and larch. Since pitch
pockets cause discontinuity within the woody material, they
can result in loss of mechanical strength.

Thermo-Physical Properties

Anisotropy

Wood is a strongly anisotropic material, in that most of its

physical and mechanical properties vary in the three
anatomical directions that have been previously described:
the longitudinal direction (parallel to the grain) and the two
directions across the grain, radial and tangential.
Therefore, when describing a property, especially in
quantitative terms, it is in most cases necessary to specify
to which direction it refers, or in which direction it has
been measured. A sound understanding of the effects of
anisotropy is key for designers to specify timber
components correctly and to design buildings that employ
timber constructional techniques.
Anisotropy noticeably affects the way in which timber
changes volume due to fluctuations in its moisture content,
and the way in which a structural member responds to
external actions exerted in the three different directions.

Hygroscopicity and dimensional movement

Wood is a very hygroscopic material, which means that it

can easily exchange moisture (both liquids and vapour)
with the surrounding environment. The rate at which wood
exchanges moisture with the air depends essentially on
three factors: the quantity of water currently contained
inside the wood, and the temperature and relative humidity
of the air. The same piece of wood exhibits different
thermo-physical properties and mechanical response to
external actions depending on the amount of water that it
contains, referred to as moisture content. More precisely,
moisture content (MC) is defined as the mass of water
contained in the wood divided by the mass of the ovendry
wood. Although MC is expressed as a percentage, its
maximum value can be much more than 100 per cent: for
instance, the MC of green (unseasoned) wood can range
greatly, between about 30 per cent and over 200 per cent.
In green wood, MC can have different values between
heartwood and sapwood, which depend on the species. It is
normal for wood to undergo changes in MC as
environmental conditions vary over time: a wood
component in a building is exposed to fluctuations in the air
around it (relative humidity and temperature) not only
throughout the year (changes between one season and the
next) but also throughout the day. Therefore, a wood
component will undergo variations in MC as a result of
these environmental variations, and the rate at which it
does so will depend on whether it is has been previously
treated or modified. Good design and specification should
always take into account the possible variations of MC
within timber building components, both structural and
non-structural. The MC value at which timber is not
exchanging moisture with the surrounding environment
(neither absorbing nor releasing moisture) is called
equilibrium moisture content (EMC).
While the exchange of moisture between wood and air is
a relatively slow process, the exchange between wood and
liquid water can be much faster. This means that wood can
undergo rapid changes in MC if exposed to water, due to
capillary action, especially if water is in contact with the
end-grain. Unlike absorption of vapour, absorption of liquid
water can even increase MC above fibre-saturation point.
Wood is dimensionally stable when its MC is above fibre-
saturation point. Conversely, if MC is below this threshold,
wood will undergo changes in volume as it exchanges
moisture with the environment: it will expand (swell)
during adsorption and contract (shrink) during desorption.
The macroscopic variation in volume reflects the same
phenomenon at the microscopic level: due to exchange of
moisture, the walls of the cells undergo changes in volume.
The extent to which wood shrinks and swells as a result
of changing MC varies greatly along the three anatomical
axes, due to its anisotropy. Volume changes are minimal
along the longitudinal axis of the trunk, but they are much
greater in the radial direction and even greater in the
tangential direction. Shrinking or swelling in the tangential
direction is indeed about twice as great as in the radial
direction. Due to this complex behaviour and marked
differentiation between the three anatomical axes, a piece
of wood can become distorted when it dries, especially if
the drying process is rapid. It can, for instance, warp or
split and this could compromise its suitability for the
fabrication of a building component. Distortion and the
appearance of splits and checks in a timber component can
also happen during its service life, with repercussions that
can vary from poorer appearance to decreased structural
performance.

Thermal behaviour

Thermal conductivity of any given type of wood will vary,

like most of its properties, depending on its MC. The
conductivity of softwoods at 12 per cent MC is around 0.12-
0.14 W/(m·K): this is an order of magnitude greater than
materials typically used for thermal insulation, whose
conductivity is around 0.020-0.035 W/(m·K).
Wood that has been completely dried (ovendry wood)
expands when its temperature increases and contracts
when it decreases, similar to most materials. The
coefficient of thermal expansion reflects the anisotropic
nature of wood: species and specific gravity do not affect
the coefficient in the direction parallel to the grain
(longitudinal direction) but do affect it in the radial and
tangential directions. The dimensional change of wood that
contains some moisture (as opposed to ovendry wood)
follows a more complex mechanism. If the temperature of
moist wood increases, the wood will initially tend to expand
slightly following normal thermal expansion, but it will soon
start to release part of its moisture and to contract as a
consequence. These two behaviours combined will
ultimately result in shrinkage as net dimensional change
(because contraction due to desorption will prevail over
expansion).

Mechanical Properties

Instantaneous behaviour

The structural response of timber members is rather

complex. An initial simplification can be made for short-
term loading conditions that cause low stress levels: wood
can be considered as a material that fully adheres to the
principles of elasticity. Therefore, we can assume that, in a
wood member, deformation is directly proportional to the
level of stress induced by the loads applied and is
completely reversible. In other words, we assume the
member to deform instantaneously when loaded and to
revert to its original configuration immediately after
unloading. This also means that we expect the wood
member to respond instantaneously to both loading and
unloading, without any changes in deformation if there are
no changes in the loading conditions and no associated
changes in stress levels.
Under this simple, elastic model, the constant of
proportionality between stress and strain (or deformation)
is the modulus of elasticity, which, due to wood being
anisotropic, needs to be differentiated between the three
anatomical axes. This means that three moduli of elasticity
are to be considered: in the longitudinal direction (highest),
radial direction (intermediate) and tangential direction
(lowest).
When heavy loads are applied on a timber structural
member that induce high stress levels, it will stop obeying
the laws of elasticity and will exhibit a plastic response:
this means that part of the deformation will remain after
the loads have been fully removed. If the exerted loads are
even greater, the wood member will eventually fail by
breaking.
The modulus of rupture is the parameter used to
measure the strength of wood in bending up to the elastic
limit (but not beyond it). Other measures of strength must,
once again, take into account the different behaviour along
the anatomical axes. For instance, compressive strength is
generally examined under two criteria: parallel to grain and
perpendicular to grain. The former, for any given wood
species, tends to be one order of magnitude greater than
the latter. For example, for Sitka spruce at 12 per cent MC,
compressive strength is 38.7MPa parallel to grain, but only
4.0MPa perpendicular to grain (experimental data from
Forest Products Laboratory, 2010).

Structural classes
Standard BS EN 338 defines the structural classes of
timber, in terms of its characteristic strength, stiffness and
density. Different groups of classes are introduced: the
classes for softwoods all have a C prefix (for coniferous),
while the classes for hardwoods have a D prefix (for
deciduous). The number following the C or D prefix
designates the characteristic bending strength of the wood.
For instance, class C24 is for softwood with
characteristic bending strength of 24N/mm2. Classes
prefixed T (for tension) apply to softwoods used to fabricate
engineered wood in which tension will be the predominant
stress.

Creep: time-dependent behaviour

While the idealized assumption of elasticity for timber

structures is very convenient for its simplicity and for
computational purposes, it does not reflect their complex
behaviour and can lead to poor, if not unsafe, design
decisions. In reality, timber is a viscoelastic material and its
mechanical response to external forces is the combination
of two different properties, elasticity and viscosity, which
yield immediate and slow responses, respectively, to the
same actions.
Let us imagine that a timber member is subjected to a
prolonged, constant load: it deforms as soon as the load is
applied, and this instantaneous response is governed by the
laws of elasticity. The deformation keeps increasing over
time, governed by the laws of viscosity; this time-dependent
behaviour is called creep. The rate at which the
deformation increases over time however is not constant:
initially the deformation increases more rapidly; then more
slowly, until no more deformation occurs. If the load is
removed from the timber member, a similar phenomenon
will be observed. Part of the deformation will recover
immediately (instantaneous, elastic response); then the
deformation will continue to decrease over time, initially
more rapidly and then more slowly until no changes in
deformation will happen (time-dependent, creep response).
However, at the end of this process, the deformation will
not have completely recovered: a small portion of it is
irreversible.
Creep occurs even when small loads are applied and low
levels of stress are induced inside the structural members.
Under typical service conditions and when constant loads
have been applied for numerous years, the creep
component of the total deformation can be equal to the
instantaneous component. If the prolonged loads are
sufficiently high, creep deformation can even lead to failure
of a structural member.
Structural standards in different countries allow
designers to account for creep behaviour for permanent or
prolonged loads in a straightforward manner, without
making calculation procedures too lengthy or onerous. It is
important that designers appreciate this time-dependent
behaviour of timber structures, when working on new
buildings or when consolidating existing ones.

Silviculture

Global trends in the timber industry

A reliable source of information for world trends in the

timber industry is the Global Forest Products, Facts and
Figures report from the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations(1). It divides timber production into
the following categories: roundwood (used for any
purposes other than energy), sawnwood, wood-based
panels, fibre furnish and paper, and wood fuel.
Roundwood

Roundwood comprises pulpwood, sawlogs and veneer logs.

The five largest producers of industrial roundwood are the
United States of America, the Russian Federation, China,
Brazil and Canada, which, combined, account for 53 per
cent of global removals of roundwood.
Exports of roundwood are exiguous compared to other
industries. New Zealand became the largest exporter in
2018, followed by the United States, Canada and the Czech
Republic. The major producers of roundwood are also its
largest consumers, with the Asia-Pacific region being the
major importer, due to its relatively small production base.

Sawnwood

Sawnwood is wood that has been processed through

sawing or chipping. The major producers of sawnwood are
China, the United States of America, Canada, the Russian
Federation and Germany, with a combined 58 per cent
share of world production in 2018.
The largest exporters are Canada, the Russian
Federation, Germany, Sweden and Finland. The major
importers are China, the United States, the United
Kingdom, Japan and Germany. China, the United States,
Germany and Japan are also the major consumers,
alongside Canada.

Wood-based panels

This category includes plywood, laminated veneer lumber,

particleboard, oriented-strand board (OSB) and fibreboard
(all described in Chapter 2). The largest producers are
China, the United States, the Russian Federation, Germany
and Canada, with a 69 per cent share of global production.
These countries are also the major consumers alongside
Poland.
The largest exporters are China, Canada, Germany, the
Russian Federation, Malaysia and Thailand. The main
importers are the United States, Germany, Japan, Poland
and the United Kingdom.

Other forestry products

Other silvicultural activity is dedicated to the production of

paper and paperboard, mainly used for packaging in the
building industry. The United States and China dominate
this market. Wood destined for fuel, instead, mostly
originates from Africa and Latin America.

The timber industry in the United Kingdom

The United Kingdom (UK) does not play a key role in the
global timber trade. Softwood accounts for the majority of
British silvicultural practice: for instance, it constituted 92
per cent of total wood production in 2020(2). The UK, for
this reason, does not have the natural capacity to meet its
own demand for hardwood and runs a timber-trade deficit
with other countries: in 2020, it imported 7.2 million m3 of
sawnwood but produced 3.4 million m3 (2). It is worth
noting that, out of 157 sawmills currently operating in the
UK, 104 are exclusively dedicated to softwood(3).
The production of softwood and hardwood is dominated
by Scotland and England, respectively. Climate affects the
quality of wood: British softwood tends to exhibit lower
mechanical properties than its Canadian and Scandinavian
counterparts. This is because colder climates encourage a
slower growth rate in trees, which has been demonstrated
to favourably influence density and structural properties.
As a result, UK-grown softwood tends to be used more for
fencing and packaging than in construction(4).
Imports of sawn softwood mostly come from the
European Union, with Sweden, Latvia and Finland
providing the largest portion of trade. The UK imports
particleboard from Germany, France and Latvia; fibreboard
from Ireland, Germany and Spain; and hardwood from
Estonia. By contrast, other products arrive from outside the
European Union, with China and Brazil contributing most
of the plywood, and the US and Canada most wood-
pellets(5).
The management of UK forests is overseen by several
entities: Forestry England, Forestry Commission (England),
Natural Resources Wales, Forestry and Land Scotland,
Scottish Forestry and the Forest Service (Northern
Ireland). These bodies ensure the long-term sustainability
of forests by issuing felling licences and Forest
Management Plans, which set out the future development
and strategies for individual woodlands.
Timber trade is regulated by the Timber Procurement
Policy (TPP), which ensures the legality and sustainability
of wood products, by asking producers to achieve official
certification (such as FSC or PEFC, both explained in
Chapter 3) or to present a case study with credible
evidence, which will then be assessed on an individual
basis(6). This framework is complemented by the European
Union Timber Regulation and the Forest Law Enforcement,
Governance and Trade, which prohibit trading with
products from unlawful logging.
Table 1.1 Woodland area in the UK, by ownership and forest type, in thousand
hectares. FE: Forestry England, FLS: Forestry and Land Scotland, NRW: Natural
Resources Wales, FS: Forest Service Northern Ireland. (Source: Forestry
Commission, 2020)
Table 1.2 Roundwood removals in the UK, by ownership and wood type, in
thousand green tonnes. FE: Forestry England, FLS: Forestry and Land Scotland,
NRW: Natural Resources Wales, FS: Forest Service Northern Ireland. (Source:
Forestry Commission, 2021)
Fig. 1.4. A semi-automated sawmill in Scotland. The trees have been felled and
the trunks limbed and bucked (cut to the same length). The logs thus obtained
are now loaded onto a conveyor belt that takes them into the building where
they will be further processed.

The timber industry in North America

The United States has become one of the largest traders in

the global timber industry, which is one of the top ten
employers across forty-eight American states. Oregon is the
top producer of softwood(7), followed by Georgia, Arkansas,
Mississippi, Alabama and North Carolina(8), while
Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina and
Virginia produce most of the hardwood(9).
The United States Forest Service is the agency of the US
Department of Agriculture that administers 154 national
forests and 20 national grasslands. It sells permits for wood
removals. Additionally, individual states have their own
forestry bodies and regulations.
Given its wealth of natural resources, it is not surprising
that Canada’s timber industry plays a key role in the
nation’s economy. In 2019, Canada produced 978,600m3 of
hardwood and 57,653,200m3 of softwood(10). Of the total
area of woodland in Canada, 90 per cent is publicly owned
by the provinces or territories, 4 per cent belongs to the
federal government, and 6 per cent is privately owned(11).
By law, forest management plans must be put in place
before any harvesting can start. These plans must be
approved by the province or territory and should emphasize
community participation and respect for indigenous
peoples.

Responsible forestry management

Woodland occupies 31 per cent of the earth(12) and plays a

key role in keeping a balanced ecosystem, especially
because trees absorb carbon dioxide. Appropriate forest
management can contribute towards mitigating climate
change, with approaches that include reforestation
(replacing harvested trees with new trees) and
afforestation (planting trees where there are none). A
wider palette of tree species ensures diversity and the long-
term security of forests against climate change and pests.
Finally, wood harvesting does not necessarily translate into
complete disruption to wildlife, as careful planning can
incorporate habitat maintenance and enhancement, for
example by leaving soft edges (a gradual transition from
open ground to forest) or by facilitating the juxtaposition of
habitats (ensuring that habitat elements are located next to
other critical components for the enhancement of wildlife)
(13).
 The UK Forestry Standard(14) includes the following
elements in its requirements for responsible wood
management: contribution to biodiversity, mitigation of
climate change, respect for historic environments,
preservation of landscape, inclusion of people and
preservation of water and soil. National protection
frameworks are supported by the United Nations’ six
Global Forest Goals: the reversion of forest loss, the
enhancement of forest economies, the increase in protected
woodland, the mobilization of investment in sustainable
forestry, the promotion of governance frameworks at
national and international level for the sustainable
management of forests, and the establishment of
international collaboration(15). The United Nations places
strong emphasis on the inclusion and respect for local
communities and indigenous people in forest management.
The World Heritage initiative, by the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, also
ensures that places of outstanding cultural and natural
beauty are maintained, many of which include woodlands.
Several protective international treaties and conventions
are in force, such as the International Tropical Timber
Agreement, Convention on Biological Diversity and the
International Arrangement on Forests(16).
Although the rate of deforestation is decreasing,
agricultural expansion continues to drive the reduction in
woodland mass(15). More worryingly, illegal logging
remains a huge risk to the long-term sustainability of
forests with a share of 15 per cent and 30 per cent of global
timber trade, with special incidence in the Amazon Basin,
Central Africa and Southeast Asia, where some of the most
important ecosystems are located(17). In the UK and the
European Union, the requirements set by the Timber
Procurement Policy and the European Union Timber
Regulation fully ban trading timber products originating
from illegal logging. In the United States, the Lacey Act of
1900, which forbids trading with plants and animals of
illegal origin, was amended in 2008 to include timber(18).
These legislative measures show that there is political will
to eradicate illegal timber activity worldwide, with its
devastating effects on the environment, human rights and
wildlife.
Fig. 1.5. Example of stump regeneration in a coniferous forest. This process
ensures the long-term sustainability of felling by replacing harvested trees with
new ones. (Photo: Woodknowledge Wales & Rosie Anthony)

Notes
(1) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, 2018
(2) Forest Research, 2021
(3) Forest Research, 2019
(4) Ross, 2011; Davies, 2013; Forest Research, 2021
(5) Forest Research, 2012
(6) Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs,
2013
(7) Oregon Forest Resources Institute, 2016
(8) United States Forest Service, 2021
(9) Luppold et al., 2017
(10)Canadian Forest Service, 2020
(11)Natural Resources Canada, 2020
(12)Roux et al., 2020
(13)McEvoy, 2012
(14)Forestry Commission, 2017
(15)United Nations, Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, 2019; Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, 2020
(16)Sotirov et al., 2020
(17)Interpol, 2019
(18)U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, ca.2008
Chapter Two

Treated, Modified and

Engineered Wood
Preservative Treatments

Assessing the need for treatment

Preservative treatment is performed to increase the

durability of timber and make it less susceptible to
biological attack and consequent deterioration by insects,
fungi, bacteria or marine borers. Thus, preserving timber
lowers replacement costs and contributes to better, more
efficient and sustainable utilization of forest products. The
necessity for treatment should be evaluated against a
variety of factors: the natural durability of the wood
species, the service conditions under which the wood
components will be used (expected levels of relative
humidity and exposure to moisture), the presence or
absence of sapwood, the expected service life of the
components, and the other materials with which the timber
components will be in contact (for example metal fixings or
flashings, which might be prone to accelerated corrosion).
Fig. 2.1. Roof constructed of trussed rafters. (Photo: Woodknowledge Wales &
Rosie Anthony)

Fungal attack is more likely to occur in sapwood than in

heartwood, therefore it is important to understand whether
any sapwood is contained in the wooden product for which
treatment is to be decided. Since different wood species
show different proportions of heartwood and sapwood (as
discussed in Chapter 1) and different levels of heartwood
penetrability, they also exhibit different levels of
treatability.
In Europe, standard BS EN 350 defines five classes of
natural durability of the heartwood relative to fungal decay:
these range from class 1 (very durable) to class 5 (not
durable). Sapwood is always considered as class 5, unless
evidence has shown that for some species this is incorrect.
The same European standard also deals with resistance to
insect attack (with two classes: durable and not durable)
and with resistance to attack by termites and marine borers
(with three classes: durable, moderately durable and not
durable).
From a chemical point of view, preservatives can be
divided into two main categories: water-borne and oil-
borne. The number of possible active ingredients in water-
borne preservatives is very large, and includes copper,
chromium, zinc, boron and arsenic compounds. The
chemicals permitted for timber preservation vary between
countries and are subject to changes in the legislation over
time, as more research is conducted into their impact on
the environment and on human and animal health.
Creosote, for example, is a category of chemicals that are
very efficacious as active ingredients in oil-borne
preservatives and were widely used in numerous countries.
However, due to its toxicity (associated with hazards for
human health and ecosystems), use of creosote has been
widely reduced since the 2000s. The level of protection
obtained through a treatment process depends upon the
chemicals used, their degree of penetration into the woody
material and their retention over time.
Wood composites based on flakes or fibres are generally
protected from biological attack during their
manufacturing process, when preservatives are used. Other
composite wood products such as glulam or plywood can be
treated similarly to sawn timber after they have been
manufactured.

Material compatibility

When specifying metal fixings for preservative-treated

timber, designers should ensure that they are chemically
compatible with the substances contained in the
preservative used. Some treatments can corrode metals,
therefore stainless- or galvanized-steel fixings should be
utilized, or in some instances it might be possible to
separate the fixings from the wood by interposing plastic
spacers. Other incompatibilities are possible, for example,
some water-borne preservative treatments can diminish the
effectiveness of PVA-based adhesive.

Whole-section treatments

Whole-section treatments typically involve the insertion of

timber pieces into large metal cylinders; here, vacuum is
applied and subsequently the wood is immersed into
preservative solutions. Inside the cylinder, impregnation
can be performed under low or high pressure.
For exposed timber components, it is important to
consider that treatments might affect the colour or
appearance of the wood. There are processes whereby the
wood is not only treated but also pigmented, to eliminate
the need to apply colour during the installation phase.

Localized supplementary treatments

If, after preservative treatment, a timber member is

subjected to localized on-site operations such as cross-
cutting, drilling or notching, then it might be necessary to
reinstate protection in the affected areas by applying
products compatible with the previous treatment, either
with a brush or by spraying. Areas around mechanical
fixings and exposed end-grain in joints should also receive
further protection on site.
Various types of sealants are available, with different
chemical formulations; for instance, they can be based on
natural oils and waxes, on paraffin or on acrylic substances,
and can be mixed with water-repellent additives and
siccatives (drying agents).

Modification of Timber

Modification of wood is aimed at improving its properties

and performance over time: increasing durability by
reducing its vulnerability to biological attack (fungi or
insects), increasing hardness, dimensional stability and
resistance to acids, bases or ultraviolet radiation, and
enhancing appearance. However, some modification
processes can also have undesired effects, such as the
reduction of some mechanical properties; therefore,
designers and specifiers should carefully assess the
advantages and disadvantages associated with the type of
modified wood that they select. Manufacturers should
always be able to provide clear, evidence-based data on
both the benefits and disadvantages that arise from their
processes. Due to the cost of the industrial processes and
the chemicals needed for modification, modified wood and
wood-based products tend to be more expensive than solid
timber, which results in them being specified only when the
benefits are sufficient to justify the additional cost.
All types of permanent modification make the woody
material less hygroscopic and reduce its equilibrium
moisture content. The result is wood with increased
dimensional stability. This is particularly beneficial for
timber components exposed to wide fluctuations in relative
humidity or to the elements if in exterior locations. If
wooden building components change less in dimension,
then the coatings applied on their surfaces (if any) will
remain effective for a longer time: this means that
maintenance cycles and re-application of coatings will need
to be less frequent, with economic and environmental
benefits.
Among the mechanical properties that can be enhanced
by modification processes is hardness; that is, the
resistance to abrasion – which is crucial in applications
such as decking or flooring. In a sense, strength can also be
augmented, in that modified wood is less prone to absorb
water and strength is higher when internal moisture
content is lower.
One mechanical property that can be negatively affected
by modification is brittleness. For instance, acetylation can
render the woody material more brittle, and this should be
an important aspect to consider in structural applications.

Chemical processes

In chemical processes, timber is impregnated with suitable

substances at high-pressure levels. Sapwood is generally
easier to modify than heartwood, therefore permeable
species are preferred (such as radiata pine), as the whole
section can be modified. If, conversely, less permeable
species are used (such as Southern yellow pine or
redwood), modification will only involve the outer surfaces
of the sections. Established methods include acetylation
and furfurylation, which are based on the use of acetic
anhydride and furfuryl alcohol, respectively. The choice of
species and level of modification (full or partial) would
depend on the type of application envisaged for the
building products. In some applications, partial
modification can be sufficient to achieve the desired
performance level.
Chemical processes result in augmented dimensional
stability and resistance to fungal attack but might increase
brittleness. Some manufacturers produce medium-density
fibreboard (MDF) from acetylated fibres: this noticeably
increases its dimensional stability and broadens its range of
suitable applications.

Thermal processes

Thermal processes involve heating timber sections in a

controlled environment. Temperature and duration of
treatment vary across methods. During the process, the
wood can either be kept in an atmosphere with reduced
oxygen, or under oil or steam.
The thermal treatment irreversibly changes the
structure of the polymers contained in the wood.
Dimensional stability and durability are generally
improved, but some processes tend to impoverish the
mechanical properties of wood: they can reduce modulus of
rupture, impact toughness or abrasion resistance, and
increase brittleness and the occurrence of cracks or splits.
The appearance of wood also changes: woods that are
naturally pale tend to acquire a darker colour.

Impregnation processes

Wood can be impregnated at high pressure with substances

that, by creating compounds inside its tissues, yield
enhanced durability, stability and density. Permeable
species are preferred for impregnation. If performed on
species with low permeability, these processes might only
be effective on the surfaces of the timbers and have
minimal impact on the innermost layers; hence, they
become more similar to the preservative treatments seen
above than to the other types of modification processes.

Engineered Timber

Engineered wood allows improvement of the properties of

sawn wood and the fabrication of efficient products – for
both structural and non-structural purposes – with
augmented mechanical properties (such as strength and
stiffness), lower economic cost and increased
environmental sustainability. Cutting wood with natural
defects into smaller parts that can be re-arranged into a
new product means that the defects become less important
and affect the properties of the final product much less
than they would the original sawn section.
Engineered wood products can be made from smaller
trees than their sawn-timber counterparts; this permits
shorter growing times for trees, with an advantage for
sustainable forest management. In addition, as will be seen
in the next sub-sections, wood-based composites can also
use invasive timber species, and by-products and waste
generated in sawmills.
The parts of wood that can be used in engineered
products vary widely in size and shape: from boards and
lamellae to veneers, flakes, shavings, wafers, fibres and
particles. The most common adhesives used are
thermosetting resins (for example formaldehyde
compounds and isocyanate). Some adhesive types cannot
be exposed to water for sustained periods of time and are
incompatible with some chemicals used for preservative or
fire-resistant treatments. Most wood-based products have
lower hygroscopicity than natural wood, thanks to additives
such as wax and to the pressure and heat treatments that
they receive during manufacturing. Other additives can be
used to increase resistance to fire and biodeterioration.
 The properties of wood-based composites are more
homogeneous than those of solid timber, which as
discussed in Chapter 1 are variable even within the same
log. Most engineered products are the result of the
ingenious rearrangement and combination of different
parts and layers of wood to obtain the desired
characteristics and performance levels.

Structural composite lumber (SCL)

Structural composite lumber is a group of materials

fabricated from strands or layers (lamellae) of timber
connected by means of structural adhesives. Cross-
laminated timber (CLT) is one of these materials, but is
dealt with in Chapter 6, along with other types of massive
panels. SCL members often have sizes comparable to those
achievable with solid wood and can be produced from wood
species that are not generally used for structural purposes
(for example, aspen). However, SCL structural members
generally have better mechanical properties than sawn
wood. SCL can also be employed to fabricate components
of I-joists (or of other engineered-wood products), doors
and windows, as an alternative to solid timber.

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

LVL consists of parallel lamellae bonded with adhesive, and

is relatively similar in appearance to plywood. It can be
employed for posts and flexural members (beams, joists,
flanges of I-joists and so on). The thickness of the veneers
typically ranges between 2 and 3mm.

Parallel-strand lumber (PSL)

PSL is fabricated from narrow strips of wood that are at
least 0.6m long and can be sourced from waste material
generated during the manufacturing of LVL or plywood.
The strips are mainly arranged parallel to the length of the
member and glued together. PSL is used for applications
that entail high axial loads (for example posts), but also in
flexural members.

Laminated-strand lumber (LSL)

LSL consists of flaked wood strands glued together. It is

utilized for studs, posts and joists.

Engineered boards and panels

Oriented-strand board (OSB)

OSB panels are formed by blending dry wood strands with

resins and then pressing and heating them. The strands are
obtained from tree logs or from waste materials produced
in sawmills; they are of different sizes and are clearly
visible on the faces of the boards. Both softwoods (for
example pine or spruce) and hardwoods can be utilized for
OSB production. In North America, aspen is the most
utilized species. In the typical aspect ratio, the width of the
strands is one-third of the length.
OSB consists generally of three layers: in the two outer
layers, the strands are longer and arranged in the
longitudinal direction of the panel; in the middle layer, the
strands are arranged either in the transverse direction or
randomly. This results in the panels having higher bending
strength and stiffness parallel to their longitudinal axis.
Over time, the manufacturing process of OSB has been
refined and panels with better mechanical properties than
in the past can now be produced. Although OSB does not
have as good properties as plywood, it is more economical
and, as a consequence, has replaced plywood in
applications in which structural requirements are not too
high. OSB is widely employed as a sheathing material and
for structural decks.

Plywood

Plywood is fabricated by gluing together very thin sheets

(or veneers) of wood, typically 1–2mm thick. It consists of
an odd number of layers: in every layer, the grain is
oriented perpendicular to the adjacent layers. Each layer
can consist of one or more veneers. Plywood is a very
flexible and versatile material and can be given a
curvature. Plywood sheets can be used in a wide range of
applications, to form structural decks or surfaces between
joists or rafters, in floor and roof elements, or as sheathing
components in wall construction. Plywood can also be
utilized as a component in other engineered-wood
products, such as I-joists, roof/floor panelized systems or
box beams. The physical and mechanical properties of
plywood depend on a number of factors, including the
quality of the plies and of the glue, the layer arrangement
and the achieved level of bonding between the veneers.
Thanks to the alternating direction of grain in its layers,
plywood exhibits good bending strength and rigidity both in
the longitudinal and transversal directions of the panels.
The properties in the longitudinal direction are generally
slightly higher, as there is one more layer orientated in this
direction; however, the difference is much less significant
than in sawn timber. In other words, alternating the
direction of grain compensates, at least partially, for the
anisotropy of solid wood (see Chapter 1).
Fig. 2.2. Child’s chair designed by Gardner & Company (ca.1872). The full
possibilities of moulded plywood were investigated during the mid-nineteenth
century, when furniture designers took advantage of the strength and flexibility
of this material to create furniture that better fitted the human body. (Photo:
Brooklyn Museum, CC BY 3.0)
Fig. 2.3. Early photograph of the Beach Pneumatic Train (ca.1873). To solve
New York’s increasing transport issues, A.E. Beach proposed an underground
train whose lightweight and flexible plywood frame could be moved by means of
very large fans. The potential of plywood for the transport industry was fully
realized in the twentieth century, with its incorporation into the design of
automobiles and aeroplanes. (Photo: Public Domain)

Plywood has very good dimensional stability and

minimal tendency to swell along the edges: this makes
glued tongue-and-groove joints very successful even under
service conditions that include some exposure to water.
Thanks to its good resistance to splitting, a plywood panel
can receive mechanical fixings near its edges. Special types
of plywood are fabricated to be exposed: the outer layers
have improved appearance and sometimes are pigmented.
The species used to fabricate construction plywood are
typically softwoods (especially Douglas fir or Southern
yellow pine), but hardwoods are also employed (for
example beech, birch and alder), especially where the
panels are exposed.

Brief history of plywood

Plywood constitutes one of the earliest forms of modified wood. Ancient

Egyptians used veneer from good-quality wood to give furniture or caskets a
luxurious finish(1). Pliny the Elder remarks on the superior strength of this
material compared to solid wood in his volume dedicated to the history and
properties of timber(2), although its main use in Ancient Rome continued to
be decorative. Classical Chinese manufacturers also made use of plywood
for furniture, especially as it allowed them to create pieces in elaborate
shapes and colours.
In Europe, the eighteenth century welcomed a boom in expensive and
intricate furniture that relied on plywood and expert craftmanship(3). A prime
example of plywood design during this period is the cylinder desk
commissioned by King Louis XV of France. This piece, called Bureau du Roi
and located in the Palace of Versailles, took advantage of the varied natural
patterns of wood grain and the flexibility afforded by plywood to offer a
sumptuous, yet practical, solution.
It was not until the advent of the Industrial Revolution that mass
production of veneer became possible, especially with the introduction of
mechanized tools such as the bandsaw or the Bentham planer. It was
common practice to improve the appearance of lower-grade furniture by
covering it with glued plies of better-quality wood. Mass-produced plywood
was employed for packing boxes or sawing machines(3).
Moulded plywood was another remarkable development during the
nineteenth century. Bending plywood allowed designers to create elegant
and comfortable furniture that fitted the human anatomy, as illustrated by
the chair prototypes created by American furniture-makers John Henry Belter
and Isaac Cole(3). In the twentieth century, Alvar Aalto and Charles and Ray
Eames capitalized on the techniques and knowledge earned during the
previous century to create striking collections of moulded plywood furniture
that followed the principles of ergonomic and minimalist design.
Right until the 1900s, the evolution of plywood was divided between the
need to serve the creation of elaborate and opulent designs that required
 careful craftsmanship, and the introduction of mass-produced veneer into
everyday objects. The twentieth century opened new frontiers for plywood
with its application to buildings and transport. The Great Depression and its
associated housing crisis of the 1930s encouraged the production of low-
cost, prefabricated houses with plywood, thanks to its versatility and speed
of manufacturing. A significant technological development was the invention
of waterproof glues, patented by Dr James Nevin, which facilitated the use of
plywood for boats, cars and aviation. Plywood proved to be an elastic and
lightweight material that was still strong enough to hold engines. For
instance, plywood was adopted for the design of British war aircraft during
the Second World War, thanks to its lightness, which resulted in faster
aeroplanes(4).
Today, plywood continues to be at the forefront of technological
advances, which include the option of operating in virtual design
environments.

Particleboard

Particleboard is fabricated from cut wood flakes and,

nowadays, also from humbler materials such as sawdust,
shavings or sawmill waste, which make the final product
economical. The particles are mixed with a sufficient
quantity of adhesive and consolidated with heat and
pressure. Each board is built up of different layers: unlike
OSB, finer particles are concentrated in the outer layers
and coarser ones in the core. This type of arrangement
produces smooth surfaces that lend themselves to other
operations such as lamination or painting.
Particleboard is available in different levels of density
and mechanical properties. Low-density board can be used
to fabricate sound-absorbing panels, while higher-density
board for structural decking in floor construction. The
mechanical characteristics of particleboard are generally
lower than those of fibreboard.

Cement-bonded particleboard
In this type of particleboard, the wood components are
bonded by mixing with cement and water. Different types
of cement can be used, Portland being the most common
and magnesia cement a viable alternative. This material is
denser than other wood-based products. Low-density board
can be used for ceiling panels, while high-density board is
more suited to flooring and roofing applications.

Fibreboard

Fibreboard is available in a wide range of densities:

hardboard (high density), medium-density fibreboard
(MDF) and softboard (low density).
Fibreboard can be produced either by dry or wet
processes. Heat and pressure treatments are used to
enhance the mechanical properties of the panels, and to
make them more water-repellent and dimensionally stable.
Hardboard is employed for wall and floor construction.
MDF is used predominantly in the furniture industry and,
to a lesser extent, in construction (for example, the
manufacturing of doors). Softboard is used in a range of
applications: thermal insulation, sound-absorbing panels,
sheathing and roof decking.

Composite joists

I-joists

I-joists can be made from different combinations of

materials. The flanges can be fabricated from solid sawn
wood or from LVL, whereas the webs can be made from
plywood or OSB. This choice of materials follows structural
considerations: normal (bending) stresses are highest in
the flanges, so this is where the materials with highest
strength are used. The web is mostly subjected to
tangential stresses, while normal stresses tend to be very
low (near the neutral axis). The flanges have a groove into
which the web is inserted and glued.

Open-web joists

Open-web joists consist of wood-based flanges and a

discontinuous web. The latter can be made of timber
sections or metal components nailed to the flanges. The
sections used for the flanges are either made of solid wood
or LVL (similarly to I-joists). Thanks to this configuration,
open-web joists have reduced weight and make it possible
to easily run services through them.

Glued laminated timber (glulam)

Glulam is one of the oldest types of engineered wood. A

glulam member is made from timber lamellae with the
grain aligned with the length of the member itself, and
bonded with structural adhesives. Typical applications
include columns, beams, portal frames, rafters and three-
hinged arches. The overall structural performance of
glulam depends on the quality and structural grade of the
wood utilized and the effectiveness of the adhesive bonds.
For the latter, it is important to plane the surfaces of the
lamellae, because smooth surfaces can more easily be
laminated and glued together.
In flexural members such as beams, the lamellae are
generally arranged flatwise, which means that the cross-
section consists of different layers glued one on top of the
other. The lamellae at the top and bottom of beams are
generally made from higher-strength wood, while the
middle lamellae (near the neutral axis) are made from
lower-strength timber, following the distribution of bending
stresses under typical loading conditions. This type of
configuration (referred to as ‘bending combination’)
permits optimal use of materials and makes the glulam
members more economical. Typical thicknesses for the
lamellae are 40 or 45mm. The advantage of using thicker
lamellae is that less adhesive is consumed; however, the
mechanical properties might be impoverished, as the
material becomes more variable.
In the fabrication of axial members (for example
columns), all the lamellae have the same structural grade,
so the cross-section has consistent properties (axial
combination).
In the fabrication of both bending and axial members,
the lamellae that will be in tension need to be made from
higher-quality wood, in terms of knots, slope of grain and
stiffness. The requirements for the wood to be used in
compression are less stringent. This reflects the different
behaviour of wood in tension and compression.
Glulam can be fabricated from a broad variety of both
softwoods and hardwoods; the wood must have been
previously seasoned or dried. Manufacturers can produce
glulam members in straight or curved shapes: for the
latter, thin lamellae are preferable, as they are more
flexible and easier to bend. Long lamellae can be produced
by finger-jointing sections of timber. To fabricate a very
large cross-section, two (or more) glulam beams can be
glued together (each of which is composed of various
lamellae).
Glulam members can have a varying cross-section along
their length, following structural requirements. One of the
advantages of this engineered material lies in the
opportunity it offers to build structural members that are
much bigger than the trunks from which their wood has
been sourced. This is particularly important in
contemporary silvicultural practice, whereby relatively
small trees are felled in order to shorten forest rotations,
with benefits for environmental sustainability.
Modern Methods of Construction

Chapters 4, 5 and 6 will illustrate the principles of some

timber Modern Methods of Construction (MMC), which
employ the types of treated, modified and engineered
products so far discussed. An exhaustive definition of MMC
can be found in Modern Methods of Construction:
Introducing the MMC Definition Framework(5),
commissioned by the UK Government. This report does not
provide a single definition but captures a set of
construction practices that can be included in MMC, such
as pre-manufacturing of three- and two-dimensional
structural units and non-structural components. As can be
gathered from this framework, modified wood and offsite
construction play a key role in the implementation of MMC.
A useful categorization(6) of offsite approaches might be
based on the level of completeness of building components
before they reach a construction site: category 0
encompasses panels or pods with their first skin installed
offsite; category 1 designates insulated panels or pods;
category 2 includes elements that are finished either inside
or outside; category 3 is reserved for panels and pods that
are fully finished. Furthermore, plants that produce offsite
elements might be categorized into those relying on manual
production, those that are semi-automated and those that
are fully automated(7). These categories give an indication
of the variety and complexity of MMC. Customers and
designers should therefore be aware of the offer available
to them and how each solution might respond to their
needs.

Uptake

According to the Annual Survey of UK Structural Timber

Markets(8), an estimated 68,000 new houses were built
using timber frames in 2020 in the UK. The 2016 timber
frame (TF) share of the total housing stock in each UK
country was thus distributed: 83 per cent in Scotland, 22.8
per cent in England, 30.7 per cent in Wales and 17.4 per
cent in Northern Ireland(8). On top of that, the rainy
climate in Scotland encourages the adoption of offsite
construction as it facilitates more controlled conditions
within a factory’s protected environment and the erection
of buildings that become weather-tight sooner(9). As of
2020, there are thirty-three companies serving offsite
construction in Scotland. In the UK, it is estimated that 7
per cent of the construction sector uses some sort of offsite
solutions; this compares to a noticeable 84 per cent of TF
houses in Sweden and 7 per cent in the United States(8).
The Timber Utilisation Report (10) reveals an interesting
correlation between the rise of single-family dwellings (as
opposed to blocks of flats) and the increase of sawn
softwood entering the construction industry: detached or
semi-detached houses are more likely to be built in wood,
therefore driving demand for softwood.

