PHYSICS Thermometer Types

Heat and Temperature Bimetallic strip thermometer

Macroscopic Definition of Temperature Resistance thermometer
Temperature is the quantitative measure of the Infrared thermometer
relative hotness or coldness of a body.
 Temperature is also related to the molecular The Celsius Scale
kinetic energy of the molecules that make up  Formerly the centigrade scale and was later
the material. named after its developer, Anders Celsius
 A device that measures temperature is called a (1742).
thermometer.  The scales is based on the ice point (0°C ) and
 To obtain the temperature of an object, a steam point (100°C) of water.
thermometer is placed in contact with the  Used today in a huge majority of countries
object, until thermal equilibrium is reached. around the world.

Thermal Equilibrium The Fahrenheit Scale

 Thermal equilibrium is a condition in which two  Developed by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
objects would not exchange energy by heat or  The ice point and the steam point of water are
electromagnetic radiation if they were placed in assigned 32°F and 212°F respectively.
thermal contact.  Used in the United states.
 Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if and
only if they have the same temperature. Thermometer Limitations
 Two bodies can be in thermal equilibrium with  Thermometers are calibrated by placing them
each other even if they are not in physical in thermal contact with reference systems.
contact with each other.  Because different materials have different
expansion properties, errors occur in
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics temperature measurements.
If two objects are separately in thermal equilibrium  Mercury thermometers cannot be used below
with a third object, then they are also in thermal its freezing point (39°C)
equilibrium with each other.  Alcohol thermometers are not useful above
85°C (boiling point)
Temperature Dependent Properties
All thermometers are based on the principle that The Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
some physical properties change with temperature. In a constant volume gas thermometer, the
Some of these properties include: temperature is determined from the pressure
 Volume of a liquid variation of the gas.
 Dimensions of a solid
 Pressure of a gas at constant volume The Kelvin Scale
 Volume of a gas at constant pressure  SI unit of absolute temperature, named after
 Electric resistance of a conductor William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
 Reference temperatures: absolute zero (0 K)  Above 4 °C, water expands with increasing
and the triple point of water. temperature and its density decreases.
 At absolute zero (-273.15°C) any Density of water is max. at 4°C (1.000 g/cm3)
thermodynamic system has minimum energy.
 The triple point of water is the condition in Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas
which all the 3 states of water can exist in  Real gases at low pressures can be modeled as
equilibrium (0.01°C and 4.58 mmHg). ideal gases.
 Ideal gases have low densities and maintained
One kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the difference at low pressures.
between the triple point of water and absolute zero.  The equation of state of an ideal gas relates its
properties (P, V, T, m).
Absolute zero: −273.15°C = 0 K  One mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s
Triple point (H2O): 0.01°C = 273.16 K number of constituent particles (atoms or
molecules)
The magnitude of 1 K equals the magnitude of 1
degree in Celsius scale. Equation of State of An Ideal Gas

Thermal Expansion
 The increase in dimensions of a material as a
consequence of temperature rise is called
thermal expansion.
 Due to the increase in the average separation
of the atoms
 For small temperature variations, change in
length is directly proportional to temperature
change.

The Boltzmann’s Constant

The Boltzmann’s constant equals the ratio of the
universal gas constant to Avogadro’s number
The Unusual Behavior of Water
 Most liquids expand with increasing
temperature.
 Water contracts from 0°C to 4°C, (density
increases)
 Heat  Calorimetry is just an application of the
Heat is the transfer of energy across the boundary of conservation of energy
a system due to temperature difference.  Calorimetry is concerned with heat calculations
Heat is energy in transition. involved in various physical changes.
 When energy is transferred in the form of heat
Units of Heat between two bodies, the heat lost by one
Heat has the same unit as work and energy. equals the heat gained by the other.
 joule
 calorie
 BTU Sensible Heat
 The heat required to change the temperature
of a given mass of a pure substance is called
Internal Energy, U
sensible heat.
Internal energy refers to the sum of all the
 It is proportional to the mass m of the
microscopic forms of energy of the constituent
substance and the change in temperature ∆T.
atoms and molecules of a system.
 Internal energy includes:
 kinetic energy of random translational,
rotational, and vibrational motion of molecules;
 Internal energy does not include the bulk
kinetic/potential energy of the system. Specific Heat
 The internal energy of the system is associated Specific heat is the energy per unit mass required to
with its temperature. change the temperature of a given substance by 1
 Internal energy is an extensive property and C°.
cannot be measured directly.  Specific heat is a measure of how thermally
insensitive a substance is to the addition of
energy.
The Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
 Specific heat is an intensive property.
James Prescott Joule(1818-1889)
 Doing work on water increases its internal
energy.
 An increase in internal energy would result to a
rise in temperature. For liquid water: For ice: c = 2.09 J/g · C°
 The change in temperature is directly c = 1 cal/g · C° For steam: c = 2.01 J/g · C°
proportional to the amount of work done. c = 4.1861 J/g · C°
c = 4,1861 J/kg · C°
Calorimetry c = 1 Btu/lb · F°
 Calorimetry means “measuring heat.”
 Energy transfer (heat) involves temperature Phase Change and Latent Heat
changes.  A transition from one state of matter to
 Heat is also involved in phase changes, such as another is called phase change.
the melting of ice or boiling of water.
 Whenever a substance undergoes phase
change, energy is always absorbed or released
 At a given pressure, phase change occurs at a STATE VARIABL S
definite temperature. Kinetic energy
 The specific energy necessary to change the Potential energy
phase of a substance at a definite temperature Position
is called latent heat, L.
Velocity
Pressure
Temperature
Internal energy

