IMPORTANCE OF

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
 Why Material Science & Engineering is important?
 Mechanical engineers search for high temp material so that gas
turbines, jet engines etc can operate more efficiently and wear
resistance materials to manufacture bearing materials
 Electrical engineers search for materials by which electrical devices or
machines can be operated at a faster rate with minimum power losses
 Aerospace & automobile engineers search for materials having high
strength-toweight ratio
 Electronic engineers search for material that are useful in the
fabrication & miniaturization of electronic devices
 Chemical engineers search for highly corrosion-resistant materials
Course Goals

• Materials are ENGINEERED Structures

• NOT Black Boxes
• Class Q: Materials Engineering & Technology →
What is it?
• Investigating the Structures & Properties of Materials and
Correlating these with the Design or Engineering or Technology
Objectives

Structural Feature Dimension (m)

-10
Atomic Bonding <10
▪ Basic Material
-10
Structure Has Missing/Extra Atoms 10
-10 -1
Many Crystals (Ordered Atoms) 10 - 10
-8 -4
Dimensions Second Phase Particles 10 - 10
-6
Crystal Texturing >10
 From Chem1A Recall The Periodic Table of Elements
 Metals
• May be Pure or Compounds (Alloys)
– Along with Polymers The Most Common Everyday
Material
– Typically from the 1st Row of Transition Metals in
Periodic Table (Fe, Cu, Ni, etc.)
– Have LARGE Numbers of NonBound Electrons
• Makes them Good Electrical & Thermal
CONDUCTORS
– Strong but Deformable (Ductile)
Ceramics
• Some Typical Properties
– HARD & BRITTLE
– HIGHEST Temperature Resistance
• Thoria (Thorium Oxide) Max Temp  3000 K
– Llttle Temperature-SHOCK Resistance
– Corrosion Resistant
– Electrically Resistive (Insulative)
– Difficult to Join
• Do Not Weld
Polymers
• Some Typical Properties
– Very LightWeight
– Very Corrosion Resistant
• Best of ANY Class of Material
– Little, if any, Hi/Lo Temperature Resistance
– Little Structural Strength
– Very Deformable (ductile/flexible)
– Lowest $-Cost:Volume Ratio for Any
Class of Material
Semi-Conductors
• May be made CONDUCTIVE or INSULATIVE (or
Something in-between) by the Addition of
Miniscule Amounts of IMPURITIES
–Current Techniques Allow Precise Control over
the AMOUNT and LOCATION of the Impurities
• Semiconductors are Very Important Electronic
Device Materials
Semiconductors cont.
• Most SOLID STATE (no moving parts)
Electronic Devices are Semiconductors
• Major applications for Semi Transistors
– Voltage Amplifiers
– On/Off switches
• Additional Advantage: Semiconductor
Electronic Devices can be constructed at
Extremely SMALL Scales
• SILICON is the Most Widely Used
 Composites
• Materials that Consist of
More than One Material Type
– Goal is to Combine the Best
Features of Multiple Materials
• Some Examples
– FiberGlass = Glass (ceramic) + Polymer
• Strength + Flexibilty
– ReInforced Concrete = Steel + Concrete
• Tension-Strength + Compression-
Strength
BioMaterials
• Defined as Those Materials Which
Are compatible with Human Tissue
– Classic Example = Stainless Steels
used For Bone repair (Screws,
Staples, Plates, Hip-Joints)
• At least a few of ALL other
Classes of Materials are
BioCompatible
– Including Silicon
Smart Materials
• Smart Materials  Materials That can
Sense Changes in the Environment and
Respond with a Material Shape/Property
Change
– Example: "smart" materials that can be
attached to, or embedded in, structural
systems
• enable the structure to sense disturbances,
process the information and through
commands to actuators, to accomplish
some beneficial reaction
 Ceramics
• Basic Composition is the MINERAL Form of a Metal
– Very Few Metals Exist in
PURE Form in Nature
• Most That Do are Very Rare, e.g., Gold
• Ceramics are Compounds of Metals and
– Oxygen → Oxides (most Ceramics)
– Carbon → Carbides
– Nitrogen → Nitrides
 MODULE 1A
Material Selection Processes
Electrical, Thermal, Magnetic and Optical.
 The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application -------→ Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical,
deteriorative.
2. Properties ----------- > Identify candidate Material(s)
Material: structure, composition.
3. Material --------- > Identify required Processing
Processing: changes Processing: changes structure and overall and
overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping forming, joining,
annealing.
 ELECTRICAL
Electrical Resistivity of Copper:
• Adding “impurity” atoms to
Cu increases resistivity.
-200 -100 0 T (°C) 0
ECE331 Wi11 lecture 1
• Deforming Cu increases
resistivity.
 OPTICAL
• Transmittance:
--Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or opaque depending on the
material structure.
Polycrystal: Polycrystal
Low Porosity High Porosity
Single Crystal
THERMAL
• Space Shuttle Tiles: --Silica fiber insulation offers low heat
conduction
• Thermal Conductivity of Copper: decreases when you add zinc!
decreases when you add zinc!
 MAGNETIC
• Magnetic Storage: • Magnetic Permeability vs.
-- Recording medium is magnetized by Composition:
recording head. -- Adding 3 atomic % Si makes Fe
a better recording medium!
YOUNG’S MODULUS VS. COST
STRENGTH VS. DENSITY
STRENGTH VS. COST
STRENGTH VS. MAXIMUM SERVICE TEMPERATURE
Photovoltaics and the role of materials
Properties of Engineering Materials