Advantages and disadvantages

The House of Commons’ Housing, Communities and Local

Government Committee reports the following benefits from
MMC: quicker and more predictable delivery, reduction in
costs, fewer people on site with improved health and safety
for workers, more diverse workforce with an increased
proportion of factory-based staff and standardized hours,
more efficient use of materials, overall reduction in energy
consumption, fewer deliveries to the site with associated
reduction in noise, disruption and pollution, and shallower
foundations with less ecological disturbance(11).
Furthermore, offsite construction also contributes to
resource efficiency, as it facilitates the management of
quantities and waste, with fewer storage requirements.
Present-day prefabrication also allows for greater
customization than it did in the past, when it was
characterized by scarce flexibility and generally led to poor
architectural results(12).
The advantages of offsite construction ought to be
weighed against some disadvantages such as the need for
extensive structural testing to analyse performance under
different loads and usage. Architects and builders must
also adapt to a new set of skills, demands and workflows to
utilize offsite construction to its full capacity.

Drivers and barriers

The UK legislature has been favourable to MMC as a viable

solution to the pressures arising from the housing crisis,
since the Barker Report (a review of housing supply
conducted in 2006) encouraged the use of MMC(13). MMC
is indeed seen as a key component in the development of
affordable and sustainable housing. By way of illustration,
initiatives from Scottish government support MMC through
the introduction of additional modern apprenticeships, the
Greener Homes Innovation Scheme and extra funding for
research(14). In 2020, the Ministry of Housing,
Communities and Local Government confirmed that the UK
government views MMC as a large-scale solution to the
need to increase the housing stock(15). The Welsh
government also prioritizes MMC as the most effective way
to respond to housing demands(16).
A major driver for the implementation of MMC is its
potential to alleviate the current skills shortage within the
construction industry. Offsite construction requires a lower
number of staff with a traditional skills set, such as
bricklaying. It can, however, be argued that the skills
shortage is displaced rather than solved, with traditional
tradespersons (such as carpenters, electricians and
plasterers) still needed for building maintenance and site
preparation(17). Additionally, new skills demanded by MMC
include project management, quality control procedures
and computing to operate automated tools.
However, some barriers to the implementation of MMC,
and offsite construction in particular, do still exist. There
are high initial costs associated with an MMC project, and
the supply chain is ineffective due to low demand – this, in
turn, affects transport logistics(14). In general, lack of
investment and knowledge and inertia to innovation are
also key barriers for the adoption of MMC(14). Architects,
on the other hand, are sometimes resistant to MMC due to
the need to commit to a final design earlier than with on-
site techniques that allow for some degree of flexibility
during the construction process(18).
The offsite construction market is affected by lack of
certainty, difficulties adjusting the property and repairs
after damage, barriers for homeowners to secure
warranties, insurance and mortgages for MMC homes, a
perceived lack of proof of resilience to flood and fire, a less
clear planning-permission pathway for MMC projects, and
difficulties complying with building regulations and
accessing capital. All these factors contribute to the
public’s perception of offsite houses, which is perhaps the
most salient issue affecting the uptake of MMC.

Social aspects

Social perception of MMC continues to be one of the major

barriers to adoption. Offsite construction, especially for
domestic buildings, is poorly received by the general
public. This phenomenon arose from the experience of
prefabrication during the post-war period, based on low-
cost, temporary solutions(19). As a result, timber houses
tend to be clad in blockwork or brickwork, as these are
deemed to provide the building with a safer or more robust
appearance. Innovative solutions to satisfy the public
include brick slips mechanically fixed to the façade to
mimic masonry.
In summary, it is safe to say that more traditional
building techniques (such as brick and block) are still
widely preferred by the public. By contrast, the uptake and
acceptance of MMC in non-domestic projects is higher due
to greater levels of investment and knowledge. In this
climate, promoting the environmental credentials, cost-
effectiveness and speed of MMC is of paramount
importance to ensure that its acceptance by the public
translates into more governmental support and investment.

Project: Community Centre, Spinelli Refugee

Shelter (Gemeinschaftshaus
Flüchtlingsunterkunft Spinelli)

Location: Spinelli Barracks, Mannheim, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

Building type: non-residential – recreational
Completion date: 2016
Architectural design: students of Atelier U20, Faculty of Architecture,
Technische Universität Kaiserslautern, Germany (under the supervision of
Jun. Prof. Stefan Krötsch, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen Graf and Jun. Prof. Andreas
Kretzer). Chosen design by Sandra Gressung, Sascha Ritschel and Tobias
Vogel.
Key words: trusses, grid structures, CLT, untreated timber

When refugees arrive in Germany, they have to undergo a long period of

inactivity, due to lengthy bureaucratic procedures. The refugee camp
located in the former American Spinelli Barracks in Mannheim provided its
guests with all the essentials but lacked architectural merit, especially in the
communal areas. In order to address this problem, a collaborative initiative
was launched at TU Kaiserslautern’s Faculty of Architecture: a cohort of
eighteen students, supervised by their tutors, started a design-and-build
project with twenty-five refugees. The work provided not only the students,
but also the refugees, with many opportunities to learn and to acquire new
skills. The client was the Regional Council Karlsruhe. Students constructed
their building, with the only exception of groundwork and roofing, which
were conducted by local contractors. Overall construction only took three
months. The larger components were fabricated in an unoccupied hangar of
the former military facility, for protection from the weather.
The main building has two open spaces: a smaller and quieter courtyard,
fully enclosed and with covered niches, and a larger yard that can
accommodate social events. Seating booths are located along the southern
and western edges.
The project did not utilize large or advanced machinery, so as to reduce
economic costs. Walls and trusses were mostly fabricated from 30 × 50mm
timber sections screwed together: they consist of five layers in which the
timbers are orientated either vertically or diagonally. The result is a robust
structure that becomes unique thanks to its rich architectural expression. In
particular, the manner in which these walls and trusses filter sunlight and
cast patterned shadows makes the building lively and exciting.
The walls are built up of a timber frame planked with CLT panels and clad
in Douglas fir boards. In the roof, timber beams support CLT panels
waterproofed with bituminous membranes. The two beams span 7 and
14.5m respectively, and employ different systems. The shorter beam uses a
grid structure, and its diagonals (which are in compression) utilize 40 ×
50mm timber sections. The longer beam could not employ a grid structure,
due to the considerably higher forces acting on it; it uses 80 × 200mm
sections for the diagonals and vertical tensile bars made of threaded rod. In
order to create an architecturally uniform image, filigree battens were added
to the structural components of the longer beam.
Fig. 2.4. Community Centre at the Spinelli Refugee Shelter in Mannheim
(Germany), designed by the students of Atelier U20, Faculty of Architecture,
Technische Universität Kaiserslautern. This timber building aims to provide the
refugees with a welcoming and high-quality space during the first stages of their
permanence in the country. (Photo: Yannick Wenger – Mannheim)
Fig. 2.5. The small courtyard is the Centre’s most private and introverted
space. It is delimited on one side by a grid wall, while on the opposite side is a
series of seating booths. (Photo: Yannick Wenger – Mannheim)
Fig. 2.6. The main courtyard is designed for social events. On the left is a truss
constructed with timber and steel members. On the right is a space protected by
a flat canopy made of CLT panels supported by timber beams. (Photo: Yannick
Wenger – Mannheim)
Fig. 2.7. The corridor leading to the small courtyard. The grid wall on the left is
made of five layers of timber battens of standard section (30 × 50mm)
connected by means of screws. The perforation of the grid casts lively shadows
on the opposite wall, which is opaque and clad in Douglas fir boards. (Photo:
Yannick Wenger – Mannheim)
Fig. 2.8. Diagram illustrating the construction of the building as a joint effort:
all the students and a group of twenty-five refugees contributed. No heavy or
advanced machinery was utilized during the building process. The largest
building elements were fabricated in the protected environment offered by a
nearby hanger no longer in use and then transported to site. (Drawing: Atelier
U20)
Fig. 2.9. Exploded view of the longer beam, which spans 14.5m. The top and
bottom chords are made of solid timber sections. The web is comprised of
diagonal timber struts and vertical steel ties. The beam is decorated with
additional battens so as to achieve a similar appearance to the grid walls.
(Drawing: Atelier U20)

Project: Caltron Civic Centre (Casa Sociale

Caltron)

Location: Cles, Province of Trento, Italy

Building type: non-residential – community
Completion date: 2015
Architectural design: Mirko Franzoso architetto, Italy
Key words: larch glulam, larch cladding, CLT wall panels, woodfibre & hemp
insulation

Caltron Civic Centre is located in the small Trentin town of Cles. It aims to be
an important meeting point for the entire local community and for people of
any age. The centre offers a new perspective onto the landscape, but at the
same time enjoys high visibility from the town and serves as an attraction.
This compact building lies at the boundary between the historic town and
the rural landscape with its numerous apple-tree orchards.
The superstructure is almost entirely made of wood. Larch is widely used
for both structural and cladding purposes. The northern and southern
elevations are clad in vertical larch slats, while the eastern and western ones
are defined by a series of larch columns of variable height.
The bottom volume supports and wraps the entire building. The plan
layout follows the programmatic requirements set out by the local council.
The entrance leads directly into a meeting room, which can easily be
adapted to different needs as and when they arise. From this room, one can
enter the others (kitchen, bathroom and storeroom) through sliding doors.
On the top floor is a large, covered terrace, which overlooks the valley. The
wooden columns that support the roof provide solar shading and privacy
within this space (see Fig. 2.11).
Larch boards of different thicknesses are widely used for external
cladding, internal lining, flooring (on the terrace) and roof covering. External
walls use 95mm-thick CLT panels, finished on either side with 32mm-thick
larch boards (on the outside, these are fixed to the panels by means of
vertical counterbattens and horizontal battens).
The roof’s timber rafters span between the external walls (on the uphill
side) or larch columns (on the downhill side) and a ridge beam (240mm ×
680mm), (see Fig. 2.14). The rafters and the ridge beam are fabricated from
larch glulam. Under the larch-slat covering, set on timber battens and
counterbattens, is a layer of galvanized-steel sheets laid on 25mm-thick
timber boarding. The internal lining uses 20mm-thick larch slats. The gutter
is concealed, sitting on top of the foot of the rafters and is lined in
galvanized steel. The beam connecting the top of the columns is made from
a solid larch section, which has been notched to form a drip.
The terrace is supported by 320mm-deep spruce beams, between which
four layers of wood-fibre insulation have been fitted. The beams are
sheathed with OSB sheets both at the top and the bottom. A layer of
extruded polystyrene is laid on top of the OSB sheathing. Waterproofing is
achieved with a 1.8mm-thick, single-ply PVC membrane. Larch boards laid
on 40 × 40mm battens form the flooring. Since, on the downhill side, the
terrace floor can be hit by wind-driven rainwater, a gutter is needed: this is
concealed immediately behind the edge beam, made from a larch glulam
section (440 × 60mm). The ceiling consists of larch slats fixed to battens,
the gaps between which have been filled with hemp fibre.
Fig. 2.10. Caltron Civic Centre, Cles (Italy), designed by Mirko Franzoso
architetto. The building is located on a hillside and overlooks a valley with
numerous apple-tree orchards. (Photo: Mariano Dallago – Torino)
Fig. 2.11. The terrace on the top floor is completely covered by a roof, but
open on the downhill side, from which visitors can enjoy a view towards the
valley. The primary structure is exposed and consists of glulam members
fabricated from larch. Larch boarding is used for the flooring, ceiling and wall
lining. (Photo: Mariano Dallago – Torino)
Fig. 2.12. The timber staircase leading to the top floor. (Photo: Mariano Dallago
– Torino)
Fig. 2.13. Cross-section of the building, showing its three storeys and how it
sits on the hillside. (Drawing: Mirko Franzoso architetto, Italy)
Fig. 2.14. Construction of the top floor. On the left is one of the accesses to the
building. The loadbearing structure is comprised of glulam columns on steel
supports, CLT panels (visible in the wall on the left) and glulam beams for the
roof. (Photo: Mariano Dallago – Torino)

Project: Unterdorf Elementary School

Location: Höchst, Austria

Building type: non-residential – educational
Completion date: 2017
Architectural design: Dietrich | Untertrifaller Architects
Key words: glulam, timber framework, vertical cladding

Unterdorf Elementary School has been designed and optimized for modern
pedagogical approaches. It blends harmoniously with the neighbourhood,
which mainly consists of single-family houses. Some of the school’s facilities
and outdoor areas can be used not only by the pupils, but also by local
residents; for instance, local sports clubs can use the gym out of school
hours.
 The school is a one-storey building whose plan layout encourages an
educational culture based on playful learning in small groups of pupils. There
are four identical teaching clusters, each comprised of a lounge, two
classrooms, a multi-purpose room, toilets and a relaxation room. All these
spaces are accessed from the lounge, which is placed at the centre of the
cluster. Due to this position, the lounge cannot have windows but has a
large, rectangular skylight at the top of its pyramidal roof, complete with
motorized windows on the short sides, which facilitate cross-ventilation.
The school has an elongated plan laid out around a north-south axis: it is
100m long and 40m wide. While the teaching clusters are located on the
east side of the building, the west side accommodates special classrooms,
offices, a gymnasium and an auditorium.
The building is mostly timber-constructed, one of the few exceptions
being the ground-bearing concrete slab. Wood is visible in every space, both
internally and externally.
Not only is the green roof aimed at improving the building’s thermal
performance and avoiding overheating in summer, but also at increasing the
vegetation within the property. Several measures were taken towards
sustainability, including high levels of thermal insulation, triple-glazed
windows, underfloor heating, and a ventilation system with heat recovery.
Thanks to its use of renewable, regional building materials, the school has
received recognition for its low environmental impact.
Fig. 2.15. Unterdorf Elementary School in Höchst (Austria), designed by
Dietrich | Untertrifaller Architects. The main entrance is sheltered by a
cantilevering canopy. (Photo: Bruno Klomfar)
Fig. 2.16. The school has an elongated shape, laid out around a north-south
axis. All external surfaces are clad in vertical timber boards. (Photo: Bruno
Klomfar)
Fig. 2.17. A large patio with informal seating and planters, where pupils and
teachers can spend time together. (Photo: Bruno Klomfar)
Fig. 2.18. The gym is partially sunk into the ground, so that its eaves are level
with the remainder of the building. The exposed roof beams show the regular
grid that governs the structural strategy. (Photo: Bruno Klomfar)
Fig. 2.19. The lounge of one of the four teaching clusters. From this central
space, the others can be accessed: two classrooms, a relaxation room, a multi-
purpose room and toilets. The roof over the lounge is shaped as a pyramid with
a large skylight at the top. (Photo: Bruno Klomfar)
Fig. 2.20. Structural diagrams of the pyramidal roof over the central lounge of
each teaching cluster. (Drawing: Dietrich | Untertrifaller Architects)

Project: New FINSA Headquarters (Nueva

Sede Servicios Centrales FINSA)

Location: Santiago de Compostela (A Coruña), Galicia, Spain

Building type: non-residential – offices
Completion date: 2017
Architectural design: MRM Arquitectos (Miguel Alonso Flamarique,
Roberto Erviti Machain and Mamen Escorihuela Vitales)
Key words: glulam, suspended floor, steel tie-rods, acetylated timber, oak
flooring
The new FINSA Headquarters intervention included the full refurbishment of
the existing offices and the construction of a new building, La Conexión,
which connects all the others. The project aimed to modernize the
company’s image and values. The building complex is a space designed to
allow numerous employees, visitors, customers and suppliers to gather. The
transparent surfaces of the new building connect it with the surrounding
landscape, thus forming a link between the pine forest from which FINSA
sources its raw materials and the factory where these are processed.
The building is comprised of two storeys, both with an open-plan layout
and in constant dialogue with the exterior and natural light. Smaller spaces,
often delimited by glazed partitions, are dedicated to meeting rooms, a patio
and various services. In La Conexión, wood is extensively used, for
applications ranging from structural members to finishes and decoration.
The roof consists of 22m-spanning beams of glulam, whose very large
sections are exposed on the upper storey and convey a sense of grandness
(see Fig. 2.24). Between the primary beams, a smaller frame is constructed,
with 60 × 200mm timber joists, sheathed at the top and bottom with
structural wood-based sheets (produced by FINSA itself). The warm roof is
insulated with 200mm-thick mineral wool (fitted between the joists) and
cellular-glass boards on top of the deck. Waterproofing is obtained with a
double layer of bituminous membranes.
The intermediate floor is a timber framework and is suspended from the
roof beams by means of steel tie-rods (see Fig. 2.25). The result is a very
luminous and airy space.
The external cladding is made of acetylated-timber boards (100 × 18mm)
laid vertically and screwed to horizontal pine battens. The interior walls are
mainly lined in woodfibre boards. The suspended ceiling is acoustically
improved with woodfibre boards finished with pine slats. The ground floor is
finished in 30mm-thick oak boarding, while PVC flooring was specified for
the first floor in the interest of acoustic comfort and hygiene (the employees
continuously circulate between the offices, the factory and the sawmill, so
an easy-to-clean flooring solution was therefore highly desirable).
Fig. 2.21. Construction of one of the teaching clusters. (Photo: Dietrich |
Untertrifaller Architects)
Fig. 2.22. New FINSA Headquarters, Santiago de Compostela (Spain), designed
by MRM Arquitectos. (Photo: MRM Arquitectos, Spain)

Fig. 2.23. The ground floor is laid out as an open-plan space. There are no
vertical supports for the upper floor, as this is suspended on the roof. Wood has
been specified for all the interior finishes, for instance oak for the flooring and
pine for the suspended ceilings. The staircase is hanging from the roof, with a
series of steel rods. (Photo: MRM Arquitectos, Spain)
Fig. 2.24. The first floor, with its suspended staircase and its small patio
enclosed by glazed surfaces. The roof structure, made up of very deep glulam
beams, is exposed and carries the load of the floor and the staircase. In the
background, a series of meeting rooms overlook the pine forest. (Photo: MRM
Arquitectos, Spain)
Fig. 2.25. The roof consists of glulam beams whose noticeable depth was
dictated by the long span, the cantilever over the main entrance and the
suspended intermediate floor. Steel rods connect the timber floor structure to
the roof. Within the floor framework, we can distinguish the primary beams from
the joists that span between them. (Photo: MRM Arquitectos, Spain)

Project: St Gerold Provostry Riding Hall

(Reithalle St Gerold)

Location: St Gerold, Vorarlberg, Austria

Building type: non-residential – recreational
Completion date: 1997
Architectural design: HK Architekten, Austria
Key words: hybrid structures, glulam, space frame, post and beam
The Riding Hall is situated on a slope in the village of St Gerold, in Austria’s
Vorarlberg State, and serves people with cognitive or physical disabilities. It
is an elegant, lightweight building with a gross area of 880m2, which mostly
uses engineered timber. The riding space is largely glazed on three sides
and thus retains the feeling of being part of the open landscape, while on
the fourth side it is delimited by the ancillary rooms. The fenestration on the
south-east façade offers views towards the snow-capped mountain tops and
conifer forest on the opposite side of the valley.
The hall uses a post-and-beam structure and is covered with a monopitch
roof based on a very interesting and expressive timber-steel hybrid solution.
The roof is supported by a modular space truss, each element of which is
built up of three rafters, six glulam struts (two per rafter) and a steel tie-rod
connected to the ends of the rafters. The struts form an upside-down
pyramid whose apex is very-elegantly resolved. Steel plates are used to
connect the glulam members with one another (for instance, to connect the
columns with the rafters, and the struts with the rafters). The ceiling is
composed of exposed timber boards, whose pale colour reflects the natural
light which floods in through the glazed surfaces on the uphill side of the
building. The ingenious structural solution adopted for the roof allows for
long spans without the need for intermediate vertical supports (which would
have been incompatible with the building’s function) and minimum use of
materials.
Cross-bracing against wind forces is achieved with steel diagonals set in
front of the glass surfaces on the inside, which are almost invisible in back-lit
conditions. The building envelope is uninsulated, since there was no thermal
requirement for the hall.
Fig. 2.26. Riding Hall in St Gerold (Austria), designed by HK Architekten. The
pitched roof of the building follows the slope of the terrain. The large, glazed
surfaces allow users to enjoy the views out towards the mountains, villages and
forests across the valley. (Photo: Ignacio Martínez)
Fig. 2.27. The roof employs an ingenious structural system thanks to which a
long distance can be spanned using a small amount of materials (timber and
steel). (Photo: Ignacio Martínez)
Fig. 2.28. Structural node at the apex of the inverted pyramid: here, six glue-
laminated-timber struts and a metal tie-rod are elegantly jointed. (Photo: Ignacio
Martínez)

Project: Domaine-Vert Nord Cultural Centre

(Centre Culturel du Domaine-Vert Nord)

Location: Mirabel, Quebec, Canada

Building type: non-residential – community
Completion date: 2017
Architectural design: BGLA, Canada
Key words: hybrid structures, glulam, steel structures, bolted connections

This is a multi-purpose cultural centre, arising from Mirabel Town Council’s

intention to create a cultural and sports centre for the community. A hall
runs along the whole building and provides access to multi-purpose rooms, a
kitchen, an atrium, a library and a park.
The project is conceived as an inviting point of reference for the whole
area of the town, where citizens are encouraged to join and create content.
The large glazing offers views onto the landscape and the sky, while the
timber components (columns and ceiling lining) contribute to the centre’s
warm atmosphere and architectural quality. The building and its canopies
realize the new physical and visual relationship between the centre and the
surrounding landscape, internal spaces and exterior areas. On three fronts,
the canopies create exterior spaces that are convivial, comfortable, safe and
sheltered from adverse weather conditions. The canopies and their
associated spaces are meant to function as a pleasant transition area for the
visitors, enriched with well-crafted paving, lighting fixtures, greenery and
outdoor furniture. A heat-recovery system and attentive choice of materials
contribute to the building’s energy efficiency. Over the main entrances is a
green roof.
The glulam columns are used to provide vertical support in two different
locations: outside, to carry the load of the canopies and inside, in the
longitudinal hall that provides access to all the rooms. In the latter
application, the columns support roofs at different heights (see Figs 2.29 and
2.30). For the higher roof, steel I-sections sit on top of the glulam posts,
while for the lower roof the column-to-beam connection is realized with steel
angle cleats bolted into the columns and into the metal webs of the beams.
The ceiling is built up of wooden boards. The timber columns sit on
reinforced-concrete foundations and have steel supports at the foot. All the
timber columns, both inside and outside, are exposed.
The remainder of the centre is constructed around a steel skeleton.
Columns and cross-bracing members use square hollow sections. The roof
employs different steel sections that support a shallow profiled deck: in most
cases, I-beams for shorter spans and lattice beams for longer spans.
Fig. 2.29. Domaine-Vert Nord Cultural Centre, Mirabel (Canada), designed by
architectural firm BGLA. The building has several canopies that create portico-
like spaces around its perimeter and are supported by exposed timber columns.
(Photo: David Boyer)
Fig. 2.30. A wide corridor connects the main entrance to the rear of the
building and provides access to all of the Centre’s facilities. The structural
system combines timber and steel members. Glulam columns support steel-
constructed roof surfaces placed at different heights, which makes it possible to
form clerestory windows at the top of the corridor. (Photo: David Boyer)
Fig. 2.31. Construction of the longitudinal hall: we can observe the structural
combination of timber columns and steel members (I-sections, lattice beams,
hollow sections and so on). (Photo: BGLA, Canada)

Case Study 1: Congress and Exhibition Centre

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Agordo (Belluno), Veneto, Italy

Building type: multi-purpose hall
Completion date: 2018
Design Team:
Architects: Studio Botter, Agordo (Belluno), Italy – Andrea Botter & Sandro
Botter; Studio Bressan, Montebelluna (Treviso), Italy – Emanuele Bressan
Structural engineer: Fabio Valentini
Building-services engineer: S.I.I.S. Srl, Padova, Italy – Michele Melato
Client: private company
Gross floor internal area: 6,400m2
Awards:
Winner – Big See Awards, 2020
Finalist – Constructive Alps, 2020
Nominated – Archilovers Best Projects, 2019
Nominated – Architizer Project of the Day, 15.10.2019
Keywords: glulam, Pratt truss, post and beam, snow load, multi-purpose
building, flooding risk
Fig. 2.32. The Congress and Exhibition Centre designed by Studio Bressan and
Studio Botter is located in the mountainous town of Agordo, in north-eastern
Italy. The structural and formal appearance of the building, especially its roof,
takes inspiration from vernacular architecture and the peaks of the Dolomites.
(Photo: Simone Bossi)

Brief and design process

The Congress and Exhibition Centre is located in the

mountainous town of Agordo, in the province of Belluno. It
sits at the boundary between the urban fabric and the
Alpine landscape, near the River Cordevole, and is
strategically connected to public infrastructure – coach
station, motorway, leisure and sports centres, stadium and
schools.
The design of the Centre was jointly commissioned to
two architectural firms, Studio Botter and Studio Bressan,
by a well-known local company. The client requested a
large, multi-purpose hall near their headquarters, to be
used for private events and recreational activities for the
local community. The programme required the interior to
be a single, open-space hall, free of any walls or columns,
with capacity for 5,000 people and able to host concerts,
conferences, performances, exhibitions and fairs. The large
hall is the heart of the design and is orientated on a north-
south axis; it can be subdivided and partitioned into smaller
units, if needed. The services (for example toilets, storage
space and plant room) are all located on the eastern side of
the building, to allow flexible management and use of the
main hall.
The project took inspiration from Agordo’s landscape
and urban morphology to form an architectural language.
The Centre is characterized by a geometrically complex
pitched roof with several surfaces, which resemble the
surrounding mountain peaks and the town’s man-made
forms. The roof cantilevers over the large curtain walls that
make up the façades, protecting the visitors’ entrance and
the timber superstructure from the elements.
The structural strategy is inspired by tabià, a vernacular
building type of the Dolomites, many examples of which
can be found in the Agordo valleys, which prospered for
centuries thanks to their strategic position and influences
from both Veneto and South Tyrol(20). Tabià are
agricultural buildings located in proximity to, or attached
to, family houses and were used primarily for hay and food
storage. The materials utilized for their construction were
mainly timber and stone. The latter was generally
employed to build the basement (used as a cowshed) and,
sometimes, also the living area. Timber was typically used
for the construction of a barn on the upper floor, where hay
was stored. These buildings were constructed with the
blockbau – or framework – system. A similar language was
adopted by the architects in the design of the Congress and
Exhibition Centre: this has a slender timber skeleton whose
diagonal members resemble those of tabià and might at
first sight appear ornamental, but are in fact an integral
part of the loadbearing structure.
The two architectural firms have collaborated since
2010, when Emanuele Bressan and Andrea Botter
graduated from Iuav University in Venice. They wish to
design with attention to context, structural aspects and
sustainability, while combining innovation and tradition.
The centre’s design and the architects’ choice of
constructing with timber has been well received by the
local community and public bodies for its vernacular
influences and harmonious integration into Agordo’s
natural and built environment.
Fig. 2.33. Detailed section through the western façade and its overhanging
canopy. (Drawing: adapted and translated from Studio Botter + Studio Bressan)
Fig. 2.34. Detailed section of the roof through the valley between two sloping
surfaces. (Drawing: adapted and translated from Studio Botter + Studio
Bressan)
Fig. 2.35. The multi-purpose hall is the heart of the design and can host up to
5,000 people. The glulam roof trusses span 44.8m. The western façade
(pictured) is a curtain wall positioned immediately behind the vertical and
diagonal supports of the primary structure. (Photo: Emanuele Bressan)
Fig. 2.36. The western façade, being a long curtain wall, is very luminous and
offers views out towards the Alpine landscape; while the southern façade is
windowless and lined in tobacco-coloured wooden panels. (Photo: Simone Bossi)

Fig. 2.37. Site plan. The project sits at the edge of the town of Agordo, near
other amenities and the client’s headquarters. The hall is at the centre of the
site, between the car park on the north side and an existing building and
heliport on the south side. (Drawing: Studio Botter + Studio Bressan)

Construction

Structural system:
Foundations: concrete pad foundations combined with raft foundations
Vertical supports: glulam columns
Ground floor: concrete raft
Roof: Pratt trusses (glulam made from red spruce)
Thermal insulation:
External walls: mineral wool (200mm);
Ground floor: extruded-polystyrene (XPS) boards (100mm) under
concrete raft foundation;
Roof: 50kg/m3 mineral wool (200mm) + 70kg/m3 mineral wool (80mm)
Acoustic insulation: wood-fibre boards
Studio Botter and Studio Bressan devised a structural grid
that defined the building’s interior and exterior
appearance. They chose to build in timber from an early
stage, to strengthen the centre’s relationship to the Alpine
context and to propose a sustainable and prefabricated
lightweight building that could be erected in a short time
span, as the client desired. The loadbearing structure is
chiefly made of glued laminated timber (columns, diagonals
and roof trusses), in combination with some steel hollow
sections and tie-rods.
The most critical part of the design is the roof’s
structure, comprised of a series of parallel trusses, which
are set 6.8m apart and span 44.8m. These trusses are very
similar in configuration to a Pratt truss and are statically
determinate. The lower chord is horizontal, while the upper
chord is angled to provide an adequate slope for the roof,
unlike the Pratt model proper, in which both chords are
horizontal (see Fig. 2.40). As a result, the depth of the
trusses varies between 2.56m (at the ends) and 4.45m (at
midspan, at the ridge). Each truss is supported at both
ends, but the type of support alternates: every other truss
is supported by glulam columns, while the remaining
trusses rest on the connections between pairs of abutting
diagonals, also made of glulam. Timber binders of smaller
cross-section connect the trusses in the transverse plane,
to stabilize them. In an idealized Pratt truss subjected to a
balanced load, all members exclusively carry axial forces:
the internal diagonals and the lower-chord members are all
in tension, while the verticals and the upper-chord
members are all in compression. In the real truss, the
members also carry non-axial internal forces, but the
predominant forces remain the same as in the idealized
truss.
Fig. 2.38. The western façade, with its structural diagonals inspired by
vernacular buildings (tabiàs) and its generous glazing to allow visitors to enjoy
the views of the valley and surrounding mountains. (Photo: Simone Bossi)
Fig. 2.39. Positioning of one of the glulam trusses on its supports. The
components of the primary load-bearing structure (roof trusses and their
supports) were transported to the site on a lorry and assembled over the course
of two months. The trusses are symmetrically tapered and reach a depth of
4.45m at the ridge. (Photo: Studio Botter + Studio Bressan)
Fig. 2.40. Along the western façade, the roof trusses are alternatively
supported by columns and pairs of abutting diagonals. Each truss is connected
to the ones on either side by means of ad hoc members positioned at the nodes
along the upper and lower chords. (Photo: Studio Botter + Studio Bressan)
Fig. 2.41. The roof trusses are 44.8m long and positioned at regular intervals
of 6.8m. The modular and lightweight structural strategy has achieved a very
large hall, the roof of which is only supported along the edges, and thus free of
any internal columns. (Photo: Studio Botter + Studio Bressan)

The trusses sit at three different heights, thus

generating a zig-zag verge on the centre’s longitudinal
elevations and creating surfaces that slope diagonally with
respect to the two main axes of the building. This
geometrical configuration facilitates rainwater runoff, by
channelling the water towards large downpipes located at
the lowest points of the roof surfaces. Above the trusses,
the roof slopes are built with prefabricated timber panels,
lined internally with mineral wool and covered externally
with aluminium sheets able to withstand horizontal seismic
actions.
Portions of the trusses were fabricated in the factory,
then transported to site, assembled on the ground, and
finally erected with very tall cranes. The individual
members of the trusses are joined by means of steel flitch
plates. Steel plates are also used to connect the columns
and diagonals of the façades to both the ground structure
and the roof trusses.
Structural calculations were performed according to the
Italian standard, which tends to be more stringent than
Eurocode 5 (the European code for timber structures). The
roof has been designed to withstand a 3kN/m2 snow load,
which is higher than the nominal value prescribed for this
geographical region. After completion, the roof trusses
were structurally tested with a load corresponding to the
design snow load: under this weight, maximum deflection
(at midspan) was close to 1/1,000 of the span. The
structure is designed to offer sixty-minute fire resistance.
Air-conditioning ducts are easily positioned within the
depth of the trusses and supported by them.
The north and west façades of the building are curtain
walls that sit behind the primary structure described above
(columns and diagonals); they are divided into smaller
glazed panes by evenly spaced timber mullions. The east
and south façades, by contrast, are opaque, clad externally
in metal sheets (like the roof) and lined internally with
35mm tobacco-coloured wood-fibre boards. The combined
presence of these boards and timber structural members
yields excellent acoustic performance, which is key for this
type of building. The top surface of the concrete raft has
been polished with industrial quartz, which creates non-slip
surfaces.

Environmental sustainability

Due to the large size of the building, use of timber for the
loadbearing structure was chosen for its sustainable and
recyclable qualities. It was essential for the architects that
the structure would be recyclable at its end of life and
would contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gases. The
use of prefabricated elements shortens on-site construction
times and reduces material waste, especially thanks to the
precision achieved with computer numeric control (CNC)
machinery.
The architects took some design measures towards
adaptation to climate change, particularly to reduce
flooding risk. Since the centre is located near the River
Cordevole, several computer simulations of its potential
overflow were carried out: these showed that the building
is in a safe area and that the chosen ground level is
appropriate.
Environmental control within the building relies on a
combination of passive and active heating and cooling
systems. The roof overhang on the western façade shields
the hall from the sun in the summer months, thus reducing
air-cooling costs. While the curtain walls of the north and
west aspects allow visitors to admire the surrounding
landscape, the east and south elevations are blank and
fronted by a green hill slope. The building’s plant, located
at the rear, uses renewable, geothermal energy for its
heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) system.
The HVAC system is equipped with heat-recovery devices
in the air-handling units, and employs sensors to monitor
indoor parameters such as temperature, humidity and CO2
levels.
Fig. 2.42. Cross-section and south elevation. The south and east façades are
externally clad with metal sheets, like the roof. The ancillary spaces (changing
rooms, toilets, geothermal-energy plant and so on) are located on the ground
and first floors, on the uphill side of the building. (Drawing: Studio Botter +
Studio Bressan)
Fig. 2.43. The overhangs along the two fully-glazed façades serve a twofold
function: they shield the hall from sunlight in the summer and protect visitors
from rainwater or snow when they enter or leave the building. (Photo: Simone
Bossi)

Notes
(1) Dixon, 1975
(2) Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 16
(3) Kollmann et al. 1975; Wilk, 2017
(4) Connor, 2009
(5) Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local
Government, 2019
(6) Hairstans and Sanna, 2017
(7) Mitchell and Hurst, 2009
(8) Structural Timber Association, 2017
(9) Taylor, 2010; Steinhardt and Manley, 2016
(10)Moore, 2015
(11)House of Commons, Housing, Communities and Local
Government Committee, ca.2019
(12)Owen, 2007; Lu and Liska, 2008; Hairstans, 2010
(13)Barker, 2006
(14)Scottish Government, 2011
(15)Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local
Government and Esther McVey MP, 2021
(16)Welsh Government, 2020
(17)Goodier and Gibb, 2007; McCallie et al., 2015
(18)Lu and Liska, 2008
(19)Owen, 2007; Hairstans, 2010; Hamilton-MacLaren,
2013
(20)Franco and Chiapparini, 2013
Chapter Three

Environmental Aspects
International and National Responses to
Environmental Impacts

Emissions that harm the environment are at an all-time

high. The 2020 Emissions Gap Report, produced by the
United Nations Environment Programme, makes for
sobering reading, with carbon, methane and nitrous oxide
emissions continuing an upward trend since the 1990s.
This situation has resulted in scientific and political
consensus (despite some outlier views) on the need to
control emissions arising from human activity in order to
protect the environment and ensure the long-term
sustainability of economic growth.
Fig. 3.1. Passageway in the Community Centre at the Spinelli Refugee Shelter
(Mannheim, Germany), designed by the students of Atelier U20, Technische
Universität Kaiserslautern. (Photo: Yannick Wenger – Mannheim)

Consequently, several international agreements have

been introduced. The Montreal Protocol (1989), signed by
United Nations members, was effective in reducing the
emission of substances that deplete stratospheric ozone
and was set in place in the wake of the discovery of an
ozone hole over Antarctica. The Gothenburg Protocol
(effective from 1999) is designed to reduce emissions of
sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic
compounds and ammonia, all of which cause acidification
and eutrophication (explained later in this chapter). The
Kyoto Protocol (effective from 2005) was the first major
international instrument to control greenhouse emissions,
which contribute to global warming. The Paris Agreement
(2015) replaces the Kyoto Protocol from 2020 onwards with
improved coverage and more stringent reduction targets.
In the European Union, the National Emission Ceilings
Directive (2016/2284) imposes emission budgets on
sulphur dioxide, ammonia, volatile organic compounds,
nitrogen oxides and fine particulate matter for each
member state, all to be achieved by 2030. The Climate
Change Act 2008 enforces a reduction target of greenhouse
gas emissions by at least 100 per cent of 1990 levels for all
UK nations. Recent political developments mean that there
is now more potential for the United States to fully
participate in the Paris Agreement and to establish federal
legislation to tackle climate change.
What transpires from these initiatives is that
environmental protection is very much at the forefront of
the political and scientific agenda and all industries ought
to find strategies to adapt to more stringent legislation. In
addition, greater public awareness of environmental
impacts, and of climate change in particular, translates into
customers pressurizing companies to offer eco-friendly
products and services.

The Building Industry and Its Environmental

Impact

The building industry has a significant effect on the

environment, with impacts arising from its heavy reliance
on non-renewable materials and energy. This aspect
becomes particularly apparent if one analyses the whole
life-cycle of a construction project from material production
to a building’s end of life.
Many of the products used in the construction sector
originate from mineral extraction with significant
contribution to soil and water pollution. The fabrication
processes of materials such as brick, cement or concrete
demand high energy-consumption and depend on fossil
fuels for calcination. Transportation of heavy building
materials carries high environmental costs. Site planning
and preparation disrupt ecosystems and the actual
construction phase produces greenhouse emissions.
Finally, demolition might emit harmful substances back to
the atmosphere and requires energy. Another source of
impact is the level of waste emerging from building
projects, mostly due to miscalculations arising from
procurement errors, poor craftsmanship, changes in
design, damage, equipment malfunction, off-cuts and
packaging.
Bearing these factors in mind, it is safe to say that the
construction industry has a key role to play in
environmental protection and has responded by proposing
materials that are less harmful to the ecosystem or more
energy-efficient: for example, alternative building materials
with lower environmental loads or which are by-products of
other fabrication processes, such as fly ash or silica fume;
or natural materials that can act as insulants, instead of
fully man-made products.

Environmental advantages and disadvantages of timber

architecture

Timber is deemed to constitute a more sustainable choice

for building projects. As a natural material, it does not
require manufacturing processes that are as energy-
intensive as the ones required for artificial materials such
as cement or brick. Wood products are usually
biodegradable at the end of their lifespan and less
impactful. Furthermore, haulage of forestry products often
poses lower transportation requirements than heavier or
more cumbersome materials, resulting in fewer emissions
from road, rail, air and sea traffic.
Another advantage of timber is that it contributes to the
reduction of carbon emissions through a process called
carbon sequestration. Wood-based products contain
depositories of the carbon dioxide that trees have absorbed
during their growth. This, in practice, means that the
timber industry contributes positively to the prevention of
climate change by dint of its reliance on a natural product
that retains banks of a major contributor to global
warming. Such are the perceived benefits of carbon
sequestration that it is now standard practice to include it
in the calculation methodology for the environmental
impacts of building materials(1). However, some
researchers (2) argue that this phenomenon should not be
accounted for as negative carbon emissions from timber
products, in that wood will eventually release its carbon
content back to the atmosphere when it naturally
decomposes or when it is incinerated. In addition, the
period of growth of a forest is too long for its trees to be
able to offset this end-of-life carbon release. This relates to
the principle that, as explained in Chapter 1, the long-term
sustainability of wood strictly relies on sustainable forest
management.
Offsite construction is usually deemed to improve the
speed of building projects, thus reducing economic costs
and the environmental burdens associated with
construction sites. Building projects that benefit from an
offsite approach tend to offer a more transparent and
efficient management of the amount of material needed to
meet construction targets, which, in turn, reduces waste
and its associated environmental loads.
Despite the many undoubted benefits of timber
architecture in ecological terms, it is important not to fall
prey to the greenwashing generated around wood: a
tendency to express unfounded claims that a timber
product or technique must necessarily be the best choice
for the environment, without robust evidence. Bold
statements about the suitability of timber to reduce
environmental impacts are sometimes based on an
oversimplification of complex phenomena and on the
consideration of some impacts only, without a full
understanding of trade-offs or of the bigger picture.
Indeed, environmental trade-offs in building products are
inevitable: for example, a material that might be beneficial
towards reducing greenhouse gases might nevertheless
produce more toxic waste or require components that
pollute the water.
Moreover, timber may undergo chemical treatment for
preservation purposes (as was seen in Chapter 2) with
substances that can exhibit a degree of toxicity for the
environment. Additionally, the incorporation of several
layers into timber panels (such as vapour barriers and
other membranes) to meet hygrothermal and weather-
protection requirements can carry a further environmental
burden and energy load. As a matter of fact, the production
of some insulants still widely used in timber buildings, such
as mineral wool, require extensive mineral extraction,
which in turn might contribute towards hazardous waste,
soil and water pollution, and disruption to ecosystems.
Adhesives used for many wood panels are another possible
source of environmental impacts.
Another potential issue with timber construction arises
from the amount of wastage produced, especially from
packaging and off-cuts in the fabrication of panels or other
products made from timber. This additional waste is not
only an environmental hazard in itself, the energy and
emissions associated with the production of materials that
are then discarded impact the environment with zero
benefit for the completed building.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to take a rigorous,
holistic approach to the evaluation of the environmental
impact of timber architecture, by analysing the different
stages of manufacturing and by evaluating its effect not
only on global warming but also other environmental
burdens.

