Unit 2

1. What is exploratory research

Exploratory research is a type of investigation that is carried out to gather preliminary
information or gain a better understanding of a topic or problem. It is like exploring or searching
for information in order to form ideas or hypotheses. It is often done in the early stages of a
research project, when little is known about the subject. Exploratory research can involve various
methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or analyzing existing data. The goal is to
gather as much information as possible to help direct further research or decision-making.

2. What do you mean by experience survey

An experience survey is a way to gather information from people who have personal knowledge
or experience about a certain topic. It involves asking individuals to share their opinions,
thoughts, or experiences related to a specific subject. This type of survey is valuable because it
can provide insights and perspectives that may not be easily obtained in other ways. The
information collected from an experience survey can be used to better understand a topic,
identify trends or patterns, or even generate new ideas for further research or decision-making.

3. What is one shot survey design

One shot survey design is a type of research design where data is collected from a group of
participants at a single point in time. It involves asking a set of questions or gathering
information from individuals in one instance. This design is often used when it is not possible or
practical to collect data multiple times, or when the focus is on a specific event or occurrence.
However, it is important to note that the results of a one shot survey design may be limited in
terms of the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships or capture changes over time.
4. What is hypothesis

A hypothesis is an educated guess or prediction about what might happen in a research study. It
is a statement that suggests a possible explanation or relationship between variables. When
researchers have a hypothesis, they can conduct experiments or gather data to test whether their
hypothesis is true or not. It is an important step in the scientific method and helps guide research
and investigations.
5. What is depth interview

A depth interview is a type of interview where a researcher asks open-ended questions to gather
detailed and in-depth information from an individual. The goal is to explore their thoughts,
feelings, and experiences in great detail. It is often used to gain a deeper understanding of a
person's perspective, motivations, or beliefs. Depth interviews allow for a more personal and in-
depth exploration of a topic compared to other types of interviews. The information gathered
from depth interviews can be used to gain insights, uncover patterns or trends, or inform
decision-making.
6. Give an example of interval scale

An example of an interval scale is a temperature scale. In this scale, the distance between each
point is equal, and zero does not represent the absence of temperature. For example, on a Celsius
temperature scale, the difference between 10 degrees Celsius and 15 degrees Celsius is the same
as the difference between 30 degrees Celsius and 35 degrees Celsius. However, zero degrees
Celsius does not mean the absence of temperature, as it is just a reference point.
7. What is target population

The target population refers to the specific group of people that a researcher wants to study or
gather information from. It is the group of individuals that the researcher wants to make
conclusions or generalizations about based on their research findings. The target population is
defined based on certain characteristics or criteria that are important for the research study. For
example, if a researcher wants to study the effects of a new medication, the target population
would be the group of people who are eligible to take that medication.

8.list the advantages of random sampling

The advantages of random sampling are:

1. Representativeness: Random sampling helps ensure that each member of the population has an
equal chance of being included in the sample. This increases the likelihood that the sample
accurately represents the larger population, allowing for more reliable and generalizable findings.

2. Reduction of bias: Random sampling reduces the chances of selection bias, where certain
individuals are more likely to be chosen than others. This helps in avoiding skewed or distorted
results that may occur if certain groups or individuals are overrepresented or underrepresented in
the sample.

3. Precision: Random sampling provides a basis for statistical analysis, as it allows for the
calculation of sampling error and confidence intervals. This helps in estimating the accuracy and
precision of the findings and drawing more valid conclusions.
9. What is quota sampling