1.2.1 Chemical Properties

1.2.2 Physical Properties
1.23 Mechanical Properties
 Basic Material Properties
Mechanical properties
Thermal expansion
o
General
Weight: Density , kg/m3 

Expense: Cost/kg Cm, $/kg

Thermal strain 
Ductile materials Mechanical
Elastic limit,y
Stiffness: Young’s modulus E, GPa
Stress 

Expansion
coefficient, 
Strength: Elastic limit y , MPa
Young’s modulus, E Fracture strength: Tensile strength ts , MPa Temperature, T

Thermal conduction
Strain  Brittleness: Fracture toughness KIc , MPa·m1/2
x
Thermal T1 To
Brittle materials
Q joules/sec
 Tensile (fracture)
Brittle materials Expansion:Expansion coeff. , 1/K Area A
Stress 

strength,  ts
Conduction: Thermal conductivity , W/m·K

Heat flux, Q/A


Specific Heat (Capacity), cp or cv, J/kg·K
Thermal
Young’s Electrical conductivity, 
Strain 
modulus, E
Conductor? Insulator? Conductivity σ, S/m (T1 -T0)/x

Dielectric Capacity, F/m

 Material Properties
Property Stimulus Result Terms
Mechanical load deformation, “structural matls”
stress, strain modulus/stiffness,
strength, toughness
Envt./Chemical chemicals, temp corrosion passivity, pollution
(aqueous solution)
Electrical electrical field conductivity “electronic matl.s”
semiconductors,
resistivity, dielectric
Magnetic magnetic field magnetism magnets, hysteresis,
moments
Thermal heat conductivity heat capacity,
thermal expansion
Optical radiation color, index of refraction,
(em, light) transparency reflectivity

• Material performance depends on material properties

Material Properties
• Density (g/cm3)
 Mechanical Properties, con’t
• Tensile Strength (MPa)
 Mechanical Properties, con’t
• Stiffness or Elastic Modulus E (GPa)
 Mechanical Properties, con’t
• Fracture Toughness [MPa*(m)E0.5]
Electrical Properties
• Conductivity (1/Ohm-
m)
Electrical Properties
Increase
resistivity of Cu
• by adding
impurities
• by
mechanical
deformation
Processing → Structure → Properties (con’t)
• PROPERTIES depend on STRUCTURE UNtempered
– e.g.; The HARDNESS vs STRUCTURE of Steel Martensite

(d)
600
PROCESSING
30m
500 (c) can change
STRUCTURE
400 (b)
Hardness (BHN)

(a) – e.g.,
4m
300 STRUCTUR
30m E vs Cooling-
200 30m Rate for
Steel
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (C/s)
Processing → Structure → Properties
• Recrystallization
Strength versus Structure
of Brass
and changes in
microstructure
• Thermal Properties
• low from ceramic oxide (structure and conduction
properties)
• changes due to alloying in metals (even though same
structure)
Processing → Structure → Properties
(con’t)
• Optical
Properties
Effect of Temperature
Course Goals, con’t
• Materials are
ENGINEERED
Structures
• NOT Black
Boxes
MATERIAL SELECTION
Important aspect of design for aerospace, mechanical,
electrical, thermal, chemical or other applications is
selection of best materials
Systematic selection of best material for a given
application usually depends on 2 aspects:
Properties
Cost
A few examples:
• Thermal blanket must have poor thermal conductivity
in order to minimize heat transfer for a given
temperature difference

MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESSES 1

MATERIAL SELECTION
A few examples:
• Large amounts of copper in superconducting
magnets: copper needed for low resistance path
for large currents in case superconductivity lost
• Samarium-Cobalt Permanent Magnets on DS-1
• SR-71 structure: 85% titanium and 15%
composite
• Hummer armor – should it be stiff or deflect
against a bomb blast
 The Materials Selection Process

1. Pick Application ------- Determine required Properties

Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic,
optical, deteriorative.
2. Properties ----------- > Identify candidate Material(s)
Material: structure, composition.
3. Material --------- > Identify required Processing
Processing: changes Processing: changes structure and
overall and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping forming,
joining, annealing.
 STRENGTH VS.
MAXIMUM SERVICE
TEMPERATURE
 Basic Material Properties
Mechanical properties Thermal expansion

General
Weight: Density , kg/m3 o

Expense:Cost/kg Cm, $/kg 

Mechanical

Thermal strain 
Ductile materials Stiffness: Young’s modulus E, GPa
Elastic limit,y
Strength: Elastic limit y , MPa
Stress 

Expansion
coefficient, 
Fracture strength: Tensile strength ts , MPa
Young’s modulus, E Temperature, T
Brittleness: Fracture toughness KIc , MPa·m1/2 Thermal conduction
Strain
Thermal x
T1 To
Brittle materials
Expansion: Expansion coeff. , 1/K Q joules/sec