Analysing the Environmental Impact of Timber

Architecture with Environmental Product
Declarations

Life-Cycle Thinking

Life-Cycle Thinking takes into consideration the whole

lifespan of a product, from manufacturing to end of life. It
is a holistic approach whereby design, costs, management
and the environment are assessed to evaluate the
sustainability of a product. The first mention of a life-cycle
methodology comes from a 1959 report for the Rand
Corporation entitled Resource Allocations and Future
Weapon Systems, authored by David Novick; however, the
first environmental life-cycle assessment (LCA) study was
conducted by the Midwest Research Institute (US) in 1969
for the analysis of the impact of Coca-Cola packaging. This
study was termed Resource and Environmental Profile
Analysis and focused on resource-consumption and
emissions. The first German LCA dates from 1972 and was
conducted by the Battelle Institute. Further LCA studies
took place in the United Kingdom and Sweden throughout
the 1970s(3).
Modern life-cycle assessment methods were developed
by the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
with the key differentiation between inventory
(quantification of emissions and materials) and impact
assessment (where the effect of those emissions on the
environment and human health are calculated). The first
international standard came with the publication of ISO
14040, Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework
in 1997 and successive documents (known as the ISO
14040 series). ISO 14040 established the required sections
of an LCA: goal and scope (where the product and
boundaries are defined), life-cycle inventory analysis
(where flows to and from nature are counted: inputs of raw
materials and energy use, products, emissions to the air,
water and land), life-cycle impact assessment (where
potential harmful effects are analysed), interpretation and
reporting of results, and critical review.
ISO 14040 does not prescribe a specific methodology to
analyse impacts, yet the common factor in the selection of
impact categories is that they all have the potential to
damage the environment and/or human health or to
deplete natural resources. Each substance follows a path
until it reaches an endpoint (or end of the cause-effect
chain): whilst midpoint impacts, which lie somewhere in
the chain, are useful to identify reduction targets and
measures to implement them, endpoint impacts support
decision making. There are several available methodologies
for the assessment of these impacts, all taking a midpoint
or an endpoint approach to the selection of performance
indicators. The preferred methodology for LCAs in the
building industry is the CML method(4), from the Institute
of Environmental Sciences at Leiden University. This
framework takes a midpoint approach and establishes a
standard list of impact categories (all explained in this
chapter) covering not only climate change, but also other
aspects such as water pollution and waste production.

Table 3.1 International standards that define the main principles and
components of a Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). Environmental Product
Declarations (EPDs) are the standard eco-label to communicate the results of an
LCA-compliant assessment. ISO: standards of the International Organization for
Standardization; EN: standards of the European Union; BS: standards of the
British Standards Institution.

Eco-labelling

The environmental impact of a product is of interest not

only to the scientific community but also to a public
increasingly attuned to ecological concerns. As a result of
this growing demand for clearly communicated
environmental values, eco-labelling has evolved from
individual initiatives in the 1970s to current standardized
procedures. ISO 14020 is the international standard for
environmental labelling with a broad definition of the type
of content that such labels must contain.
Later standards have become even more stringent by
proposing three types of labels: Type-I labels (as defined by
ISO 14024) present the results of environmental studies
conducted by a third party (for example, the laboratory of
an independent institution), according to a number of
preset agreed criteria; Type-II labels (as defined by ISO
14021) give manufacturers the greatest level of freedom,
as they provide self-declared environmental claims; finally,
Type-III labels (ISO 14025) are also called Environmental
Product Declarations (EPDs) and are reserved for results
arising from an LCA approach. EPDs are particularly
important for LCAs carried out at the whole-building level,
because they provide the standard environmental-impact
information required for the building components used in a
project, according to ISO 21930 and BS EN 15804. A
particular advantage of EPDs lies in the fact that these
assessments are conducted by an independent third party,
known as an EPD programme operator.

Structure of environmental product declarations

ISO 21930 and BS EN 15804 harmonize the layout of, and

the information to be included in, EPDs within the building
industry. Firstly, they set out the product category rules to
which an EPD must adhere, with the following parameters:

• definition and description of the product;

• goal and scope (functional unit, system boundaries,
description of data, criteria for inclusion of
inputs/outputs, data-quality checks and units);
• inventory analysis (data collection, calculation
procedures and allocation of materials and energy
flows);
• environmental impact categories to be included;
• life-cycle stages to be included in the environmental
declaration;
• period of validity.
EPDs might use a declared unit or a functional unit. With
declared units, only the physical properties of a product are
taken into account (for example, 1kg of thermal insulant),
whereas with functional units, the level of service of a
product is considered (for example, the amount of insulant
needed to offer a thermal resistance of 1.5m2/(W·K)). An
EPD must clearly state all these components and provide
an analysis of results, as required by current LCA
standards(5).
Table 3.2 Information modules (A1 to D1) considered in an Environmental
Product Declaration, according to BS EN 15804. Information modules are
grouped into life-cycle stages. Different EPDs might cover different stages,
depending on their assessment boundaries, which must be clearly stated in the
documentation.

Table 3.2 shows the grouping of the individual stages of

a product life-cycle. Depending on what stages are
considered, EPDs might take the following assessment
boundaries: cradle to gate (covering the impacts arising
from the manufacturing stages of a product), cradle to site
(covering impacts from manufacturing to transportation to
construction site), cradle to gate with options (covering the
product stage, plus any additional stages) and cradle to
grave (covering all stages of a product until it reaches the
end of its functional life). An EPD must clearly state what
stages have been included in the assessment.

EPD programmes

The demand for EPDs in the construction industry has

increased in the last decade. This phenomenon has resulted
in the proliferation of programme operators that provide
EPDs, triggering the need for regulation and guidelines to
improve the comparability and transparency of EPDs. This
concern has partially been addressed by the publication of
BS EN 15804, but further efforts towards the
harmonization of EPDs have recently been achieved with
the foundation of ECO Platform in 2013, with the aim of
‘coordinating the development of consistent EPD […]
programmes in Europe and stimulating the use of common
implementation of the EPD methodology’(6). Several EPD
programmes adhere to the recommendations from ECO
Platform, such as BRE (United Kingdom), EPD Danmark
(Denmark), EPD Norge (Norway), Institut Bauen und
Umwelt (Germany), EPD International (Sweden), FDES
INIES (France), EPDitaly (Italy), Bau EPD (Austria),
DAPconstrucción (Spain), DAPHabitat System (Portugal),
EPD Ireland (Ireland), Aenor (Spain), ITB (Poland) and
MRBI (Netherlands).
Table 3.3 Example of the results section of an EPD for particleboard. This
document is based on an LCA study whose system boundary is cradle to gate
(A1 to A4) with options (assembly, A5; and waste processing, C3).
 In North America, the following companies and
associations offer an EPD programme: FP Innovations
(Canada), NSF International (United States), Earth Sure
EPD (United States), UL Environment (United States),
ASTM International (United States), Carbon Leadership
Forum (United States), ICC Evaluation Services (United
States) and SGS Global Services (United States), among
others.
Many manufacturers will add EPDs to the specifications
and marketing materials of their products, but it is worth
consulting the EPD libraries from the companies mentioned
above for comparison of environmental credentials.
EPDs, unlike other environmental labels, ought to be
read in the spirit of Life-Cycle Thinking, that is, without
expectations for a final overall mark; rather, the
environmental suitability of a product is informed by
different stages and impact categories. It is also worth
remembering the concept of burden trade-off, whereby a
product might perform well in a specific environmental
category but poorly in another; for example, a product
might cause low greenhouse emissions but high hazardous
waste.

Global Warming Potential (GWP)

Definition: This is the characterization factor for climate change using the
CML method. Greenhouse gas emissions (such as carbon dioxide, methane
or nitrous oxide) are measured by their potential to contribute to global
warming. Timber products are usually given a negative GWP result for the
production stage, due to carbon sequestration.
GWP in the construction industry: The main origin of greenhouse
emissions in the construction industry is the fossil fuels consumed during
fabrication processes, especially for cement calcination.
Measurement: The baseline substance is carbon dioxide (CO2): for
example, 1kg of dinitrogen oxide is equivalent to 265kg of carbon dioxide.
EPDs express this quantity as kg CO2-eq.
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)

Definition: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halocarbon emissions

have been found to cause the thinning of the stratospheric ozone, which
plays a vital part in protecting the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
ODP is the potential of a material to emit these types of substances.
ODP in the construction industry: Chlorofluorocarbons are emitted
during the production of polyurethane foam (which can, for instance, make
the core of structural insulated panels).
Measurement: The baseline substance is trichlorofluoromethane
(CFC11): for example, 1kg of dichlorodifluoromethane is equivalent to
0.04kg of CFC11. EPDs express this quantity as kg CFC11-eq.

Acidification Potential (AP)

Definition: Acidification is the pH decrease in freshwater, oceans and soil.

The main substances that cause acidification are sulphur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, ammonia and phosphoric acid. EPDs normally measure AP in
freshwater.
AP in the construction industry: The production of clinker for cement
contributes considerably to the emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides. Another cause of acidification is the production of plastic-based
materials used for membranes, adhesives and thermal-insulation boards.
Measurement: The baseline substance is sulphur dioxide (SO2): for
example, 1kg of nitrogen monoxide is equivalent to 0.07kg of sulphur
dioxide. EPDs express this quantity as kg SO2-eq.

Eutrophication Potential (EP)

Definition: Eutrophication (also known as nutrification, hypertrophication

and nutrient enrichment) is the over-fertilization of a body of water or soil,
which causes uncontrolled growth of plant matter. It is caused by phosphate,
nitrogen, nitrogen oxides and ammonium.
EP in the construction industry: Sources of substances that cause
eutrophication include the processing of coarse aggregate for concrete and
the production of plastic-based products and insulants.
 Measurement: The baseline substance is phosphate (PO4): for example,
1kg of ammonia monoxide is equivalent to 0.35kg of phosphate. EPDs
express this quantity as kg PO4-eq.
Fig. 3.2. Algal bloom in a river, near a mountainous village in the Chengdu
area of Sichuan (China). Eutrophication consists in excessive plant and algal
growth in a body of water, due to high concentration of nutrients. This
phenomenon depletes the oxygen in the water, thus reducing biodiversity.
(Photo: Felix Andrews, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Photochemical Ozone Creation Potential
(POCP)

Definition: Tropospheric ozone is created by an imbalance in the level of

nitrogen oxide in the lower atmosphere, caused by photochemical reactions,
aided by sun rays, with airborne emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) and
volatile organic compounds. This phenomenon is popularly known as
summer smog. The main substances that cause it are ethene, methane,
propane, propene and acetylene. This performance indicator might also be
termed photochemical oxidant formation potential.
POCP in the construction industry: Sources of substances that
contribute to photochemical ozone formation include the production of, and
the waste associated with, concrete, and the manufacture of adhesives and
plastics.
Measurement: The baseline substance is ethene: for example, 1kg of
propene is equivalent to 0.97kg of ethene. EPDs express this quantity as kg
ethene-eq.
Fig. 3.3. Low smog over Almaty, Kazakhstan’s largest city. This is a
photochemical phenomenon: air pollutants, such as carbon monoxide, react with
solar radiation creating low banks of ozone. (Photo: Igors Jefimovs, CC BY 3.0)

Abiotic Depletion Potential (ADP)

Definition: This indicator refers to the amount of non-renewable sources

used for energy production.
ADP in the construction industry: Some non-renewable elements
used in the construction industry include antimony and aluminium. The
production of insulating materials and concrete is a major contributor to this
impact.
 Measurement: The baseline substance is antimony (Sb). EPDs express
this quantity as kg Sb-eq.

Energy Consumption

Definition: EPDs divide energy consumption into renewable and non-

renewable energy sources. Renewable energy is further subdivided into raw
materials (for example, biomass) and energy carriers (for example,
hydropower, geothermal energy, wind energy and solar energy). Some EPDs
might use the labels ‘renewable primary energy resources used as energy
carrier’ and ‘renewable primary energy resources used as raw materials’ to
refer to these categories. Non-renewable energy is also subdivided into raw
materials (for example, mineral resources, metal ores and fossil fuels) and
energy carriers (for example, nuclear energy and fossil energy). Some EPDs
might use the labels ‘non-renewable primary energy resources used as
energy carrier’ and ‘non-renewable primary energy resources used as raw
materials’ to refer to these categories.
Energy consumption in the construction industry: Cement
demands the largest share of energy in the building sector for two reasons:
the high energy-usage needed to produce each unit mass and the sheer
quantity of cement required by building projects across the globe. The
production of insulants also carries a high energy-demand.
Measurement: Megajoule (MJ)

Waste

Definition: EPDs consider the following types of waste: hazardous waste

(such as treated timber, concrete additives, asbestos, adhesives, paint),
non-hazardous waste (such as timber, packaging, plastic, carpets, tantalized
timber) and radioactive waste (for example, uranium). In Europe, waste is
classified according to the European Waste Catalogue (European
Commission Decision 2000/532/EC).
Measurement: EPDs present the quantities of disposed waste in kg.

Other Eco-Labels

BREEAM certification
The Building Research Establishment Environmental
Assessment Method (BREEAM) (7) from the Building
Research Establishment (BRE) assesses the following
categories: energy, health and wellbeing, innovation, land
use, materials, management, pollution, transport, waste
and water. Unlike EPDs, this certification does provide an
overall rating (outstanding, excellent, very good, good, pass
or unclassified).
An important aspect of BREEAM is that it assesses the
timber used in a building project based on the UK’s Timber
Procurement Policy, which stipulates that all wood must
originate from legal and sustainable sources or follow the
Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade scheme
(which bans products originating from unlawful logging).

Forest certification

Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification

(PEFC)

Proper forest management, explored in Chapter 1, is a key

element in ensuring that timber is truly sustainable.
PEFC(8) uses a third-party certification scheme. Companies
and products that obtain this certificate must achieve the
following targets: ecologically important forests are
identified, protected and conserved; the spirit of the
Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work
(1998) and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples (2007) are met; forest conversions (the
clearing of natural forests) are avoided; they contribute to
the biodiversity of landscape, ecosystem and species; the
capability of forests to produce a range of wood and non-
wood forest products and services on a sustainable basis is
maintained; and harvesting levels do not exceed a rate that
can be sustained in the long term. Additionally, genetically
modified trees are not allowed.

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)

The FSC(9) label offers assurances that a timber product

originates from a certified forest where activities are
lawful, workers’ rights are respected, communities and
indigenous peoples’ rights are safeguarded, the
environment is protected, there is a vision for long-term
management, actions are adjusted in response to changes
in the woodland, and historical and natural features are
protected.

Notes
(1) British Standards Institution, 2014, BS EN 16485
(2) Klöpffer and Grahl, 2014; Lessaveur, 2015
(3) Boustead, 1996; Lundholm and Sundströn, 1985
(4) Guinée et al., 2001
(5) International Organization for Standardization, 2006,
ISO 14040 and ISO 14044
(6) ECO Platform, 2013, p.1
(7) BRE, 2021
(8) PEFC, 2021
(9) FSC, ca.2021
Chapter Four

Designing with Timber-

Framed Panels
Overview

Timber-frame (TF) panel construction comprises two main

systems: platform frame and balloon frame (see Figs 4.2
and 4.3). The former derives its name from the fact that, at
each level, the wall panels sit on the floor underneath,
which acts as a supporting platform. In balloon frame,
studs span more than one storey and provide support for
the joists of the intermediate floors. This chapter focuses
on the platform-frame system. In most European countries,
including the UK, all structural calculations for timber
buildings need to adhere to harmonized standard EN 1995,
Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures.
Fig. 4.1. Maggie’s Centre in Cardiff, designed by Dow Jones Architects. The
intimate space (cwtch) is separated from the rest of the building by a curtain
made from Welsh fabric. (Photo: Anthony Coleman)
Fig. 4.2. In platform frame construction, the walls of each storey sit on the
platform (the intermediate floor) supported by the walls underneath. (Drawing:
Kit and Modern Timber Frame Homes, Crowood, 2007)
Fig. 4.3. In balloon frame construction, the double-height timber studs support
the flexural members that make up the intermediate floor. This system, which
dates back to the turn of the nineteenth century, derives its name from the fact
that it was deemed as easy to construct ‘as blowing up a balloon’. (Drawing: Kit
and Modern Timber Frame Homes, Crowood, 2007)

External Walls

The framed panel

The techniques that we are going to discuss illustrate walls
in which the loadbearing role is fulfilled by the TF panels
placed on the inside, complemented by an external
cladding system. The outer cladding can be heavyweight (a
masonry leaf resting on the foundations) or lightweight (for
example timber or metal systems connected to, and
supported by, the TF panels).
In a TF panel, the timber studs are typically placed at
600mm centres, or at 400mm centres especially when this
is needed for structural reasons. The studs run between
two important timbers that define the horizontal sides of
the panels: the bottom rail and the top rail. The studs have
two fundamental roles:

• they withstand all the forces (vertical and horizontal) to

which the TF panels are subjected and transfer them to
the bottom rail and thus to the substrate;
• they provide fixing points for the other structural and
non-structural components of the panels: for example
inner lining, outer sheathing, wall ties (where
applicable), insulation quilts or boards.

Where the wall panels are subjected to higher concentrated

loads, the studs can be doubled or tripled. The bottom rail
and top rail generally employ the same timber section as
the studs, which are nailed to the rails. Like the studs, the
rails offer fixing support for the sheathing and lining of the
panels.
The studs are horizontally connected by timbers called
noggings (or ‘dwangs’, in Scotland), whose functions are:

• to stabilize the pair of studs that they connect, and, as

an overall effect, the whole TF panel. Noggings prevent
the studs from deflecting or coming out of their plane
under the forces exerted on the panels;
 • to offer fixing points for lining sheets or a variety of
fixtures and fittings (for example switch boxes,
radiators, cabinets and wall units).

If a TF panel is subjected to a concentrated vertical load of

significant magnitude, then the frame can be locally
reinforced with an additional compressive member. This
can be achieved by doubling or tripling the standard stud,
or by resorting to a stud with a larger cross-section, made
from solid timber or engineered timber (for example glulam
or LVL). In multi-storey buildings, if the fenestration is not
regular and the openings are not vertically aligned, then
the studs supporting the lintel of an upper storey will exert
concentrated actions on the TF panels of the lower storey.
Other concentrated loads might be transferred to the TF
panels by beams or trimming joists (which support a larger
floor area than ordinary joists), or – on the top floor – by
roof beams, trusses, purlins and so on. Where needed,
additional posts can also be inserted between adjacent
panels to withstand concentrated loads.
The external sheathing is an important layer of TF
panels: these are typically covered with OSB sheets or, less
frequently, with plywood sheets (with significant economic
repercussions). OSB/3 is generally the preferred type of
OSB used, in 9mm-thick sheets (or less commonly 11, 15 or
18mm). If plywood is chosen, this should be adequate for
humid or exterior conditions, and specified in sheets of at
least 9.5mm. Alternatives to these materials are fibreboard,
gypsum board or particleboard adequately reinforced or
manufactured for this type of application (see Chapter 2 for
a description of these products). The external sheathing
fulfils numerous functions:

• it encloses and protects the framework of the panel and

the insulation layer with a continuous surface on its
outer side;
 • it provides support for the breather membrane and
other components (for example cavity barriers installed
for fire safety, or flashings);
• it provides the panels with resistance to horizontal
forces, such as the in-plane forces exerted by the wind
(this is referred to as ‘racking resistance’);
• it makes the panels more airtight (airtightness can be
further increased by taping the joints of adjacent
sheets);
• in prefabricated panels awaiting installation, it
prevents their distortion.

Each sheathing sheet is fixed all around its perimeter to the

substrate (studs, top rail and bottom rail). Such connection
can be obtained with nails or staples. The overall racking
resistance offered by the external sheathing will depend on
the sheet material specified and will increase with
increased thickness and reduced nailing or stapling
centres.
Fig. 4.4. The columns of a structural frame are mainly designed to resist
vertical loads and might need to be complemented by braces or diaphragms in
order that horizontal forces, if any, be withstood. (Drawing: Kit and Modern
Timber Frame Homes, Crowood, 2007)

The TF panels are generally, and advisably, connected to

their support not directly, but with the interposition of a
sole plate. More specifically, the sole plate serves the
following functions:

• during the construction process:

- it offers a level base for the TF panels. The plate can
be levelled with adequate use of spacers and
structural grout underneath it;
- it acts as a nailing plate to which the TF panels can
subsequently be fixed with relative ease;
 • during use of the building, it transfers the loads from
the TF panels to the foundation system or to the
intermediate floor.

The sole plate can be fixed to the foundations using various

methods; for instance, by shooting ballistic nails through
the plate itself and penetrating the damp-proof course
(DPC) and the foundations, or by using mechanical anchors
(for example metal angles) fixed to the sole plate with
carpentry nails and to the foundations with ballistic or
masonry nails. In most cases, the portion of the sole plate
under a door is cut out after the full installation of the wall
panels.
A breather membrane is usually applied on the outer
side of the external sheathing, with multiple aims. During
the construction phase, the membrane role is:

• to protect the TF panels from the weather elements

before such protection is provided by the outer
cladding;
• to protect the panels while they are transported from
the factory to the construction site and during the
subsequent phases (if the membrane has been applied
in the factory).

During the operational phase (when the cladding has been

installed), the membrane role is:

• to provide extra protection from the weather, especially

in the case of wind-driven rainwater penetration
through the cladding;
• to contribute to the overall airtightness of the external
walls;
• to contribute to the thermal performance of the walls
(by reducing their transmittance, especially if reflective
membranes are specified).
The breather membrane can be fixed to the TF panels in
the factory (which is the advisable option) or on site.
Breather membranes are available in different materials.
Widely utilized products are obtained from non-woven,
polymer-based membranes – for example polypropylene
(PP) – less than 1mm thick. The material used must
simultaneously offer high resistance to water penetration
and low resistance to water-vapour transmission (hence the
breathability). The former allows the membrane to
guarantee protection from the weather and the latter to
allow any vapour trapped inside the panels to pass through
it, thus preventing damage to the timbers (especially
rotting) and to the thermal-insulation layer. The fabric used
for breather membranes can additionally be treated with a
low-emissivity reflective coating (which is installed facing
the cavity between the panels and the cladding system).
The membrane is fixed to the panels, with upper layers
overlapping lower layers. Vertical overlapping is also very
important, with a typically recommended overlap of
150mm. The membrane can be attached to the sheathing
with steel fixings such as stainless staples (most common
option) or galvanized nails, applied at stud positions and at
suitable intervals. To locate the studs (which are concealed
by the sheathing layer), reinforcing tape is often used,
which is made of plastic (for example PVC) and offers the
additional benefit of strengthening the fixing (especially by
increasing tear resistance).
A head binder is often added to the construction, so as
to tie adjacent panels and provide the wall with greater
stability. The head binder is placed on the top rails of the
panels and runs over their joints, thus connecting two or
more panels (either aligned or at 90-degree angles). The
head binder also improves the path of the loads transferred
by joists, beams or rafters to the wall, by distributing them
more evenly between adjacent panels.
 Thermal insulation is generally achieved by inserting
appropriate products between the studs, which can be
chosen from a very broad range:

• soft/flexible products; the most common are quilts or

batts made of mineral- or glass-wool. Sheep wool can
also be used;
• rigid or semi-rigid boards (for example expanded or
extruded polystyrene, polyurethane, polyisocyanurate
or wood fibre);
• blown cellulose fibre, which can be obtained from
recycled newspapers.

The choice of insulant has important repercussions on the

dimensions of the studs and, consequently, on the overall
thickness of the TF panels. The depth of the studs depends
not only on structural aspects (such as mechanical
properties of the timber used or loading conditions), but
also on the thermal performance of the products fitted
between the studs. In low-rise construction, the depth
needed for structural purposes is often exceeded by that
needed to achieve thermal-insulation targets. As a
consequence, the thermal conductivity of the specified
product plays an important role in the design and detailing
process: if products (such as rigid-foam boards) with very
low conductivity are used, then the depth of the studs can
be minimized. Irrespective of the type of insulant used, it is
important to insulate the TF panels as homogeneously as
possible, thus avoiding areas with less insulant (or no
insulant at all), especially in parts of the panels that are
more difficult to reach for the operatives. It is worth
noticing that the thermal-insulation layer also affects other
properties of the panels, such as their acoustic insulation
and fire resistance.
A vapour-control layer (VCL) is installed on the warm
side of the thermal insulant, in order to prevent any water
vapour produced inside the building from reaching
dewpoint temperature as it passes through the wall make-
up and condensing (this phenomenon is referred to as
interstitial condensation). The materials on the warm side
of the insulant need to be specified attentively, ensuring
that their vapour resistivity is significantly higher than that
of the materials on the cold side. The VCL is usually a thin
(<0.2mm) layer of polythene (PE) stapled to the timber
studs or the internal sheathing of the panels. Similar to the
breather membrane, adjacent polythene sheets need to be
installed with overlaps (of around 100mm), both vertically
and horizontally. The joints between sheets can be taped to
avoid discontinuity in the VCL. Alternatively, plasterboard
can be specified that incorporates the VCL function (the
gypsum board is backed with an additional polyester film).
The presence of a VCL also reduces the wall’s air
permeability, hence it is sometimes referred to as the air-
and vapour-control layer (AVCL).
The wall construction is completed on one side with an
internal lining. A very common product used for this layer
is gypsum plasterboard, with a typical thickness of
12.5mm. Other thicknesses are also available (for example
15mm) or can be obtained by installing two boards,
preferably with staggered joints. A great advantage of
plasterboard is not only its suitability as an internal finish
that can easily be painted, but also the fact that it
contributes to the overall fire resistance of a wall.
Plasterboard is a material of limited combustibility. A
12.5mm-thick layer of plasterboard (with mass per unit
area ≥ 10kg/m2) offers a fire resistance of thirty minutes;
therefore, if doubled, it will offer a resistance of sixty
minutes. The plasterboard can be finished by taping and
filling (dry process), or by skim-coating (wet process).
Other lining products include timber boards or timber-
based materials such as plywood, OSB, MDF and
particleboard, including the cement-bonded type (see
Chapter 2). The internal lining is either nailed or screwed
to the timber studs.

Fig. 4.5. Construction of a detached TF house. The foundation walls have been
erected on strip foundations under all perimeter and loadbearing walls, both
internal and external. The suspended ground floor will be built using a beam-
and-block system. The external walls will be composed of an inner TF leaf and
an outer masonry leaf.
Fig. 4.6. Strip foundations and suspended ground floor have been completed.
A timber sole plate has been placed along the perimeter of the external walls.
The TF wall panels will now be installed on top of the sole plate. A damp-proof
course (DPC) separates the foundations from the sole plate, to protect the plate
itself and the whole TF wall from moisture.
Fig. 4.7. A large manufacturing facility for TF components. On the assembly
line shown, TF wall panels are being fabricated.
Fig. 4.8. Assembly of closed TF wall panels. In the panel in the background, the
mineral-wool quilt has been fitted between the studs. In the panel in the
foreground, the VCL has been stapled on the inner side of the quilts and is ready
to be further processed with the addition of other layers.
Fig. 4.9. The outside of a closed TF panel, complete with breather membrane
(yellow) and windows.
Fig. 4.10. An operative is fixing the OSB sheathing layer to the timber
framework of an external-wall panel, by means of a pneumatic nailgun.
Fig. 4.11. An operative is manually fitting a mineral-wool quilt between the
studs of a wall panel.
Fig. 4.12. An operative is fixing the vapour-control layer on the inside of the
wool quilt, with a pneumatic stapler. He is adding reinforcing tape along the
fixing points, to strengthen them and to mark the position of the studs behind
the VCL.
Fig. 4.13. Courtyard of the same manufacturing facility shown in Fig. 4.12. The
timber components have been grouped and wrapped in a protective plastic
layer, while they wait to be loaded onto trucks and transported to the
construction site.
Fig. 4.14. Interior side of a house’s external wall made of closed TF panels.
Technical installations (electric cables and water-supply pipes) run through the
floor’s metal-web joists and within the service void (the timber battens of which
can be seen). The discharge stack will be boxed off.
Fig. 4.15. Service void in a bathroom, with discharge stack, and piping for a
washbasin (water supply and drainage pipes). Gypsum plasterboard will be fixed
to the timber battens to close the void.

Openings

Openings need to be studied carefully and require the

addition of special members to the frame, especially if the
wall has a loadbearing role. In loadbearing walls, a lintel is
necessary and needs to be placed immediately underneath
the top rail. The depth of the lintel will depend upon
structural factors such as its span, the magnitude of the
loads transferred to the lintel itself by the structure above,
the mechanical properties of the timber specified and the
desired deflection limit. The necessary width of the lintel
can be obtained either with a single section or by doubling
(and connecting) two sections. It is important to remember
that the lintel’s maximum deflection will have an effect on
the integrity and functioning of the windows or doors
installed: if deflection is excessive, it will damage the frame
or the glazing of these components.
Lintels need to be supported by ad hoc members, called
cripple studs, since they are shorter than the ordinary
studs running between the bottom and the top rails.
Depending on the structural factors mentioned above for
the depth of the lintel, vertical support to a lintel can be
offered by a single or a double cripple stud. The horizontal
member defining the sill of a window also requires its own
cripple stud(s) at both ends. Therefore, where there is a
window, the foot of the panel presents at least three studs
on each side of the opening. Forming doors within a
loadbearing wall follows a very similar pattern but does not
require the members described for the sill.
Fig. 4.16. A PVC window inserted into a closed TF wall panel. Various
membranes are overlapped around the opening: VCL (foil), breather membrane
(yellow) and DPC (black) near the sill.

In non-loadbearing walls (and, in general, if there are no

vertical loads acting on the head of a panel where an
opening is needed), lintels are not necessary and the top
edge of the opening is defined by a more slender horizontal
member.
 The construction of the frame around an opening is
easier and requires less material usage if its position
coincides with the framing grid (which results in the
opening’s width being a multiple of the stud centres).

External cladding

Two categories of external cladding can be identified in

terms of their weight and support method: lightweight and
heavyweight. Lightweight cladding is attached to the TF
panels and transfers all the actions (including its weight) to
them. Heavyweight cladding rests directly on the
foundations and is not meant to transfer any vertical loads
to the TF panels. The only actions exerted by heavy
cladding onto the TF leaf are horizontal and occur through
the fixings added to restrain the outer wall, as will be
explained in more detail in the ‘Heavyweight cladding’
section.
When detailing the external cladding, it is important to
take into careful consideration the problem of differential
movement between the cladding itself and the TF panels
and – where applicable – between different types of
external cladding. Differential movement can occur
throughout the lifespan of a building, since different
materials will expand or contract at a different rate as a
consequence of fluctuations in temperature and humidity.
In addition to this, the TF panels are likely to contract
during the first months after construction, as they
gradually lose moisture content. Finally, settlement can be
a further cause for differential movement. For these
reasons, the cladding must be constructed in a way that
allows the different leaves or components of the external
walls to undergo changes in volume without these resulting
in any damage (for example, cracking).
Fig. 4.17. Construction of timber-frame external walls: open panels with block
cladding (a), closed panels with block cladding (b), and closed panels with
render on carrier board (c). (Drawing: after Sanna, 2018)
Fig. 4.18. Special wall ties need to be utilized to connect a masonry leaf to a
timber-framed loadbearing panel. In these fasteners, the horizontal component
(inserted into the mortar beds) can move vertically within the component fixed
to the timber-frame panel. Thanks to this device, any differential movement
between the outer leaf and the timber panels will not result in damage to the
wall. (Drawing: Leviat)

Lightweight cladding
Components available for this type of cladding are
numerous and include:

• timber boards, which can be arranged according to

different patterns: vertically, horizontally and
diagonally (timber boarding will be dealt with further
down in this section);
• timber shingles;
• tiles made of clay, stone (for example slate), cement,
polymers or other synthetic materials (for example
artificial slate). Tiles are generally nailed to horizontal
battens, which are fixed to vertical counterbattens in
turn attached to the studs of the TF panels. The
installation of vertical counterbattens is not always
executed but is recommended, as it facilitates drainage
of any rainwater that might have penetrated the
cladding and thus acts as a protective measure for the
TF panels (along with the breather membrane);
• brick slips, which require a supporting substrate
(generally a proprietary system) fixed to the timber
panels;
• metal screens, which require a rail system to be
connected to the TF panels;
• metal sheets (such as copper, aluminium, zinc, or
alloys);
• render on ad hoc stainless-steel laths or on carrier
boards, which can be wood-based or cement-based
(such as fibre-cement, cement-bonded particleboard).
Carrier boards are generally fixed to vertical timber
battens connected to the studs through the external
sheathing and the breather membrane. It is good
practice to interpose a DPC layer between the timber
battens and the carrier board in order to prevent the
former from absorbing any moisture from the latter.
Various types of render are currently available, from
cement-based renders to acrylic ones.
All these cladding systems require a slender cavity (of at
least 20mm) between the TF panels and the cladding for
drainage and ventilation. Thus, the cavity contributes to the
protection and durability of the TF panels.
In all of the cladding systems outlined above, durability
of the battens and counterbattens is significantly increased
if they have been pre-treated with preservatives. When
battens are cut on site, it is advisable to paint the newly
formed surfaces with preservatives, so as to avoid weaker
areas where the timbers are more vulnerable to biological
attack and consequent deterioration (due to fungi or
insects, see Chapters 1 and 2).
Timber cladding can be constructed with many
variations, depending on the geometry of the boards and
the patterns in which they are fixed. An important measure
to make this type of cladding successful in the long term is
to install it in such a way that the boards can shrink and
swell following variations in moisture content (associated
with their hygroscopicity and exposure to the elements)
without undergoing distortion or causing damage. This
affects various aspects of the cladding system: the
dimension of the boards, the profile of their longitudinal
edges, the gaps left between the boards and the anchoring
system. The cavity between the TF panels and the boards
should be adequately ventilated, with openings both at its
top and bottom. Wood species commonly utilized for
cladding include spruce, pine, larch and cedar among
softwoods, and sweet chestnut and oak among hardwoods.
Depending on the natural durability of the selected species,
preservative treatment will be more or less important for
the long-term performance of the cladding layer. When the
selected species is classed as durable (for example Western
red cedar) or as moderately durable (for example Douglas
fir or European larch), treatment is often avoided, which
means that the boards will gradually weather and acquire a
grey tint. The boards should be secured to the timber
battens by means of stainless-steel fixings, especially if
species are specified that are rich in tannin (such as
Western red cedar), which causes rusting. Either nails or
screws can be used.
Fig. 4.19. Construction of a timber-frame house clad in timber boards arranged
vertically (left) or horizontally (right). The inner, loadbearing leaf of the external
walls is constructed of closed panels.
 In horizontal boarding, a variety of cross-sections are
available for the timber boards. When the longitudinal
edges overlap, possible options are: square edge, feather
edge (also available rebated), shiplap and tongue and
groove. An open-joint system is also possible, whereby
boards do not overlap along their longitudinal edges. In all
cases, the abutting ends of the boards should not overlap
and gaps of at least 5mm are needed, not only to allow the
boards to expand without exerting pressure on one
another, but also to prevent rainwater from being trapped
between boards and being eventually absorbed by the end-
grain, where wood is particularly hygroscopic. Fixing
horizontal boards to the TF panels is rather
straightforward, as it only requires vertical battens, which
should be aligned with the studs and fixed to them. Board-
to-batten fixing is generally performed with nails.
In vertical boarding, the way in which the boards are
mounted onto the TF panels preferably requires one more
layer. The boards are fixed to horizontal battens, and these,
in turn, should be fixed to vertical counterbattens, to
provide sufficient ventilation and drainage in the cavity,
and thus preserve the cladding itself and especially the TF
panels. This results in a thicker cavity than is needed for
horizontal boarding. Both overlapping and open-jointed
systems are available in vertical boarding, the former
including shiplap, tongue-and-grove and board-on-board
profiles(1).

Heavyweight cladding

Common types of heavyweight cladding include:

• bricks, rendered or exposed. Popular types are clay or

calcium-silicate bricks;
• concrete or clay blocks (the former being a far more
conventional choice than the latter);
 • natural stone.

The outer leaf is slender and thus needs to be stabilized by

means of wall ties that connect it to the loadbearing TF
panels. These ties, however, also need to accommodate
differential movement between the two wall leaves and
thus need to be specified appropriately. Ties for timber
frames are indeed more flexible than those used to connect
two masonry skins (for example in brick-and-block cavity
walls). Special types of ties exist that can accommodate
vertical movement of up to about 7mm. Wall ties are made
mostly of stainless steel, and thus cause some degree of
thermal bridging between the outer and inner leaves. In
order to reduce this undesired phenomenon, optimized
types of ties are available that consist of two parts: the part
connected to the TF panels is of stainless steel and the part
inserted into the masonry is made of a low-conductivity
material (for example fibre-reinforced resin). The fixing
schedule for the ties depends on the building’s level of
exposure to the wind. Wall ties need to be fixed to the
timber studs, through the sheathing.
The junction between the head of the masonry leaf and a
pitched or flat roof must include a gap to accommodate
differential movement in the vertical direction. A movement
joint (or expansion joint) might be needed depending on
the size of the walls, and on the type of cladding specified;
for instance, clay bricks have a higher coefficient of
expansion than calcium-silicate bricks and concrete blocks.
Movement joints can be both vertical and horizontal. It is
common practice to seal the gaps between different
masonry ‘panels’ with compressible fillers such as mastic.
The cavity between the TF panels and the masonry skin
needs to be at least 40mm thick, and allow drainage and
ventilation (typically, at lower rates than is necessary when
lightweight cladding is chosen). Air flow through the cavity
is facilitated by ad hoc perforations in the masonry skin.
This can be achieved by not filling some perpends with
mortar, or by inserting ventilators between bricks or
blocks. Proprietary metal or plastic ventilators are usually
complete with a grille to impede insect access. When
placed at the bottom of the cavity, ventilators also fulfil the
role of weep holes, in that they allow any incidental water
present in the cavity to drain out. Ventilators should also be
inserted where there are cavity trays (for instance, above
windows and doors).
Fig. 4.20. Construction of a timber-frame house clad in exposed bricks. The
inner, loadbearing leaf of the external walls is constructed of closed panels.

Internal Walls
Internal walls may or may not have a loadbearing function:
the sizing of the frame members will depend mostly on this
parameter. Typically, internal walls do not need to provide
thermal insulation, as they generally separate spaces that
are all heated. However, these walls do need to provide
sufficient acoustic insulation, particularly when – for
programmatic reasons – they enclose rooms where high
noise can be produced and/or lack of noise is strongly
desirable. In residential buildings, it is good practice to
provide high acoustic insulation in bedrooms and between
toilets/bathrooms and other rooms. In the UK, national
building regulations set out different acoustic requirements
for internal walls.
Fig. 4.21. Construction of a timber-frame house clad in rendered concrete
blocks. The inner, loadbearing leaf of the external walls is constructed of closed
panels.