Quota sampling is a method used in research to gather information from a specific group based
on certain criteria. Instead of randomly selecting participants, the researcher sets a quota or target
number for each subgroup based on their characteristics. For example, if a researcher wants to
survey 100 people, they may set a quota of 50 males and 50 females. The researcher then recruits
participants from each subgroup until the quota is met. Quota sampling allows for more control
over the composition of the sample and ensures representation of different groups, but it may not
be as random or representative as other sampling methods.
Part B
Explain the need of research
Research is necessary in order to gain knowledge and understanding about various topics and
problems. It helps to answer questions, solve problems, and make informed decisions. Here are
some reasons why research is neede
Knowledge expansion: Research helps expand our knowledge by providing new information,
discoveries, and insights. It helps us understand the world around us and make advancements in
various fields
Problem-solving: Research helps to identify and analyze problems, and find effective solutions.
It helps us understand the causes of problems and develop strategies to address them
Decision-making: Research provides the information and evidence needed to make informed
decisions. It helps to evaluate options, consider different perspectives, and determine the best
course of action.
Innovation and improvement: Research drives innovation by encouraging new ideas, inventions,
and improvements. It helps to identify gaps in knowledge or areas that need improvement, and
provides a foundation for further development
Validation and credibility: Research provides evidence to support or refute claims, theories, and
hypotheses. It helps to establish credibility and ensure that information or findings are reliable
and valid
Policy development: Research helps inform policy-makers and government officials when
developing policies and making decisions that affect society. It provides evidence-based
recommendations and helps evaluate the impact of policies.
Overall, research is crucial for advancing knowledge, solving problems, making informed
decisions, and driving progress in various fields. It helps us understand the world we live in and
shape a better future.
2. Describe the factors affecting research design
Factors affecting research design include:

1. Research objectives: The specific goals and objectives of the research will determine the
design that is most appropriate. Different research objectives may require different research
designs.

2. Research question: The research question guides the design of the study. It helps determine the
type of data that needs to be collected and the methods that will be used.

3. Resources: The availability of resources, such as time, budget, and personnel, can influence
the research design. Researchers need to consider what they have access to and choose a design
that is feasible with the available resources.

4. Ethical considerations: Research designs need to adhere to ethical guidelines and principles.
Researchers must consider the potential risks and benefits to participants, the privacy and
confidentiality of data, and any potential conflicts of interest.

5. Population and sample: The characteristics of the population being studied and the method of
sampling can impact the research design. Researchers need to consider the population size,
diversity, and accessibility when designing their study.

6. Data collection methods: The choice of data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews,
or observations, will depend on the research question and objectives. Researchers need to select
methods that are appropriate for collecting the necessary data.

7. Time frame: The time frame available for the research can influence the design. Some designs
require longitudinal data collection over an extended period, while others can be completed in a
shorter time frame.

8. External validity: Researchers need to consider the external validity of their findings. This
refers to the extent to which the results can be generalized to other populations or settings. The
design should allow for findings that are applicable beyond the specific study.
9. Researcher bias: Researchers need to be aware of their own biases and how they may impact
the research design. Steps should be taken to minimize bias and ensure the validity and reliability
of the findings.

10. Research tradition or discipline: Different research traditions or disciplines may have their
own preferred designs. Researchers should consider the established practices and methodologies
within their field when choosing a research design.

These factors, along with others, are important to consider when designing a research study. The
design should align with the research objectives, address ethical considerations, and be feasible
given the available resources.

3. Explain the purpose of exploratory research

The purpose of exploratory research is to gather preliminary information and gain a better
understanding of a topic or problem. It is like exploring or searching for information to form
ideas or hypotheses. This type of research is often done in the early stages of a project when little
is known about the subject. Exploratory research can involve different methods such as surveys,
interviews, observations, or analyzing existing data. The goal is to gather as much information as
possible to help direct further research or decision-making. It helps researchers learn more about
a topic, identify trends or patterns, and generate new ideas.

4. Highlights the importance and limitations of descriptive research

Descriptive research is important because it provides a detailed and accurate description of a

particular phenomenon or behavior. It helps researchers understand the characteristics, patterns,
and relationships within a population or group. Descriptive research allows for the collection of
objective data and provides a baseline for comparisons and further analysis. It is particularly
useful in studying complex and multifaceted phenomena, as it provides a comprehensive picture
and allows for generalizations to be made.

However, descriptive research also has its limitations. It is primarily concerned with describing
and summarizing data, rather than explaining causal relationships or making predictions. It does
not provide insights into the underlying reasons or mechanisms behind observed phenomena.
Descriptive research may also be limited by the accuracy and reliability of the data collected, as
well as the representativeness of the sample. It is important for researchers to consider these
limitations and use descriptive research in conjunction with other research methods to gain a
comprehensive understanding of a subject.