Transfer Variables
 Transfer variables are associated with
Molar Heat Capacity processes that involve a transfer of energy
The heat capacity of a substance is the amount of across the boundary of a system.
energy needed to raise the temperature of a given  Transfer variables are either positive or
sample by 1 C°. negative.
 Specific heat is the heat capacity per unit mass. Transfer variables: HEAT and WORK
 Heat capacity is an extensive property.
 The molar heat capacity of a substance is the Work in Thermodynamic Processes
product of its specific heat and molar mass.
 When a confined gas expands, it does a certain
amount of work into its surroundings.
 An expanding gas always does a positive work.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
 When the gas is compressed, the work is
Thermodynamic System and Process
negative.
A thermodynamic system is any collection of object
 The work done in a process equals the area
that can be regarded as a unit and has the potential
under the curve in a PV diagram.
to exchange energy with its surroundings
 The work done from an initial to final state
A thermodynamic process refers to any change that
depends on the path between these states.
a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another.
The series of states that a system undergoes during a The change in the internal energy of a closed system
process is called the path of the process. equals the sum of the energy transferred by heat
and the work done.
The State of a System and State Variables
The change in internal energy of a system during any
 The state of a system refers to its conditions
thermodynamic process depends only on the initial
which can be described completely by its
and final states.
properties.
 State variables refer to the quantities that are
used to describe the state of a system. Isolated System
 In an isolated system, no energy is transferred
between the system and surroundings either by
heat or by work.
 The internal energy of an isolated system Second Law of Thermodynamics
remains constant. DIRECTIONS OF THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
A process that proceeds spontaneously in one
Cyclic Process direction but not the other is called an irreversible
 For a cyclic process, the initial and final states process. All processes that occur in nature are
of the system are identical. irreversible.
 Thus, the change in internal energy must be A reversible process is an idealized process in which
zero. the system is always in thermodynamic equilibrium
with its surroundings. Thus, a reversible process is an
equilibrium process.
Adiabatic Process
 In an adiabatic process, no energy is Heat Engines
transferred by heat,  Any device that transforms heat partly into
 Thus, the change in the change in the energy of work or mechanical energy is called a heat
the system equal the net work done. engine.
 The matter inside the engine is called the
working substance.
 The simplest engine to analyze are those that
Isochoric Process involve a cyclic process.
 Constant volume process
How a Heat Engine Works
 The working substance absorbs energy by heat
from a high temperature reservoir
 Work is done by the engine
 Energy is expelled by heat to a lower
Isobaric Process
temperature reservoir
 Constant pressure process
 The net work W done by a heat engine equals
For expansion, work is negative
the net energy transferred by heat.
For compression, work is positive

Thermal Efficiency of a Heat Engine

The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the ratio of
the work done by the engine during one cycle to the
energy input at higher temperature.
Isothermal Process
 Constant temperature process
 For ideal gases,
Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law No real heat engine operating between two energy
Second Law of Thermodynamics (“engine” reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot engine
statement) it is impossible for any system to undergo operating between the same two reservoirs.
a process in which it absorbs heat from a reservoir at
a single temperature and converts the heat
completely into mechanical work, with the system
ending in the same state in which it began. The thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
the formula
Heat Pumps and Refrigerators
 A device that transfers energy from a cold to
hot reservoir is called a heat pump or a
refrigerator.
 The transfer of energy from a cold to hot
Entropy
reservoir can only be achieved if work is done
 Entropy is a state variable which measures the
on the engine.
degree of disorder in a system.
 Entropy statement of the second law:
Clausius Statement of the Second Law
 The entropy of the Universe increases for all
Second Law of Thermodynamics (“refrigerator”
real processes.
statement) it is impossible for any process to have as
its sole result the transfer of heat from a cooler to a
hotter object.

The Coefficient of Performance

The COP is a number that measures the effectiveness
of a heat pump.

Entropy Change for Some Processes

 The change in entropy in a reversible process is
zero and greater than zero in an irreversible
process.
The Carnot Engine
∆S = 0 (reversible process)
 A Carnot engine is a theoretical engine that
operates in an ideal, reversible cycle called
Carnot cycle, and is the most efficient engine  The total entropy of an isolated system always
possible. increases for an irreversible process. For a
 No real heat engine operating between two reversible process, the total entropy of the
energy reservoirs can be more efficient than a isolated system remains constant.
Carnot engine operating between the same two  Free expansion is an irreversible adiabatic
reservoirs. expansion.

Carnot’s Theorem