The construction of the timber frame follows the

principles illustrated in the external walls section. It is
common practice, where this is adequate from a structural
point of view, to use 38 × 89mm sections for the studs. The
studs are positioned at 600, 400 or 300mm centres,
depending on the vertical loads that need to be resisted by
the TF panel. The panel is delimited horizontally by the
bottom rail and top rail; it is advisable to install it on a sole
plate and to add a head binder, as was seen for external
walls.

Party Walls

Beside structural criteria, party walls need to fulfil two

important functions: to acoustically insulate two adjacent
residential units and to provide them with a sufficient level
of safety in case a fire occurs in either of them. In low-rise
dwellings, the construction must offer at least sixty-minute
fire resistance from either side. Details of fire-safety
requirements vary across the four regions of the UK.
Fig. 4.22. Internal walls with TF panels sheathed on one side with OSB and
awaiting insertion of acoustic insulant and lining.

For the purposes of acoustic insulation, if a TF party

wall consists of two leaves, these should be constructed as
independently as possible of each other and without any
hard connections. However, this might clash with
structural safety considerations and the need to connect
the two leaves with metal ties (whose typical cross-section
is around 40mm × 3mm). Cross-bracing of each individual
leaf might also be required and, if so, can be achieved by
installing diagonal members.
Within each leaf, the spaces between the studs are
typically filled with unfaced mineral-wool quilts, whose
density should be high enough to provide good acoustic
insulation (density ≥ 12kg/m3 in Scotland and ≥ 10kg/m3
elsewhere in the UK). Internally, the TF panels are lined
with sheet materials, generally plasterboard in two or more
layers (with staggered joints) to achieve the target sixty-
minute resistance. The properties (dimension and
thickness) of the plasterboard also play an important role
in the achievement of the desired acoustic insulation level,
by forming a barrier to airborne sound. The overall
thickness of the plasterboard layers is generally no less
than 30mm.
Depending on structural calculations, the external side
of each leaf might need to be sheathed with OSB, plywood
or similar, especially to increase the wall’s racking
resistance. Even where sheathing is not necessary for
structural purposes, it is good practice to install it, so as to
make the two leaves as complete as possible and augment
the level of separation between the residential units. The
cavity between the two leaves does not have to be insulated
in all UK nations; where this is a requirement, it is filled
with similar quilts to those used between the studs.
Fig. 4.23. Build-up of timber-frame separating walls: open panels (a), and
closed panels (b). Flanking sound transmission needs to be considered at
junctions. (Drawing: after Sanna, 2018)

Ground Floors
The timber joists can span between loadbearing walls
either uninterruptedly or with intermediate supports,
typically built as perforated walls made of bricks or blocks
that rest on a concrete oversite slab. The cross-sectional
dimension of the joists will depend mostly on this decision.
Uninterrupted spans will entail larger timber cross-sections
but at the same time will allow saving materials for the
sleeper walls.
Different types of joists are available:

• solid joists;
• open-web joists;
• I-joists.

The thermal insulant is generally inserted into the spaces

between the joists. If solid timber joists are used, then the
insulant can be laid on different types of ad hoc supports
fixed (for example stapled) to the joists:

• galvanized steel mesh, plastic mesh or breather

membrane stapled to the joists (either to the sides or to
the underside);
• particleboard sheets (or similar products) fixed to the
underside of the joists. In this case, the sheets might
have higher vapour resistivity than the deck; therefore,
a check needs to be carried out to assess condensation
risk;
• timber battens fixed to the lower edges of the joists. In
this case, rigid insulation boards will be necessary.

In the first two configurations, flexible, semi-rigid or rigid

insulant types can be used (mineral-wool quilts are
generally specified); in the third case, only rigid boards can
be employed.
A deck is laid on top of the joists. This creates a
continuous layer that transfers the floor loads to the joists
and offers a substrate for the upper layers of the build-up.
Materials that can be used for the deck are:

• particleboard;
• plywood;
• fibreboard.

These sheets are nailed or screwed to the joists.

A vapour-control layer (VCL) can be installed on top of
the insulant (in this case, the top side of the insulant is the
warm side). Flooring can be laid directly on top of the deck
or with the interposition of an underlay.
Fig. 4.24. Examples of common constructions for timber-frame ground floors,
with joists installed individually (a), and with floor cassettes (b). (Drawing: after
Sanna, 2018)
Fig. 4.25. Ground floor of a TF house. The external walls are closed panels with
an aluminium VCL. The timber battens visible on the inside of the walls create a
service void. The floor employs metal-web joists. One of the joists (1) is doubled
due to increased loads; hence, the studs underneath it in the internal wall (2)
are quintuplicated.
Fig. 4.26. Fabrication of a cassette in a factory. (Photo: Woodknowledge Wales
& Rosie Anthony)
Fig. 4.27. Close-up of the cassette shown in Fig. 4.26. Engineered I-joists are
used, with solid flanges and OSB webs. The intermediate joists are connected to
the edge joists by means of steel hangers. OSB packing will be inserted at the
joist-to-joist junctions, in order to thicken the webs and allow mechanical fixing.
(Photo: Woodknowledge Wales & Rosie Anthony)

Intermediate Floors
The construction of intermediate floors will depend mostly
on one factor: whether they have a separating function or
not (separation can be between two different properties or
between two different fire compartments). It is worth
keeping in mind that, in platform frame construction,
intermediate floors are structurally supported by the
external/internal walls beneath and, in turn, support the
walls of the upper storey.

Non-separating intermediate floors

This section deals with floors without a separating function.

The framing of an intermediate floor is not too different
from that of a suspended ground floor. Timber joists are
placed at 400 or 600mm centres. The centres and the
cross-sectional properties will mostly depend on the
permanent and variable loads applied on the joists.
Imposed loads on residential buildings’ floors typically vary
between 1.5 and 2.0 kN/m2. Permanent loads will vary
mostly on the finishes chosen for the floor. If solid joists are
used, then they are typically aligned with the timber studs
of the walls underneath. There are cases in which the
framing of the floor can be designed more independently of
the stud positions and thus reach a more economical
configuration; for example, when loadbearing wall panels
have both a top rail and a head binder, or when the joists
are supported by metal hangers.
Fig. 4.28. Construction of a timber-framed intermediate floor. The opening for
the staircase requires the use of trimmer and trimming joists, which can be built
by doubling or tripling standard timber sections, so as to achieve the necessary
structural capacity.
Fig. 4.29. An opening within a house’s intermediate floor, for a staircase. We
can observe the trimmer joist (1) and the trimmed joists (2) that it supports, via
metal hangers. All joists utilize I-sections of engineered timber. Packing is added
to the webs of the trimmer and trimmed joists to create solid sections where the
joist hangers are located. The metal staircase is provisional and will be replaced
by a permanent timber staircase.
Fig. 4.30. Construction of an intermediate floor resting on closed TF panels. I-
sections are used for the joists and for the strutting between them. OSB sheets
are used for the deck.
Fig. 4.31. An intermediate floor with timber I-joists and OSB decking. Strutting
is obtained by interposing solid sections between the bottom flanges of the
joists, at midspan. The joists rest on an internal TF wall, of which the studs, top
rail and head binder can be seen.
Fig. 4.32. Intermediate floor with I-joists consisting of LVL flanges and
fibreboard webs. The trimmed joists sit on metal hangers fixed to the trimmer
joist (whose web is packed with OSB sheets to achieve the same thickness as
the flanges, where needed for structural connections).
Fig. 4.33. Floor constructed of open-web joists. The metal webs that connect
the solid-timber flanges allow running services perpendicular to the direction of
span. (Photo: Scotts Timber Engineering)
Fig. 4.34. The external walls (1) are made in SIPs (by Hemsec Manufacturing
Ltd). The first floor is constructed with metal-web joists (2), which are supported
by a timber member (3) inserted into the web of a steel I-beam (4): this is done
because timber-to-timber connections can easily be obtained, with the use of
metal joist hangers. A solid section (5) is used to stabilize the joists laterally. The
internal walls are timber-frame panels (6), separated from the concrete sub-
structure by a damp-proof course. (Photo: annotated and adapted from Hemsec
Manufacturing Ltd)

Depending on the span of the joists, and on their

tendency to lateral-torsional instability, strutting might
need to be provided between them, so as to make them
stable. Strutting can be executed by inserting different
types of components to connect every joist with the one on
either side:

• a solid timber (nogging) at 90-degree angles to the

joists;
• two timber diagonals (herringbone struts);
 • two metal diagonals (galvanized-steel straps nailed or
screwed to both the underside and top side of the
joists).

Where openings need to be formed within the frame (for

instance, to accommodate a staircase), trimmer joists and
trimming joists will need to be inserted. As these members
generally carry a greater load, they can be formed either by
using beams with a larger cross-section, or by joining two
(or more) standard sections. Trimmer joists offer support to
trimmed joists, which, because of the opening, cannot
reach one supporting wall. Trimming joists, in turn,
transfer the loads from the trimmer joists to the
loadbearing walls. Where trimming joists or beams meet
the walls and transfer high concentrated loads, extra or
increased vertical supports might need to be introduced
into the wall panels, to enable them to withstand these
forces. These supports can be made either by joining two or
more studs of standard section within a wall panel, or by
inserting a post of solid wood or engineered wood (for
example LVL, glulam, and so on) between two adjacent wall
panels.
A continuous deck is added on top of the joists, using
particleboard or, less often, OSB or plywood. Continuous
decks act as structural diaphragms and, as such, can
transfer horizontal forces to loadbearing walls.
In most cases, intermediate floors are between heated
spaces, and thus do not require thermal insulation.
However, there are instances in which they are part of the
thermal envelope and therefore need appropriate
insulation: for example, when they are above an unheated
space (for example a garage or storeroom) or when they
project from the external walls of the lower storey. When
insulation needs to be provided, products ranging from
quilts to rigid foam boards can be fitted between the joists,
as has been illustrated in the section on ground floors.
When thermal insulant is added, a vapour-control layer will
need to be installed on top of it, in order to prevent
interstitial condensation.
A timber deck can also function as flooring (for instance,
when it utilizes tongue-and-groove boards); otherwise, an
ad hoc layer needs to be installed on top of it. In order to
avoid damage to the chosen finish, this must be compatible
with the maximum deflection foreseen for the floor.
Therefore, characteristics such as brittleness and thickness
of the specified flooring products need to be accounted for
to ensure compatibility.
For ceiling lining, sheet materials or boards are largely
used. Plasterboard is very often the preferred choice and
contributes to both acoustic and fire requirements (see the
‘Separating Floors’ section). Ceiling products can be nailed
or screwed to the underside of the joists, following the
fixing pattern recommended by their respective
manufacturers.
Intermediate floors must meet acoustic and fire-safety
requirements that are distinct in each UK national code.
The level of acoustic requirement will have immediate
repercussions on the amount of insulant to be inserted into
the build-up, to stop airborne noise. Fire-safety
requirements regulate both reaction to fire and resistance
to fire, the former being about how fire spreads over
surfaces. An intermediate floor is expected to offer
resistance to fire from below for a given amount of time;
this is achieved with contributions from all the layers of the
make-up. The combined thickness of the structural deck
and the ceiling will provide a certain level of safety.
Fig. 4.35. Examples of timber-framed intermediate floors. Different techniques
can be used to build a floating floor: for instance, with a continuous resilient
layer laid over the whole area of the deck (a), or with timber battens on resilient
strips (b).

Separating floors

In separating floors, requirements relating to fire safety

and acoustic insulation become more stringent. Threshold
limits are dictated by national regulations. Most
intermediate floors will need to provide good insulation
from both airborne and impact sound, which can be
achieved via different combinations(2) of measures, such as:

• inserting high-density, mineral-wool quilts into the

build-up, for instance by placing them between the
structural deck and the ceiling lining;
• separating the floor finish from the structural deck, by
creating a floating floor;
• separating the ceiling from the timber joists. This can
be done by running metal battens perpendicular to the
timber joists. The battens are fixed to the underside of
 the joists in as few points as possible, so as to minimize
contact. In order to further reduce sound transmission,
special proprietary clips with rubber parts can be used
at the interface between the timber joists and the metal
battens.

There are also various ways in which a floating floor can be

constructed. One way is to interpose a resilient layer
between the structural deck and the layers above, which
can be for instance gypsum board overlaid with
particleboard. Another way to construct a floating floor is
to lay timber battens on the structural deck and then
gypsum board and particleboard on top of them. The
underside of the battens must be completed with a resilient
strip. Resilient layers must exhibit sufficient compressive
strength, as they are subjected to the loads applied onto
the floors. Examples of resilient materials are polyurethane
foam, polyethylene foam and rubber. These components are
typically fabricated from recycled products (for example
tyres). Foams can be open- or closed-cell, depending on the
chosen product. In battens, the resilient strip is about
10mm thick and can be pre-bonded to the timber surface or
bonded on site, if it has a self-adhesive face. Among other
products readily available on the market are particleboard,
MDF or other wood-based sheets with a 10-mm pre-
bonded, resilient layer, made for instance from foam: as
these products incorporate two layers, they speed up the
construction process. Care must be taken to isolate a
floating floor not only from the substrate, but also from the
walls and skirting boards around it: to this end, a resilient
strip is used around the perimeter of the floor.
If the ceiling uses 30mm thick plasterboard for acoustic
purposes, this will be sufficient to provide the floor with
sixty-minute fire resistance from below (an overall
thickness of 30mm can be obtained by installing two layers
of plasterboard). In order to achieve fire safety within the
building as a whole, it is important to ensure that the walls
that support the separating floors possess the same fire
resistance as the floors.

Flat Roofs

Different types of materials and sections can be used for

the joists of a flat roof: solid sections, I-sections or metal-
web joists. Typical joist centres are 400 or 600mm,
depending on design loads and spans. Adequate falls are
obtained by laying tapered timbers (furrings) on top of the
joists (which, instead, have a constant cross-section). The
deck is generally created with particleboard or plywood.
The waterproofing layer can be created in several ways,
the most common ones being:

• bituminous membranes, in double layer (triple in

critical areas, where wear-out and damage are most
likely to occur). Every layer is about 4mm thick. The
top membrane can be enriched by the application of
slate chips on the top surface, which protect the
layer(s) beneath. Continuity between the membranes is
obtained by using a gas-fuelled torch, which rapidly
softens the bitumen and makes adherence between
overlapping membranes very easy;
• single-ply systems, based on PVC membranes laid in
one layer. Continuity between different membranes is
obtained by heating them on site (generally with hot-air
welding machines).

Cold-deck roofs

In cold-deck roofs, the thermal layer is placed under the

deck, generally between the joists. The insulant however
should not occupy the whole space between the joists, but
leave an unobstructed, ventilated cavity (50mm deep or
more, depending on the span) immediately under the
decking. In order to achieve a satisfactory level of
ventilation within such cavity, openings of sufficient
dimensions should be formed at the opposite ends of the
roof and protected from insects with appropriate mesh.
However, this is not always possible (for instance, if the flat
roof abuts a wall), therefore ventilators need to be inserted
on the top surface of the roof penetrating the
waterproofing layer; this arrangement, though, poses a risk
of water leakage. A vapour-control layer is placed under
the insulant. The VCL and the ventilation cavity jointly
contribute to minimizing the risk of condensation near the
uppermost layers of the build-up, which are uninsulated.
Fig. 4.36. Construction of timber-framed flat roofs: cold-deck roof (a), warm-
deck roof (b), and inverted roof (c). (Drawing: after Sanna, 2018)

Different types of insulant can be chosen, from soft to

rigid products. The waterproofing layer is laid directly on
top of the decking, therefore it is easily accessible for
inspection and maintenance, and ceiling lining is fixed to
the underside of the joists. If the insulant is exclusively
placed between the joists, then thermal bridging through
these timbers is likely to occur when there is a significant
difference in temperature between the interior and the
exterior of the building. These issues of thermal bridging
and condensation risk often make warm roofs the preferred
choice (which is also encouraged in some national
regulations, such as Scotland’s).

Warm-deck roofs

In warm-deck roofs, the thermal insulant (rigid boards) is

continuous and placed above the deck. This means that the
deck itself and all the loadbearing members beneath it are
warm, that is, they have a temperature close to that of the
interior space. A vapour-control layer is interposed
between the deck and the thermal insulant. A lining finish
(for example plasterboard or timber boards) is placed on
the underside of the joists.
In a warm-deck configuration, the thermal layer is
protected by the waterproofing membranes, but can
experience wide variations in temperature, to the detriment
of its durability in the long term. This poses the need for
adequate surface treatment: it is recommendable to make
the top surface as reflective as possible. Another
disadvantage associated with warm roofs lies in the risk of
moisture being trapped within the insulation layer
(sandwiched between the VCL and the waterproof
membranes), causing it to lose part of its intended
performance and possibly to deteriorate over time. This
moisture could have penetrated the insulation layer either
during the construction phase, or during the operational
phase if the membranes and/or the VCL are damaged.

Inverted roofs
Inverted roofs are a type of warm roof in which the mutual
position of the thermal layer and the waterproofing layer is
inverted with respect to the arrangement seen for warm-
deck roofs. In other words, the waterproofing membrane is
laid on top of the decking (and also acts as a vapour-control
layer). The thermal-insulation boards are placed above the
waterproofing layer and so are exposed to precipitation:
this means that the type of product specified needs to be
compatible with these conditions. Closed-cell foams are
generally used. It is necessary to protect the thermal layer
from direct solar radiation and extreme temperature
oscillation, which can cause its deterioration over time:
possible solutions are pebble, ballast or tiling. If tiles are
used, the joints between them are typically left open.
The most valuable advantage of an inverted roof over a
warm one is that the waterproofing layer is better
protected, since it does not undergo excessive temperature
swings (thanks to the thermal insulant above it) and is not
directly exposed to maintenance traffic. It is important to
notice, however, that the waterproof layer is not easily
accessible, due to the layers that lie above it: this makes
inspection, maintenance and replacement of the layer itself
more difficult than in other roof types. Another
disadvantage arises from the pebbles increasing the
permanent load of the roof.
In both warm and inverted roofs, the overall thickness of
the construction can become noticeable, due to the
thickness of the insulation layer needed to meet (or, if
desired, exceed) the requirements set out by building
regulations.

Pitched Roofs

Many solutions are available today for pitched roofs: each

relies on a different level of prefabrication, with
implications for the duration and nature of on-site
operations. Some fundamental factors that influence the
choice of a roof’s construction method are:

Fig. 4.37. The rafters exert lateral thrust onto the wall heads. Triangulation in
the roof structure (right) can efficiently solve this problem: the outward
horizontal forces are withstood by a ceiling tie. Conversely, without triangulation
(left), the walls must be able to resist the lateral thrust in addition to the vertical
loads. (Drawing: Kit and Modern Timber Frame Homes, Crowood, 2007)
Fig. 4.38. Construction of a timber-frame pitched roof (section perpendicular to
the plane of slope), using attic trussed rafters (a) or cassettes (b). (Drawing:
after Sanna, 2018)
Fig. 4.39. In a pitched roof, the primary structure can consist of a series of
parallel timber trusses that, if exposed, become an integral part of the
architectural language defining the interior space. (Photo: Scotts Timber
Engineering)

• whether or not the space under the roof is going to be

habitable;
• whether the structural system is going to be concealed
or to be expressed, thus becoming an integral part of
the architectural language, with the structural
members exposed internally;
• whether the ceiling is going to be pitched or flat;
• the characteristics of the site, and – in particular –
whether the site can be accessed by big lorries (for
transportation of prefabricated components), whether a
large crane can be utilized, and whether there is an
area on the ground where the roof can be fabricated
and/or assembled before it is lifted into position.
In all the configurations described in the next sections,
different types of structural members can be used, alone or
in multiple combinations, such as solid rafters, open-web
rafters (with either timber or metal webs) or I-sections.

Trussed rafters

Trussed rafters are manufactured in a broad variety of

configurations, able to suit different spans, geometrical
arrangements (for example monopitch or duopitch) and
roof pitches. Trussed rafters are able to cover longer spans
than simple rafters, thus making roof construction more
economical.
Trussed rafters(3) are manufactured in the factory and
then delivered to the site. Here, two processes are possible:

• each trussed rafter is installed individually in its

intended position;
• the trussed rafters are assembled on the ground and,
when the whole roof (or a portion of it) is complete, it is
craned into position. This method is only possible when
the site offers sufficient space for these operations to
be carried out, and when there is access to cranes of
adequate dimension (see Fig. 4.47).

A typical trussed rafter is based on the concept of

triangulation and consists of different members arranged to
form multiple triangles. In a trussed rafter like the one in
Fig. 4.40, the members are:

• two top chords (rafters), which define the profile of the

roof and are subjected to combined bending;
• a bottom chord (ceiling tie or ceiling joist), which fulfils
the very important role of withstanding the lateral
thrust exerted by the rafters where they meet their
supports. Consequently, the tie is mostly subjected to
 tensile forces. If heavy equipment (for example water-
storage tanks) is placed on tie beams, then they are
subjected to combined tension and bending;
• internal members (webs) – the ones between the
rafters and the tie – which are mostly subjected to axial
forces, either tension or compression.

The timbers are typically joined (on both sides) by means of

galvanized-steel toothed plate connectors (also referred to
as punched metal plate fasteners). Trussed rafters rest on a
wall plate, the uppermost horizontal member of a TF wall
(the headbinder or, if this is not installed, the top rail). The
connection between trusses and TF walls can be performed
by means of proprietary metal connectors (truss clips),
which typically consist of different folded plates that adapt
to the geometry of the trussed rafter and of the headbinder,
and are perforated to allow screwing or nailing into the
timbers. Trussed rafters are generally placed at 600mm
centres or, less often and where necessary, at 400mm
centres.
Permanent bracing between the trusses is necessary to
maintain their intended position and to make the roof as a
whole sufficiently rigid and stable under its gravitational
and wind-induced loads. It includes:

• longitudinal bracing, achieved with a series of timber

braces (or binders) that all run in the longitudinal
direction of the roof, but at various heights and –
preferably – at every unsupported node point within the
truss. Some binders connect the ceiling ties; others
connect the webs near the nodes with the rafters (they
are not fixed directly to the rafters so as to allow the
diagonal braces to pass through). Longitudinal binders
should stretch the whole length of the roof. Tiling
battens also contribute to the longitudinal bracing of
the trusses;
• diagonal bracing involves the rafters being stabilized
by members (rafter diagonal braces) that are nailed to
their underside and thus lie in the sloping plane of the
roof; these braces are positioned at about 45-degree
angles to the rafters (in plan) and run from the wall
plate up to the ridge. In addition, other binders
(chevron braces) might be needed (especially in long-
spanning trusses) in the plane of the webs, to connect
the webs of multiple trusses.
Fig. 4.40. Duopitch roof constructed with Fink-type trussed rafters, with
projecting eaves and verges. The trusses are connected to one another with
three types of permanent braces: longitudinal braces, rafter diagonal braces and
chevron braces (which connect the webs). This system provides the roof system
with a great level of stiffness and stability, including against wind forces.

All bracing members should be fabricated from wood

without any significant defects. If a binder consists of two
pieces to achieve the necessary length, then the pieces
must be lap-jointed over at least two trussed rafters.
Binders must be nailed to every trussed rafter that they
cross, with galvanized-steel nails.
 The trusses can also be connected by means of
sheathing (sarking) that creates a continuous layer on top
of them: this practice – especially widespread in Scotland –
makes the whole roof structure more rigid and provides a
substrate for all the non-structural components that are
needed to complete the roof. Sarking can be made of OSB,
plywood, particleboard or timber boards. Where rigid
sarking is in place, some of the bracing members described
above might not be necessary, but longitudinal braces at
ceiling-tie level are likely to still be needed.

Fig. 4.41. A trussed-rafter roof for a detached house. The trussed rafters have
been manufactured in the factory and have now been assembled on the ground.
Once the walls have been erected, the roof will be crane-lifted into position.
Fig. 4.42. A T-intersection in the trussed-rafter roof shown in the previous
image. There is no discontinuity in the framework of the larger roof. The
connection between the smaller roof and the main one is made possible with a
valley set, that is, a series of trusses that diminish in size as they approach the
larger roof.
Fig. 4.43. Verge of the roof shown in the previous images. The spandrel panel
(1) is constructed of timber studs at 600mm centres. The gable ladder (2) has
already been installed and fixed to the first trussed rafter (3). Longitudinal
binders (4) connect the ceiling ties near the nodes with the web members.
Fig. 4.44. View of the outer side of the gable end, which has been wrapped in
breather membrane. Soffit sheets have been fixed to the gable ladder.
Fig. 4.45. Apex of the gable wall. The spandrel panel consists of two abutting
TF panels (1 and 2). We can see the trussed rafter (3) closest to the gable, which
supports the gable ladder (4), and the bracing members: longitudinal binders (5)
and diagonal braces (6) that connect the top chords of the trusses.
Fig. 4.46. Construction of a terrace of three houses: the roof is composed of
trussed rafters that have been fabricated in the factory, assembled on site and
crane-lifted into position. We can see the two triangular party walls that
separate the residential units (within the roof space), and the gable ladders
installed at the verges.
Fig. 4.47. Construction of a residential scheme that employs closed TF panels
for the external walls and trussed rafters for the roofs. A telescopic crane is used
to place these timber elements into position.

The positioning of the thermal-insulation layer fulfils an

important role in the detailing of the roof. Essentially, two
main options are available:

• the insulant is placed at ceiling level;

• the insulant is placed at rafter level.

Different solutions are available for the eaves, which can be

clipped or projecting. Clipped eaves are generally the
preferred option for buildings which aim at a very neat,
sleek appearance, although their construction, especially
when the gutters are concealed, requires more care in
order for the roof to meet all its functional requirements
and allow for maintenance or repair work over the
building’s lifespan. Similarly to the eaves, the verge can
also be clipped or projecting from the gable wall. The
projecting part of the verge can be realized by means of a
gable ladder, which straddles the gable wall and is
supported by the trussed rafter closest to the wall itself
(see Fig. 4.43). A gable ladder has several rungs between
the supporting rafter and the barge board.

Hipped roofs

The construction of a trussed-rafter roof becomes more

complex when there is a hip slope. Various methods are
available to construct this part of the roof; one of the most
common is illustrated in Fig. 4.48 and is sometimes
referred to as the standard-centres hip system. In such a
roof, standard trusses are complemented by special ones,
more specifically:

• a series of flat-top hip trusses, set at the same centres

as the standard trusses. In each of these trusses, the
length of the flying rafters is different and depends on
how close they are to the apex of the hipped roof. The
flying rafters are trimmed to meet the hip rafter, to
which they are nailed;
• a girder truss, obtained by joining two (or more) flat-
top hip trusses and thus achieving increased structural
capacity. The girder truss offers support to the trusses
that define the hipped surface (the mono-truss rafters).
Since the girder truss transfers high concentrated
loads to the walls, double studs or larger posts are
inserted into the wall lay-up, at the junction with this
truss;
• two hip rafters (or hip boards), which define the
intersection between two different roof planes;
• a series of monopitch trusses, which span between the
wall plate and the girder truss. The girder truss
supports these rafters at two levels: at the bottom
chord (with a truss shoe) and at the top chord (with a
truss clip). These trusses have a portion of rafter (flying
jack) that spans between the hip rafter and the girder
truss;
• two sets of infill trusses (of variable length), which
span between the lower portion of the hip rafters and
the wall plates.
Fig. 4.48. Hip construction in a trussed-rafter roof, using the standard-centres
hip system. Braces omitted for clarity.
Fig. 4.49. T-intersection in a trussed-rafter roof. Braces omitted for clarity.
T-junctions and valleys

The construction of a T-junction in which a smaller

duopitch roof merges with a larger one requires the use of
some special members. The ridge of the smaller roof is
extended up to the intersection with the sloping surface of
the larger roof.
A series of trussed rafters of decreasing size (valley set)
is needed to fill the part of the smaller roof delimited by the
two valleys: the ridge of these is at constant height, while
the tie at the bottom is placed each time at a greater
height. Alternatively, simple rafters (as opposed to trussed
rafters) of varying length can be used in this portion of the
junction (valley jack rafters). In the smaller roof, the full-
height trussed rafter that is closest to the larger roof can
be doubled to increase its structural capacity.
Battens are necessary to create a connection between
the supporting rafters of the main roof and the trussed
rafters of the smaller roof. Along the valleys, boards can be
added to connect the rafters of both roofs and augment the
rigidity of the T-junction as a whole. As an alternative, the
valley jack rafters or trussed rafters can be connected to ad
hoc timbers that rest on the rafters of the main roof (valley
boards or valley rafters). In both the smaller and larger
roofs, longitudinal and – where needed – diagonal bracing
is added to connect parallel trussed rafters.

Attic roofs

Attic trussed rafters are shaped to make the central part of

the roof habitable. In these trusses, the tie beam acts, in
effect, as a floor joist, and provides support for the loads
coming from the attic space. These trusses are typically
spaced at 400 or 600mm, depending on their span and
loading conditions. Two short verticals (dwarf studs) define
the extension of the habitable space and, along with a
ceiling strut, limit the bending of the rafters; consequently,
the dwarf studs and the ceiling strut are subjected to
compressive axial forces. The position of the ceiling strut
also affects the ceiling height. The intermediate section of
the rafters (between the dwarf stud and the collar) can be
increased in depth, so as to accommodate a larger amount
of thermal insulant, if necessary.
Two options are available for the positioning of the
thermal-insulation layer:

• the insulant is placed at rafter level;

• the insulant follows the profile of the attic space. As a
consequence, the unused spaces under the ridge and at
the foot of the trusses remain uninsulated.
Fig. 4.50. Attic constructed with trussed rafters. Braces omitted for clarity.
Fig. 4.51. Attic of a mid-rise, residential building that employs closed TF
panels. The upper section of the roof (above ceiling level) is realized with
trussed rafters that span between a ridge beam and a purlin, both made of
glulam. The purlin-to-rafter connection uses metal hangers. Where the purlins
meet the gable wall, the studs are doubled to achieve sufficient compressive
strength.

As was seen in one of the previous sections for ordinary

trussed rafters, attic trusses also need adequate bracing,
with sarking and/or binders running perpendicular to the
trusses themselves. Sometimes, a bracing diaphragm is
created by fixing plywood sheets between the rafters (more
precisely, in the portion of the rafters over the attic room).
The floor, walls and roof of the attic must possess the same
resistance to fire as those of the lower storeys.
Panelized roofs

There are many generic and proprietary panelized systems

available to designers for pitched roofs with an attic space.
Depending on how the panels are constructed, the insulant
can be placed at different locations, thus creating
arrangements that fall within the categories of cold roofs or
warm roofs.
The lateral thrust in panelized systems is generally
withstood by the joists of the top floor. Consequently, these
joists are subjected not only to bending (due to the
gravitational loads exerted onto the floor), but also to
tensile forces. In duopitch roofs, ceiling struts might be
installed, in order to minimize the deflection of the panels.
Ceiling struts are compression members: they must be able
to resist compressive forces and remain stable under these.
Depending on the position of the thermal insulant,
different types of roofs can be achieved:

• warm roofs, with the insulation layer located above

the sheathing (which is, in turn, placed on top of the
rafters). There might also be extra insulant fitted
between the rafters;
• cold roofs, with the insulant fitted between the rafters.
There might also be a continuous layer of insulation on
the underside of the rafters, which will reduce thermal
bridging through these timbers.

At the top, the roof panels are often supported by a ridge

beam (for example solid timber, engineered timber or steel
section).

Roof cassettes

Roof cassettes are manufactured in the factory and, once

delivered to the site, erected by crane. They typically arrive
on site complete with:

• rafters, whose ends are cut in the factory to suit the

pitch of the roof and the connection to the wall.
Different options are available: from solid sections to I-
sections and open-web members;
• upper sheathing layer, made of OSB, plywood or
similar wood-based sheet products. The sheathing layer
provides racking resistance and overall rigidity to the
cassettes, keeping all the rafters in place;
• thermal insulant fitted between the rafters (typically,
mineral-wool quilts, but rigid foam boards are also
possible). Roof cassettes tend to create a cold-roof
configuration;
• lower sheathing layer (OSB or other timber-based
sheets). If this is not installed in the factory, then the
thermal insulant is kept in place between the rafters by
an ad hoc component, such as adhesive tape or similar;
• built-in lifting straps (or equivalent devices) for
craneage during the transport and erection phases.

Depending on whether or not the insulant and the lower

sheathing layer are added in the factory, roof cassettes will
resemble either open or closed TF wall panel systems. The
internal finishes and the roof covering with its associated
components (breathable membranes, tiling battens and so
on) are generally installed on site, although more advanced
forms of prefabrication are possible. Some manufacturers
are able to deliver roof cassettes complete not only with the
components listed above, but also with breathable
membrane and tiling battens (arranged horizontally) and
counterbattens (in the direction of the slope), if required by
the client.
Similarly to closed-panel walls, a service cavity might be
required on the underside of the cassettes, if the space
underneath them is habitable. This can be achieved by
fixing timber battens to the underside of the cassettes and
then applying an internal finish (for example plasterboard
or timber boarding).
Like all prefabricated systems, roof cassettes become
more economical when used within a modular system based
on the juxtaposition of standardized units. However,
cassettes are also possible where standardization is less
easy to achieve. As regards dimensions, cassettes can be up
to about 13m long and 2.5m wide (the size of the lorry for
factory-to-site transportation will determine the
dimensional limits). Depending on the proprietary system
employed, the edges of the cassettes can be rebated, so as
to facilitate and enhance their juxtaposition on site.

Project: Galuresa Service Area (Centro de

Servicios Galuresa)

Location: Teo (A Coruña), Galicia, Spain

Building type: non-residential – commercial
Completion date: 2020
Architectural design: MRM (Miguel Alonso Flamarique, Roberto Erviti
Machain, Mamen Escorihuela Vitales) & Anton Varela García, Architects
Key words: timber frame, thermal treatment, plywood, hybrid structures,
steel beams, inverted roof

In accordance with the topographical conditions of the plot, this intervention

generates two different levels by means of retaining walls made of large
granite blocks. The upper level accommodates services such as a car park, a
supermarket (which overlooks a wooded slope) and a cafeteria, whose
terrace opens up towards the surrounding landscape. The lower level follows
the natural slope of the terrain and will accommodate a recreational area.
The building consists of a central space with large glazing, which houses a
supermarket and a cafeteria, and four windowless timber pods around its
perimeter, for the ancillary spaces (toilets, storerooms, office, changing
rooms, workshop and plant room). The overall result is a combination of
opaque and diaphanous volumes (see Figs 4.52 and 4.54).
The design hinges on a straightforward and coherent constructional
strategy, which is governed by a square structural grid (2.4 × 2.4m),
allowed for rapid on-site erection, and focused on a few well-resolved
 details. The four pods employ a timber-frame system and contribute to
supporting the central canopy (over the supermarket and cafeteria),
constructed of steel beams and a profiled deck. In this way, the central
space does not need any internal supports and, with its 9.6m span, remains
very flexible and versatile. The framing of the walls, roofs and floors
employs pine sections. The TF wall panels were constructed on site and
insulated with mineral wool (80mm). On both the interior and exterior sides,
the panels have been sheathed with 18mm-thick wood-based sheets
developed for structural applications in a humid environment, with a
particleboard core sandwiched between two thin MDF skins. The outside of
the panels has been wrapped in breather membrane and clad with vertical,
thermally treated wooden boards, finished with black wax. The pods sit
directly on a reinforced-concrete slab; their floors have been insulated with
mineral wool fitted between 100mm-deep timber battens; with a birch-
plywood deck on top and vinyl flooring. An inverted roof covers the pods,
with 50mm-thick extruded-polystyrene boards on top of the waterproof layer
and protected with geotextile felt and gravel. Thermal insulation of the roof
is also achieved thanks to mineral wool inserted between the ceiling joists. A
screed laid to falls is placed between the birch plywood and the waterproof
layer.
With the only exception of the concrete slab and the roof’s waterproofing
membranes, all building components can be disassembled and reused. By
virtue of the design measures in the interest of sustainability, the building
has achieved good environmental ratings, including ‘very good’ with
BREEAM (see Chapter 3).

Fig. 4.52. Supermarket of Galuresa Service Area in Teo (Spain), designed by

MRM Arquitectos. This one-storey building is based on a hybrid structural
system. The main retail area is an open space delimited by large glazed façades
and a lightweight steel canopy. Along the perimeter of this space are four
timber-framed pods, one of which can be seen in the foreground. (Photo: Héctor
Santos-Díez, fotógrafo)
Fig. 4.53. The pods sit on a reinforced-concrete slab alongside the remainder
of the building and use timber-framed panels. (Photo: Héctor Santos-Díez,
fotógrafo)
Fig. 4.54. The timber pods are clad in thermally treated wooden boards, which
contrast with the transparency of the glazed surfaces. (Photo: Héctor Santos-
Díez, fotógrafo)
Fig. 4.55. The timber framework of the walls is sheathed, both internally and
externally, with 18mm-thick, multi-layer sheets suitable for structural use (a
particleboard core sandwiched between two thin MDF skins). Mineral wool is
fitted in the gaps between the wall studs and roof joists. (Photo: Héctor Santos-
Díez, fotógrafo)

Fig. 4.56. The pod’s walls have been protected with breather membrane and
now await installation of the external cladding. As can be seen, the pods offer
structural support to the steel beams that make the canopy over the
supermarket’s main space. The roof deck, consisting of steel profiled sheets, will
soon be laid on top of these beams. (Photo: Héctor Santos-Díez, fotógrafo)

Case Study 2: Feilden Fowles’ Studio

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Lambeth, London, UK
Building type: offices
Completion date: 2016
Design Team:
Architects: Feilden Fowles
Structural engineer: Structure Workshop
Landscape designer: Dan Pearson Studio
Client: Feilden Fowles
Gross floor internal area: 133m2
Awards:
Winner – RIBA London Award (Studio), 2017
Winner – Wood Awards (Small Project Winner), 2017
Winner – RIBA London Award (Waterloo City Farm), 2018
Winner – NLA Awards (Waterloo City Farm): Mayor’s Prize Commendation,
2018
Nominated – RIBA Journal MacEwen Award – Finalist (Waterloo City Farm),
2018
Keywords: timber-frame panels, plywood, offices, monopitch roof,
assembly & disassembly
Fig. 4.57. Feilden Fowles Studio is part of Waterloo City Farm, a collective
educational and shared-working space near London’s Waterloo Station. The site
also includes animal pens, a barn and an outdoor kitchen. The monopitch,
timber-framed roof faces north and takes its inspiration from artists’ studios.
Clerestory windows run along the northern wall to allow the most consistent
levels of indoor lighting throughout the day, optimal for a working environment.
The internal sheathing is made of Douglas fir ply. (Photo: David Grandorge)

Brief and design process

Feilden Fowles Studios is a self-raised and self-funded

studio space by, and for, Feilden Fowles architects in
London. The studio is part of a bigger masterplan called
Waterloo City Farm, developed on a short-lease site. The
farm is the closest urban farm to the city centre and is
located in Lambeth, near Waterloo Railway Station. It was
established in 2014 on a derelict site owned by Guy’s and
St Thomas’ Hospital. The initiative came from local charity
Jamie’s Farm, which approached Feilden Fowles to develop
the site. The architects suggested transforming the site into
a collaborative space where they themselves and Jamie’s
Farm could co-work. The charity accepted this proposal
and the architects offered architectural services in lieu of
rent. This was a unique opportunity for Feilden Fowles, not
only to avoid the usually high renting costs of central
London, but also to create a space that could embody the
practice’s low-tech and sustainability ethos.
The neglected site thus became home to Feilden Fowles,
Jamie’s Farm and another charity called Oasis Waterloo.
The three organizations self-funded the entire masterplan
(developed in three phases) and shared similar views on
developing spaces that could benefit the wider local
community, offer educational activities for schools and be
sustainable.
Fig. 4.58. Overall view of Waterloo City Farm. The eastern end, with a large
barn, is the most public part of the site, while the central area accommodates
animal pens and growing beds. Feilden Fowles’ spaces are at the west end and
comprise a studio, a courtyard and a small outbuilding used for meetings and
pin-ups. The site is occupied on a short-term lease, so the architects opted for
the studio to be a prefabricated structure that could easily be disassembled and
re-assembled in a new location, if necessary. (Drawing: Feilden Fowles)

The site is a 1,630m2, narrow rectangular plot of land, at

the corner between Royal Street and Carlisle Lane (see Fig.
4.58). The concept behind the programme and organization
of the site was to place the barn on the east side and the
architects’ studio on the opposite side. In this way, the barn
becomes the most civic and celebratory element of the
farm, while the studio is in a more intimate and secluded
setting, delimited by a Victorian wall. The studio’s position
within the site also allowed the creation of a shared
courtyard, designed by local practice Dan Pearson Studio.
The barn and the studio are connected by a central
pathway with animal pens, an outdoor kitchen and an area
for educational activities relating to gardening, carpentry,
cooking and animal care.
All the buildings on-site, including the architects’ studio,
were inspired by vernacular and agricultural structures,
with pitched roofs and timber-framed walls. Feilden
Fowles’ Studio is a single-storey, monopitched building,
consisting of a workshop and office space, a break-out
space for meetings and meals, and a quiet learning space
for students visiting the farm. The workspace occupies the
central part of the 133m2 building, while the services
(kitchen and toilets) and a meeting room are located at the
west end and east end, respectively. The studio’s southern
wall, which fronts onto the courtyard, is fully glazed; while
the northern wall, which borders Royal Street, is only
glazed at ceiling level to ensure privacy. Subsequently, an
additional overspill space – in the form of an outbuilding –
was added for the studio to hold meetings and pin-up
presentations, which could not easily be accommodated in
the office shared with Jamie’s Farm employees. The studio
project needed to be realized within budgetary constraints:
low costs were achieved through careful optimization and
calculation of material usage and prefabricated
components. The site was initially envisaged to be occupied
and used for a five-year period, therefore Feilden Fowles’
Studio was designed in such a way to be easily
disassembled and potentially relocated elsewhere.
Fig. 4.59. Plan view. The central part of the studio is used as an open-plan
space with numerous workstations, sandwiched between a meeting room and a
cluster of services (such as toilets and kitchen). Across the garden is a small
outbuilding used for meetings. (Drawing: Feilden Fowles)
Fig. 4.60. The studio’s southern façade is glazed and fronts onto the garden,
which was designed by local landscape designer Dan Pearson Studio. (Photo:
David Grandorge)

Construction

Structural system:
Foundations: concrete raft foundation
Vertical supports: timber-framed panels and steel sections
Ground floor: concrete slab
Roof: timber-framed panels
Thermal insulation: polyisocyanurate (PIR) boards (walls, roof and ground-
floor slab)

The whole conception of the studio is based on low-cost

materials and low-tech construction methods. The primary
structure was fabricated offsite and has a simple, modular
configuration, chiefly realized with solid, Douglas fir
sections (see Fig. 4.61). The vertical supports, which all sit
on a concrete raft foundation, are timber studs along the
higher (northern) wall and steel T-sections on the opposite
side. The rafters and studs of adjacent modules are joined
by means of bolts, while the rafters and studs of the same
module are connected and stabilized by timber purlins and
noggings, respectively.
Both the wall panels and the roof panels are externally
covered with corrugated bitumen sheets (see Fig. 4.63) and
are sheathed in Douglas fir ply, which is left exposed and
gives a special warmth to the interior space.
The ground-floor slab is made of power-floated concrete
and is thermally insulated on the underside.

