Introduction:

All living things need energy, which is defined as the ability to do work. You can often
see energy at work in living things — a bird flies through the air, a firefly glows in the
dark, a dog wags its tail. These are obvious ways that living things use energy, but living
things constantly use energy in less obvious ways as well.

Why Living Things Need Energy?

Inside every cell of all living things, energy is needed to carry out life processes. Energy
is required to break down and build up molecules and to transport molecules across
plasma membranes. All life’s work needs energy. A lot of energy is also simply lost to
the environment as heat. The story of life is a story of energy flow — its capture, its
change of form, its use for work, and its loss as heat. Energy, unlike matter, cannot be
recycled, so organisms require a constant input of energy. Life runs on chemical
energy. Where do living organisms get this chemical energy?

How Organisms Get Energy:

Autotrophs and Heterotrophs The chemical energy that organisms need comes from
food. Food consists of organic molecules that store energy in their chemical bonds. In
terms of obtaining food for energy, there are two types of organisms: autotrophs and
heterotrophs.

Autotrophs

Autotrophs are organisms that make their own food. Most autotrophs use the energy in
sunlight to make food in a process called photosynthesis. Only three types of organisms
— plants, algae, and some bacteria — can make food through photosynthesis.
Autotrophs are also called producers. They produce food not only for themselves but for
all other living things as well (which are known as consumers). This is why autotrophs
form the basis of food chains.

Heterotrophs

Heterotrophs are living things that cannot make their own food. Instead, they get their
food by consuming other organisms, which is why they are also called consumers. They
may consume autotrophs or other heterotrophs. Heterotrophs include all animals and
fungi and many single-celled organisms. What do you think would happen to consumers
if all producers were to vanish from Earth?
The Chloroplast and Photosynthesis

The Chloroplast

Chloroplast, structure within the cells of plants and green algae that is the site of
photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy,
resulting in the production of oxygen and energy-rich oganic compounds.
Photosynthetic cyanobacteria are free-living close relatives of chloroplasts;
endosymbiotic theory posits that chloroplasts and mitochondria (energy-producing
organelles in eukaryotic cells) are descended from such organisms.

PARTS OF THE CHLOROPLAST

Characteristics of Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are a type of plastid—a round, oval, or disk-shaped body that is involved in
the synthesis and storage of foodstuffs. Chloroplasts are distinguished from other types
of plastids by their green colour, which results from the presence of two
pigments, chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. A function of those pigments is to absorb light
energy. In plants, chloroplasts occur in all green tissues, though they are concentrated
particularly in the parenchyma cells of the leaf mesophyll.

Chloroplasts are roughly 1–2 μm (1 μm = 0.001 mm) thick and 5–7 μm in diameter.
They are enclosed in a chloroplast envelope, which consists of a double membrane with
outer and inner layers, between which is a gap called the intermembrane space. A third,
internal membrane, extensively folded and characterized by the presence of closed
disks (or thylakoids), is known as the thylakoid membrane. In most higher plants, the
thylakoids are arranged in tight stacks called grana (singular granum). Grana are
connected by stromal lamellae, extensions that run from one granum, through the
stroma, into a neighbouring granum. The thylakoid membrane envelops a central
aqueous region known as the thylakoid lumen. The space between the inner membrane
and the thylakoid membrane is filled with stroma, a matrix containing
dissolved enzymes, starch granules, and copies of the chloroplast genome.

The Photosynthetic Machinery

The thylakoid membrane houses chlorophylls and different protein complexes, including
photosystem I, photosystem II, and ATP (adenosine triphosphate) synthase, which are
specialized for light-dependent photosynthesis. When sunlight strikes the thylakoids, the
light energy excites chlorophyll pigments, causing them to give up electrons. The
electrons then enter the electron transport chain, a series of reactions that ultimately
drives the phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to the energy-rich
storage compound ATP. Electron transport also results in the production of the reducing
agent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH).
ATP and NADPH are used in the light-independent reactions (dark reactions) of
photosynthesis, in which carbon dioxide and water are assimilated into
organic compounds. The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis are carried out
in the chloroplast stroma, which contains the enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase (rubisco). Rubisco catalyzes the first step of carbon fixation in
the Calvin cycle (also called Calvin-Benson cycle), the primary pathway of carbon
transport in plants. Among so-called C4 plants, the initial carbon fixation step and the
Calvin cycle are separated spatially—carbon fixation occurs via phosphoenolpyruvate
(PEP) carboxylation in chloroplasts located in the mesophyll, while malate, the four-
carbon product of that process, is transported to chloroplasts in bundle-sheath cells,
where the Calvin cycle is carried out. C4 photosynthesis attempts to minimize the loss of
carbon dioxide to photorespiration. In plants that use crassulacean
acid metabolism (CAM), PEP carboxylation and the Calvin cycle are separated
temporally in chloroplasts, the former taking place at night and the latter during the day.
The CAM pathway allows plants to carry out photosynthesis with minimal water loss.