5. What are the criteria for casualty in experimental research design

The criteria for causality in experimental research design are:

1. Temporal precedence: The cause must precede the effect in time. This means that the
manipulation or treatment in the experiment must be implemented before the outcome or result is
observed.

2. Covariation of cause and effect: There must be a consistent relationship between the cause and
effect. This means that when the cause is present, the effect is observed, and when the cause is
absent, the effect is not observed.

3. Absence of alternative explanations: Other factors or variables should be ruled out as

alternative explanations for the observed relationship between the cause and effect. This is
achieved through the use of control groups, random assignment, and statistical analysis.

4. Dose-response relationship: There should be a clear and systematic relationship between the
level or intensity of the cause and the magnitude or strength of the effect. This helps establish a
causal link between the two variables.

These criteria are important in experimental research design because they help establish a cause-
and-effect relationship between variables. By following these criteria, researchers can
confidently attribute changes or differences in the outcome variable to the manipulation or
treatment being tested in the experiment.
6. Explain the types of hypothesis
There are several types of hypotheses that can be used in research:

1. Research or experimental hypothesis: This type of hypothesis is used in experimental research

to make a prediction about the expected relationship between variables. It states the specific
relationship that the researcher expects to find based on previous knowledge or theories.
2. Null hypothesis: The null hypothesis states that there is no significant relationship or
difference between variables. It assumes that any observed difference or relationship is due to
chance or random variation. In experimental research, the null hypothesis is often tested against
the alternative or research hypothesis.

3. Directional hypothesis: A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship

between variables. It states that there will be an increase or decrease in the outcome variable as
the predictor variable changes. For example, "As the amount of exercise increases, the level of
fitness will also increase."

4. Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis states that there will be a

relationship between variables, but does not specify the direction of the relationship. It simply
suggests that there is a connection or association between the variables being studied.

5. Composite hypothesis: A composite hypothesis is more complex and involves multiple

variables or factors. It may state that there are multiple relationships or interactions among
variables that need to be investigated.

6. Statistical hypothesis: Statistical hypotheses are specific statements that can be tested using
statistical analysis. They involve specifying null and alternative hypotheses and using statistical
tests to determine if the data supports or rejects the null hypothesis.

These different types of hypotheses are used in research to guide the investigation and make
predictions about the relationship between variables. They help to provide structure and direction
to the research process and guide data collection and analysis.
7. What do you understand by measurement state its functions

6.5. Functions of Measurement

Measurement performs the following functions:

1. Provides Better Understanding of a Situation: Measurement allows better understanding of a

situation as compared to a scenario where there is no measurement at all. For example, various
data about population is obtained only when it is measured. Until and unless the data is
measured, it does not provide in-depth understanding of the situation.

2. Allows to Quantify Data and Statistical Sophistication: The process of measurement also
allows the researcher to quantify the abstract variables and research parameters. The degree of
statistical treatment of the data depends upon the measurement scale adopted to quantify the
data.

3. Important for Research Approach: Selection of measurement techniques also determines the
research approach and the way a researcher will tend to solve the research problems. Deciding
the measures is thus an essential part of the research activity. The selection of proper measures
goes a long way towards making the research a better planned and organised activity.

4. Allows to Summarise Information: The framing of proper measures also allows the
information to be summarised and presented in a better way. This also allows researchers to use
various graphs, tables, and charts to represent the data properly. This also makes the research and
the research findings more presentable and attractive to any potential user of the research report.

5. Provides Important Set of Tools: The measurement procedures and instruments to be used
provide invaluable information to the researcher which allows him to reach at a decision
regarding the research problem. It also has a bearing on the policies and programs.

8. Highlight the importance of scaling

Scaling is important in research because it allows researchers to measure and quantify variables
or concepts. Scaling involves assigning numbers or values to the different levels or categories of
a variable, which allows for comparisons and analysis.

The importance of scaling in research includes:

1. Measurement: Scaling provides a way to measure and quantify variables, making them more
objective and easier to analyze. It allows researchers to collect numerical data that can be subject
to statistical analysis and interpretation.
2. Comparisons: Scaling enables researchers to make comparisons between different groups,
individuals, or time periods. By assigning values to different levels of a variable, researchers can
determine patterns, trends, and differences across various groups or situations.