Fig. 4.61. View of the primary timber structure, whose modules were partially
fabricated offsite and then assembled and completed on site. (Photo: David
Grandorge)
Fig. 4.62. The primary structure of the northern wall is divided into three parts
by the horizontal noggings. The uppermost part will be glazed, while the other
two will be thermally insulated, clad, and finally equipped with built-in, timber
shelving on the inside. (Photo: David Grandorge)
Fig. 4.63. Elevation and cross-section of the northern wall, showing the fixing
points of the corrugated bitumen cladding, which is dark-red and thus blends in
with the surrounding red-brick buildings. (Drawing: Feilden Fowles)
Fig. 4.64. Construction detail showing the build-up of the northern wall (which
abuts a busy street) and its junctions with the foundations and pitched roof.
(Drawing: adapted from Feilden Fowles)
Fig. 4.65. Construction detail of the southern wall. (Drawing: adapted from
Feilden Fowles)

Environmental sustainability
Through this project, Feilden Fowles took the opportunity
to showcase their values around environmental and social
sustainability. It was a personal challenge for the
architects, as well as a chance to demonstrate their skills to
prospective clients visiting the studio. Since the architects
had been aware from the outset of the temporality of the
project, they decided to design a structure that could
quickly be put together and then easily disassembled to be
transported and reassembled elsewhere. This project was
also a unique opportunity for Feilden Fowles, as a young
London-based practice, to build their own studio. Hence, it
was essential for them to design a building that could be
flexible to potential site changes and expansion.
The building was inspired by artists’ studios and, as
such, has a monopitched roof combined with windows up
high on the north-facing wall, complete with hidden vents
for passive ventilation. The fully glazed southern wall has a
wide overhang – formed as an extension of the
monopitched roof – which provides shade and prevents
glare inside.
Fig. 4.66. View of the courtyard and main studio through the windows of the
outbuilding. The courtyard is the quietest and most private outdoor area of the
whole farm and is used by Feilden Fowles and the other two organizations for
meals and events al fresco. (Photo: Peter Cook)
Fig. 4.67. View of the main studio and the courtyard at dusk. Waterloo City
Farm is located in a high-density and busy area of London, with high- and mid-
rise buildings. (Photo: Peter Cook)

Case Study 3: Maggie’s Centre Cardiff

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Velindre Cancer Care Centre, Whitchurch, Cardiff, Wales, UK

Building type: healthcare centre
Completion date: 2019
Design Team:
Architect: Dow Jones Architects, London, UK
Structural engineer: Momentum, London, UK
Building-services engineer: Mott MacDonald
Quantity surveyor: RPA, South Wales, UK
Landscape designer: Cleve West, Kingston upon Thames, UK
Artists and makers: glass fritting and fireplace-tile design: Linda Florence,
UK; ceramics: Pat O’Leary, London, UK; bollards: Antony Gormley, UK; art
 curator: Mike Tooby, UK
Client: Maggie’s Cancer Care
Gross floor internal area: 220m2
Awards:
Winner – National Eisteddfod Architecture Plaque of Merit, 2019
Winner – Civic Trust Awards, 2020
Shortlisted – Wood Awards, 2019
Shortlisted – National Eisteddfod Architecture Gold Medal, 2019
Shortlisted – AJ Awards, Health and Wellbeing, 2019
Shortlisted – RICS Awards, 2020
Key words: timber-frame panels, healthcare, steel frame, hybrid structural
system
Fig. 4.68. The site of Maggie’s Centre Cardiff is located in a corner of a hospital
car park. The façade is clad in corrugated Cor-ten steel and the entrance
adorned with a ceramic sign by Pat O’Leary. Anthony Gormley’s metal bollards
are aligned with pre-existing stone bollards. The western and southern
elevations (pictured here) overlook the car park and have few openings: this
decision was made to ensure patients’ privacy and to orientate the fenestration
towards the courtyard and the tall trees along the north edge of the site. (Photo:
Anthony Coleman)

Brief and design process

Maggie’s Centres were founded in 1996, as free walk-in

facilities all around the UK, in Hong Kong and, later, in
Tokyo and Barcelona, to offer support and guidance to
patients with cancer and their families. There are twenty-
seven Maggie’s Centres in the UK; each of them is located
next to a major cancer hospital. They are self-funded and
unique in their design: the result of a collaborative effort
from architects, landscape designers and artists. Maggie’s
Board does not provide architects with strict guidelines or
briefs, but rather with a series of necessary functions
(kitchen, office, library, consultation rooms, retreat space)
and desired atmospheres, along with an essay written by
founder Maggie Keswick Jenks, A View from the Front
Line(4). This piece of writing encourages the architect’s
empathic and exuberant character while ensuring the
centre’s domestic and personal environment is the
antithesis to that of a hospital. Hospitals and Maggie’s
Centres complement one another in the type of support
they offer to patients.
Dow Jones Architects were selected for the design of a
Maggie’s Centre in Cardiff, the construction of which was
completed in 2019. The centre is located in a corner of
Velindre Cancer Care Centre’s car park, in north-west
Cardiff. It is an interim facility expected to be in use for ten
years, as the hospital has plans to relocate to a new site.
For this reason, the centre needed to be smaller and able to
be constructed more quickly and economically than a
typical Maggie’s. This is a single-storey building, with a
triangular shape and a 240m2 footprint (smaller than most
Maggie’s Centres, which have a footprint of around
350m2). It was built in sixteen months only and used just
one-third of the available budget.
Central to Maggie’s ethos is the relationship between
building and landscape, and the latter’s therapeutic effects.
Due to the configuration of the site and the hospital car
park, it was not possible for the new building to be
completely surrounded by vegetation. The architects
worked with landscape designer Cleve West to devise a
planning strategy based around an inner courtyard and the
pre-existing line of twenty leylandii trees on the site’s
northern boundary. The plan is organized in such a way
that visitors can immerse themselves into the greenery
offered by the courtyard and the garden, which is also
visible through the glazing in the kitchen, a distinctive
element in all Maggie’s Centres. Cleve West selected
indigenous plant species and worked with local volunteers,
creating an intimate and immersive organic environment.

Fig. 4.69. Pencil sketch of the building. (Drawing: Alun Jones)

Fig. 4.70. Ground-floor plan. Dow Jones Architects and Cleve West based the
landscape strategy on a courtyard, located at the building’s entrance, and a line
of greenery surrounding the northern boundary of the site. (Drawing: re-
annotated from Dow Jones Architects)
Fig. 4.71. Dow Jones Architects worked with landscape designer Cleve West,
who selected local plant species for the courtyard through which the building is
entered. (Photo: Anthony Coleman)
Fig. 4.72. Section A-A shows the internal courtyard, which brings light into the
building through large glazing on two sides.
Section B-B shows the cwtch central space with a skylight inspired by simnau
fawr chimneys, typical of vernacular Welsh architecture. (Drawing: adapted and
annotated from Dow Jones Architects)

Maggie’s Cardiff makes a connection with the local

topography and industrial past of South Wales, through
everyday materials that are often used in Welsh rural
buildings. The building’s irregular and uneven silhouette
echoes that of the Pen-y-Fan mountains, forty miles north
of the site, while the orange rusting of the corrugated steel
cladding resembles the autumnal colours of the
neighbouring bracken-covered hills. The interior is partly
clad in timber and filled with natural light coming from the
inner courtyard and the cwtch, located at the heart of the
building. The Welsh word cwtch means a small, comforting
space or a cuddle. At Maggie’s Cardiff, the cwtch is a tall,
intimate, roof-lit space, inspired by the simnau fawr (‘big
chimneys’ in Welsh) of vernacular Welsh architecture. In
the context of Welsh homes, cwtch refers to small
cupboards, like those situated under a flight of stairs,
which kids often see as their hidden, intimate space. The
cwtch at Maggie’s Centre becomes the small hide-away
room where patients can retreat, meditate and observe the
sky through the high rooflight.
The design benefitted from numerous collaborations
between architects, artists and makers, whose fruitful
results enliven the user experience. Welsh artist Osi Rhys
Osmond’s last painting, entitled Self Portrait (2015), has a
permanent home at Maggie’s Cardiff. The painting was left
unfinished, since Osmond was working on it during the last
month of his life, while receiving treatment for cancer.
Maggie’s Cardiff’s curator Mike Tooby worked closely
with the architects to introduce art into the building: he
selected several pieces, lent by the National Museum of
Wales, which are hung on the internal walls. The artwork
was selected in response to Osmond’s painting, which
stimulates reflection on life, memory and place, and
became the most important piece in the centre. Sculptor
Anthony Gormley made cast-iron bollards, which are
located along the building’s perimeter and are similar in
colour and texture to the façade cladding. Ceramicist Pat
O’Leary designed the entrance sign.
The centre exemplifies Dow Jones Architects’ aim to
design buildings that are responsive to people and places,
that are comfortable and accessible, and that use materials
able to connect a project to its own place.
Construction

Structural system: hybrid system; timber-frame panels and steel skeleton

Foundations: concrete raft foundations
Vertical supports: 200 × 50mm prefabricated (and pre-insulated)
timber-frame panels; steel sections (square or rectangular hollow sections
and I-sections)
Ground floor: ground-bearing, reinforced-concrete slab
Roof: 200 × 50mm timber rafters
Thermal insulation: rigid foam insulation
Acoustic insulation: stone-wool acoustic insulation

Maggie’s Cardiff’s structural strategy aimed at lightweight

and prefabricated building elements, due to the need for
inexpensive and fast construction methods posed by the
brief. A hybrid loadbearing system was elected: the primary
structure is a steel frame and the secondary structure is
based on timber framing. The steel skeleton includes
different types of members: I-sections and square or
rectangular hollow sections for the columns, and I-sections
for the beams. The steel columns are fixed to the concrete
slab by means of steel base plates and resin-bonded
anchors. Bolted connections were used to join the steel
members to one another. The steel frame is infilled with the
timber wall panels.
The building sits on reinforced-concrete raft foundations
constructed on a blinding layer laid, in turn, on well-
compacted granular fill. The slab is insulated with rigid-
foam boards and finished with a 100mm-thick power-
floated concrete screed.
The timber-frame wall panels – prefabricated and
installed by a specialist company – are made of softwood
components and OSB sheathing on both sides. The studs
are manufactured from C16-graded timber and have a 200
× 50mm cross-section; the panels are insulated with
200mm-thick rigid-foam boards fitted between the studs.
These wall panels are supported by reinforced-concrete
upstands (rising from the slab) and a timber sole plate is
interposed between the upstands and the bottom rails (see
Fig. 4.73). The panels are internally lined with plasterboard
and externally clad with corrugated Cor-ten steel sheets.
The chimney-like structure of the cwtch space consists
of framed panels prefabricated from C16-graded wood (see
Fig. 4.75), insulated with 125mm-thick rigid boards, and
internally lined with Douglas fir panels, also used for built-
in seats and door linings. This timber finish delineates the
main spaces and contrasts with the sleek, polished-
concrete floors.
Within the roof, steel I-beams run along the ridges and
valleys and thus define the geometry of the 45-degree-
angled planes. The lower flanges of these beams support
C24-graded timber rafters (200 × 50mm), which are
internally exposed and finished with passive fire protection
and a white topcoat. On top of the sarking (marine-plywood
sheets) are two layers of rigid-foam insulation boards:
these total 210mm in thickness and the upper one has
incorporated counterbattens. The covering consists of Cor-
ten steel sheets fixed to timber battens. The uneven
geometry of the roof and the internally exposed rafters
confer character upon the interior, creating an attractive
alternation of intimate and open spaces.
Fig. 4.73. The prefabricated timber-frame panels are assembled on-site, by
means of a crane. They sit on a timber bottom rail, which is fixed to a reinforced-
concrete upstand. In the middle ground, red metal members can be seen, which
are part of the hybrid (timber-steel) structural system. (Photo: Phillip Roberts)
Fig. 4.74. Detailed section passing through the cwtch space. (Drawing: re-
annotated from Dow Jones Architects)
Fig. 4.75. Timber-frame panels (with outer OSB skin) enclosing the upper part
of the cwtch space, with an opening for the skylight inspired by Wales’
vernacular chimneys. (Photo: Phillip Roberts)
Fig. 4.76. Interior view showing the exposed timber rafters of different roof
planes, which sit on steel I-beams. (Photo: Anthony Coleman)
Fig. 4.77. Interior view showing the cwtch space on the left (timber-clad walls).
The furniture is made from Douglas fir. (Photo: Anthony Coleman)

Environmental sustainability
Dow Jones Architects specified the materials for Maggie’s
Centre from a cultural and sustainability perspective.
Where possible, they avoided use of materials that entail
harmful manufacturing processes or high life-cycle costs.
The timber-frame panels achieve a level of thermal
insulation that surpasses the requirements set by building
regulations. The majority of the materials chosen are self-
finishing and can be left in their raw state, minimizing the
use of paints and seals, and reducing maintenance. The
corrugated steel cladding is recycled and sourced from the
UK, while all the windows and doors have been
manufactured in Cardiff itself.
The building’s form and massing are arranged so that
there are only a few small openings on the south façade,
which look out onto the hospital’s car park. Natural light
mostly comes from the courtyard, through the north façade
(which fronts onto the existing line of trees at the back of
the site), and from the skylight of the cwtch. All windows
are openable, thus ensuring natural ventilation through the
building; the cwtch’s skylight, in particular, acts as a
passive ventilation chimney.

Case Study 4: Woodland Classrooms

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Belvue School, Northolt, London, UK

Building type: school
Completion date: 2017
Design Team:
Architects: Studio Weave
Structural engineer: Timberwright
Building-services engineer: Arup
Environmental consultant: Arup
Client: Belvue School
 Gross floor internal area: 91m2
Awards:
Winner – Wood Awards (Education and Public Sector), 2018
Winner – RIBA London Award, 2018
Winner – RIBA London Client of the Year Award, 2018
Winner – AJ Architecture Awards: Project of the Year, 2018
Shortlisted – RIBA Journal MacEwen Award, 2018
Shortlisted – AJ Small Projects, 2018
Shortlisted – British Property Federation’s ‘2018 Tomorrow’s Leaders’
awards
Keywords: open timber-frame panels, educational, glulam, suspended
floors, curved roof, box truss

Fig. 4.78. The façades of the Woodland Classrooms are clad with PEFC-certified
cedar boards. The ‘Messy Barn’, in the centre of the building, has large sliding
panels, also clad with cedar boards. (Photo: Jim Stephenson)
Brief and design process

Belvue School offers secondary education to boys and girls

with learning difficulties in Northolt, West London. The
school was given custody of the adjacent Wulfgar Wood,
which had been underutilized and neglected for a long
time, with a view to use it as an educational nature reserve.
The initial plan was to locate two shipping containers on
the boundary between the playground and the woods, and
use them chiefly as storage space. However, when the
school saw potential for a more permanent solution, it
raised funding for a new development and contacted Studio
Weave, asking them to formulate a proposal for a building
in the same location selected for the container scheme.
Belvue wished to create an improved 150m2 flexible
space, detached from the rest of the building, to help
students engage with the woodland. These unique facilities
were built using timber-framed panels for their warmth,
natural patina and comfort, as well as to reflect the
woodland context. The new classrooms – in contrast to
traditional ones – were designed to have a domestic scale,
so as to encourage students to learn from the wooded
surroundings, and to incite creativity and spatial
awareness. Studio Weave’s approach to the new learning
space revolved around a narrative inspired by the
gatehouse building type. The boundary between the
school’s playground and Wulfgar Wood was imagined as
the boundary between the familiar school space and the
magical, mysterious world of the woods. For this reason,
the new classrooms were meant as a physical threshold
between the two worlds. The design process was also
informed and enriched by a series of story-writing
workshops that the architects had held with the students,
to gain their perspective on how the school’s ‘gatehouse’
could interact with the woodland.
 Studio Weave were required to provide three learning
spaces: a ‘Cosy Lounge’ for teaching and engaging with the
woodland and wildlife; a ‘Sociable Kitchen’, with a café for
preparing food and hosting small dining groups; and a
‘Messy Barn’, located between the two classrooms and
offering a covered outdoor recreational space. The timber-
lined classrooms have very wide cedar-clad sliding doors
that, when open, offer a view towards the playground, and,
when closed, create a more intimate interior atmosphere.
Studio Weave are passionate about design briefs that
have a multi-disciplinary approach. They seek to work with
a variety of stakeholders, across different socio-economic
contexts, to develop architectural proposals that are
embedded in their place and community. Public
participation and development of a narrative are a
recurring element in the Studio’s work, as exemplified by
this project.
Fig. 4.79. The Woodland Classrooms lie on the boundary between the
playground and the woods. (Photo: Jim Stephenson)

Construction
 Structural system:
Foundations: helical-pile foundations
Vertical supports: hybrid, with posts & open timber-frame panels
Ground floor: suspended, timber-framed floor
Roof: curved glulam rafters, glulam box truss, and plywood/OSB
sheathing

Small diameter helical piles were chosen for the foundation

system, to reduce the building’s impact on the existing
trees. The floor is raised off the ground on the north side,
to adapt to its slope and allow ventilation beneath the
timber frame. Thermal insulation was achieved with
200mm-thick polyisocyanurate (PIR) boards. The
construction is finished with yellow rubber flooring in the
Sociable Kitchen and Cosy Lounge, and with non-slip larch
decking in the Messy Barn.
Fig. 4.80. Having been given permission to use Wulfgar Woods, Belvue School
initially decided to place some containers at the edge between its playground
and the woodland that would provide extra storage and learning space. Once a
more substantial budget had become available, however, the school abandoned
the idea of the containers to pursue a permanent solution. Studio Weave
decided to locate the new scheme (highlighted in red) in the same place as the
containers, to avoid disrupting the woodland and having to fell any trees.
(Drawing: adapted from Studio Weave)
Fig. 4.81. The architects, in liaison with the school, imagined two classrooms
connected by a central, covered space, referred to as the ‘Messy Barn’. The
learning spaces are called ‘Cosy Lounge’ and ‘Sociable Kitchen’, the latter
offering a space for cooking and hosting group lunches. (Drawing: Studio Weave)
Fig. 4.82. Longitudinal section. The curved profile of the roof creates small
alcoves under the lower ceilings, giving a domestic appearance to the learning
environment. In the centre of each classroom, the roof curves upwards shaping
a more spacious room, flooded with natural light thanks to the windows located
at the ridge. (Drawing: Studio Weave)
Fig. 4.83. The ‘Messy Barn’ has been imagined as a place where students can
interact with the woodland. It provides the main access to the woodland and
acts as a gate that can be closed and opened thanks to large sliding doors, clad
in cedar boards like the façade. The curved rafters (45 × 195mm) are laid at
600mm centres and externally sheathed with weather- and boil-proof (WBP)
plywood. This roof differs from the roofs over the other two spaces in that it does
not need any thermal insulation and its rafters are not concealed but left
exposed. (Photo: Jim Stephenson)
Fig. 4.84. Example of a gatehouse: North Lodge, designed by Victorian
architect Alfred Waterhouse, in Brockenhurst Park, New Forest, Hampshire.
England’s gatehouses provided inspiration for the design of the Woodland
Classrooms, which the architects imagined as the gateway between the real
world (the school) and the magical world of the woods. (Photo: Ashley Basil, CC
BY 2.0)
Fig. 4.85. Studio Weave worked closely with Belvue School and organized a
series of workshops with its students to involve them in the design process,
make the building project a part of their learning and help them develop a sense
of ownership of the new Woodland Classrooms. (Drawing: Studio Weave)

This project uses a post-and-beam system combined with

timber-frame panels, made from UK-grown Douglas fir. The
posts and beams were fabricated by joining four standard
members mechanically (the same members used for the
studs of the wall panels and floor joists). In each of the
three parts of the roof, curved rafters span between the
beams of the skeleton (at the foot) and a box-truss at the
ridge (see Fig. 4.87). The box truss, in turn, spans between
opposite gable ends. The lateral thrust exerted by the
curved rafters is fully withstood by the structure of the low-
ceiling spaces located on either side of each roof; therefore,
ceiling ties at the feet of the rafters are not necessary.
Glulam fabricated from whitewood was used for the rafters
and box trusses. Externally, the rafters of all three spaces
are sheathed in plywood, whilst internally the rafters of the
Sociable Kitchen and Cosy Lounge are lined with OSB (see
Fig. 4.88) and with exposed birch-ply sheets. These sheets
were bent on site and treated, once installed, with a mix of
oils and waxes and with an intumescent coating. The roof is
insulated by means of two complementary layers: 70mm-
thick curved rigid panels laid over 140mm-thick flexible
mineral wool. In the Messy Barn, the roof is uninsulated
(like the floor and the walls) and the rafters are not lined,
thus remaining exposed. The outer covering of all three
roofs consists of zinc sheets with standing seams.
Fig. 4.86. The primary beams of the floor rest on stainless-steel feet bolted to
the concrete caps of helical-pile foundations. Timber joists span in the direction
perpendicular to these beams. Each beam is fabricated by bolting together four
timber sections like the ones used for the joists. (Photo: Studio Weave)
Fig. 4.87. Detailed vertical section of the roof showing the ridge (constructed
around a glulam box truss) and the curved surface. (Drawing: adapted and re-
annotated from Studio Weave)

The external walls are constructed with open timber-

frame panels with rigid insulation boards fitted on site
between the studs. The panels are clad on the outside with
vertical boards fabricated from British-grown, PEFC-
certified Western red cedar and finished internally with
birch plywood, like the ceiling. Both the wall and floor
panels are made from treated, standard-size timbers.

Fig. 4.88. Construction of the Sociable Kitchen. The curved glulam rafters (45
× 145mm) are positioned at 400mm centres and supported by timber beams at
the lower end and by a glulam box-truss at the upper end. The wall panels
match the profile of the roof and are sheathed externally with OSB and insulated
with rigid boards. (Photo: Studio Weave)
Fig. 4.89. One of the box-trusses that are placed at the ridge of the roof and
offer structural support to the upper ends of the curved rafters. The truss is
made of glue-laminated whitewood members. (Photo: Studio Weave)
Fig. 4.90. The external wall fronting onto the woodland awaits its interior
lining. In the meantime, the roof’s curved rafters have been lined in OSB sheets,
which, in turn, will be covered in birch ply. (Photo: Studio Weave)
Fig. 4.91. Cosy Lounge: the convex ceiling reflects the light that permeates
through the windows positioned along either side of the box-truss at the ridge.
The roof and the walls are internally finished with birch-ply sheets treated with
clear products: a mix of natural plant oils and waxes, and an intumescent
coating. (Photo: Jim Stephenson)

Environmental sustainability
While working on the design of the classrooms, Studio
Weave collaborated with a forest-management specialist to
develop a strategy for the maintenance and upkeep of
Wulfgar Wood. Their goal was to bring benefits to the local
community by enhancing biodiversity in the area and
limiting the effects of the A-road that runs at the back of
the woodland. The new classrooms are in the same location
as the initial container scheme, because this had been
chosen to limit disruption to the woodland and preserve the
existing trees.
The classrooms were completely built out of FSC- and
PEFC-certified sustainable timber (see Chapter 3 for an
explanation of FSC and PEFC), and clad with cedar boards
on the exterior and plywood on the interior, as seen in the
previous section. The clerestory windows can facilitate
natural, stack ventilation through the building. The large
glazed areas fronted by the woodland face south-west to
maximize solar gain.

Case Study 5: Taverny Medical Centre

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Taverny, Ile de France, France

Building type: healthcare centre
Completion date: 2019
Design Team:
Architects: MAAJ Architectes
Structural engineer: Batiserf Ingénierie
Thermal, electrical & environmental engineering: WOR Ingénierie
Acoustic engineering: Acoustique Vivié & Associés (AVA)
Landscape designer: Praxys Paysage
Client: Ville de Taverny
Gross floor internal area: 1,095m2
 Keywords: timber frame, CLT, courtyard, skylight, Canadian well,
healthcare

Fig. 4.92. The Medical Centre is located in the suburban town of Taverny,
north-west of Paris, and brings under one roof healthcare professionals that were
previously spread across a number of smaller surgeries. Since medical services
tend to be scarce in the Parisian suburbs, the establishment of this facility
allowed locals to receive high-quality care without having to travel to central
Paris. The Centre has on-site parking and is surrounded by outdoor areas
curated by Praxys Paysage landscape-designers. (Photo: François-Xavier Da
Cunha Leal)

Brief and design process

Taverny is a commune in the north-western suburbs of
Paris. The Medical Centre was commissioned by Taverny
Municipal Council in 2016, to address the lack of
healthcare facilities in the area (which is a recurrent
problem in the capital’s peripheries). The Centre is located
in a fragmented townscape and near a motorway. As a
response to these site conditions, MAAJ Architectes
proposed a square layout with a central patio and different
levels of privacy across the building: the fenestration is
concentrated in the walls that border the internal patio,
while the external elevations (which front onto the
neighbourhood) are conceived as a more private shell with
fewer openings. The plan layouts have been designed for
staff and patients to easily move inside the building and
orientate themselves: on both floors, the offices and
consulting rooms are around the outer perimeter and have
small windows that front onto the surroundings, while
corridors and waiting rooms are around the inner
perimeter and offer views towards the central patio.
The Centre is mostly timber-constructed, in both its
structural and cladding components. The façade is clad in
Douglas fir slats arranged vertically, which camouflage the
windows and provide further privacy to the consulting
rooms. The exterior space around the building was
designed by Praxys Paysage (a Paris-based landscape and
architectural firm) to create a soft transition between the
Medical Centre and the suburban context. As mentioned
above, the building is introverted, in that the elevations
around the patio are largely glazed – with vertical panes of
glass framed by timber studs – and look towards the
flowerbeds, in which medicinal plants are grown. Double-
height glazing has been used to mark the building’s
entrance and bring light into the reception hall and
circulation space above it, on the upper floor.
 The Medical Centre’s plan resembles that of a medieval
monastery, with its courtyard surrounded by a covered
passage (cloister) on all sides: most rooms and monks’ cells
open inwards (into the cloister), while the external façades
have few or no windows. Another source of inspiration for
MAAJ Architectes was the geometrical precision of Louis
Kahn’s work, which influenced their aesthetical choices and
approach to the floor plans. Particularly inspiring were two
projects developed around a central courtyard: Phillips
Exeter Academy (1972) and Trenton Bath House (1955),
which has four pyramidal timber roofs with an oculus at the
top, to let light in and naturally ventilate the spaces
below(5). Similarly, at each corner of Taverny Medical
Centre is a squared pavilion covered by a pyramidal roof,
with a skylight at the apex, to allow light and air into the
circulation space.
Fig. 4.93. Few and small in size are the windows on the elevations of the
Medical Centre that face onto the surroundings, so as to ensure a high level of
privacy to doctors and patients in the consulting rooms. Further privacy has
been achieved through the timber studs that protrude from the external walls
and frame the windows. (Photo: François-Xavier Da Cunha Leal)
Fig. 4.94. Trenton Bath House in Ewing, New Jersey (USA), designed by Louis
Kahn and Anne Tyng, and completed in 1955. This renowned building has
inspired the design of Taverny Medical Centre, especially with its courtyard and
four pyramidal roofs at the corners. (Photo: Smallbones, CC0)
Fig. 4.95. The cross-shaped courtyard, where medicinal herbs are grown,
resembles a monastery’s courtyard. The idea of opening the building inwards
onto a central patio was also influenced by two buildings designed by Louis
Kahn: Trenton Bath House (1955) and Phillips Exeter Academy (1972). (Photo:
François-Xavier Da Cunha Leal)

MAAJ Architectes are an emerging firm and aspire to

design buildings that create a link between users, site and
architecture.
Fig. 4.96. From a programmatic point of view, the circulation space wraps
around the central patio, as a cloister runs around a courtyard in a monastery.
Monks’ cells would usually be accessed through the cloister and would have
small windows on the outer-perimeter walls. MAAJ Architectes have taken a
similar approach; the consulting rooms are located around the outer perimeter
and have fewer and smaller windows than the circulation space around the inner
perimeter. (Drawing: translated from MAAJ Architectes)
Fig. 4.97. Vertical section of the building, showing the staircase between the
entrance hall on the ground floor and the corridor on the first floor, which runs
around the inner perimeter of the facility. Two of the pyramidal roofs can also be
seen, with their skylights pouring light into the waiting rooms on the first floor.
(Drawing: translated from MAAJ Architectes)

Construction

Structural system:
Foundations: raft foundations
Vertical supports: timber-frame panels + external timber studs, timber
posts (post-and-beam skeleton), masonry (concrete blocks)
Ground floor: ground-bearing concrete slab (raft foundation)
Intermediate floor: CLT panels (spruce)
Roof: spruce trusses for pyramidal roof
Thermal insulation: glass wool (external walls & roof)
Acoustic insulation: perforated plasterboard (waiting rooms), acoustic
fibreboard (corridors), timber suspended ceiling (offices)

The building’s loadbearing structure comprises different

systems: vertical supports are mostly constructed with
timber-frame panels, timber posts and, to a lesser extent,
concrete blockwork, especially on the ground floor. The
intermediate floors are realized in CLT panels, and the
pyramidal roofs in timber frame.
The studs for open timber-frame panels are made of 70
× 140mm sections. However, the studs have an alternate
arrangement: every other stud is doubled with the
juxtaposition of two sections, thus resulting in a 140 ×
140mm support. The studs are placed at about 430mm
centres. All the timbers for these panels are made from
spruce. Glass-wool quilts fill the gaps between the studs,
and the panels are externally sheathed in OSB/3 sheets. On
the inside, the panels are completed with an acoustic-
insulation layer and two or three layers of plasterboard,
depending on the orientation of the walls: two layers for
those facing SE and SW, and three for those facing NE and
NW. What makes the façade system unconventional is the
fact that Douglas fir studs are placed all along the façade
and match the position of the double studs inside the
panels. Between the external studs and the panels is an
additional layer of flexible glass-wool mats, which insulates
the wall without any interruptions. The surfaces between
the external studs are clad in Douglas fir boards, laid
vertically on battens and counterbattens.
The ground floor is a concrete slab (part of the raft
foundations), insulated on the underside with extruded
polystyrene boards. The intermediate floor is constructed
with 248mm-thick CLT panels (fabricated from spruce),
which rest on the timber-frame panels and/or the timber
post-and-beam system. On top of the panels is an acoustic
layer, covered with a screed and PVC flooring.
The four corner roofs with a truncated-pyramidal shape
are constructed of spruce trusses. Here the diagonals play
a major role: they support purlins, which, in turn, support
smaller rafters laid in the direction of the slope. Each
diagonal is supported at the foot by the external timber-
framed walls (see Fig. 4.100) and at the top by three
members (one vertical and two oblique) that rest on a
horizontal frame positioned at ceiling level. These trusses
are insulated with a double layer of glass wool. The roof
covering consists of zinc sheets laid on battens. The ceiling
is timber-framed and concealed with different types of
lining products, depending on the room type: plasterboard
(perforated sheets under solid ones) in the waiting rooms,
acoustic wood-fibre panels in the corridors, and timber
panels in the offices.
Fig. 4.98. Constructional detail of the external walls (horizontal section).
(Drawing: adapted and translated from MAAJ Architectes)
Fig. 4.99. Constructional detail (in vertical section) of the external wall and its
junctions with the roof, ground floor and first floor. (Drawing: adapted and
translated from MAAJ Architectes)
Fig. 4.100. The CLT panels of the intermediate floor rest on the timber-framed
walls on the outer perimeter of the building and on timber columns closer to the
courtyard. In the background, the timber-framed panels have been installed and
externally sheathed with OSB/3 sheets. In the upcoming construction stages,
glass-wool quilts will be fitted between the studs. (Photo: MAAJ Architectes)
Fig. 4.101. A timber framework is constructed at ceiling level: this defines the
ceiling itself and carries the load coming from the top of the pyramidal roof.
Since at the apex of the pyramid is a skylight, an opening is formed in the ceiling
to allow natural light to pass through and illuminate the first floor. The
membrane laid over the walls is the vapour-control layer. (Photo: MAAJ
Architectes)
Fig. 4.102. One of the pyramidal roofs under construction. The four diagonals
that run along the edges of the pyramid have an important structural role: they
support the purlins, which, in turn, support smaller rafters laid in the direction of
slope. (Photo: reduced from MAAJ Architectes)

Fig. 4.103. Reference to Louis Kahn’s Trenton Bath House (1955) is clearly
visible in MAAJ Architectes’ design of the four pyramidal roofs with a skylight at
the apex. (Drawing: MAAJ Architectes)
Fig. 4.104. The skylight at the top of the pyramidal roof, surrounded by white,
reflective surfaces, contributes to natural illumination of the first floor. (Photo:
François-Xavier Da Cunha Leal)
Fig. 4.105. One of the waiting rooms on the first floor, simply decorated with a
limited colour palette: clean white walls and ceilings, grey PVC flooring and
natural wood colours. Patients can enjoy a view of the cross-shaped courtyard
through the glazed surfaces. (Photo: François-Xavier Da Cunha Leal)

Environmental sustainability

MAAJ Architectes wished to offer Taverny’s community an

environmentally sound building that would be well
integrated into its context. For this reason, they specified
timber sourced from local French forests. The few openings
on the exterior façades limit the noise disruption coming
from the nearby motorway and contribute to patients’
privacy. The central patio provides natural ventilation and
constitutes a source of light for the waiting rooms and
circulation space on both floors. The four corner pavilions
have a skylight at the top, which provides further light and
natural ventilation.
 The building is equipped with a Canadian well(6) (also
referred to as a Provençal or climatic well, or a geothermal
air-to-ground heat exchanger): this is a geothermal system
that can be used for space cooling or heating by taking
advantage of the thermal inertia of the soil near a building.
Fresh air (taken from outside the building) is made to
circulate in a conduit buried into the ground and thus
exchanges heat with the soil, through the surface of the
pipe. At the end of the conduit, the air is then pumped into
the building, contributing to the adjustment of the interior
temperature. The efficiency of a Canadian well depends on
several factors, such as weather conditions, soil type,
aeration rate and flow speed through the conduit.
Taverny Medical Centre has been rated by
(7)
EFFINERGIE , a French association established in 2006
with the goal of ensuring high levels of energy efficiency in
new-build and refurbishment projects. Thanks to its low
energy consumption, the Centre has been granted the
‘EFFINERGIE+’ label, which is reserved for buildings
whose average primary-energy consumption is no more
than 50kWh/(m2year).
The Centre also complies with French code RT2012
(Réglementation Thermique(8), first adopted in 2013),
which sets the maximum energy consumption for both
residential and non-residential buildings to 40–
65kWh/(m2year), depending on location and altitude.

Notes
(1) The reader is invited to consult TRADA’s publications for
further information; particularly Lancashire and Taylor
(2011) and Hislop et al. (2018).
(2) An extensive illustration of intermediate floors with high
acoustic performance can be found in the documents
 that accompany building regulations (and provide
recommended details), in Robust Details (ca.2020) and
in TRADA’s publications, especially Lancashire and
Taylor (2011).
(3) In-depth information on trussed-rafter systems is offered
in the publications by the Trussed Rafter Association
(TRA) and by Gang-Nail Systems listed in the
Bibliography.
(4) Jenks, 1994
(5) Architects’ Journal, 2021; This building marked a
change in Kahn’s career. In a 1970 interview with a New
York Times reporter, he said: ‘If the world discovered me
after I designed the Richards [Medical Research] towers
building, I discovered myself after designing that little
concrete-block bathhouse in Trenton’ (Braudy, 1970).
(6) Touzani and Jellal, 2015
(7) Effinergie, ca.2012
(8) Ministère de la Transition écologique, 2020
Chapter Five

Designing with Structural

Insulated Panels
Overview

Structural insulated panels (SIPs) are sandwich panels

consisting of a thermal-insulation core between two skins
of wood-based sheet material, generally OSB, or – less
frequently – plywood or particleboard. The insulation core
can be made of different materials: polyurethane, expanded
polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene (XPS) or
polyisocyanurate (PIR), which all have comparable thermal
conductivities and produce SIPs with similar structural
performance. A proportion of recycled material can be used
for the fabrication of the facings.
Fig. 5.1. House in the Woods in Hampshire, designed by Alma-nac, London.
(Photo: Jack Hobhouse)

SIPs are based on a simple structural concept: that the

two skins enable the panels to withstand the loads to which
building elements are subjected, by virtue of their
mechanical properties. The thickness of the insulating core
keeps the two skins apart, thus providing more stability to
the panels.
The development of SIPs dates back to the 1930s, when
the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison (Wisconsin)
started conducting research on new panelized systems
towards better and more efficient use of timber and timber-
based products. This research strand was further pursued
by private companies, especially The Dow Chemical
Company, which created the first SIP with a foam core.
Frank Lloyd Wright used SIPs in some of his Usonian
houses, designed for middle-income families during the
1930s and 1940s in the USA. In the 1990s, the SIP industry
commenced utilizing CNC technology to fabricate SIPs;
this, in conjunction with advancements in computer-aided
design (CAD), meant that SIPs could easily be cut by
transferring CAD information to CNC machinery. This
innovation generated great advantages in terms of
efficiency and productivity, which resulted in lower
fabrication costs and thus made SIPs more competitive
with other structural methods available on the market.
Further growth in the SIP sector occurred when OSB
manufacturers started producing larger sheets, which
facilitated the fabrication of big SIP elements to be
installed by crane.
SIPs are used especially for low- and mid-rise buildings,
in the residential, civic and commercial sectors. In the UK,
SIP-constructed buildings do not generally exceed four
storeys in height. SIP construction is very versatile, in that
it lends itself to several roof and wall configurations and
can very easily be integrated with other timber structural
systems. For instance, SIPs can be combined with timber-
frame panel construction when they form part of the
primary structure of a building; alternatively, they can be
used as infill walls (secondary structure) in a building with
a post-and-beam system (this is especially done in mid-rise
buildings). In a similar manner, SIPs can be utilized in
conjunction with other types of structural methods, such as
steel-framed systems. The breadth of application of SIPs
varies geographically. In the UK, SIPs are mostly employed
for walls (especially external walls) and roofs (both flat and
pitched); in other countries (for example the USA), they are
also used for floors.
Like in any other types of buildings, wooden components
in areas that might be temporarily exposed to moisture
should previously have been treated with preservatives (as
recommended in BS 8417). Timber members with a
structural function should be kept away from moisture and
be at least 150mm above finished-ground level, as was also
seen for TF panel construction in Chapter 4.
The total thickness of SIPs ranges from 100 to 250mm.
The OSB facings are typically 11mm thick, but they can be
thicker if necessary (for example 15 or 18mm).
Walls can be built up of:

• small panels, which follow the standard size of OSB

sheets (typical dimensions: 1.2 × 2.4m);
• large panels (up to 6m long), which utilize multiple
standard-size OSB sheets or just one larger-format OSB
sheet.