1. https://www.britannica.com/video/152175/Chloroplasts-photosynthesis-
role-process
2. https://www.britannica.com/video/22037/Chloroplasts-plant-cells-
coloration-chlorophyll-grana-chloroplasts

Photosynthesis
Stage I: The Light Reactions

The first stage of photosynthesis is called the light reactions. During this stage, light is
absorbed and transformed to chemical energy in the bonds of NADPH and ATP. You
can read about this process below. Steps of the Light Reactions The light reactions
occur in several steps, all of which take place in the thylakoid membrane. •

 Step 1: Units of sunlight, called photons, strike a molecule of chlorophyll in

photosystem II of the thylakoid membrane. The light energy is absorbed by two
electrons (2 e- ) in the chlorophyll molecule, giving them enough energy to leave
the molecule.
 Step 2: At the same time, enzymes in the thylakoid membrane use light energy
to split apart a water molecule. This produces: – two electrons (2e- ). These
electrons replace the two electrons that were lost from the chlorophyll molecule
in Step 1. – an atom of oxygen (O). This atom combines with another oxygen
atom to produce a molecule of oxygen gas (O2), which is released as a waste
product. – two hydrogen ions (2H+). The hydrogen ions, which are positively
charged, are released inside the membrane in the thylakoid interior space.
 Step 3: The two excited electrons from Step 1 contain a great deal of energy, so,
like hot potatoes, they need something to carry them. They are carried by a
series of electron-transport molecules, which make up an electron transport
chain. The two electrons are passed from molecule to molecule down the chain.
As this happens, their energy is captured and used to pump more hydrogen ions
into the thylakoid interior space.
 Step 4: When the two electrons reach photosystem I, they are no longer excited.
Their energy has been captured and used, and they need more energy. They get
energy from light, which is absorbed by chlorophyll in photosystem I. Then, the
two re-energized electrons pass down another electron transport chain.
 Step 5: Enzymes in the thylakoid membrane transfer the newly re-energized
electrons to a compound called NADP+. Along with a hydrogen ion, this
produces the energy-carrying molecule NADPH. This molecule is needed to
make glucose in the Calvin cycle.
 Step 6: By now, there is a greater concentration of hydrogen ions — and positive
charge — in the thylakoid interior space. This difference in concentration and
charge creates what is called a chemiosmotic gradient. It causes hydrogen ions
to flow back across the thylakoid membrane to the stroma, where their
concentration is lower. Like water flowing through a hole in a dam, the hydrogen
ions have energy as they flow down the chemiosmotic gradient. The enzyme
ATP synthase acts as a channel protein and helps the ions cross the membrane.
ATP synthase also uses their energy to add a phosphate group (Pi) to a
molecule of ADP, producing a molecule of ATP. The energy in ATP is needed for
the Calvin cycle.

The Calvin Cycle (Light independent reaction)

In plants, carbon dioxide (CO2) enters the interior of a leaf via pores called stomata and
diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast—the site of the Calvin cycle reactions, where
sugar is synthesized.

These reactions are also called the light-independent reactions because they are not
directly driven by light.

In the Calvin cycle, carbon atoms from CO2 are fixed (incorporated into organic
molecules) and used to build three-carbon sugars. This process is fueled by, and
dependent on, ATP and NADPH from the light reactions. Unlike the light reactions,
which take place in the thylakoid membrane, the reactions of the Calvin cycle take place
in the stroma (the inner space of chloroplasts).
Reactions on the Calvin Cycle:
The Calvin cycle reactions can be divided into three main
stages: carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of the
starting molecule.
Here is a general diagram of the cycle:

1. Carbon fixation. A CO2 molecule combines with a five-carbon acceptor

molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This step makes a six-carbon
compound that splits into two molecules of a three-carbon compound, 3-
phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP
carboxylase/oxygenase, or rubisco.