3. Analysis: Scaling facilitates data analysis and statistical testing. It allows for the use of various
statistical techniques to examine relationships, correlations, and differences between variables.
Scaling ensures that the data collected is in a format that can be processed and analyzed
effectively.

4. Validity and Reliability: Proper scaling ensures that the measurements are valid and reliable.
Validity refers to the accuracy and relevance of the measurements, while reliability refers to the
consistency and stability of the measurements over time. By using appropriate scaling
techniques, researchers can ensure that their measurements are meaningful and dependable.

5. Decision-making: Scaling helps provide information and evidence that can guide decision-
making. By quantifying variables, researchers can make informed decisions based on the data
and findings. Scaling allows for a more systematic and objective approach to decision-making.

6. Communication: Scaling provides a common language and framework for communication. It

allows researchers to communicate their findings effectively, using numbers and statistics to
convey information. Scaling also allows for the comparison and integration of different research
studies, facilitating further advancements in knowledge.

Overall, scaling is important in research because it allows for the measurement, comparison,
analysis, and interpretation of data. It provides a structured and objective way to quantify
variables and understand the relationships between them. Scaling is an essential component of
research design and analysis, contributing to the validity, reliability, and usability of research
findings.
9. What are the characteristics of good sample design

Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

1) True Representative: A good sample design should be a true representative of the population
being studied.
2) Accurate: A sample is called good when it yields accurate estimates or statistics and is free
from errors.

3) Approachable: The subjects of a good sample should be easily accessible, allowing for easy
data collection.

4) Comprehensive: A good sample design should be comprehensive, representing all important

characteristics of the population.
5) Good Size: The size of a good sample should be appropriate in order to yield accurate results
and estimations.
6) Feasible: A good sample design should make the research work more feasible.
7) Goal Orientation: The sample selected for research should be able to satisfy the objectives of
the study.
8) Practical: The concepts of sample selection should be applied properly while conducting the
research, and the researcher should be experienced and well-instructed.
The methodology, economic factors, and timing should also be considered. The sample design
should be practical and feasible in nature.

Part C
1. Define research design discuss the various method of exploratory research design
Research design refers to the overall plan or strategy that a researcher uses to answer their
research question or investigate a specific topic. It outlines the methods, procedures, and
techniques that will be used to collect and analyze data.

Exploratory research design is a type of research design that is used when little is known about a
topic and the researcher aims to gain a better understanding or explore the subject in-depth. It is
often used in the early stages of a research project to gather preliminary information or generate
new ideas. Exploratory research can involve various methods such as surveys, interviews,
observations, or analyzing existing data. It is flexible and allows for a broad exploration of the
topic.

Some common methods used in exploratory research design include:

1. Surveys: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals by asking a set of
structured questions. Surveys can be conducted through phone interviews, online questionnaires,
or in-person interviews.

2. Interviews: Interviews involve having a researcher ask open-ended questions to gather detailed
and qualitative information from participants. The goal is to explore their thoughts, opinions, and
experiences.

3. Observations: Observations involve systematically watching and recording behaviors or

events. Observations can be conducted in a natural setting or in a controlled environment.

4. Focus groups: Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of individuals to discuss a
specific topic or issue. The researcher facilitates the discussion and gathers insights and
perspectives from participants.

5. Case studies: Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or
situation. Researchers collect detailed information through interviews, observations, and
document analysis to gain insights and understanding.

6. Literature reviews: Literature reviews involve analyzing existing research and literature on a
topic. Researchers review and summarize relevant studies to gain insight and identify research
gaps.

These methods can be used individually or in combination to gather qualitative or quantitative

data and explore a topic in-depth. The choice of method will depend on the research question, the
nature of the research topic, and the available resources. Exploratory research design allows
researchers to gather preliminary information, generate ideas or hypotheses, and provide a
foundation for further research or decision-making.