Thanks to their light weight, small SIPs can easily be

handled and lifted on site by two operatives and positioned
manually. Bigger panels offer the advantage of faster
construction time but are more reliant on large machinery,
such as cranes, for installation purposes.
There exist two main methods to produce SIPs. A jig can
be used to keep the two outer sheets at the necessary
distance, then liquid foam is poured between the sheets:
when the foam expands, it fills the whole gap and also
bonds to the sheets. Alternatively, the core can be
fabricated independently and then bonded on either side to
the wooden sheets, with structural adhesive.

Fig. 5.2. Types of splines to connect adjacent SIPs: solid-timber spline and
insulated spline, which consists of two OSB facings and an insulation core, like
the SIPs. (Drawing and manufacturing: Hemsec Manufacturing Ltd)
 Manufacturing firms can pre-cut bespoke SIP elements
in their facilities following the designers’ specification for a
given project and provide assistance with the engineering
side of the design when requested. Manufacturers can then
deliver a kit of panels and accessory components to the
construction site, for assembly. Moreover, large
manufacturing companies have developed whole building
systems based on SIPs, complete with compatible and
integrated solutions for the walls, floors and roof of an
entire building.
Like all timber-based structural components, SIPs can
exhibit creep behaviour over time, which needs to be
accounted for in the structural design as well as in the
detailing, to avoid damage coming from this type of time-
dependent, mechanical response (see Chapter 1). Effects of
shear stresses also need to be evaluated, since they are
resisted by the OSB skins only, and not by the insulation
core. In structural calculations, when SIPs are sized for
roof or floor applications, deflection tends to be the
predominant criterion.

External Walls

SIP walls do not differ widely from timber-frame walls

(dealt with in Chapter 4) and can be finished, both
internally and externally, with the same range of
techniques and materials as was seen for TF panels. The
exact thickness and make-up of the chosen SIP will depend
both on the loading configuration and on the target level of
thermal insulation. An important factor is whether the only
insulation layer within the wall make-up is the foam
contained in the SIPs themselves or an additional layer is to
be introduced, generally on the outside. If an insulation
jacket is added to attain the desired U-value, then a check
to assess condensation risk should be performed.
 When a SIP wall is compared to a TF one with solid
timber studs (the simplest type of section), the former
generally exhibits lower thermal bridging, because its
build-up contains fewer timbers that can transfer heat
between the two faces of the wall. However, SIP walls
might also have solid timber splines, therefore thermal
bridging should be assessed and, if necessary, attenuated
with additional insulation layers, for instance an insulation
jacket or insulating material inserted into the service void.
Foundations should be level before the installation of
SIPs commences. Where SIPs rest on a concrete sub-
structure (for example a reinforced-concrete, ground-
bearing slab), a sole plate is first fixed to it. This plate is
made from treated timber, and has the same width as the
SIPs and minimum thickness of 38mm. When the sole plate
is being laid, galvanized- or stainless-steel levelling shims
can be used and injectable grout added to fill any gaps. A
damp-proof course is interposed between the concrete
surface and the sole plate.
A bottom rail (also referred to as bottom plate or locator
plate) is placed on top of the sole plate; this component is
also made from treated timber and has the same width as
the insulation core of the SIPs, as it needs to fit between
the two OSB skins at the feet of the panels. Holding-down
bolts can be used to secure the structural connections
between the SIPs and the concrete base: they pass through
the sole plate and the bottom rail and penetrate the
concrete slab. Both on the inside and outside, the SIPs are
connected to the bottom rail with galvanized-steel, ring-
shank nails. However, it is worth mentioning that there are
different methods to connect the SIPs to the wall plate, and
a bottom rail is not always inserted at the interface
between the sole plate and the SIP, in which case the SIP
slots into the sole plate, with its OSB facings over the sides
of the plate. The technique adopted to connect SIPs,
bottom plate, sole plate and sub-structure affects the
panels’ racking resistance.
Splines can be inserted between adjacent SIPs, in order
to create a stronger structural connection. Two types of
splines are available:

• solid splines, generally made from a solid length (but

engineered timber could also be used when necessary);
• insulated splines, which have a very similar
composition to the SIPs themselves: they consist of an
insulation layer sandwiched between two wood-based
skins.

Of these two types, the latter performs better from a

thermal point of view, in that it allows for continuity of the
insulation layer along the wall. Solid splines on the other
hand offer much greater structural capacity and, in some
cases, might be the only viable option.
Irrespective of whether solid or insulated splines are
utilized, their thickness will need to be such that they can
slot into the gap between the facings of the SIPs to be
connected. Splines are fixed by means of nails, screws or
bolts through the OSB skins, and then sealed. Expanding
foam needs to be sprayed to fill the gaps between the SIPs
and the spline: this will improve the thermal performance
and airtightness of the wall. Splines are used not only to
join two consecutive panels, but also at the end of wall
runs. SIP manufacturers offer different proprietary systems
to make the structural connection between their panels.
Where a SIP wall is subjected to high concentrated loads
(for instance, those transferred from a girder truss, rafter
or beam), ad hoc local reinforcement can easily be
arranged by inserting a post between two SIPs, either of
solid or engineered timber. Above the post, a pocket can be
formed to accommodate the end of the beam, rafter or
truss.
 SIPs at corner junctions are joined with very long screws
(for example 300mm), which can run through the end of
one panel and the main side of the other, then they are
sealed with expanding-foam glue or flexible mastic. SIPs
must be connected by a continuous top rail (also referred
to as a header or top plate) positioned in the gap between
the OSB facings at the top of the panels. The top rail is
screwed to the panels and fulfils an important role: it
evenly distributes the loads transferred from intermediate
floors and roofs between the SIPs that make up the wall.
Fig. 5.3. Build-up of external walls constructed of SIPs, clad in blocks (a), or
with render on carrier board (b). (Drawing: after Sanna, 2018)

In order to avoid interstitial condensation within the

build-up of the walls, a vapour-control layer needs to be
installed or, as an alternative, a lining product can be
specified that offers sufficient resistance to vapour
penetration (this could be plasterboard with incorporated
vapour check: for instance, foil-backed plasterboard).
 It is advisable not to run cable or pipes within the
thickness of SIPs, as this practice would compromise their
integrity and, ultimately, their structural capacity. It is
recommended to form a service void on the inside of walls
instead. The void is created with timber battens fixed to the
skins of the SIPs and with a lining product such as
plasterboard or wooden boards. Battening for dry-lining
products can be built with solid timber battens, OSB/3
strips or metal rails. When it is necessary to run pipes or
cables through an external wall, care should be taken to
seal the gap around these. In addition, the portion of
electrical cables penetrating SIPs should preferably be
protected with ad hoc sleeves, to prevent the risk of
leaching.
During wall erection, SIPs are kept in their intended
position and stabilized by means of temporary braces. On-
site installation of SIPs is generally a rather fast process
(even more so if large panels are prefabricated in the
factory), which means that the building becomes weather-
tight quickly.

Openings

Openings can be formed in two ways: either by removing

material from a large SIP in the factory (pre-cut openings),
or by arranging smaller SIPs around the openings, on site
or offsite.
Numerous options are available to construct lintels over
openings in a SIP wall: a SIP panel, a solid-timber section, a
glulam section or a flitch beam. Timber studs should be
inserted on the sides of the openings, to provide a fixing
support for the door/window frame. If the opening is a
window, then a timber should also be inserted at sill level.
The number, area and position of openings affect the
structural behaviour of a panel, in terms of strength,
stability (of the individual panel and the structure as a
whole) and racking resistance.

External cladding

Whether a light- or heavyweight cladding system is

specified, it is important to consider and assess how this
could perform in the event of fire. Suitable cavity
barriers/fire-stops must be inserted into the constructions
to prevent spread of flame, smoke and hot gases, especially
from one storey to the ones above or from one fire
compartment to another. Cavity barriers can be
manufactured from a variety of materials, including solid
timber, mineral wool (generally reinforced with metal wire)
and intumescent substances. In SIP buildings, particular
care must be taken for the correct positioning of cavity
barriers: these must be mounted onto solid timbers (such
as the timbers around the perimeter of openings or joists in
an intermediate floor). This is because, if a barrier is
mounted onto the SIPs, fire might spread through their
insulation core and thus bypass the barrier itself.

Lightweight cladding

The choice of a cladding type should take into account

meteorological aspects such as wind-driven rain in the
building’s area. The durability of the loadbearing SIP leaf
will depend on the correct design and formation of joints.
SIP walls are able to support a lightweight cladding system,
without the need for this to rest on the foundations. This
results in smaller foundations, with lower consumption of
concrete and reduced environmental impacts arising from
cementitious materials. The fixings used to secure the
cladding to the SIPs must provide sufficient pull-out
resistance through the OSB facings alone. The external
cladding should not be mounted directly onto the SIPs, but
onto battens inserted into a ventilated and well-drained
cavity. The outer surface of the SIPs must be protected
with a breather membrane, to prevent any incidental
moisture that has penetrated the cladding screen from
reaching and damaging the SIPs and the associated timber
members (such as sole plates, top and bottom rails or
splines).
The types of external cladding suitable for SIP-
constructed walls are the same as those seen in Chapter 4
for TF panels: timber boarding, metal sheets, render on
carrier-boards and so on.

Heavyweight cladding

If a heavyweight cladding system is designed, the wall

build-up needs to be arranged as a cavity wall. The cavity
(about 50mm) must be sufficiently ventilated (with open
perpends or ventilators at suitable distances) and drained
with weep holes. A breather membrane is installed on the
outside of the SIP leaf, to protect it from moisture
penetration and ensure durability in the long term. The
outer masonry leaf needs efficient protection from rising
moisture, with the installation of a damp-proof course.
Fig. 5.4. Make-up of a SIP-constructed separating wall. (Drawing: after Sanna,
2018)

The masonry leaf needs to be secured to the inner

(loadbearing) leaf to provide sufficient overall rigidity to
the wall. Ad hoc wall ties complete with screw fixings for
SIP-masonry walls should be utilized: these can be fastened
directly to the OSB skin. Stainless steel should be specified
for wall ties and screws.
Different elements of a SIP building can expand or
contract at different rates after completion. While SIPs
themselves do not undergo major dimensional changes,
other parts are likely to do so, for instance solid-timber
rails, plates, splines and solid or engineered-timber joists.
Therefore, suitable differential-movement gaps should be
introduced in the masonry cladding, near window sills and
floors, so as to avoid damage to the constructions.
Additionally, expansion joints might be necessary in large
walls, to allow the heavyweight cladding to expand without
getting damaged or causing damage to other building
components.

Internal Walls

Internal walls can be built with SIPs, but this is not a

conventional choice. TF panels are often used instead, with
the advantage that services can be run within their
thickness, while a SIP wall would require a cavity service
between the structural panel and the internal lining.

Party Walls

A SIP party wall is generally constructed with two,

independent SIP leaves with a cavity in the middle (around
50mm thick). Appropriate inner lining should be specified
to provide the wall with the level of fire resistance
prescribed by local building regulations. The lining needs
to be fixed to the SIPs via timber battens. If for instance
sixty-minute fire resistance is required, this can be attained
by installing two staggered layers of 15mm-thick sheets of
gypsum plasterboard with improved core adhesion at high
temperatures (type-F plasterboard, as defined by Standard
BS EN 520).

Intermediate Floors

Beside their high compressive strength (in the longitudinal

direction), SIPs also possess good bending strength, and
thus can be used as flexural members to form floors.
However, this type of application is rather unusual,
especially in the UK.
Intermediate floors can be supported by SIP walls in two
ways:

• the floor joists rest on top of the wall of the lower

storey (more precisely, on their top rail). This
arrangement is repeated at every floor and is typical of
platform construction. It is common practice to
introduce a rim beam perpendicular to the joists, which
contributes to supporting the SIPs of the upper storey.
The rim beam can be fabricated from solid or
engineered timber;
• the floor joists hang from the inside of the walls, thanks
to joist hangers fixed to the head of the wall (nailed,
screwed or bolted to the head plate). This type of
arrangement is typical of balloon construction, and the
wall panels can be two-storeys high.

Typically, floors supported by SIP walls employ engineered

joists (open-web joists, I-joists and so on) but solid joists or
floor cassettes are also possible solutions – see Chapter 4
for timber-framed intermediate floors.

Flat Roofs
Cold-deck roofs

Flat roofs built with SIPs are classified as cold roofs and
therefore require suitable ventilation between the SIPs and
the deck on which the waterproofing layer is laid. A
ventilation void can be formed by laying tapered battens
(furrings) on the SIPs. Openings should be created at
opposite ends of the roof, to facilitate ventilation through
the void. The thickness of the ventilation void should be
commensurate with the length of the roof and not less than
50mm.
Fig. 5.5. SIP-constructed flat roofs are classified as cold roofs; therefore they
require a ventilated air space above the structural deck.

The furrings support a deck laid to falls, made of OSB/3,

plywood, particleboard or similar sheet material. A
breather membrane needs to be interposed between the
SIPs and the furrings. The deck must be overlaid with a
waterproofing layer, for instance, bitumen-based
membranes or a single-ply membrane.
 An additional (and continuous) thermal-insulation layer
can be applied underneath the SIPs, not only to improve
the overall thermal resistance of the construction, but also
to reduce thermal bridging through the splines or other
solid timbers that might have been inserted between the
SIPs to improve the strength and rigidity of the roof.
A vapour-control layer can be added to the underside of
the SIPs, to prevent any water vapour produced indoors
from penetrating the construction and condensing. If there
are any service runs to be accommodated, a service void
needs to be formed between the SIPs and the internal
lining.

Pitched Roofs

SIP pitched roofs are classified as cold roofs (like their flat
counterparts, as discussed above) and, consequently, need
suitable ventilation between the SIPs and the covering. A
continuous ventilation gap (from the eaves to the ridge)
can be formed by laying the horizontal tiling battens not
directly on the SIPs, but on top of counterbattens that run
in the direction of slope. Counterbattens should be
fabricated from treated softwood and fixed to the SIPs with
stainless-steel screws. Openings of adequate area should
be formed at both eaves and ridge level, to permit sufficient
air flow through the ventilation gap.
SIP roofs are typically constructed with large panels,
complete with openings, which are craned into position.
Different structural configurations can be designed to
support roof panels, the main two being the following:

• the roof panels span in the direction of slope, and rest

on the heads of the wall SIPs, on timber purlins and/or
on ridge beams. Within this configuration, an
 unobstructed (without trusses) and habitable space
under the roof is created;
• the roof panels span horizontally, and are supported by
gable walls and/or internal walls.

Fig. 5.6. Construction of a SIP pitched roof (section perpendicular to the plane
of slope). A continuous layer of insulation boards can be laid above the SIPs so
as to reduce thermal bridging through the timber splines that provide strength
and rigidity to the roof. (Drawing: after Sanna, 2018)
Fig. 5.7. A multi-family residential building, whose external walls are
constructed in SIPs (by Hemsec Manufacturing Ltd). The SIPs at the gable end
(1) have been cut to fit the pitch of the roof; solid timber splines have been
inserted between the SIPs (2). The internal walls (3) are built with timber-frame
panels. The intermediate floor employs engineered joists supported by a glulam
beam (4) and has a particleboard deck (5). (Photo: annotated and adapted from
Hemsec Manufacturing Ltd)
Fig. 5.8. Construction of the lower storey contained in the roof space, in the
same building shown in Fig. 5.7. The roof’s slopes (1) have been constructed in
SIPs (by Hemsec Manufacturing Ltd), and timber battens (2) have been installed
to receive the internal lining. The intermediate floor employs metal-web joists
(3) fixed to a timber member (4) inserted into the web of a steel I-beam (5).
Timber-framed panels are erected for the full-height walls (6) and the dwarf
walls (7) along the outer perimeter. (Photo: annotated from Hemsec
Manufacturing Ltd).

In either case, special timber fillets are needed to join up

the wall heads with the roof SIPs, and very long screws can
be used that are able to pass through a roof SIP and the
supporting member(s) underneath it. For instance, on top
of the head plate, a special wall plate can be laid, which is
angled to match the roof pitch.
A breather membrane should be laid over the roof panel.
SIP roofs can employ any type of covering suitable for
pitched roofs, ranging from metal sheets, to slates and
concrete or clay tiles. Openings in roof panels (for example
for skylights) can be formed in the same way that was
discussed above for wall panels.

Fig. 5.9. External view of the roof of the building shown in Figs. 5.7 and 5.8.
The roof is composed of SIPs that span in the direction of slope and are
supported at three levels (lower floor, upper floor and ridge). The openings for
the skylights have been lined in solid timber lengths. At the foot, the roof has a
different pitch, formed with small timber trusses. (Photo and manufacturing:
Hemsec Manufacturing Ltd)

Case Study 6: House in the Woods

Location: South Downs National Park, Hampshire, UK
Building type: residential – single-family house
Completion date: 2016
Design Team:
Architect: Alma-nac, London, UK – Tristan Wigfall, Caspar Rodgers, Chris
Bryant
Structural engineer: Heyne Tillett Steel, London, UK – Mark Goobrand,
Jonathan Flint
Building-services engineer: Integration, London, UK – Dan Brooks, Julio
Vale
Landscape design: KR Garden Design, London, UK – Karen Rogers
Client: Jenny Stevinson
Gross floor internal area: 240m2
Keywords: SIPs, glulam, hydrothermally modified wood, timber I-joists,
rural, single-family home
Fig. 5.10. The western façade of House in the Woods is clad in timber and
overlooks woodland. The wide openings on the ground floor are those of the
kitchen, dining room and lounge. The windows and terrace on the first floor
visually connect the bedrooms with the surrounding landscape. (Photo: Jack
Hobhouse)

Brief and design process

House in the Woods is located in an area of outstanding

natural beauty within the South Downs National Park in
Hampshire, UK. It is built on the footprint of a pre-existing
bungalow that was demolished, to minimize impact on the
surrounding trees and landscape. The client wished to
retain a similar approach to the site to that of the
bungalow, while opening up views on the woodlands in
which it is located. The programme needed to be flexible to
accommodate the different functions envisaged by the
client, with a focus on communal spaces for family
gatherings and socializing. The living room (extending from
east to west) and kitchen with a dining area (occupying the
south-west part of the ground floor), split by a central
fireplace, are the heart of the house. Alma-nac Architects
envisaged the kitchen and dining areas to have full-height
ceilings, enhanced by the duopitch roof and lightened up by
a row of openings on the western façade. The location of
the communal areas maximizes the views and access to the
garden, as well as solar gain during the day. The northern
part of the house accommodates the guest bedrooms on the
ground floor and a separate staircase, which leads to the
master bedroom and guest bedroom on the first floor. Such
separation of spaces allows the client to close the guest
wing, with a sliding door, and create a more intimate space
when desired.
Fig. 5.11. Location plan. The house is located in an area of outstanding natural
beauty within Hampshire’s South Downs National Park. The building is overall
rectangular and orientated in a north-south direction. (Drawing: Alma-nac,
London)
Fig. 5.12. The design fulfils the client’s desire to dedicate half of the ground
floor to communal and socializing spaces such as the kitchen, dining area and
living room. These spaces benefit from direct access to the garden. (Drawing:
Alma-nac, London)
Fig. 5.13. A key aspect of House in the Woods is its strong connection with the
landscape. Alma-nac made this possible through large openings on the
communal spaces such as this large window in the dining room, looking out onto
the landscape. (Photo: Jack Hobhouse)
Fig. 5.14. In the eastern façade, the most ‘public’ side of the house, the
building seems to be lower than it actually is. The upper floor, indeed, is clearly
visible only in the western façade, the more private part of the house. (Photo:
Jack Hobhouse)

Key to House in the Woods’ design is the relationship

with the surrounding landscape. It was achieved through
enhancing the best views identified from the old bungalow
and adding extensive glazing that fronts onto the woodland
situated west of the house. The openings allow for direct
access to the garden from the communal areas of the
house. On the first floor, Alma-nac designed a terrace that
overlooks the garden and woodland.
Not only is the new building footprint very close to that
of the old bungalow, but the size of the building remains
modest. The house appears, on approach, as a single-storey
building with a duopitched roof, while it reveals its two-
storey wing only if seen from the private garden on the
western side.
Construction

Structural system:
Foundations: concrete strip foundations
Vertical supports: SIPs
Ground floor: suspended beam-and-block floor
Intermediate floor: timber I-joists
Roof: SIPs and glulam members (for example ridge beam)
Thermal insulation: rigid urethane foam (within wall and roof SIPs); rigid
thermoset polyisocyanurate (PIR) boards (ground floor)

The house is largely constructed of SIPs, used for the walls

and the pitched roof. These were transported to the
building site on the back of two lorries and assembled over
ten days. The SIPs used were made out of a urethane
insulation core, sandwiched between two layers of 15mm
(OSB)(1). In this project, adjacent panels were connected
through insulated splines, which are comparable to small
SIP panels in themselves. This type of spline maintains the
insulation layer intact and reduces thermal bridging and air
leakage.
The design fully shelters the SIPs from the elements,
thus ensuring their durability over time. The SIPs are
indeed covered and protected by (from the inside out) a
breather membrane, a wall cavity and exterior cladding.
Two different types of external cladding are used for the
perimeter walls. The north, south and east walls are clad
with hand-cut bricks; while the west façade is clad with
timber boards that have undergone hydro-thermal
treatment in the factory, aimed to improve their durability
and dimensional stability. In both cases, the gutters and
downpipes are concealed and cannot be seen from the
outside. The gutters are aluminium channels located
behind the top of the brick skin or of the timber boards.
The downpipes, instead, are positioned inside the wall
cavity. The walls are internally finished with plasterboard
(with integrated vapour check) and a 25mm service cavity
is left between the SIPs and the plasterboard.
The duopitch roof is also constructed with SIPs, which
span between the external walls and glulam beams running
parallel to the façade. The roof over the entrance is clad in
timber, while the main roof is covered with natural-slate
tiles, which blend with the organic colours of the
surroundings thanks to their varying tones. The internal
finish is plasterboard separated from the SIPs by a 100mm
void.
The SIPs were manufactured as storey-height panels in
the factory, where windows and door openings were also
pre-cut. Once the SIP superstructure had been fully erected
in situ, doors and windows were added and sealed, to
ensure optimum airtightness of the building envelope. The
external wall cladding, the roof covering and all internal
finishes were installed on site.
The ground floor was constructed using a beam-and-
block system, and completed with rigid foam boards and a
sand-cement screed with mesh reinforcement and
underfloor heating system. The intermediate floors,
conversely, use a lightweight system, based on timber I-
joists.
Fig. 5.15. The walls and the roof were entirely built out of SIP panels, which
were transported on site by lorries and assembled in just ten days. The SIP
panels that make up the roof span between glulam beams that run along the
ridge and the edges. (Photo: Alma-nac, London)
Fig. 5.16. Construction of the external walls: the SIPs are cut to follow the
exact geometry of the gable ends and the roof profile. In this building, adjacent
SIPs are connected by means of insulated splines (which are small SIPs in
themselves). (Photo: Alma-nac, London)
Fig. 5.17. Detailed section through an external SIP wall clad in bricks. The
gutters are realized as an aluminium channel concealed behind the brick skin.
The rainwater pipe is also incorporated into the wall make-up: it runs inside the
cavity between the brickwork and the SIPs. The roof is covered with natural slate
tiles fixed to the SIPs by means of battens and counterbattens made from
treated timber. (Drawing: adapted from Alma-nac, London)
Fig. 5.18. Detailed section through an external SIP wall clad in vertical boards
of hydrothermally modified wood. The boards are connected to the SIP leaf
through a system of horizontal battens and vertical counterbattens of treated
timber. A continuous insect mesh is fitted behind the cladding boards. (Drawing:
adapted from Alma-nac, London)
Fig. 5.19. Cross-section of the house through the staircase (looking north).
Three rooflights illuminate the flight of steps. The ground floor is suspended and
adopts a beam-and-block system. (Drawing: Alma-nac, London)
Fig. 5.20. The south-facing gable side of the dwelling, with its glazing. The
elevated patio on the left includes a dining area, partially protected by an
overhang. (Photo: Jack Hobhouse)

Environmental sustainability

SIPs were chosen for their thermal efficiency and

airtightness. The high level of insulation and the sealed
junctions reduce heating requirements in the winter and
can achieve comfortable levels of indoor temperature in the
summer by means of passive ventilation through the
windows and rooflights.
The beam-and-block system was chosen for the ground
floor to give it more thermal mass and regulate
temperature fluctuations throughout the year.
An air-source heat pump services the under-floor
heating on the ground floor, localized radiators on the
upper floor, a small hot-water cylinder for low-volume use
and a booster tank that is only required when there is a full
household.
As a consequence of the airtight design, there is a risk
that indoor air might become stale or moisture-loaded. For
this reason, the interior of the house is mechanically
ventilated when the windows are closed through a heat-
recovery unit, which extracts the heat from the exhausted
air and pumps warm, pure air back into the house.

Notes
(1) The urethane core was attached to the OSB boards by
means of auto-adhesion. The liquid chemicals that made
up the foam were sprayed between the boards and their
reaction resulted in an expanded, rigid foam with high
insulation properties.
Chapter Six

Designing with Solid Timber

Panels
Overview

Cross-laminated timber (CLT, also referred to as crosslam

or X-lam) is a structural material that has gained increasing
attention over the last two decades, at global scale. In the
UK, for instance, the first CLT building was constructed in
2004 and since then many other CLT projects have been
completed, attracting the attention of clients, designers,
professional bodies and contractors alike. CLT panels can
be employed for a variety of building elements, such as
walls, floors, roofs, stairs and lift shafts.
Fig. 6.1. La Borda apartment block, Barcelona, designed by Lacol. The
cantilevering walkways act as horizontal circulation space and provide access to
the apartments, the staircase and the lift. (Photo: Lluc Miralles)

Similarly, other structural systems based on massive

timber panels have been developed, rediscovered or
rethought in recent times; these include nail-laminated
timber, dowel-laminated timber and log construction.
Cross-Laminated Timber

Fabrication and characteristics of the panels

Key properties

CLT panels consist of different layers of timber boards

(lamellae) glued together to form a solid object. In each
layer, the boards are laid at 90-degree angles with respect
to the adjacent layers (hence the term ‘cross-lamination’):
this fundamental characteristic means that CLT panels
span in two directions. The layers are usually in odd
numbers (typically three, five or seven, but nine or more is
also possible); which results in panels having a
predominant direction of span:

• in longitudinal panels, the boards of the majority of

layers are orientated lengthwise;
• in transversal panels, the boards of the majority of
layers are orientated crosswise.

Cross-lamination provides enhanced mechanical and

physical properties to the final product relative to the base
material. In particular, cross-lamination:

• distributes the high mechanical properties that wood

exhibits along the grain in two directions;
• makes the final material much more dimensionally
stable (less susceptible to shrinkage and swelling as a
result of changes in environmental conditions).
Moisture movement is about 0.01 per cent change in
moisture content on panel plane (both longitudinally
and transversally), and around 0.20–0.25 per cent
change in moisture content perpendicular to panel
plane (in the thickness direction);
 • reduces the effect of natural defects. Knots, for
instance, can be present in the lamellae, but they are
discontinuous and do not coincide in subsequent layers.

CLT is, in most cases, fabricated from softwoods: generally

spruce or alternatively Douglas fir or larch. Hardwoods can
also be employed, but this is a much rarer choice. Different
types of adhesives can be utilized, either individually or
mixed: polyurethane (PUR), melamine urea formaldehyde
(MUF) and emulsion polymer isocyanate (EPI). The
quantity of adhesive used is small relative to that of timber
and amounts to about 0.6 per cent of the overall panel
weight.

Fig. 6.2. Example of seven-layer CLT panels, typically utilized for floor or roof
applications. In each layer, the timber boards are arranged at right angles to
those of the adjacent layers. (Photo: Ying Liu, Haibo Guo, Cheng Sun and Wen-
Shao Chang, CC BY 4.0)
 Moisture content of CLT elements is usually around 12
per cent on delivery. Key thermophysical properties of a
CLT panel as a whole are very close to those of the raw
material used. For a panel made from spruce, density is
around 470kg/m3 (at 12 per cent moisture content) and
thermal conductivity 0.12W/(m·K).

Dimensions and layup of panels

Ordinary CLT panels range between 50 and 300mm in

thickness, but much larger panels can be manufactured if
needed (up to 500mm). The maximum length and width of
the panels depend mostly on the constraints posed by
transportation from the factory to the site and the
possibility of using tall cranes on site. For these reasons,
panels rarely exceed 13.5m in length and 3m in width.
Panels are generally flat, but curved panels can also be
fabricated in advanced manufacturing facilities.
Normally, the width of the sawn boards that make up
the panels is approximately 150mm, while their thickness
varies between 20 and 45mm. The cross-section of a CLT
panel is symmetrical around the main axis of the central
layer. Within the same panel, different layers can have
different thicknesses, to optimize structural performance.
In panels to be used as flexural members (such as floor or
roof panels), wood is concentrated in the longitudinal
layers (in the panels’ main direction of span), which are
thicker than the transverse layers. For instance, a 150mm-
thick panel for floor or roof applications can be built up of
layers of the following thicknesses (from one outer surface
to the other): (40+20+30+20+40)mm. In order to increase
the amount of wood with the grain oriented in one
direction, pairs of adjacent lamellae might have the same
orientation. In these special configurations optimized for
flexural members, the overall number of lamellae can
therefore be even, while the number of layers remains odd.
It is important to stress that there is currently little
standardization in the CLT industry: different
manufacturers have developed products with different
layups and formats, and adopt different fabrication
processes. This has important implications for designers
when they are preparing the specifications for a CLT
project or estimating its cost.

Fabrication process

CLT panels are produced to order, for individual projects.

The main phases of a typical fabrication process can be
summarized as follows:

• parts with large defects (such as knots or fissures) are

removed from the timber boards and the ends of
abutting boards are finger-jointed;
• the boards are planed, to enhance surface bonding in
the subsequent phases;
• the boards are arranged horizontally to form the first
layer of the panel, and the adhesive is evenly applied
over them;
• the boards of the second layer are placed on top of the
first layer (typically, at right angles). Adhesive and
subsequent layers are added as needed;
• the panel is inserted into a mechanical press and
subjected to high compressive loads (0.6–0.8 N/mm2)
for up to thirty minutes. Pressure is exerted
perpendicular to the main surfaces of the panel, but it
can also be exerted laterally, on the four sides, to
ensure that there are no gaps left between the boards
that make up every layer;
• the panels are trimmed and the edges are given the
intended geometry with CNC machines;
 • openings (if any) are formed by removing material from
the panels;
• chases for services are milled (if specified);
• surface treatment is performed (if specified), for
instance fire-retardant coatings.

Pre-cut openings and building services

Typically, CLT panels are cut in the factory with CNC

machines, and cutting on site is not advisable, since it is
time-consuming, expensive and might have repercussions
on the structural capacity of the panels. The openings
formed offsite can be for doors, fenestration, service
penetration and so on.
Building services can be accommodated in ad hoc voids
on the inside of walls and roofs, and in suspended ceilings.
Alternatively, it is possible to run small services such as
electrical wires in routes milled in the factory along the
joints between adjacent panels or in chases on one side of
the panels. These latter arrangements allow reducing the
overall thickness of building elements but require more
coordination between different aspects of the design (and
between the respective professionals) and rely on more
advanced manufacturing techniques.

Fire safety

In order to protect CLT buildings from rapidly collapsing in

the event of fire, two main options are available to
designers:

• the CLT panels are protected by adequate lining (for

example gypsum plasterboard), as was seen in
Chapters 4 and 5 for timber-frame and SIP
constructions, respectively;
 the panels are produced in thicknesses that exceed
• those required for structural purposes under normal
circumstances. In the event of fire, the faces of the
panels exposed to flame will char and thus protect the
timber behind the charring layer, which will remain
intact and continue to fulfil its structural function, at
least for a given length of time. In other words, the
extra timber added to the panels will act as a sacrificial
layer in case of fire. An indicative measure of the
charring rate is 0.7mm/min.

Fire-retardant coatings can be applied to the surfaces of

the panels, either in the factory or on site, after the panels
have been erected.

Appearance and surface treatment

Building standards regulate surface quality and define

different classes of visual appearance. In Europe, standard
EN 13017-1, Solid wood panels. Classification by surface
appearance. Part 1: softwood, introduces the following
appearance classes (from highest to lowest):

• class 0. Appearance must be well balanced in colour

and texture. Coarse texture is not permitted.
Discolouration is not permitted;
• class A. Appearance must be well balanced in colour
and texture. Coarse texture is permitted.
Discolouration is not permitted;
• class B. Appearance must be largely balanced in colour
and texture. Coarse texture is permitted. Slight
discolouration is permitted;
• class C. No requirements on appearance or on texture.
Discolouration is permitted;
• class S. No requirements on appearance or on texture.
Discolouration is permitted.
Natural defects (such as knots, resin pockets, bark pockets
and fissures) are permitted increasingly from class 0 to
class S. Similarly, the standard regulates other
characteristics of the panels for each appearance class
(thickness of glue line, presence of blemishes, quality of
panels’ edges and ends, presence of finger-joints and so
on).
However, manufacturing companies tend to use their
own terminology to define the same or similar finishes.
Classes 0 and A correspond to what manufactures tend to
define as ‘visible quality’ (or similar wording), class B to
‘industrial visual quality’, and classes C and S to ‘non-visual
quality’.
If CLT panels are manufactured from softwoods and the
surfaces are untreated, they will yellow over time when
exposed to artificial and especially natural light, since
ultraviolet (UV) radiation damages the lignin contained in
the wood. Yellowed areas of a CLT panel can be sanded and
thus regain their original, paler appearance, but this can be
very impractical or inconvenient in occupied buildings.
In order to avoid UV-related aging, the exposed surfaces
of CLT elements can be treated with substances that will
make them less reactive to UV light, thus allowing them to
maintain their initial pale colour. Other treatments are also
available that can give the surfaces of the panels the
desired hue and level of opacity or gloss. Not all
manufacturers offer these types of surface treatments, so
they are often conducted on site. When applying a coating
on the side of a CLT panel, it is worth keeping in mind that
the transverse lamellae will respond differently to the same
treatment, because the end-grain will tend to absorb more
product than the long grain. Similarly, the effect of the
same coating can be different over knots, finger-joints or
deviated grain.
The exposed surface of a CLT panel will tend to change
appearance as a response to fluctuations in environmental
conditions (especially after the first year and heating
season). For example, small fissures or gaps between
adjacent boards might appear on the surface, due to
shrinkage and swelling of the wood in the outer layer.
Cracks are particularly likely to form near heat sources,
because the higher temperature will cause the wood to lose
more moisture and, as a consequence, to shrink more than
in other areas of the building.
Some manufacturers offer the option of gluing an extra
layer of wood onto the exposed face of a CLT panel, for
aesthetic or decorative reasons. In this additional layer, the
grain is oriented as in the lamellae immediately behind.

Reinforcement and connections

When the spans of flexural components such as roof or

floor panels are noticeable, either the thickness of the
panels is increased so as to achieve the necessary
structural capacity, or a hybrid solution is chosen, with the
introduction of glulam or metal intermediate beams. The
latter option requires lesser use of timber and results in the
building element being lighter in weight.
CLT panels are connected to one another by means of
long screws or steel brackets. There are various types of
techniques to join panels; the edges can be square or more
complex: notched, rebated, or profiled for half-lapped
joints. If CLT is combined with other wood-based products,
making the connections is generally straightforward and
can be done with screws, nails and/or bolts. Connecting
CLT panels to concrete, masonry or steel components is,
conversely, more burdensome. It is also worth keeping in
mind that wood-based components will respond to changes
of environmental conditions in a similar way and to a
comparable extent.
 The most straightforward and economical fixing method
(numerous screws and brackets) has very little aesthetic
appeal, but this does not constitute a problem when the
CLT panels are lined. If, instead, CLT panels are exposed,
then connections should be carefully studied and specified;
screws and other fixing types can be concealed and used on
the back faces of the panels, if these are accessible. When
both faces of a CLT panel are exposed (for example in
internal walls), concealing the fixings in a successful
manner becomes more difficult. In order to hide the
connections, designers can opt for panels with rebated or
slotted edges, or for plugs or cover plates to be applied to
the exposed surfaces after the fixings have been inserted.

On-site assembly

After transportation to site, CLT panels can be erected very

quickly, which means that subsequent operations, such as
the installation of non-structural components, can be
performed promptly.
Different proprietary systems have been developed to
lift CLT panels during transport and erection: these can be
based, for example, on slings or metal anchors inserted into
blind holes or through-holes.
It is important for designers to remember that when CLT
panels (especially large ones) are transported to site and
then manoeuvred and lifted for installation, their corners
and edges can be damaged easily, particularly if they are
not simple, square edges, but more complex ones (for
example rebated or slotted). Therefore, when specifying
the geometry and finish of panels, designers should factor
in the practicalities of transport and erection and the
overall size of the panels, in order that the final output
reasonably matches the expectations set at the design
stage.
Constructions

External walls

CLT panels can sit directly on a concrete slab, without the

interposition of any timbers. For levelling purposes, the
panels can be mounted on non-shrink grout, or,
alternatively, this can be injected at a later stage into any
gaps between the foot of a panel and the slab. Metal shims
can be used if the slab surface presents some irregularities.
It is good practice to treat the feet of the wall panels with
end-grain sealant, which prevents them from absorbing
moisture from the grout or from the ground.
Alternatively, CLT panels can be laid on a timber sole
plate fixed to the concrete substructure. The sole plate can
be fabricated from durable or moderately durable species
(for example larch) and fixed to the concrete slab via bolts.
The CLT panel is then fixed to the plate with inclined
screws. A long, metal fastener can be used to connect all
three elements (panel, sole plate and slab). A damp-proof
course needs to be laid underneath the sole plate. Some
CLT manufacturers offer the option of a rebated sole plate
that matches a rebated foot in the CLT panels.
Steel angle brackets are used to fix the panel locations,
typically at 1.0–1.5m centres. The brackets are screwed
into the timber and bolted into the concrete slab. Self-
adhesive, compressible strips can be used between
abutting panels (lined up or at an angle), to improve
airtightness and acoustic performance.
Numerous solutions are possible to form the joints
between panels, and each manufacturing company tends to
have its preferred method. Abutting panels can have square
edges, or rebated edges. When two CLT walls abut at right
angles, long screws are used, which are inserted
perpendicular to the main surface of the panel through
which they pass, or at an angle to both panels, to avoid
entering a lamella in the direction of the grain (where the
connection would be weaker).
If a wall is subjected to high concentrated loads at
certain locations, the designer can either increase the
thickness of the whole CLT panel, or introduce ad hoc
strengthening locally, where it is most needed. The latter
option can be executed by adding structural members of
solid timber, engineered timber or other materials (for
example metals) to complement the CLT panels.
CLT walls can be clad with light- or heavyweight
systems, although the latter are less common. The range of
suitable cladding materials is the same as for timber-
framed and SIP buildings. Timber cladding (boards or
panels) is a frequent choice for CLT walls.
Fig. 6.3. Main structural components of a two-storey CLT building with a
duopitch roof. The openings can be formed either by punching a panel (6), or by
arranging various panels around them, including a lintel member (2), which is
generally orientated perpendicular to the other wall panels.
Fig. 6.4. Metal brackets that connect CLT wall panels to a floor have a twofold
function: to locate the panels and to resist the shear forces to which they are
subject.