2. Reduction. In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-
PGA molecules into molecules of a three-carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate (G3P). This stage gets its name because NADPH donates electrons
to, or reduces, a three-carbon intermediate to make G3P.
 3. Regeneration. Some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while others must be
recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration requires ATP and
involves a complex network of reactions, which my college bio professor liked to
call the "carbohydrate scramble."

In order for one G3P to exit the cycle (and go towards glucose synthesis), three
CO2 molecules must enter the cycle, providing three new atoms of fixed carbon. When
three CO2 molecules enter the cycle, six G3P molecules are made. One exits the cycle
and is used to make glucose, while the other five must be recycled to regenerate three
molecules of the RuBP acceptor.

Summary of Calvin cycle reactants and products

Three turns of the Calvin cycle are needed to make one G3P molecule that can exit the
cycle and go towards making glucose. Let’s summarize the quantities of key molecules
that enter and exit the Calvin cycle as one net G3P is made. In three turns of the Calvin
cycle:

 Carbon. 3 CO2 combine with 3 RuBP acceptors, making 666 molecules of

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P).
o 1 G3P molecule exits the cycle and goes towards making glucose.
o 5 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 333 RuBP acceptor
molecules.
 ATP. 9 ATP are converted to 999 ADP (666 during the fixation step, 333 during
the regeneration step).
 NADPH. 6 NADPH are converted to 666 NADP^++start superscript, plus, end
superscript (during the reduction step).

A G3P molecule contains three fixed carbon atoms, so it takes two G3Ps to build a six-
carbon glucose molecule. It would take six turns of the cycle, or 6 CO2, start subscript,
2, end subscript, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH, to produce one molecule of glucose.
“

Powering the Cell: Cellular Respiration

The Mitochondria

Mitochondrion, membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of almost

all eukaryotic cells (cells with clearly defined nuclei), the primary function of which is to
generate large quantities of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Mitochondria are typically round to oval in shape and range in size from 0.5 to 10 μm. In
addition to producing energy, mitochondria store calcium for cell signaling activities,
generate heat, and mediate cell growth and death.
The number of mitochondria per cell varies widely; for example, in
humans, erythrocytes (red blood cells) do not contain any mitochondria,
whereas liver cells and muscle cells may contain hundreds or even thousands. The only
eukaryotic organism known to lack mitochondria is the
oxymonad Monocercomonoides species.

Mitochondria are unlike other cellular organelles in that they have two
distinct membranes and a unique genome and reproduce by binary fission; these
features indicate that mitochondria share an evolutionary past with prokaryotes (single-
celled organisms).

The outer mitochondrial membrane is freely permeable to small molecules and contains
special channels capable of transporting large molecules. In contrast, the inner
membrane is far less permeable, allowing only very small molecules to cross into the
gel-like matrix that makes up the organelle’s central mass.

The matrix contains the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the mitochondrial genome and
the enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle, or
Krebs cycle), which metabolizes nutrients into by-products the mitochondrion can use
for energy production.

The processes that convert these by-products into energy occur primarily on the inner
membrane, which is bent into folds known as cristae that house the protein components
of the main energy-generating system of cells, the electron transport chain (ETC).

The ETC uses a series of oxidation-reduction reactions to move electrons from one
protein component to the next, ultimately producing free energy that is harnessed to
drive the phosphorylation of ADP (adenosine diphosphate) to ATP. This process, known
as chemiosmotic coupling of oxidative phosphorylation, powers nearly all cellular
activities, including those that generate muscle movement and fuel brain functions.
[In this image, you will see the basic overview of processes of ATP production. The three
processes of ATP production include glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and oxidative
phosphorylation. In eukaryotic cells the latter two processes occur within mitochondria.
Electrons that are passed through the electron transport chain ultimately generate free energy
capable of driving the phosphorylation of ADP.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]

Most of the proteins and other molecules that make up mitochondria originate in the
cell nucleus. However, 37 genes are contained in the human mitochondrial genome, 13
of which produce various components of the ETC.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is highly susceptible to mutations, largely because it does

not possess the robust DNA repair mechanisms common to nuclear DNA. In addition,
the mitochondrion is a major site for the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS; or
free radicals) due to the high propensity for aberrant release of free electrons.