2. What is descriptive research design explain the types of descriptive research design
Descriptive research design is a type of research design that is used to describe and summarize
the characteristics, behaviors, or patterns of a population or group. It aims to provide an accurate
and detailed representation of a particular phenomenon or situation. Descriptive research design
does not involve manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships, but rather
focuses on observing and documenting what is happening.

There are different types of descriptive research design that can be used, depending on the
research question and objectives. Some common types include:

1. Cross-sectional design: In a cross-sectional design, data is collected from a sample of

participants at one point in time. This allows researchers to capture a snapshot of the population
and examine current behaviors, attitudes, or characteristics. This design is often used in surveys
or questionnaires.

2. Longitudinal design: In a longitudinal design, data is collected from the same participants over
an extended period of time. This allows researchers to examine changes or trends over time and
explore the stability or development of behaviors or characteristics. Longitudinal designs can
involve repeated measurements, such as follow-up surveys or interviews, or tracking data over
multiple time points.

3. Comparative design: In a comparative design, data is collected from different groups or

populations to compare and contrast their characteristics or behaviors. This design allows
researchers to identify similarities or differences between groups and explore factors that may
contribute to those differences. Comparative designs can involve surveys, observations, or data
analysis.

4. Correlational design: In a correlational design, data is collected to examine the relationship

between two or more variables. This design allows researchers to determine the strength and
direction of the relationship and to make predictions or hypotheses based on the observed
correlations. Correlational designs can involve surveys, questionnaires, or data analysis.

5. Retrospective design: In a retrospective design, data is collected from historical records or past
events to reconstruct or analyze a particular phenomenon. This design allows researchers to
examine patterns or trends in the past and to gain insights into the causes or influences of certain
outcomes. Retrospective designs can involve data analysis, archival research, or interviews.

These different types of descriptive research design provide researchers with a range of methods
and approaches to collect and analyze data in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of a
particular topic or phenomenon. They allow for the description, summary, and interpretation of
data, and provide a foundation for further research or decision-making.

3. Discuss the major techniques of conductive descriptive research

Some major techniques used in descriptive research include:

1. Surveys: Surveys involve collecting data from a sample of individuals by asking a set of
structured questions. Surveys can be conducted through phone interviews, online questionnaires,
or in-person interviews. Surveys allow researchers to gather large amounts of data quickly and
can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

2. Observations: Observations involve systematically watching and recording behaviors or

events. Observations can be conducted in a natural setting or in a controlled environment. This
technique allows researchers to gather data on real-time behaviors and interactions, and can
provide rich and detailed information.

3. Experiments: While commonly associated with experimental research, experiments can also
be used in descriptive research to gather data about behaviors or phenomena. In this context,
experiments involve manipulating variables or conditions to observe and measure the resulting
effects. Experiments can be used to test hypotheses or explore cause-and-effect relationships.

4. Case studies: Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or
situation. Researchers collect detailed information through interviews, observations, and
document analysis to gain insights and understanding. Case studies provide a rich and detailed
description of a single case or a small number of cases and can provide valuable insights into
complex phenomena.

5. Archival research: Archival research involves analyzing existing records and documents to
gather information about a particular topic or phenomenon. Researchers may review historical
documents, newspapers, government records, or other archival materials. Archival research
allows for the examination of past events or behaviors and can provide valuable insights into
historical or contextual factors.

6. Secondary data analysis: Secondary data analysis involves collecting and analyzing data that
has been collected by someone else for a different purpose. Researchers may analyze existing
datasets, reports, or surveys to gather information about a particular topic. Secondary data
analysis can be a cost-effective and time-efficient way to conduct descriptive research, as data
has already been collected.

These techniques can be used individually or in combination to conduct descriptive research. The
choice of technique will depend on the research question, the nature of the research topic, and the
available resources. Each technique has its own strengths and limitations, and researchers should
carefully consider which technique is most appropriate for their specific research goals and
objectives.

4. What is casual relationship explain the types of casual relationship

Causal relationship refers to the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, where
changes in one variable directly lead to changes in another variable. In other words, a causal
relationship suggests that one variable has a direct influence or impact on the other variable.

There are different types of causal relationships, including:

1. Direct Causal Relationship: In a direct causal relationship, a change in one variable directly
causes a change in another variable. For example, increasing the amount of fertilizer applied to
plants directly leads to an increase in plant growth.