In mid- and high-rise buildings, fire safety becomes of

paramount importance; therefore, adequate fire-stops need
to be inserted into the constructions (such as around
openings), to prevent fire from spreading from one storey
to those above.
With CLT walls, the most practical position for the
thermal-insulation layer is on the outside of the panels. This
means that the inner face of the CLT panels can be exposed
(in which case, visual quality will need to be specified) or
completed with a service void, typically with timber battens
and lining sheets. Semi-rigid or rigid insulation boards can
be fixed to the panels with special anchors screwed into the
CLT. Alternatively, timber battens can be fixed to the
outside of the CLT panels and the insulant fitted between
them (in this case, quilts could also be specified). This
solution, however, might create thermal bridging along the
battens and therefore needs to be designed attentively. The
thermal-insulation layer is externally covered in breather
membrane, which protects the integrity of the insulant and,
more importantly, of the wooden structure. In principle, it
is also possible to position the thermal insulant on the
inside of the CLT panels (an inner thermal jacket), but this
precludes the possibility of exposing the CLT internally and
causes thermal bridging at the level of intermediate floors.
In the case of masonry cladding, the designer will need
to ensure that the outer leaf of the wall is well integrated
into the overall construction system. In particular, it is
important to remember that the CLT structure and the
masonry cladding will respond differently to variations in
environmental conditions over time. Although CLT has
greater dimensional stability than natural wood – as was
seen above – some movement is likely to happen in the CLT
structure and at a different rate than in the masonry
cladding. A cavity is necessary between the CLT panels and
the masonry leaf: this will need to be adequately ventilated
and drained. Wall ties must be installed to stabilize the
outer skin of the wall.
Fig. 6.5. Construction of a CLT building with timber cladding: vertical boards on
battens and counterbattens (left), or horizontal boards on vertical battens
(right). Note: vertical battens (9) and counterbattens (11) are fixed to the CLT
panels with long fasteners that pass through the insulation boards (6).
Fig. 6.6. Examples of solutions for external walls made of CLT panels, with two
types of lightweight cladding: render on carrier board (a) and horizontal timber
boards (b). (Drawing: after Sanna, 2018)
Fig. 6.7. It is common practice in CLT buildings to use some steel structural
members where very high stresses need to be resisted. In this case, a steel
section forms the lintel over a large aperture in the façade and supports the CLT
panels of the intermediate floor.
Fig. 6.8. A double-leaf internal wall designed to meet high acoustic-insulation
requirements: the cavity between the CLT panels has been partially filled with
mineral-wool quilts.
Fig. 6.9. CLT panels for wall applications can be milled to accommodate
electrical services.

With lightweight cladding, a ventilated cavity is

necessary. The cladding components (for example, timber
boards, or timber/metal sheets) are mounted on timber
battens (and counterbattens, if necessary) or metal rails,
which, in turn, are fixed to the CLT panels (passing through
the insulation layer, if this is on the outside of the CLT
leaf). Thanks to the continuity of the CLT substrate, it is
easier to position fixing points for the cladding than in
timber-framed walls, in which the fixing points must
coincide with stud locations. The weight of the outer
cladding is generally carried by the CLT structure;
therefore, the cladding does not sit on the foundations.

Internal walls

Internal walls are constructed in CLT especially when they

have a loadbearing function; otherwise, different systems
such as timber-framed panels can complement the CLT
primary structure. For internal walls with high acoustic
requirements, good insulation levels can be achieved by
interposing a layer of acoustic insulant between two skins
of CLT.

Party walls

There are two main ways of building a CLT party wall: with
a single or a double CLT leaf. In both cases, fire safety and
acoustic insulation become key aspects of the detailing and
material specification. When there are two CLT leaves,
these are structurally separated, and the cavity between
them can be fully or partially insulated with materials such
as mineral wool, which will provide both acoustic
performance and increase fire safety. The panels can be
protected from fire on the inside with fire-resistant
materials such as gypsum plasterboard, which can be fixed
directly to the panels or to timber battens. The void
between the battens can be filled with insulant. In order to
prevent transmission of impact sound, resilient strips can
be interposed between the CLT surface and the battens.
When there is a single CLT leaf, fire-safety and acoustic
requirements will be fulfilled completely by the layers on
either side of the panels, which therefore need to be
detailed very attentively. Battens can be attached to the
panels to provide support for a sufficiently thick layer of
plasterboard or other fire-resistant material. The space
behind the lining is filled with insulation of adequate
thickness and density. Resilient strips at the interface
between the battens and the CLT surfaces can greatly
reduce the passage of impact vibration between the two
properties.

Intermediate floors
With CLT, both platform construction and balloon
construction are possible. For high-rise buildings, platform
construction is advisable, while for low-rise buildings the
two options are equally viable. This poses an advantage
over timber-frame construction, as CLT wall panels can be
longer than their timber-frame counterparts. In techniques
close to balloon construction, the floor panels can be
supported:

• by steel angle brackets screwed to the wall panels.

Depending on the fire-protection requirements set by
building regulations, the metal brackets might need to
be lined with fire-resistant materials. The floor panel
can be notched where it meets the horizontal flange of
the bracket;
• by edge beams (solid or glulam) fixed to the wall
panels.

In either case, a resilient, compressible strip can be

inserted between the floor panels and their metal or timber
supports.
In platform construction, floor panels bear upon the wall
panels below (to which they are screwed) and, in turn,
support the wall panels of the upper storey. Angle brackets
at the foot of the upper wall panels are screwed to both the
wall and the floor panels. In a T-junction between an
external wall and an intermediate floor, a perforated metal
plate can be inserted on the outside of the wall: this is
nailed to both wall panels. Self-adhesive, resilient strips
can be inserted between the floor panel and the wall panels
(both upper and lower), to limit the transmission of impact
and airborne sound between the two storeys.
Separating floors have higher requirements in terms of
acoustic insulation and fire protection than floors within
the same property, residential unit or fire compartment. An
attentive study of the build-up is necessary to achieve
satisfactory acoustic performance, especially to minimize
the transmission of impact sound (which proves more
difficult than in separating walls). Various measures can be
taken, in different combinations, to enhance the acoustic
behaviour of a separating intermediate floor:

• adding mass to the construction with high-density

layers, such as in situ screeds, ‘dry screeds’ with
gypsum boards, timber-based decks, or loose gravel;
• inserting resilient layers;
• inserting soft acoustic insulation;
• creating floating floors (by combining the measures
above);
• forming a suspended ceiling, with acoustic insulation,
and preferably with appropriate fasteners to decouple
the ceiling and the CLT panels;
• choosing a soft floor finish (for example carpet).

These options are effective thanks to two main

mechanisms: they either increase the mass of the build-up
or create acoustic discontinuity between its components.
Fig. 6.10. Examples of build-ups of intermediate floors constructed of CLT
panels exposed on the underside. The non-structural layers above the deck can
be built with dry techniques (a & b) or wet techniques (c & d).
Fig. 6.11. Intermediate floors constructed of CLT panels concealed by ceiling
linings of different types: the non-structural layers above the CLT deck employ
dry techniques. Impact-sound insulation is achieved with a continuous resilient
layer (a & b) or with resilient battens (c & d). The ceiling is either directly
attached to the CLT deck (a & c) or suspended (b & d).
Fig. 6.12. Intermediate floors constructed of CLT panels concealed by ceiling
linings of different types: the non-structural layers above the CLT deck employ
wet techniques. In order to improve acoustic performance, it is beneficial to add
mass to the build-up by laying one screed (a, b & c) or two screeds (d).

Intermediate floors can be constructed with dry or wet

methods. A floating screed on an insulation layer is
recommended for acoustic purposes. A 50–70mm in situ
screed can be created on top of the CLT panels, which can
incorporate the service runs. This type of solution entails
involving wet trades and might extend construction time.
The screed can be based on cement or calcium sulphate. A
thin polyethylene layer should be interposed between the
screed and the substrate.
 The alternative to a traditional screed is a dry form of
construction – dry screed – with high-density boards. These
can be manufactured from gypsum (and achieve a density
of around 1,600kg/m3), with a thickness of 20–25mm, and
have rebated or tongue-and-groove edges for ease of
installation. The boards can be fixed to one another with
adhesive (for example PUR-based glue) and/or steel screws
or clips. These boards are also marketed with an insulating
layer laminated on the underside of the gypsum panel (of
mineral wool, wood-fibre or polystyrene).
A similar dry solution involves laying timber battens that
support a timber-based deck (such as plywood, OSB or
particleboard) or a gypsum-based deck, using the same
products as discussed above. The battens can be decoupled
from the CLT substrate by means of resilient strips or
resilient cradles that prevent the transmission of impact
vibrations between storeys (similar to what was described
in Chapter 4 for timber-framed floors). The construction
can then be finished with the desired type of flooring.
Flanking transmission of both impact and airborne
sound can be mitigated with the insertion of strips along all
the edges of the floor (where it abuts the walls), in both
wet and dry techniques. These strips – which can be made
of different materials, for instance, mineral wool or rubber
– need to isolate the whole thickness of the floor, including
the floor finish. For this reason, it is advisable to remove
the excess part of the strips after the entire floor has been
constructed.
Small-diameter gravel can be used to add further mass
to the floor. If the gravel is mixed with a cementitious
binder and water, then the density and compressive
strength of this layer will increase.
If the underside of the CLT panels is not exposed, it can
be completed with suitable lining (such as plasterboard
sheets), mounted directly onto the CLT members or in a
suspended ceiling. It is preferable to acoustically decouple
the suspended ceiling from the CLT floor, with ad hoc clips
that mitigate the transmission of impact vibrations from the
floor to the lower storey. The depth of the cavity between
the deck and the ceiling needs to be attentively optimized:
if the cavity is not deep enough, it will have negligible
effect; if it is too deep, it will cause resonance. Mineral
wool or other types of acoustic insulants need to be
inserted into the cavity to prevent it from acting as a
resonance chamber (drum effect).
High-quality workmanship on site and attentive
supervision during the whole construction process are
fundamental to achieving the intended level of acoustic
performance.
Fig. 6.13. Service hole formed within a CLT intermediate floor. The area is
sufficient to accommodate the ducts of the heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning system.
Fig. 6.14. An internal staircase entirely constructed in CLT. The sloping panels
span between those making up the floors and the intermediate landings, which,
in turn, are supported by CLT wall panels and steel sections.

Flat roofs

In CLT buildings, flat roofs are generally arranged as warm

roofs, with a continuous layer of insulation laid above the
CLT deck (with the interposition of a vapour-control layer,
if necessary). One way to create a gradient for water
drainage is to lay two courses of rigid insulation boards:
the lower boards have constant thickness, while the upper
boards are tapered and thus form the desired slope. On top
of the upper boards, the waterproofing layer is installed:
this can be based on a single-ply system (such as PVC
membranes) or multi-ply system (for example bituminous
membranes), as was seen in Chapter 4 for other structural
systems. The waterproof membrane can be left exposed or
protected with other components, such as pebble ballast or
tiles. The underside of the CLT panels can be exposed (if of
visual quality) or lined with sheet materials, with or without
the creation of a service void.

Fig. 6.15. Example of a typical build-up for a CLT flat roof, arranged as a warm-
deck roof. The waterproofing layer is laid on a slightly sloping surface achieved
by means of tapered insulation boards.
Pitched roofs

In pitched roofs, CLT panels are supported by external or

internal walls and possibly purlins or ridge beams.
Depending on the pitch of the roof, the CLT panels will
exert greater or smaller lateral thrust at the eaves, which
needs to be adequately withstood by the structural system
for overall stability. The top floor can act as a diaphragm
and resist the lateral loads coming from the roof.

Fig. 6.16. Construction of a CLT pitched roof with plasterboard lining on the
underside (section perpendicular to the plane of slope). (Drawing: after Sanna,
2018)

The thermal-insulation layer is generally placed on top

of the CLT panels, and then protected by a breather
membrane. On top of the membrane, timber battens can be
laid in the direction of slope or, if necessary for the chosen
type of covering, sloping counterbattens with horizontal
battens on top can be added. If there is a risk of interstitial
condensation through the thermal insulant, and depending
on the type of insulant, a vapour-control layer might be
necessary. If the underside of the CLT panels is not
exposed, then a service void with battens and lining can be
formed.

Nail- and Dowel-Laminated Timber

Nail-laminated and dowel-laminated timber panels are

largely produced in central Europe, especially in Austria,
Switzerland and Germany, with the largest companies
having manufacturing facilities dotted throughout this
region. Over the last decades, the market has been
expanding into neighbouring countries such as Italy and
France. Norway also has a growing market for these
construction methods.
DLT and NLT are almost exclusively fabricated from
softwoods: especially white and red spruce. Manufacturers
can also utilize other species on the client’s request. The
advantage of nail- and dowel-lamination is that no glues are
used, which also means that the panels do not release the
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) typically associated
with structural adhesives (although these are in minimal
quantity, as explained in the sections above on CLT). NLT
and DLT panels can be manufactured in great lengths (up
to 16m). In these cases, finger-jointing is performed to
fabricate the long lamellae.
Fig. 6.17. Example of a DLT wall, showing, from left to right: internal
plasterboard lining, structural DLT panel (with voids to accommodate service
runs), OSB sheathing, double layer of wood-fibre insulation boards with rebates,
and external render. The side of the DLT panel in the foreground shows the
positions of the hardwood dowels used to connect its softwood lamellae. (Photo:
James Henderson, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Both DLT and NLT elements can be integrated with

other timber techniques, such as framed panels and glulam
members. In buildings with long spans, it is not unusual to
rely on hybrid systems; for instance the massive floor
panels can easily rest on the flanges of steel I-beams.
Fig. 6.18. Details of external walls constructed of NLT or DLT panels. Two
different cladding systems are proposed: render on carrier board (a) and
horizontal timber boards (b). (Drawing: after Sanna, 2018)
Fig. 6.19. There are many possible arrangements for intermediate floors
constructed of exposed NLT or DLT panels. The layers laid above the structural
deck can either use dry techniques (a & b) or wet techniques (c & d).

When designing with NLT and DLT, it is important to

remember that they maintain the typical anisotropic and
hygroscopic characteristics of solid timber (Chapter 1),
which instead become much less accentuated in cross-
laminated elements. Therefore, when designing and
specifying panels, this should be done in a way that permits
dimensional changes during the construction and
operational phases of a building. It is equally important to
ensure good workmanship, weatherproofing and attentive
supervision of construction sites, so as to ascertain that the
panels are adequately stored and installed, and that direct
absorption of water is prevented.

Nail-laminated timber

NLT was invented in the 1970s in Germany for mining and

railway applications, and to use lower-grade timber. After
the development and uptake of DLT, NLT became less
popular. In recent years, NLT has been rediscovered,
especially in North America.
In their simplest configuration, NLT panels are formed
by timber planks stacked together in the same orientation
and connected by steel nails. In order to improve the
panels’ mechanical properties, one layer is often added on
one side, and nailed to the planks, to act as a diaphragm;
this can be made of OSB sheets, gypsum-based boards, or
timber boards positioned diagonally to the planks. This
additional layer, useful for wall and floor applications alike,
particularly improves racking performance and
airtightness.

Dowel-laminated timber

DLT can also be referred to as dowellam. It was largely

employed in North America in industrial and agricultural
buildings in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
especially in conjunction with post-and-beam systems.
Noticeable examples are the Globe Elevators – grain silos –
in Duluth (Minnesota), completed in 1887, with walls built
up of horizontal timber planks; or Toronto’s multi-storey
warehouses, which employed solid-timber floors for their
high performance in the event of fire (they were indeed
referred to as ‘fire-resisting floors’).
Fig. 6.20. Construction of a pitched roof supported by NLT or DLT panels
(section perpendicular to the plane of slope). The desired level of thermal
insulation can be obtained by installing rigid insulation boards on top of the
structural panels, resulting in a warm-roof configuration. (Drawing: after Sanna,
2018)

In the UK, the very first DLT building is Acharacle

Primary School (Scotland), designed by Gaia Group and
completed in 2009; but the first project with massive
panels manufactured from home-grown timber (Sitka
spruce and Douglas fir) is the extension to the Coed-y-
Brenin Forest Park Visitor Centre (Wales), designed by
Architype and completed in 2013.
 The applications of DLT panels range from walls
(Brettsperrholzwand) to floors and roofs
(Brettsperrholzdecke). DLT panels can have at least three
types of layups:

• all the boards have the same orientation. This is the

simplest form and is also referred to as Brettstapel in
German-speaking countries;
• each layer is at right angles to the adjacent layers. This
arrangement is very similar to CLT, but no glue is used
to connect the boards;
• the lamellae are oriented in three different directions:
parallel, perpendicular and diagonal to the main axis of
the panel.

In Brettstapel, the dowels are generally inserted

perpendicular to the stacked planks; however, it is also
possible to insert them at an angle to improve structural
performance (especially shear performance).
The dowels are generally fabricated from hardwoods
(for example beech) and kept at lower moisture content
than the planks. After insertion, as they reach equilibrium
moisture content, they will absorb moisture and expand; as
a result, they will exert pressure on the surfaces of the
drilled holes and thus make the connection tighter and
stronger. To the same end, the holes drilled into the planks
can have a slightly smaller diameter than the dowels.
The form of the dowels can also vary, the most common
type having a fluted end and ridged surface. Some
manufacturers use dowels with a threaded surface, which
means that the holes drilled into the timber planks need to
be compatible. This latter type of connection is therefore
more similar to that of a screw.

Panel profiles and visual quality

The range of possible profiles for the lamellae is wide, from
simple butt joints to half-lapped or tongue-and-groove
joints. Interlocking profiles offer some advantages: during
the fabrication process, they facilitate alignment of the
lamellae; once installed, they can improve distribution of
loads. The sides of the panels can be grooved, so that loose
tongues can be inserted between adjacent panels.
NLT panels can be exposed on one side, especially when
used for floor construction. If the underside of the floor
panel is visible, it can be completely flat or employ planks
of different depths that can be alternated. This option can
generate various panel configurations that can be desirable
for both aesthetic and acoustic reasons. Sometimes,
‘shadow gaps’ are formed along the joints between the
lamellae on the exposed underside of the panels: these tend
to make effects of dimensional movement (especially
shrinkage) less noticeable. For acoustic purposes, bigger
voids can be formed above the shadow gaps, which will
affect the way in which the ceiling reflects and absorbs
sound waves. The use of exposed panels in walls is rare.

Log Construction

Log construction is a very ancient technique, characterized

by rich variations through the centuries and the
geographical regions where it developed. It is founded on a
simple principle: walls can be formed by arranging logs
horizontally and shaping and notching their ends in such a
way that they interlock. Roof and floor elements can be
built using other timber-based methods.
In Europe, log construction was widespread in vast
areas of Finland, Scandinavia, Russia and the Baltic
countries. In all these regions, it was possible to procure
long and straight logs from the local coniferous forests. Log
construction was exported to North America when
Europeans settled there. Over the centuries and across
geographical regions, log construction was adopted for a
large variety of buildings: from agricultural sheds to
houses, civic and commercial buildings, especially in rural
settings. In Europe and North America in the 1930s and
40s, log construction was replaced by other forms of timber
construction (such as timber frame) or by different
structural materials altogether, and its use became limited
to holiday homes and wood cabins. Over the last decades,
logconstructed buildings have been rediscovered and, in
some countries with a strong timber industry, such as
Finland, they have been used again for nonresidential
purposes.
In traditional log construction, the logs were debarked
and then notched by hand, often using simple tools. The
way in which the cross-section of the logs and their ends
were notched varied geographically and chronologically,
generating a broad range of techniques and products. For
example, the ‘flat-on-flat’ method involves flattening both
the top and bottom of the logs, in order to easily stack them
one on top of the other.
Shrinkage becomes very important during the lifespan
of log buildings, especially in the first years after
completion. As the wood dries out, it contracts; in
particular, the cross-section of the logs changes due to
shrinkage in the radial and tangential directions (in which
wood exhibits the least dimensional stability, as seen in
Chapter 1). Depending on the species and the variation in
internal moisture content, the height of a log wall can
undergo a substantial change of 10–15mm per metre.
Typically, internal walls shrink less than external walls, due
to the different conditions to which they are exposed and
the consequent levels of moisture content.
Nowadays, while there are still companies that employ
handcrafted logs, industrialized methods are readily
available and the logs can be quickly and precisely milled
(or ‘machine-processed’) in a factory. With advanced
machinery the logs can be given complex profiles, which
make longitudinal and corner joints much tighter and more
effective.
A further evolution of the market has been facilitated by
the production of engineered logs. It is possible to form
logs by gluing wood lamellae and thus obtaining a final
product that possesses enhanced properties with respect to
solid sawn wood. Laminated logs can be very long if the
lamellae are finger-jointed. The shrinkage rate in
engineered logs is noticeably less than in their sawn
counterparts. Proprietary systems can include:

• the use of steel fixings (for example bolts or dowels) to

increase the strength and rigidity of the constructions
where necessary;
• ancillary components, such as self-adhesive gaskets,
that can make the joints very tight (along the logs and
at corner junctions alike), with improved thermal and
acoustic performance.

An example of a state-of-the-art log house is illustrated in

Case Study 10, at the end of this chapter.
Fig. 6.21. St Severin’s Old Log Church in Clearfield County (Pennsylvania) was
built by German settlers in the 1840s. The walls are constructed of square-hewn,
white pine logs. The corners feature dovetail and half-dovetail joints. The
longitudinal joints between the logs are filled with mortar (chink). (Photo: Public
Domain)

Case Study 7: La Borda Apartment Block

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Constitució 85–89, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

Building type: residential – block of apartments
Completion date: October 2018
Design Team:
Architect: Lacol SCCL (Pol Massoni, Cristina Gamboa, Mirko Gegundez and
Eliseu Arrufat), Barcelona, Spain
Structural engineer: Miguel Nevado, Barcelona, Spain
Building services engineer: Arkenova, Barcelona, Spain
 Environmental consultant: Societat Orgànica, Projecte d’Arquitectura I
Sostenibilitat (Coque Claret and Dani Calatayud), Barcelona, Spain
Acoustic consultant: Àurea Acústica (Grisella Iglesias), Barcelona, Spain
Client: La Borda Cooperativa d’habitatges en cessió d’ús
Gross floor internal area: 2,950m2
Awards:
Winner – Ciutat de Barcelona Award, 2018
Winner – Barcelona Building Construmat Award, category of built work –
architecture, 2019
Winner – European Responsible Housing Awards, special innovation award,
2019
Winner – Premis Catalunya Construcció, category: construction
management (Xavier Aumedes and Gemma Rius), 2019
Key words: CLT, high-rise, residential, apartments, courtyard, corralas,
passive solar design
Fig. 6.22. La Borda’s southern façade within its urban context. (Photo: Lacol)

Brief and design process

The project originated as an initiative by La Borda
Cooperativa, a housing cooperative founded in 2012 by a
group of neighbours in Barcelona. The group decided to
collectively tackle the need for affordable housing, in the
context of Barcelona’s housing crisis. Its mission centres on
the need to create a community-living model that could act
as an alternative to the jointly public-private or fully private
building developments in the Catalonian capital.
Lacol cooperative of architects was involved from the
outset in this project led by La Borda, a six-storey
residential block of twenty-eight apartments (of varying
sizes: 40, 60 and 75m²), between the neighbourhood of La
Bordeta and the industrial area of Can Batlló. The building
is erected on council land, with a seventy-five-year
leasehold. It is collectively owned by the members of the
cooperative and has been funded with their individual
contributions, along with bank loans, grants and a micro-
lending campaign, which reached a total budget of €2.4
million. The cooperative cedes the right of use of the
apartments to its members. The innovative living model
aspires to place value upon use and quality of space.
The plot lies in a compact urban area between two
existing buildings. Building regulations for the plot strictly
dictated the maximum allowed volume, number of storeys
and area. The regulations also mandated the construction
of a car park, but the architects persuaded the relevant
authority to waive this requirement, so as to reduce the
economic cost and the environmental impact of the scheme
and, at the same time, encourage a shift in urban transport
towards greater use of bicycles.
La Borda’s goals comprise collective property,
community life, self-development, active participation of
end-users and adaptation of buildings to their needs,
economic affordability and environmental sustainability (in
particular, the promotion of buildings with minimal impact
upon the environment during the construction and
occupation stages).
All these aspects had to be considered by Lacol when
they started developing a design strategy. One of La
Borda’s aspirations was to enhance social relations
between users, as well as to promote a housing model (and
associated living style) that would reduce the apartments’
areas by 10 per cent, thanks to a set of shared spaces such
as laundry facilities, guest rooms and storage closets.
Active user participation was integrated into all phases of
the project, from design and construction to management
of the building during occupancy. Reciprocal trust and an
open, fruitful dialogue between Lacol architects and La
Borda led them to take experimental and brave structural
decisions, in spite of all the challenges they entailed.
In the design process, the architects were inspired by
SAAL (Serviço Ambulatório de Apoio Local), an initiative
funded by the Portuguese government in 1974 to give a
voice to the communities living in substandard housing(1).
SAAL required professionals to work with, rather than for,
the residents, enabling an inclusive approach to
architecture. In design and programmatic terms, Lacol was
inspired by corralas: a traditional, collective form of
housing that can be found in Madrid and southern Spain,
especially Malaga and Sevilla. Numerous origins are
attributed to corralas, from ancient Roman villas and
Islamic courtyard houses, to monastic and military
architecture. Nevertheless, corrala developments increased
with the demographic growth in Spanish cities from the
eighteenth century onwards(2), and played a key role in
accommodating the rising population. Corrala architecture
is defined by two types of communal spaces: a central
courtyard (patio), where occupants spent a large
proportion of their time, and a passageway (corredor)
located on each floor and structured as a balcony, open on
the courtyard side. Traditionally, the materials employed in
these buildings were timber for the supporting structure,
and adobe and bricks for infill walls.

Fig. 6.23. A traditional corrala building in Spain. This residential building type
has the two distinguishing communal spaces that can be observed here: a
courtyard and a walkway on the upper floor, which provides access to the
individual apartments. (Photo: Santiago López-Pastor; CC BY-ND 2.0)
Fig. 6.24. Plan of the second floor, which accommodates six apartments, all
accessible via a balcony-like walkway around the communal courtyard.
(Drawing: Lacol)
Fig. 6.25. Cut-away view of the building, showing how the layout of the various
floors revolves around the all-important courtyard. (Drawing: Lacol)
Fig. 6.26. On the first floor is a communal, double-height space, located
between the courtyard and the northern, translucent façade. (Photo: Lluc
Miralles)
Fig. 6.27. Among the numerous communal spaces of this apartment block is a
large terrace on the fifth floor, which overlooks the urban area north of the
building. (Photo: Lluc Miralles)
Fig. 6.28. The staircase is completely realized in CLT panels. (Photo: Lluc
Miralles)
 Lacol architects see architecture as a tool for social,
environmental and economic change, and their values
reflect La Borda’s ethos, whereby a residential project
means building a community. In fact, Lacol believe that the
community model promoted by La Borda has made it
possible to overcome major limitations (often encountered
in architectural projects) and has offered them an
opportunity to propose unconventional design solutions,
towards a more responsible way of building.
Fig. 6.29. Interior of an apartment, with kitchen, dining and living area. This
room gives access to a deep balcony, which can easily accommodate a table
and some chairs. (Photo: Institut Municipal de Habitatge i Rehabilitacio de
Barcelona)

Construction

Structural system:
Foundations: 600mm-thick reinforced-concrete raft foundations
Vertical supports: ground floor: 250 × 400mm reinforced-concrete
columns; first to sixth floor: 100–120mm-thick CLT panels
Ground floor: beam-and-block floor and reinforced concrete slab
Intermediate floors: 120mm-thick CLT panel floors (exposed ceiling
structure)
Roof: 120mm-thick CLT panels (flat roof)
Thermal insulation: mineral wool
Acoustic insulation: mineral wool
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) was chosen for being a
lightweight and sustainable construction material. This was
regarded as an innovative approach in Spain at the time of
construction (February 2017–October 2018), when La
Borda became the tallest CLT timber building in the
country. The construction process was divided into two
phases, to minimize the initial investment: in the first
phase, minimum living conditions were achieved for
residents to move in; in the second phase, the community
could independently complete the design, by adapting the
interior layout of individual apartments to users’ needs.
The lowest storeys of the building have a reinforced-
concrete structure, consisting of both a skeleton and some
solid walls and ground-bearing slabs. The remainder of the
building is completely made of CLT panels, used both
vertically and horizontally, for the intermediate floors and
the two types of flat roofs (a terrace and a green roof). The
floors of the south-facing balconies and the walkways
around the courtyard are also made of CLT panels (which
cantilever from their vertical supports).
Unlike most CLT buildings of similar height, La Borda
does not have a loadbearing core of other materials from
the first storey upwards. This means that the CLT structure
achieves sufficient overall rigidity on its own, without
relying on concrete-built lift shafts, staircases or service
cores, as is often the case. The loadbearing structure
consists of 100 × 200mm-thick CLT timber panels, used
from the first to the sixth floor, supported by 600mm
reinforced-concrete foundations and 250 × 400mm
reinforced-concrete columns on the ground floor. All CLT
panels were fabricated from radiata pine grown in northern
Spain. An empty plot adjoining the site facilitated the
unloading and storing of materials, and accommodated the
crane by means of which all the prefabricated elements
were lifted and assembled, including a prefabricated CLT
staircase core. The external walls are insulated with
mineral wool of variable thickness, depending on the
orientation (126mm in northern walls, 450mm in southern
and courtyard walls).
Inside the building, the first floor accommodates a
double-height communal space, which sits on the concrete
structure of the ground floor and hosts glulam portals. The
upper storeys have 120mm-thick CLT panel floors, with a
20mm-thick acoustic insulation mat (200kg/m2) and a
70mm concrete screed. The acoustic insulation disconnects
the screed from the CLT structure and helps minimize
noise and vibration transmission between different storeys.
In the internal walls of the apartments, the CLT panels are
covered with 45mm-thick mineral-wool mats and
plasterboard, which provide acoustic insulation between
adjacent apartments.
The main roof (over the sixth-floor apartments, see Fig.
6.31) is flat and supported by the same 120mm CLT panels
that make up the rest of the structure. In addition, there is
a flat, green roof on the northern side of the building (over
the fourth-floor apartments), with a 100mm-thick soil
substrate for vegetation. A lightweight canopy protects the
central courtyard; this is a curved, steel frame covered in
translucent polycarbonate sheets and completed,
underneath, with an adjustable sun-blind, which can be
operated remotely. This central greenhouse-like canopy
was an innovative strategy chosen by the architects to
optimize natural lighting and temperature inside the
building, throughout the year.
Fig. 6.30. Detailed section showing construction of the north-facing external
wall and the intermediate floor. (Drawing: translated and re-drawn from Lacol)
Fig. 6.31. Detailed section showing construction of the green roof. (Drawing:
translated and re-drawn from Lacol)
Fig. 6.32. An adjustable, motorized sun-blind filters the light that floods into
the courtyard through the translucent roof. (Photo: Gabriel López)
Fig. 6.33. The southern façade during construction. The balconies are
supported by cantilevering CLT panels. (Photo: Lluc Miralles)
Fig. 6.34. Construction of the communal, double-height space on the first floor.
The third floor (above this space) consists of CLT panels supported by a series of
glulam portal frames, whose columns are mechanically fixed to the first-floor
reinforced-concrete slab. (Photo: Lacol)
Fig. 6.35. The completed CLT structure. The wall panels are fixed to the floor
panels by means of steel angles and bolted connections. The lintels over the
wide openings are realized with glulam members, spanning between CLT walls.
(Photo: Lacol)
Fig. 6.36. The staircase was prefabricated in multiple sections, which were
positioned inside the building by means of a tower crane. (Photo: Lacol)

Environmental sustainability

Lacol architects focused on two main strategies in response

to climate change. On the one hand, they aimed to reduce
energy consumption during the construction phase, by
avoiding building underground and specifying
prefabricated timber panels for the main structure. Since
Spain does not have a tradition of, or professional expertise
in, timber construction, it proved challenging to
demonstrate compliance with regulations when proposing a
timber building. However, Lacol had previously realized
some other projects in timber and the housing
cooperative’s desire to build using sustainable materials
allowed them to overcome these difficulties. On the other
hand, the architects designed the building with passive
energy strategies, to reduce energy consumption during
the occupational phase.
An example of a passive measure is the orientation of
the apartments: twenty-four out of twenty-eight apartments
have openings in the southern façade, to take advantage of
solar radiation in winter, while still having balconies
sheltered from it in summer. For this reason, secondary
spaces, such as communal and utility areas, are located
along the northern façade and on the ground floor. The
central courtyard, inspired by traditional corralas, is
another important element of the passive design strategy.
The courtyard functions as a collective heating mechanism,
maximizing heat gains from solar radiation in winter and
allowing for cross-ventilation in summer for cooling
purposes. Some of the panes that make up the canopy and
the thin, lightweight walls underneath it are motorized and
openable.
Furthermore, to increase the thermal mass of the
intermediate floors, a 70mm concrete screed was added on
top of the CLT deck, balancing the temperature between
day and night. The building’s occupants have reported that
the internal spaces are very comfortable thanks to these
passive strategies, which allow for mild temperatures even
in winter, without resorting to the heating system. La
Borda also has a centralized thermal-generation system for
water-heating, space-heating and airconditioning, which
serves all its apartments and includes a biomass boiler.
 While it was not possible to introduce a rainwater
collection system due to budgetary constraints,
photovoltaic panels were installed on the green roof to
reduce La Borda’s consumption of electrical energy from
the grid. Thanks to all these environmental measures, La
Borda achieved ‘A’ standard according to the Spanish
energy-rating system for the building sector (known as
EPC).

Case Study 8: Three Sisters Footbridge

Location: Saint-Charles River, linking Bourdages Street to Victoria Park,

Québec City, Quebec, Canada
Building type: footbridge
Completion date: 2016
Design Team:
Architect: ABCP Architecture, Canada
Structural engineer: EMS
Electrical consultant: SGTR
Client: Ville de Québec
Span: 53m
Deck area: 420m2
Awards:
Winner – Cecobois Excellence Award (innovative-solutions category), 2016
Winner – Wood Design & Building Awards (North-American category), 2018
Key words: cable-stayed bridge, CLT, glulam, cables, masts
Fig. 6.37. View of the Three Sisters Footbridge over the Saint-Charles River, in
Québec City. (Photo: Gino Pelletier)

Brief and design process

The Three Sisters Footbridge (Passerelle des Trois-Soeurs,

in French), located in Québec City, crosses the Saint-
Charles River and connects Vanier residential area to
Victoria Park (in the Saint-Sauveur district). It stands out
for its shape, original design solution and materiality.
The construction of this footbridge had been long
awaited and debated: citizens’ committees had gathered
numerous times to identify the best location for the
structure. They had discussed several issues, such as
preservation of the trees in Victoria Park, site accessibility
(due to high traffic in the residential area, especially in
summertime), the presence of old foundations on site and
how to construct on the riverbanks.
 ABCP Architecture were engaged by the municipality,
Ville de Québec, to design the footbridge. This firm, also
based in Québec City, aims to produce designs that respect
the environment and respond directly to their contexts. For
this project, they were asked by the client to explore the
possibility of incorporating wood into the design. They then
decided to construct most of the structure (the masts and
deck) from this material. While this key choice posed
several challenges, it also contributed to the
harmonious integration of the bridge into its surroundings.
The accesses at both ends of the bridge were also
designed with particular care and sensitivity to the place,
in a way that minimized their footprint. The concrete
abutments follow the form of the riverbanks and thus blend
gently with the landscape.
Fig. 6.38. Plan and south-west elevation of the footbridge, showing its
asymmetrical configuration. (Drawing: adapted from ABCP architecture)
Fig. 6.39. Front and side elevations of the timber masts and the steel, A-
shaped head on top of them, to which all the cables are connected. (Drawing:
adapted and translated from ABCP architecture)
Fig. 6.40. Access to the bridge from Victoria Park (right side of the river). The
two masts and the A-shaped steel cap that joins them are recognizable from a
distance and visually act as a gateway. (Photo: Gino Pelletier)
Fig. 6.41. Eye-level view of the bridge towards the timber masts. The guardrail
is composed of thin steel spindles, and the floor of diagonal timber boards.
(Photo: Gino Pelletier)
Fig. 6.42. The bridge in wintertime, under a blanket of snow. (Photo: ABCP
architecture)

Construction

Structural system:
Bridge type: asymmetric, A-shaped, cable-stayed footbridge
Foundations: piles and reinforced-concrete anchors
Vertical supports: glulam masts and galvanized-steel cables
Deck: steel beams (circular hollow sections), glulam beams and CLT
panels

The design aimed to limit as much as possible the number

of wood-based members exposed to the elements, in the
interests of long-term durability of the bridge as a whole.
Hence, the two masts are the only timber structural
elements exposed to the weather. The deck has a glulam
and CLT structure that is fully protected by waterproof
membranes. The details were attentively studied to allow
for good water drainage and ventilation of the components.
This is a cable-stayed bridge with an asymmetric
configuration, in that the spans on either side of the masts
are different. The two masts are the primary loadbearing
members that transmit the bridge loads to the ground.
They are made from glued laminated spruce and are about
900mm in diameter. The lower ends of the masts are
connected to the concrete foundations by means of steel
hinges. The upper ends are joined by a sizable steel head,
which creates an A-shape and signposts the entrance to the
bridge from the park.
The cables (made from galvanized steel) all connect to
the steel head placed on top of the masts, in a fan-like
arrangement. This means that each couple of cables (one
for each side of the bridge) has a different length and a
different inclination. Where the cables meet at the top, they
are sufficiently spaced from one another to facilitate this
structural connection, adequate protection from the
weather elements, and good access to individual cables
during maintenance operations. The steel head is a white,
sculptural component that acts as a visual clue and sharply
contrasts with the wooden structure; it springs up through
the trees to surprise and attract pedestrians, and to invite
them to the bridge access.
Two types of cables connect to the steel head: on one
side of the masts, the cables that support the deck; on the
other side, the cables that counterbalance the former, by
connecting the steel head (and thus the masts) to the
concrete anchors built into the ground.
The deck consists of several members that have a
different place in the structural hierarchy and load-transfer
system. CLT panels create the deck proper and are
supported by 1.8m-deep glulam beams that run parallel to
the main axis of the bridge. These glulam beams transfer
the loads to tubular steel beams connected to the masts
through the cables. Above every tubular beam is a steel,
cross-bracing system, whose role is to provide the whole
structure with transversal rigidity and to stabilize the
longitudinal glulam beams, keeping them in their correct
position. The guard rails are composed of curved steel
plates and thin spindles. The plates in the lower part of the
rails also serve the function of concealing the different
layers that the deck is composed of.
The creation of a cable-stayed bridge with both masts
and deck made from timber was an innovation in itself. In
addition, the combined use of different structural materials
– glulam, CLT and steel elements – required fine
coordination during both the design and construction
phases.
All timber and steel members were entirely fabricated
offsite: the only operations carried out in situ were the
construction of the foundations and the assembly of the
prefabricated elements. The two longitudinal glulam beams
(under the deck) were split into three sections for practical
reasons. The sections were installed on-site one at a time,
starting from the one closest to the masts and then
proceeding towards the opposite riverbank. Bolted
connections were used between abutting sections of the
glulam beams, with the insertion of a steel inverted T-
section (which had been pre-perforated for the bolts).
Thanks to the structural system adopted, the operations
conducted on site became relatively simple and, during the
assembly process, each section of the beams could be
immediately supported by the cables connected to the
masts.
Fig. 6.43. Detailed cross-section of the bridge, illustrating its hybrid timber-
steel structural system. (Drawing: adapted and translated from ABCP
architecture)
Fig. 6.44. The steel head that joins the two masts is connected to all the steel
cables (the ones supporting the deck and the ones transferring its overall load to
the concrete anchors). (Photo: Gino Pelletier)
Fig. 6.45. Underside of the bridge deck. The most important members
of the structure are all recognizable in this view: the transversal steel beams
(hanging on the cables), the longitudinal glulam beams, the cross-bracing and
the CLT panels. (Photo: Gino Pelletier)
Fig. 6.46. Installation of the prefabricated upper panels of the deck, by crane.
(Photo: ABCP architecture)
Fig. 6.47. The deck was divided lengthwise into three sections, which were
installed one at a time. In this view, the first two sections have been installed.
The abutting segments of the longitudinal glulam beams were joined together
by bolted connections, with the interposition of steel inverted-T sections (visible
in the foreground, in white). (Photo: ABCP architecture)

In the Three Sisters Footbridge, not only the cables, but

also the masts are mostly subjected to axial primary forces:
tension in the cables and compression in the masts (and no
bending moments). The masts have connections at both
ends very close to perfect hinges: these impede the
generation of bending moments inside the masts, which are
then subjected to compressive forces only(3). Among the
main structural components, therefore, the only flexural
members are the longitudinal glulam beams and the
transverse steel beams (in that the loading configuration
causes internal bending moments in them).
The fortune and popularity of cable-stayed bridges (both
pedestrian and vehicular) have gone through highs and
lows since their invention. They have gained new
prominence over the last decades for moderate spans, since
– with the materials and machinery currently available –
they allow structural and economic benefits in comparison
with other bridge types (for example, suspended or arched
bridges). Cable-stayed systems also permit very expressive
and compelling solutions, as is well exemplified by the
Three Sisters Footbridge.