While several different antioxidant proteins within the mitochondria scavenge and
neutralize these molecules, some ROS may inflict damage to mtDNA. In addition,
certain chemicals and infectious agents, as well as alcohol abuse, can damage mtDNA.
In the latter instance, excessive ethanol intake saturates detoxification enzymes,
causing highly reactive electrons to leak from the inner membrane into the cytoplasm or
into the mitochondrial matrix, where they combine with other molecules to form
numerous radicals.

[In this image, this shows mitochondria; striated muscle. A transmission electron micrograph
showing a human striated muscle fibre partially contracted. Wide red bands contain actin and
myosin filaments, while mitochondria (green) supply the energy necessary for muscle
contraction.© SERCOMI—BSIP/age fotostock]

In many organisms, the mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally. This is because

the mother’s egg cell donates the majority of cytoplasm to the embryo, and
mitochondria inherited from the father’s sperm are usually destroyed. There are
numerous inherited and acquired mitochondrial diseases.

Inherited diseases may arise from mutations transmitted in maternal or paternal nuclear
DNA or in maternal mtDNA. Both inherited and acquired mitochondrial dysfunction is
implicated in several diseases, including Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease.

The accumulation of mtDNA mutations throughout an organism’s life span are

suspected to play an important role in aging, as well as in the development of
certain cancers and other diseases. Because mitochondria also are a central
component of apoptosis (programmed cell death), which is routinely used to rid the
body of cells that are no longer useful or functioning properly, mitochondrial dysfunction
that inhibits cell death can contribute to the development of cancer.

The maternal inheritance of mtDNA has proved vital to research on human

evolution and migration. Maternal transmission allows similarities inherited in
generations of offspring to be traced down a single line of ancestors for many
generations.

Research has shown that fragments of the mitochondrial genome carried by all humans
alive today can be traced to a single woman ancestor living an estimated 150,000 to
200,000 years ago. Scientists suspect that this woman lived among other women but
that the process of genetic drift (chance fluctuations in gene frequency that affect the
genetic constitution of small populations) caused her mtDNA to randomly supersede
that of other women as the population evolved.

Variations in mtDNA inherited by subsequent generations of humans have helped

researchers decipher the geographical origins, as well as the chronological migrations
of different human populations. For example, studies of the mitochondrial genome
indicate that humans migrating from Asia to the Americas 30,000 years ago may have
been stranded on Beringia, a vast area that included a land bridge in the present-
day Bering Strait, for as long as 15,000 years before arriving in the Americas.

Cellular Respiration Stage III:

Electron Transport Electron transport is the final stage of aerobic respiration. In this
stage, energy from NADH and FADH2, which result from the Krebs cycle, is transferred
to ATP. Can you predict how this happens? (Hint: How does electron transport occur in
photosynthesis?)

Transporting Electrons

High-energy electrons are released from NADH and FADH2, and they move along
electron transport chains, like those used in photosynthesis. The electron transport
chains are on the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. As the high-energy electrons
are transported along the chains, some of their energy is captured. This energy is used
to pump hydrogen ions (from NADH and FADH2) across the inner membrane, from the
matrix into the intermembrane space.

Making ATP

The pumping of hydrogen ions across the inner membrane creates a greater
concentration of the ions in the intermembrane space than in the matrix. This
chemiosmotic gradient causes the ions to flow back across the membrane into the
matrix, where their concentration is lower. ATP synthase acts as a channel protein,
helping the hydrogen ions cross the membrane. It also acts as an enzyme, forming ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate. After passing through the electron-transport chain,
the “spent” electrons combine with oxygen to form water. This is why oxygen is needed;
in the absence of oxygen, this process cannot occur.

How Much ATP?

You have seen how the three stages of aerobic respiration use the energy in glucose to
make ATP. How much ATP is produced in all three stages? Glycolysis produces 2 ATP
molecules, and the Krebs cycle produces 2 more. Electron transport begins with several
molecules of NADH and FADH2 from the Krebs cycle and transfers their energy into as
many as 34 more ATP molecules. All told, then, up to 38 molecules of ATP can be
produced from just one molecule of glucose in the process of aerobic respiration.

SUMMARY

Photosynthesis requires water and CO2 as products of cellular respiration for energy
conversion while Cellular Respiration requires Oxygen and Glucose as products of
photosynthesis for energy production.

In other words, one process cant proceed without the other.

Photosynthetic equation = CO2 + H2O + sunlight -> C6H12O6 + O2

Cellular respiration equation = C6H12O6 + O2 -> CO2 + H20 + energy (ATP)