2. Indirect Causal Relationship: In an indirect causal relationship, a change in one variable

indirectly causes a change in another variable through an intermediate variable or mediator. For
example, a decrease in exercise can indirectly lead to an increase in body weight through the
mediator of reduced calorie expenditure.

3. Reciprocal Causal Relationship: In a reciprocal causal relationship, there is a mutual cause-

and-effect relationship between two variables, where each variable has an effect on the other. For
example, stress can lead to an increase in smoking, and smoking can also lead to an increase in
stress.

4. Spurious Causal Relationship: In a spurious causal relationship, there appears to be a causal

relationship between two variables, but it is actually due to a third variable that is related to both
variables. This is often referred to as a confounding variable. For example, there may appear to
be a causal relationship between ice cream consumption and crime rates, but this relationship is
actually due to a third variable, such as warmer weather.

5. Non-Causal Relationship: Sometimes, two variables may be related, but there is no causal
relationship between them. This is referred to as a non-causal relationship or correlation. For
example, there is a positive correlation between the number of ice cream sales and sunglasses
sales, but this does not mean that one causes the other. It is likely that both variables are
influenced by a common factor, such as warm weather.

It is important in research to establish a causal relationship between variables in order to

understand the mechanisms and processes that underlie phenomena. Various research methods,
such as experimental designs, can be used to establish causal relationships by manipulating
variables and observing the effect on other variables.

5. What do you mean by formulation of hypothesis discuss its essentials

The formulation of a hypothesis refers to the process of developing a statement or prediction
about the relationship between variables that can be tested through research. A hypothesis is an
educated guess or proposition that suggests a possible explanation or relationship between
variables.

The essentials of formulating a hypothesis include:

1. Clear statement: A hypothesis should be clear and specific, stating the expected relationship
between variables. It should be concise and focused, making it easier to test and analyze.

2. Testability: A hypothesis should be testable through research methods and data collection. It
should be possible to gather data that can be analyzed to either confirm or refute the hypothesis.

3. Observable variables: A hypothesis should involve variables that can be observed and
measured. These variables should be clearly defined and measurable in order to test the
hypothesis effectively.
4. Predictive ability: A hypothesis should make a prediction about the expected outcome or
result. This prediction should be based on existing theories, literature, or prior knowledge.

5. Falsifiability: A hypothesis should be formulated in a way that it can be disproven or falsified.

This means that there should be a possibility that the hypothesis is not supported by the data
collected, allowing for the rejection of the hypothesis.

6. Relevance and significance: A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question or

problem being investigated. It should address an important or significant issue in the field and
have the potential to contribute to existing knowledge or theories.

7. Grounded in existing knowledge: A hypothesis should be based on existing knowledge,

theories, or previous research in the field. It should build upon prior knowledge and provide a
logical and informed prediction.

Formulating a hypothesis is an important step in the research process, as it helps guide the
research design, data collection, and analysis. A well-formulated hypothesis provides a clear
direction for the research and helps determine the appropriate research methods and techniques
to be used.
6. Describe the characteristics of sound measurement tools

Characteristics of sound measurement tools include:

1. Reliability: A sound measurement tool should be reliable, meaning that it produces consistent
results when used repeatedly. Test-retest reliability measures the consistency of results when the
tool is administered multiple times to the same group of individuals. Inter-rater reliability
measures the consistency of results when multiple observers or raters use the tool.

2. Validity: A sound measurement tool should be valid, meaning that it accurately measures what
it is intended to measure. Construct validity relates to whether the tool is measuring the intended
construct or concept. Content validity ensures that all relevant aspects of the construct are
measured. Criterion validity compares the results of the tool to an established criterion to
determine if the tool is accurately measuring what it claims to measure.
3. Objectivity: A sound measurement tool should be objective, meaning that different observers
or raters obtain the same results when using the tool. This reduces bias and subjectivity in the
measurement process.

4. Sensitivity: A sound measurement tool should be sensitive to detect small and meaningful
changes or differences in the variable being measured. It should be able to distinguish between
different levels of the variable and capture subtle changes.