Environmental sustainability

The use of wood for the main structure of the footbridge

was also preferred from a climate-change perspective. In
addition to the advantages associated with carbon
sequestration (explained in Chapter 3), the wood used in
this project was locally grown, which limited transport
distances and associated greenhouse-gas emissions.
The attentive design of several construction details aims
to ensure the durability of the bridge over time, in order to
fit this project into a logic of sustainable development.
Finally, the election of a cable-stayed system over other
available structural options negated the need to build the
bridge foundations in the riverbed, which would have
affected the aquatic flora and fauna.

Case Study 9: 111 East Grand Avenue

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Des Moines, Iowa (IA), USA

Building type: mixed-use building (offices and retail)
Completion date: 2019
Design Team:
Architects: Neumann Monson Architects, IA, USA
Structural engineer: Raker Rhodes Engineering, Des Moines, IA, USA;
StructureCraft Builders Inc., Abbotsford, BC, Canada
Building-services engineer: Baker Group, Ankeny, IA, USA
 Client: 111 East Grand LLC (joint venture between JSC Properties, Rypma
Properties, Christensen Development, and Ryan Companies)
Gross floor internal area: 6,039m2
Awards:
Winner – AIA Iowa Design Honor, 2019
Winner – AIA Central States Region Design Honor, 2019
Winner – WoodWorks Wood Design Award (Commercial Mid-Rise), 2020
Keywords: dowel-laminated timber, glulam, mixed-use building, office,
retail

Brief and design process

This mixed-use building was commissioned by 111 East

Grand LLC, a joint venture with which Neumann Monson
Architects had previously worked on similar developments
and parking facilities. This established working relationship
gave the architects more confidence in suggesting the use
of mass timber for the project: a four-storey building,
comprising a commercial space at street level and flexible
office spaces above.
Located in Des Moines’ East Village, 111 East Grand is
in a central area of the city that has undergone a
regeneration process through several new developments,
with apartments, offices and retail spaces. This is an urban-
infill project, and 111 East Grand functions as a liner
building: it abuts the unsightly car park located in the
centre of the block, thus concealing it from the main road.
A market study, carried out by the client, revealed that
prospective tenants – mainly retailers and firms of
professionals – were looking for retail or office space
located in a central and dynamic part of town where they
could welcome their clients. The choice of a high-quality,
mass-timber building seemed appropriate – to both the
client and the architects – to reflect the mood and lively
location of the project.
Fig. 6.48. 111 East Grand became the tallest dowel-laminated-timber building
in North America, as of 2019. It is located in Des Moines’ East Village and is part
of its redevelopment and growth process, which has led to the creation of
several office and commercial spaces. (Photo: Mike Sinclair)

Neumann Monson Architects had pursued the idea of a

mass-timber building in the past, but the high cost had
been a primary deterrent, to the advantage of other
construction methods. On this occasion, however, the
established relationship with the client made timber
construction a viable option. The design team visited the T3
office building in Minneapolis (which employs NLT panels
and was designed by Michael Green Architecture and DLR
Group), to better understand the structural complexity and
spatial qualities of solid-timber buildings, which also helped
the client assess the advantages of this construction
method. Just like T3, most previous mass-timber
developments had used cross-laminated timber or nail-
laminated timber. However, after extensive research and
meetings with suppliers, the architects chose to pursue
DLT, a less widespread option in the USA. The fact that the
timber supplier had already worked with DLT eased the
client’s concerns over the possible risks associated with
using a less-known structural system. In 2019, 111 East
Grand became the tallest DLT building in North America.

Fig. 6.49. Ground-floor plan. 111 East Grand is the first of three liner buildings
to be constructed around a car park in the centre of the block. (Drawing:
Neumann Monson Architects)
Fig. 6.50. The site is an urban infill, and 111 East Grand conceals the car park
behind. The south-facing part of the building (which lines the car park) is a
service core, made of precast concrete, with stairs, lifts and other ancillary
spaces. The main volume of the building, which accommodates retail activities
on the ground floor and offices on the upper floors, has a glulam skeleton frame
and employs DLT panels for the floors and the roof. (Drawing adapted from:
Neumann Monson Architects)
 The project is also innovative in that the design team
followed an Integrated Project-Delivery approach. At the
design stage, the architects shared the Building
Information Model (BIM) with the timber supplier, who was
tasked with creating detailed drawings for each timber
element. Subsequently, the model was shared with the
general contractor, who then combined it with the
consultants’ models. The design team carried out virtual
design and construction meetings that allowed them to
identify conflicts between the different systems involved.
Prior to construction, the timber engineers provided
assembly and installation drawings.

Fig. 6.51. The commercial space on the north-west corner is sheltered by the
overhanging first floor, which allows visitors to comfortably access the building
on a rainy day and offers shelter from the sun in the summer. The architects
chose to leave the DLT structure visible internally, to prevent tenants from using
toxic paints and to ensure a coherent interior aesthetic. (Photo: Cameron
Campbell Integrated Studio)
Fig. 6.52. The large, open-plan floors of the three office storeys have three
glazed façades, while the rear elevation is blank. The western façade offers
views onto the nearby Des Moines River and the city centre. As is the case on
the commercial ground floor, the DLT floor panels have been left exposed, and
lighting, fire-extinguishing and ventilation systems are all visible. (Photo: Mike
Sinclair)

As regards the programme, the two main functions,

retail space and offices, are accommodated on the ground
floor and on the upper floors, respectively. A large space,
now used as a restaurant, is located on the north-west
corner of the building and is sheltered by an overhanging
roof. The west-facing aspect of the building has balconies
with views over the river and Des Moines’ centre.

Construction
 Structural system:
Foundations: concrete footings
Vertical supports: spruce glulam columns and precast concrete core
Ground floor: slab on grade
Intermediate floor: DLT timber panels
Roof: DLT timber panels
Thermal insulation: mineral wool within and outside cavity (external
walls); tapered rigid boards made of a core of isocyanurate foam and
cellulosic-felt facers (flat roof)

Fig. 6.53. View of the construction site after the glulam posts and beams had
been erected and the DLT panels installed. (Photo: Neumann Monson Architects)
Fig. 6.54. The prefabricated and very long floor panels are lifted with a tower-
crane and then laid on the supporting glulam beams. (Photo: StructureCraft)

In the glulam skeleton (the primary structure), the beams

are very deep, to achieve the necessary strength and
rigidity. The beam-to-column connections are of the
mortise-and-tenon type, while the one-storey-high segments
of the columns are joined with metal dowels. The
intermediate floors are built up of DLT panels completed on
top with OSB sheets, an acoustic mat and a concrete screed
(the underside of the panels being unclad and exposed). A
small portion of the panels is cut out where they abut the
columns. The timber planks are less thick on the long
edges, to create a channel for electrical services and light
fixtures. Most panels are supported by three glulam beams
(one at either end and one at midspan), attaining the
configuration of a continuous slab on three supports. The
panels of the westernmost bay follow a different structural
configuration: each of them is supported by two beams and
cantilevers from the one located along the west edge of the
building, thus forming balconies.
The DLT panels were prefabricated in a factory, and,
once the glulam framework had been erected, they were
transported to site and rapidly installed by crane.

Fig. 6.55. Exploded axonometric view illustrating the make-up of the DLT floor
panels and their connection to the glulam skeleton frame. (Drawing: Neumann
Monson Architects)
Fig. 6.56. The primary structure of the building is a glulam skeleton with
very deep beams, which support the long-spanning DLT floor panels.
(Photo: StructureCraft)
Fig. 6.57. The north-east corner of the building viewed from the main road. On
the ground floor, the glulam columns (which sit on a concrete base and are thus
elevated from street level) are left exposed. The upper floors are clad with a
black rainscreen and their fenestration consists mainly of evenly spaced
windows and a curtain wall on the top floor. (Photo: Mike Sinclair)
Fig. 6.58. The façade of 111 East Grand has been designed in such a way as to
attract the visitor’s eye to its double-height entrance, away from the car park
located at the rear. (Photo: Mike Sinclair)

Environmental sustainability

The use of DLT was a first step towards a sustainable

structural approach. Since this material uses hardwood
dowels to connect the prefabricated timber planks, it
greatly reduces consumption of glues and the associated
off-gassing during fabrication, compared to CLT (in which
the wooden planks are joined with structural adhesives).
The DLT superstructure is exposed on the inside, which
discourages tenants from re-decorating or using chemically
impregnated finishing products, thus maintaining the
organic and uniform interior appearance.
Ventilation ducts and electrical cabling fit between the
exposed structural timber panels and are not visually
intrusive. The power plant is located at the rear of the site,
within a concrete core. The office spaces can be naturally
ventilated, since each structural bay is equipped with
operable windows in order that tenants can manually
adjust the internal temperature as desired.

Case Study 10: House in Haute-Nendaz

Fausto Sanna & Annalaura Fornasier

Location: Haute Nendaz, Canton of Valais, Switzerland

Building type: residential – single-family house
Completion date: 2016
Design Team:
Architect: Jean-Michel Martignoni (Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland)
Structural engineer: Paul Glassey SA/Kontio®, Finland
Building-services engineer: Ma Maison Bois SARL, Switzerland
Environmental consultant: Technica Architecture, Switzerland
Contractor: Kontio®, Finland
Client: Jean-Michel Martignoni
Gross floor internal area: 240m2
Key words: engineered logs, log construction, glue-lamination, roof trusses,
house, Switzerland, vernacular, mayens

Brief and design process

When designing his future home in the Valais Alps, Swiss

architect Jean-Michel Martignoni reinterpreted the
vernacular log house in a contemporary way, adapting it to
current needs and using new technologies. The reference
to rural architecture, along with the use of timber, creates
a connection between built and natural landscape,
conferring a sense of belonging within the Alpine context.
Wood was also chosen for the atmosphere it creates,
evoking scents, tactile experiences and wellbeing.
The architect drew inspiration from traditional
mayens(4), examples of which date back to the early
sixteenth century (see Fig. 6.60). Mayens are traditional
small shelters for farmers erected in the Canton of Valais,
located in uplands above villages, in areas suitable for
animal pasture. They were used by families during
transhumance, from May to November, and functioned as
shelters for men, animals and crops.
Mayens are built into the ground on the uphill side. They
have a stone-built ground floor, designated for animal
stables, a stone or timber structure for the first floor, and a
timber pitched roof covered with stone slates. Larch,
spruce or Swiss pine logs are utilized to build the
superstructure and are hand-cut with an axe into
140/160mm-diameter logs. Strickbau(5), typical of Canton
Valais, is the construction method employed, whereby logs
are connected by hand-cut dovetail joints. Mayens only
have few or no windows and a small door, to limit cold
draughts into the building. In addition, it was a popular
belief that few openings would help keep evil spirits out of
the house.
Fig. 6.59. The north- and east-facing aspects of the house. The walls are clad
in reclaimed wood boards with chromatic nuances. (Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma
Maison Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)

A compositional language similar to that of mayens was

used by Martignoni in the design of this house, which
includes a concrete basement, an engineered-log structural
system and a timber pitched roof. The two-storey house sits
on a steep slope at an altitude of 1,535m. The house
consists of two wings, connected by a central, concrete
core, where the circulation space and entryway are located
(see Fig. 6.61). The entryway is on the first floor, where the
slope meets the external footpath, reflecting the local
mayens tradition of accessing interior spaces from the
upper storey. The central core also acts as a buffer zone
between the more private area (smaller wing) and the
communal area (larger wing). The former accommodates
the bedrooms, while the latter the living room, kitchen,
relaxation spaces (including a sauna and, outside, a hot
tub) and terraces.

Fig. 6.60. Local vernacular architecture: traditional mayens built on the steep
hillsides of Valais. (Photo: reduced from Xavier Von Erlach on Unsplash)

Construction

Structural system:
Foundations: 430mm-thick raft foundations
Basement: reinforced concrete
Vertical supports: engineered (cross-laminated) pine logs
Ground floor: reinforced concrete
Intermediate floors: pine joists and engineered logs, with concrete
topping
Roof: pine trussed rafters
Thermal insulation: wood-fibre boards
Fig. 6.61. Plan of the first floor. The main access into the building is located at
this level, on the uphill side of the central core. (Drawing: adapted and
translated from Jean-Michel Martignoni, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland)
Fig. 6.62. View from the core window onto the mountains across the valley.
(Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)

Architect Martignoni chose a log structural system(6) for

this project, as he is the founder of Ma Maison Bois, the
Swiss reseller of Finnish manufacturer Kontio, which
specializes in the production of prefabricated log houses.
The house sits on a concrete basement. Inspired by the
traditional mayens structure, Martignoni designed a partly
sunken lower storey, which adapts to the 4m difference in
height between the front and the rear. The southern wall
(on the uphill side) is made of concrete, in a way not too
dissimilar to the traditional stone-built walls of mayens’
lower storeys.
Fig. 6.63. Engineered prefabricated logs. (Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison
Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)

The walls of the upper storeys are built from engineered

logs, each made of five pine lamellae glued crosswise in the
factory, under high pressure. This fabrication system
results in long, laminated logs as a final product, and
reduces their swelling and shrinking, thus ensuring higher
dimensional stability and offering broader design
opportunities. Dovetail joints have been pre-machine-cut in
the factory and resemble the axe-cut traditional dovetail
joints used in mayens. The logs are fixed to one another on
site, by means of timber dowels of different sizes and
placed in different locations. Each log has two perforations
(pre-made in the factory), so that dowels can connect the
logs stacked up vertically to form the wall. Where two walls
intersect at right angles, the dovetail ends are also
perforated and completed with the insertion of dowels.
Airtightness is achieved in the massive walls thanks to
different types of self-adhesive tapes that function as
gaskets (see Fig. 6.68). These tapes are positioned along
the grooves of the logs, to fill the gaps between juxtaposed
logs. In the ‘eagle corners’, where dimensional tolerances
are larger, expansive tapes are used: these, once applied,
can significantly increase in volume and easily fill the
corner gaps by adapting to their size and shape.
Fig. 6.64. Cross-section of the dwelling, showing how it sits on the steep site.
The lower storey is partly sunk into the ground, on the uphill side. (Drawing:
adapted and translated from Jean-Michel Martignoni, Ma Maison Bois,
Switzerland)
Fig. 6.65. Close-up of the dovetail joints of two internal walls. The difference in
texture and colour of the logs’ cross-sections is due to their being engineered
components, obtained from cross-lamination of pine lamellae. (Photo: Franck
Paubel, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)
Fig. 6.66. The roof structure consists of a series of parallel trusses whose
timber components have been joined by means of punched metal plates.
(Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)

The façade is externally clad with horizontal slats of old

barn wood, discoloured by sunlight over the years. The use
of these repurposed slats confers an aged look on the
building, as if it had been there for a very long time. The
external walls are insulated with a 160mm-thick layer of
wood fibre, placed on the outside of the engineered pine
logs. The intermediate floor is made of timber joists, with
wood-fibre fitted between the gaps, a 140mm screed and a
wooden floor finish. The joists are not exposed, but
concealed by timber ceiling panels; this results in all sides
of the interior spaces being of the same material and
having similar appearance. The roof planes have a 21.8-
degree (40 per cent) pitch and are covered with traditional
larch shingles, known as tavaillons in French. With
adequate maintenance, roofs covered with tavaillons, each
crafted and placed by hand, can last up to a century despite
the harsh Alpine weather. The supporting structure of the
roof is made of trussed rafters and has a 320mm-thick
wood-fibre insulation layer. The roof trusses are internally
concealed by timber panelling.
The central core is supported by engineered pine log
walls on the sides, while its northern and southern walls
are made of in situ concrete, which is exposed externally
and insulated on the inside. The core’s intermediate floor is
realized as an exposed concrete slab. The core has a flat
roof, which contrasts with the more organic and vernacular
forms of the wings. This flat roof is supported by 42 ×
290mm timber joists, insulated with a 280mm wood-fibre
layer and covered with gravel.
Fig. 6.67. North façade of the reinforced concrete core, overlooking the valley.
(Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)
Fig. 6.68. In order to achieve the desired level of tightness, various gasket
tapes are used between interlocking logs. Two tapes run along the grooves of
each log. Each corner joint (eagle joint) is wrapped in two strips of expansive
insulation tape, which has an adhesive surface. Wooden dowels are inserted into
holes pre-drilled in the middle of each eagle joint and in the main body of the
logs. (Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)

Overall, the construction process was eased and sped up

by the prefabrication of the logs and joints, which only
required their assemblage on site, on top of the concrete
foundations poured in situ. The log structure was in fact
built over a period of two weeks and the whole project was
completed in nine months.
Fig. 6.69. View of the lounge, on the first floor. The wide opening on the left of
this space leads to the central core, where the staircase is located. The log walls
are internally exposed and their appearance is matched by that of the flooring
and ceiling panelling. (Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland &
Kontio, Finland)
Fig. 6.70. The bedroom has two windows, which overlook the valley.
(Photo: Franck Paubel, Ma Maison Bois, Switzerland & Kontio, Finland)

Environmental sustainability
The building is accredited by Minergie(7), which is a
registered, voluntary quality label for low-energy buildings
in Switzerland, established in 1998 and supported by the
Swiss Confederation, the Swiss cantons and the local
construction industry. It primarily focuses on the
residential sector (but is now slowly expanding to other
sectors), and its main aim is to ensure comfortable living
and working solutions for a building’s end-users. Minergie
requires a high-performing building envelope, controlled
air exchange, low energy consumption and maximization of
renewable-energy use. It also demands that buildings
exceed by 20 per cent the energy requirements set by the
Swiss Cantonal Energy Prescriptions Model (MoPEC 2014)
(8).

In order to support a sustainable living environment, the

architect decided to disconnect the electrical network of
the private spaces from the rest of the house. In this way,
all electrical sources and associated electromagnetic fields
can be manually switched off, to prevent harmful waves on
the residents at night.
The pine-log structure was identified as a sustainable
design solution, by virtue of the carbon stored in the woody
material (see Chapter 3 for carbon sequestration) and the
calorific value that can be used to produce energy at the
end of its life-cycle. In addition, logs were chosen as they
are considered by some among the systems that require the
least amount of energy consumption in the construction of
a wall(9). Finally, the utilization of prefabricated logs
accelerates the construction process and reduces material
wastage.

Notes
(1) Sealy, 2016
(2) Sánchez Sanz, 1979
(3) This simplified description of the structural system
focuses on primary forces and neglects secondary
forces, which are small compared to the former.
(4) Mariétan, 1952
(5) Ombellini, 2009
(6) The main proprietary system developed by Kontio ®
(Finland) that was used in this project is Massive
SmartLog™.
(7) Association Minergie, ca 2020
(8) Conférence des Directeurs Cantonaux de l’Énergie, 2020
(9) Alasaarela, 2009
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 Useful Contacts

ABCP architecture
300, rue Saint-Paul, bureau 412
Quebec City – Quebec – G1K 7R1
Canada
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.abcparchitecture.com/

Alma-nac
Unit 11 Waterloo Court – 10 Theed Street
London – SE1 8ST
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: http://www.alma-nac.com/

BGLA architecture + urban design

50, Côte Dinan
Québec – QC G1K 8N6
Canada
E: http://www.alma-nac.com/contact
W: https://www.bgla.ca/

Catnic, a Tata Steel Enterprise

Pontypandy Industrial Estate
Caerphilly – CF83 3GL
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://catnic.com/contact

Dietrich | Untertrifaller Architects

International
Gerlinde Jüttner, Head of Communications
Flachgasse 35-37 – 1150 Vienna,
Austria
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.dietrich.untertrifaller.com/

Dow Jones Architects

10 Station Parade – Balham High Road
London – SW12 9AZ
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.dowjonesarchitects.com/

Feilden Fowles
8 Royal Street
London – SE1 7LL
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.feildenfowles.co.uk/

Hemsec Manufacturing
Stoney Lane, Rainhill,
Prescot, Merseyside – L35 9LL
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.hemsec.com/

HK Architekten
Sportplatzweg 5,
6858 – Schwarzach
Austria
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.hkarchitekten.at/

Holzforschung Austria
(Austrian Forest Products Research Society)
Franz-Grill-Straße 7, A-1030 Vienna
Austria
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.dataholz.eu/en

Kontio Log Houses

Ranuantie 224
93100 – Pudasjärvi
Finland
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.kontio.com/

Lacol | arquitectura cooperativa

Riera d’Escuder, 38, nau 2 planta 1
08028 – Barcelona
Spain
E: [email protected]
W: http://www.lacol.coop/

MAAJ Architectes
36, rue Pradier
75019 – Paris
France
E: [email protected]
W: http://www.maaj.fr/

Mirko Franzoso architetto

Via Don Luigi Borghesi 8
38023 Cles – Tn
Italy
E: [email protected]
W: http://www.mirkofranzoso.it/

MRM Arquitectos
C/ Puente de Miluze, 12
31012 – Pamplona
Spain
E: [email protected]
W: https://mrmarquitectos.com/

Neumann Monson Architects

221 East College Street, Suite 303
Iowa City – Iowa 52240
United States
E: [email protected]
W: https://neumannmonson.com/

Scotts Timber Engineering Ltd

Bridge Street,
Thrapston – Northamptonshire – NN14 4LR
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.scottste.co.uk/

Studio Botter
Viale Sommariva, 38
32021 – Agordo, Belluno
Italy
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.studiobotter.it/

Studio Bressan
Via Luigi Pastro, 21
31044 – Montebelluna, Treviso
Italy
E: [email protected]
W: https://studiobressan.net/

Studio Weave
217 Mare Street
London – E8 3QE
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.studioweave.com/

Technische Universität Kaiserslautern – Department of Architecture

Pfaffenbergstrasse 95 – 67663 Kaiserslautern
Germany
W: https://design-build.space/ (project) and https://www.architektur.uni-
kl.de/startseite/ (university)

Timber Research and Development Association (TRADA)

Stocking Lane – Hughenden Valley
High Wycombe – HP14 4ND
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.trada.co.uk

Trussed Rafter Association (TRA)

The Building Centre – 26 Store Street
London – WC1E 7BT
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://www.tra.org.uk/

Woodknowledge Wales
Ffarm Moelyci
Felin Hen Road – Tregarth
Gwynedd – LL57 4BB
United Kingdom
E: [email protected]
W: https://woodknowledge.wales/
 Index

abrasion 26–27
absorption 17, 27, 30, 31, 79, 81, 84, 141, 156, 157, 167, 168
acetylation 27
acidification 57, 64
acoustic decoupling 164
acoustic insulation 73, 82, 84, 89, 160, 161, 162, 164, 174, 175
acoustic performance 53, 135, 157, 161, 162, 164, 169
acoustic requirement 82, 89, 161
acoustic separation 162
adhesive 26, 28, 30, 32, 59, 64, 65, 90, 103, 138, 153–154, 157, 162, 166, 169
afforestation 22
Africa 20, 22
aggregate 64
air- and vapour-control layer 74
airtightness 71, 72, 139, 148, 150, 157, 167
America 19–21, 29, 30, 63, 167, 169, 185–190
anatomy 13–14
anisotropy 16
appearance class(es) 155–156
Asia 19, 22
attic 101–102,
attic roof 101–102
Austria 40–42, 45–46, 63, 166
AVCL; see air- and vapour-control layer

ballast 92, 143, 165

balloon frame 69–70, 142, 161
bark 13, 14
batten 35, 38, 43, 76, 78–79, 81, 84–85, 89–91, 93, 96, 98, 103–04, 117, 131,
140–43, 149, 158–63, 165–66, 176
beam, lattice; see lattice beam
bending moment 15, 18, 29, 32, 94, 101, 102, 142, 184
BIM; see Building Information Model
binder [timber component]
biodeterioration 28
blockbau 48
blocking
bolt 46, 139, 142, 157, 169, 183–83
Brazil 19, 20
breather membrane 72–74, 78, 79, 85, 97, 125, 141, 143–44, 148, 159, 165,
166, 175–76
BREEAM 66
Brettsperrholzdecke 168
Brettsperrholzwand 168
Brettstapel 168
brick slip 34, 79
bridge 178–84
bridge, thermal 81, 92, 102, 139, 143, 148, 158
brittle, brittleness 27, 89
broadleaf 20
building envelope 45, 148, 195
Building Information Model 186
building regulations 8, 34, 82, 89, 92, 119, 142, 161

CAD; see computer-aided design

Canada 19, 21–22, 46–47, 63, 178–84
Canadian well 134
canopy [building element] 36, 41, 49, 103–05, 175, 178
carbon emissions 57–58, 64, 65
carbon sequestration 58, 64, 184, 196
cassette
floor cassette 85, 142
roof cassette 102–04
Catalonia 170–78
cavity barrier 71, 80, 81, 82, 141
cedar 80, 81, 120, 121, 123, 125, 127
ceiling bar 89
ceiling, suspended 43, 130, 162, 163, 164
cell [wood] 13–14
CFCs; see chlorofluorocarbons
chestnut 80
chevron brace 95, 96
China 19, 20
chlorofluorocarbons 64
cladding 70, 77–81, 140–42, 157–61, 166
climate change 22, 53, 57–58, 64, 175, 184
CLT; see cross-laminated timber
CNC; see computer numerical control
collar 101
computer numerical control 137, 155
computer-aided design 137
condensation 73, 85, 88, 91, 95, 138, 140, 165
conifer 13, 20, 23, 169
connections; see fasteners
corrosion 25, 26
counterbatten 38, 79, 81, 104, 117, 131, 143, 149–50, 159, 165
cradle to cradle 61–62
cradle to grave 61–62
creep 18–19, 138
creosote 25
cross grain 15
cross-bracing 45, 46, 84, 182, 183
cross-laminated timber 28, 35, 38, 127–135, 153–165, 170–178, 182

damp-proof course 72, 74, 88, 139, 141, 157

deciduous 13, 18
deck/decking 26, 30, 31, 87, 90, 92, 143, 178–84
deconstruction 61
defect [of wood] 15–16, 27, 96, 153, 154, 156
deflection 53, 71, 77, 89, 102, 138
deformation; see strain
demolition 58, 61
density 13, 14, 18, 20, 27, 30, 31, 154, 161
desorption 17
diaphragms 72, 88
dimensional movement 16–17, 168
dimensional stability 26–27, 29, 160, 169
DLT; see dowel-laminated timber
Douglas fir 29, 35–37, 80, 105–112, 120–126, 128, 130, 153, 168
dowel 166, 168, 169
dowellam; see dowel-laminated timber
dowel-laminated timber 167–69, 185–190
DPC; see damp-proof course
drainage 76, 79, 81, 165, 182
drum effect 164
durability 14–15, 25, 26, 27, 79, 80, 92, 141, 148
dwang 71

eaves 42, 95, 98, 143, 165

eco-labelling 60–67
elasticity 18
EMC; see equilibrium moisture content
EN; see European Standards
end of life 53, 57, 58, 59, 61
energy
energy efficiency 46, 58, 134
energy-rating system 178
renewable energy 66, 196
England 8, 20–21, 33, 105–12, 120–27, 145–151
envelope, building; see building envelope
envelope, thermal 88
environmental product declaration 60–63
EPD; see environmental product declaration
equilibrium moisture content 17, 26, 168
Eurocode 5 53, 70
Europe 57, 63, 66, 70, 155, 166, 169
eutrophication 64, 65
expansion, coefficient of 17, 81
expansion, thermal 17

fastener 79, 94, 157, 162

fibreboard 19, 20, 27, 30, 31, 85, 87
fibre-saturation point 17
filler 81, 139
finger-joint 32, 154, 156, 166, 169
Finland 19–20, 169, 190
fire
reaction 89
resistance 53, 73–74, 76, 89, 102, 142, 168
retardant 155
safety 71, 83, 86, 89, 90, 141, 155, 158, 161, 162, 168
fissures 16, 154, 156
flake 25, 28, 30
flange 31, 32, 86, 87, 117, 161, 166
flashing 25, 71, 175, 176
flexural member 28, 32, 70, 142, 154, 156
floating floor 74, 89–90, 162, 163
floor
ground-floor 44, 74, 84–85, 108, 130, 174, 178, 186, 187
intermediate floor 69, 70, 86–90, 133, 135
forest 22–23, 66–67, 120–26, 145–51
Forest Stewardship Council 67
forestry 22–23, 66–67
foundations 33, 70, 72, 74, 77, 124, 131, 139, 141, 161
France 20, 63, 127–135
FSC; see Forest Stewardship Council
fungal attack 25, 26
fungi 14, 25, 26, 79
furfurylation 27
furring 90

gable end 97, 98, 124, 144, 149

gable ladder 96, 97, 98, 144
gatehouse 121, 123
Germany 19, 20, 35–37, 63, 166, 167
GHGs; see greenhouse gases
global warming 57–59, 64
global-warming potential 64
glued laminated timber 32, 50–53, 88, 102, 121, 124, 125, 144, 148, 149, 156,
161, 174, 177, 182, 183, 186, 188
glulam; see glued laminated timber
greenhouse gases 53, 57, 58, 63, 64
GWP; see global-warming potential
gymnosperm 15

hall, concert 47–55

hall, riding 45–46
hardness 26
hardwood 13, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 168
heartwood 13, 16, 25, 27
heat gain 178
heat pump 150
heating (system) 148, 178
humidity 15, 16, 25, 26, 54
hygroscopicity 16–17

Impregnation 26, 27
Insect 14–15, 25, 26, 79, 82, 91
Instability 88
insulation, acoustic; see acoustic insulation
insulation, thermal; see thermal insulation
International Organization for Standardization 60
ISO; see International Organization for Standardization
Italy 38–40, 47–55, 63, 166

joint
dovetail joint 170, 191, 193, 194
expansion joint 81, 142
finger-joint 32, 154, 156, 166, 169
movement joint 168
joist
header joist 139
I-joist 28, 29, 31–32, 85, 86, 87
metal-web joist 76, 85, 88, 90, 144
open-web joist 32, 85, 87, 94, 102, 142
solid joist 85, 88, 142
trimmer joist 87, 88
trimming joist 71, 86, 88

knot 15, 153, 154, 156

ladder; see gable ladder

lamella 28, 32, 153, 154, 157, 166, 168, 169
laminated veneer lumber 28
laminated-strand lumber 28
larch 16, 38, 80, 153, 190
lateral-torsional instability 88
lattice beam 46, 47
life-cycle 57, 59–60
life-cycle thinking 59–60
lining 74, 76, 84, 89, 91, 92, 140, 142, 143, 158, 161–64, 166
lintel 71, 76, 77, 140, 158, 160, 177
load
imposed load 88
permanent load 88
variable load 88
loading 18, 101, 138, 164
log construction 169–170, 190–196
logging 21, 22
LSL; see laminated-strand lumber
LVL; see laminated veneer lumber

masonry 8, 34, 70, 72, 74, 79, 81, 141, 142, 156, 159, 160, 161
mast 178–184
mastic 81, 139
MC; see moisture content
MDF; see medium-density fibreboard
medium-density fibreboard 27
microfibril 14
MMC; see modern methods of construction
modern methods of construction 33–35
modulus of elasticity 18
modulus of rupture 18
moisture content 15, 16–17, 26, 27, 78, 80, 153, 154, 168, 169,

nail 32, 71–73, 75, 76, 79, 81, 85, 88, 89, 94, 96, 139, 142, 156, 162, 166–67
nail-laminated timber 166–67
New Zealand 19
NLT; see nail-laminated timber
nogging 71, 88, 109
noise 33, 82, 89, 131, 174
Northern Ireland 20, 21, 33
Norway 63, 166

oak 43
ODP; see ozone-depletion potential
offsite construction 33–35, 58
opening 71, 76–77, 80, 88, 91, 140–43
oriented-strand board 19, 28–29, 71, 76, 78, 93, 117, 119, 130, 137, 138, 139,
140–43, 148, 153, 167, 176
OSB; see oriented-strand board
ozone-depletion potential 64

panelized systems 29, 102, 137

parallel-strand lumber 28
parenchyma 13, 14
particleboard 20, 30–31
PCR; see product-category rules
PEFC; see Programme for the
Endorsement of Forest
Certification
Perpend 81, 141
photochemical ozone-creation potential 65
pine 14, 27, 28, 29, 43–44, 80, 103, 174, 175, 190
pitch pocket; see resin pocket
pith 13, 14
plasterboard 74, 76, 78, 84, 89, 90, 91, 92, 130, 140, 141, 142, 143, 161, 163–
64, 166, 168
plate, sole; see sole plate
plate, wall; see wall plate
platform frame 69–70
plywood 20, 25, 29–30
POCP; see photochemical ozone-creation potential
pollution 57, 59, 60, 66
polymer 27, 73, 79, 153
polyurethane 64, 73, 90, 137, 153
portal [frame] 32, 174
post [component] 10, 28, 46, 71, 88, 98, 121, 130, 139
post and beam 10, 45, 47, 124, 130–31, 137, 167, 188
prefabrication 34–35, 171
preservative 13, 25–26
primary energy 63, 66
product-category rules 60–61
Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification 66–67
PSL; see parallel-strand lumber
pulpwood 19
punched metal plate fasteners 94, 194
PUR; see polyurethane
PVC; see polyvinyl chloride

racking resistance 71
rafter
flying rafter 98
trussed rafter 93, 94–102, 135
valley jack rafter 98, 101
rail
bottom rail 70, 71, 83, 117, 118, 139, 141
top rail 70, 71, 73, 77, 83, 88, 139, 142
reaction wood 16
reforestation 22
render 8, 78, 79, 81, 83, 140, 141, 160, 166
renewable energy; see energy – renewable
resilient layer 89, 90, 162, 163, 164, 167
resin pocket 16
resonance chamber 164
ridge 96, 98, 102, 125, 126, 143, 144, 165
rigidity; see stiffness
roof
cold-deck roof 90–92, 142–43
flat roof 142–43, 164–65, 185–90
hipped roof 98
inverted roof 91, 92, 103
monopitch roof 105–12
pitched roof 92–103, 107, 110, 143–44, 145–51, 165, 168
T-junctions 98–101
warm-deck roof 91, 92, 165
roundwood 15, 19, 21

sapwood 13, 16, 25, 27

sarking 93, 96, 98, 102, 117
sawmill 20, 21
sawnwood 15, 19, 20
Scandinavia 11, 19, 20, 33, 59, 63, 166, 169, 190
SCL; see structural composite lumber
Scotland 8, 20, 21, 33, 34, 71, 84, 92, 96, 168
screw 37, 43, 81, 139, 142, 143, 144, 156, 157, 162
sequestration; see carbon sequestration
shaving 28, 30
sheathing 29, 71–73, 76, 78, 79, 84, 96, 102–03, 166
shim 139, 157
shrinkage 17, 80, 153, 156, 157, 169, 193
siccative 26
silviculture 19–23
SIP(s); see structural insulated panel(s)
snow load 53
soffit 97
softwood 13–18, 20, 143, 153, 156
solar radiation 26, 64, 65, 92, 156, 176
sole plate 72, 74, 83, 117, 139, 141, 157
sound wave 169
Southern yellow pine 27, 29
Spain 43–44, 63, 103–05, 170–78
spandrel panel 96, 97, 100
specification 17, 63, 138, 154, 161
spline 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 148, 149
spruce 16, 18, 28, 130, 131, 153, 154, 166, 168, 182
stability 26, 27, 29, 102, 137, 140, 148, 160, 165, 169
staircase 39, 44, 86, 87, 88, 130, 151, 165, 173, 174, 177
staple 71, 73, 74, 75, 85
stiffness 9, 15, 18, 20, 27, 29, 32, 95, 101, 102, 142, 143
strain 18–19
strength
compressive strength 18, 71, 90, 101, 102, 142, 155, 162, 184
tensile strength 14, 94, 102
stress 15, 16, 18, 19, 32, 138
structural composite lumber 28
structural insulated panel(s) 64, 137–152
strut 37, 45, 46, 88, 101, 102
strutting 87, 88
stud
cripple stud 77
dwarf stud 101
Switzerland 166, 190–96

tannin 81
termite 25
TF; see timber frame
thermal bridge/bridging 81, 92, 102, 139, 143, 148, 158
thermal insulant/insulation 17, 31, 73, 82, 85, 88, 91–92, 98, 101–102, 137,
139, 143, 158–159, 165, 168
thermal mass 150, 178
thermal performance 41, 72–73, 139
thrust 93, 94, 102, 124, 163
tie, wall 71, 79, 81, 84, 142, 161
tie beam 94, 101
tie-rod 43–44, 46, 51
tile [roof] 92, 143, 144, 148, 149, 165, 168
timber frame 69–136
Timber Procurement Policy 20
T-intersection; see roof – T-junctions
tissue 13, 16
T-junctions; see roof – T-junctions
toothed plate connectors 94
TPP; see Timber Procurement Policy
tracheids 14
TRADA 11, 135, 205
trunk 13–16
truss
box truss 120–26
Fink truss 95
flat-top hip truss 98
infill truss 98
monopitch truss 98
Pratt truss 47–54

UK; see United Kingdom

UN; see United Nations
United Kingdom 19, 20–21, 33, 105–12, 113–19, 120–27, 145–51
United Nations 57, 67
United States of America 19–21, 30, 63, 167, 169, 185–190
unloading 18, 174
US or USA; see United States of America

valley [roof] 98–100

valley set 96, 96
vapour-control layer 73, 74, 75, 78, 85, 91, 92, 93, 133, 140, 143, 164, 165,
166, 168
vascular cambium 13
VCL; see vapour-control layer
ventilator 81, 82, 91, 141
verge 53, 95, 96, 97, 98
vernacular 107, 116, 119, 190–96
vessel [anatomy] 14
viscosity 18
visual quality 156, 158, 168–69
VOCs; see volatile organic compounds
volatile organic compounds 57, 65

wafer 28
Wales 33, 34, 86, 113–19
wall plate 96, 98, 139, 144
wall
external wall 70–77, 138–40, 157–61,
infill wall 137
internal wall 82–83, 142, 161
loadbearing wall 74, 76–77, 88
party wall 83–84, 142, 161
wall tie; see tie, wall
warming, global; see global warming
waste 33, 66
waterproof(ing) layer/membrane 90, 91, 92, 142, 143, 165
weather-tightness 33, 140, 167
web [beam/joist/rafter component] 31–32, 46, 76, 85–88, 90, 94, 102, 142, 144
web [truss component] 37, 95–96
woodland 20, 22, 120–26, 145–51
workmanship 9, 164