5. Feasibility: A sound measurement tool should be feasible in terms of ease of administration,

time required, and cost. It should be practical and efficient to use in a research or clinical setting.

6. Acceptability: A sound measurement tool should be acceptable to the individuals being

measured. It should be clear, understandable, and non-invasive. It is important that participants
are willing to provide accurate and honest responses when using the tool.

7. Standardization: A sound measurement tool should have standardized procedures for

administration and scoring. This ensures consistency across different users and settings.

8. Cultural appropriateness: A sound measurement tool should take into account cultural factors
and linguistic variations to ensure that it is appropriate and valid for the target population.

9. Measuring range: A sound measurement tool should have an appropriate measuring range that
captures the variability of the variable being measured. It should not be too narrow or too broad.

10. Norms and reference values: A sound measurement tool should have established norms or
reference values that allow for comparison and interpretation of results.

These characteristics are important in ensuring the quality and accuracy of measurement tools.
Sound measurement tools are essential for gathering valid and reliable data in research, clinical
practice, and other fields.
7. Explain the scaling methods with example
Scaling methods are used in research to assign numerical values to variables or concepts in order
to make comparisons and analyze data. There are several scaling methods that can be used,
depending on the type of variable being measured and the research question.

Some common scaling methods include:

1. Nominal scale: The nominal scale is the simplest scaling method, where variables are
categorized into distinct categories with no order or magnitude. Examples of nominal scale
variables include gender (male/female), marital status (single/married/divorced), or political
affiliation (Republican/Democrat/Independent).

2. Ordinal scale: The ordinal scale involves ranking or ordering variables based on their relative
position. While the differences between categories are not quantifiable, there is a clear ordering.
Examples of ordinal scale variables include Likert scales (e.g., strongly
agree/agree/disagree/strongly disagree), education level (e.g., high school diploma/bachelor's
degree/master's degree/doctorate), or socioeconomic status (e.g., lower class/middle class/upper
class).

3. Interval scale: The interval scale involves assigning values to variables where the distance
between each point is equal, but there is no true zero point. Examples of interval scale variables
include temperature (e.g., Celsius or Fahrenheit), IQ scores, or Likert scales with equal intervals
between response options (e.g., 1-5 rating scale).

4. Ratio scale: The ratio scale is similar to the interval scale, but it includes a true zero point,
meaning that zero represents the absence of the variable being measured. Variables measured on
a ratio scale allow for meaningful ratios and mathematical operations. Examples of ratio scale
variables include age, weight, income, or time (e.g., seconds, minutes).

5. Likert scale: Likert scales are commonly used in surveys to measure attitudes, opinions, or
perceptions. Respondents are asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement on a
scale with response options such as "strongly agree," "agree," "neutral," "disagree," or "strongly
disagree." Likert scales can be used with any of the above scaling methods (nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio).
These scaling methods provide a way to measure and quantify variables in research, allowing for
comparisons, analysis, and interpretation of data. The choice of scaling method depends on the
nature of the variable being measured and the research question.

8. Discuss the various sampling techniques in detail

What is Probability Sampling?

The probability sampling method utilizes some form of random selection. In this method, all the
eligible individuals have a chance of selecting the sample from the whole sample space. This
method is more time consuming and expensive than the non-probability sampling method. The
benefit of using probability sampling is that it guarantees the sample that should be the
representative of the population.

Probability Sampling Types

Probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Let us discuss the
different types of probability sampling methods along with illustrative examples here in detail.

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling technique, every item in the population has an equal and likely
chance of being selected in the sample. Since the item selection entirely depends on the chance,
this method is known as “Method of chance Selection”. As the sample size is large, and the
item is chosen randomly, it is known as “Representative Sampling”.

Example:

Suppose we want to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a school. Here, we can
assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a random number
generator to select a sample of 200 numbers.

Systematic Sampling

In the systematic sampling method, the items are selected from the target population by selecting
the random selection point and selecting the other methods after a fixed sample interval. It is
calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired population size.

Example:

Suppose the names of 300 students of a school are sorted in the reverse alphabetical order. To
select a sample in a systematic sampling method, we have to choose some 15 students by
randomly selecting a starting number, say 5. From number 5 onwards, will select every 15th
person from the sorted list. Finally, we can end up with a sample of some students.

Stratified Sampling

In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided into smaller groups to complete
the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a few characteristics in the population.
After separating the population into a smaller group, the statisticians randomly select the sample.

For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with different balls. Bag A has 50 balls,
bag B has 100 balls, and bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls from each bag
proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A, 10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.

Clustered Sampling
In the clustered sampling method, the cluster or group of people are formed from the population
set. The group has similar significatory characteristics. Also, they have an equal chance of being
a part of the sample. This method uses simple random sampling for the cluster of population.

Example:

An educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the number of
students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we can’t travel to
every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four
branches as clusters.

All these four methods can be understood in a better manner with the help of the figure given
below. The figure contains various examples of how samples will be taken from the population
using different techniques.

What is Non-Probability Sampling?

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher selects the sample
based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all the
members of the population have a chance to participate in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Types

Non-probability Sampling methods are further classified into different types, such as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, judgmental sampling, snowball
sampling. Here, let us discuss all these types of non-probability sampling in detail.

Convenience Sampling

In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the population directly because
they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are easy to select, and the
researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire population.

Example:
In researching customer support services in a particular region, we ask your few customers to
complete a survey on the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way to collect data.
Still, as we only surveyed customers taking the same product. At the same time, the sample is not
representative of all the customers in that area.

Consecutive Sampling

Consecutive sampling is similar to convenience sampling with a slight variation. The researcher
picks a single person or a group of people for sampling. Then the researcher researches for a
period of time to analyze the result and move to another group if needed.

Quota Sampling

In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that involves the individuals to
represent the population based on specific traits or qualities. The researcher chooses the sample
subsets that bring the useful collection of data that generalizes the entire population.

Learn more about quota sampling here.

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge. As
their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly
accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental sampling or
authoritative sampling.

Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the
samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is asked
to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same targeted
population.

9. Mention the steps involved in sample design

1.Defining-the-Target Population:
Defining the population of interest,-for-business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study.
The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where
the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including-the respondents
who do not fit the research objective of the company.For example, if the population
is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large number
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
1.Defining-the-Target Population:
Defining the population of interest,-for-business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study.
The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where
the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including-the respondents
who do not fit the research objective of the company.For example, if the population
is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large number
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
1.Defining-the-Target Population:
Defining the population of interest,-for-business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study.
The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where
the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including-the respondents
who do not fit the research objective of the company.For example, if the population
is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large nu
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
1.Defining-the-Target Population:
Defining the population of interest,-for-business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study.
The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where
the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including-the respondents
who do not fit the research objective of the company.For example, if the population
is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large number
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
1.Defining-the-Target Population:
Defining the population of interest,-for-business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study.
The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where
the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including-the respondents
who do not fit the research objective of the company.For example, if the population
is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large number
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
1.Defining-the-Target Population:
Defining the population of interest,-for-business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study.
The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where
the researcher has to draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including-the respondents
who do not fit the research objective of the company.For example, if the population
is defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large n
The steps involved in the sampling procedure are as follows:

1. Identify the population of interest(Target population) :

 Target population refers to the group of individuals or objects to which researchers

are interested in generalizing their findings.

 A well-defined population reduces the likelihood of undesirable individuals or

objects. A sample is taken from the target population.

2. Select a sampling frame :

 The sampling frame is the group of individuals or objects from which the researcher
will draw the sample.

 It is the actual list of all units in a target population from which the sample is taken.
3. Specify the sampling technique :

 Sampling can be done by two techniques: probability (random selection) or non-

probability (non-random) technique.

 Now, if the sampling frame is approximately the same as the target population,
random selection may be used to select samples.

4. Determine the sample size:

 The sample size is defined as the number of units in the sample. Sample size
determination depends on many factors such as time, cost, and facility.

5. Execute the sampling plan :

 Once population, sampling frame, sampling technique, and sample size are
identified, the researcher can use all that information to execute the sampling plan
and collect the data required for the research.