Tensile (fracture)
Brittle materials
strength,  ts
Area A
Stress 

Conduction: Thermal conductivity , W/m·K

Heat flux, Q/A


Specific Heat (Capacity), cp or cv, J/kg·K Thermal
Young’s conductivity, 
Strain 
modulus, E Electrical
(T1 -T0)/x
Conductor? Insulator? Conductivity σ, S/m
Dielectric Capacity, F/m
 Material Properties
Property Stimulus Result Terms
Mechanical load deformation, “structural matls”
stress, strain modulus/stiffness,
strength, toughness
Envt./Chemical chemicals, temp corrosion passivity, pollution
(aqueous solution)
Electrical electrical field conductivity “electronic matl.s”
semiconductors,
resistivity, dielectric
Magnetic magnetic field magnetism magnets, hysteresis,
moments
Thermal heat conductivity heat capacity,
thermal expansion
Optical radiation color, index of refraction,
(em, light) transparency reflectivity

• Material performance depends on material properties

Material Properties
• Density (g/cm3)
 Mechanical Properties, con’t
• Tensile Strength (MPa)
 Mechanical Properties, con’t
• Stiffness or Elastic Modulus E (GPa)
 Mechanical Properties, con’t
• Fracture Toughness [MPa*(m)E0.5]
Electrical Properties
• Conductivity (1/Ohm-
m)
Electrical Properties
Increase
resistivity of Cu
• by adding
impurities
• by
mechanical
deformation
Processing → Structure → Properties (con’t)
• PROPERTIES depend on STRUCTURE UNtempered
– e.g.; The HARDNESS vs STRUCTURE of Steel Martensite

(d)
600
PROCESSING
30m
500 (c) can change
STRUCTURE
400 (b)
Hardness (BHN)

(a) – e.g.,
4m STRUCTUR
300
30m E vs Cooling-
200 30m Rate for
Steel
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (C/s)
Processing → Structure → Properties
• Recrystallization
Strength versus Structure
of Brass
and changes in
microstructure
• Thermal Properties
• low from ceramic oxide (structure and conduction
properties)
• changes due to alloying in metals (even though same
structure)
Processing → Structure → Properties
(con’t)
• Optical
Properties
Effect of Temperature
Course Goals, con’t
• Materials are
ENGINEERED
Structures
• NOT Black
Boxes
 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Element of Earth’s Crust
Oxygen 46.5 It is apparent that many of the very important
Silicon 27.5 metals used in commercial work do not appear
Aluminum 8.0 in the Table. These include zinc, tin, lead, and
Iron 5.0 antimony which together constitute less than
Calcium 3.55 % of the earth’s crust.
Sodium 3.0
Potassium 2.5
Factors in determining the Price of metals:
The type of mineral is a very important determining factor as it will
govern the ease which the metal can be reduced from the mineral.
Three principal factors control the price of metals: 1) the degree of
concentration of the mineral deposits; 2) the cost per tom of ore
handled; and 3) the law of supply and demand which is influenced
largely by the need and which seems to defy human control.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.1

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Ores:
Is a combination of minerals which can be profitably mined. Secondary
minerals may not be of commercial value and it consists of impuritites of
earthly nature such as rock, sand, clay which are referred to as Gangue.
Gold is the one metal which usually occurs uncombined.
Chemical Nature of Ores:
The earthly matters of ore consists primarily of silica, aluminum, silicate,
limestone and magnesia in varying amount. Predominant is the silica or
silicate in the gangue are considered acid ores. Those with a
predominance of limestone and magnesia are considered as basic ores.
Primary Metals:
The treatment of ores to produce commercially pure metals requires
several operations, namely, mining, concentration, purification,
reduction, and refining. Metals produced directly from ores are primary
metals.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.2

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Ore Dressings:
The mechanical treatments by which the concentration of ores is increased.
No major chemical change in the ore. The operations done are by magnetic
separation, crushing, flotation, or screening. Powdered ores are agglomerated
by pressing and sintering, Gravity separation is done by simply panning, as
familiar in the recovery of gold ot by used of more complicated devices (built
ripples or Wifley tables. Flotation process wherein reagents are added to the
ore to form a film on certain types of minerals. Suspension of ore is stirred
thoroughly and air is bubbled through the mixture of water and ore.
Purification:
The change in chemical charateristics. Degree of prufication of ore can be
secured by drying through heating. Roasting is another method of purification
involving a process of oxidation in which sulfides are converted to oxides.
Sintering changing the chemical nature of ore by heating. Smelting to assist in
the separation of gangue from the ore. Distillation method prior to reduction
process.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.3

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Refining of Metals:
Improving the purity of the metals. Fire Refining is one of the
most common method of purifying metals by oxidation of
impurities in the furnaces. Liquation or Sweating is another
method of refining in which the impurities that are not soluble in
the metal being refined separate from the solid at temperatures at
which the impurities are liquid and not soluble in the liquid state in
the metal being refined.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.4

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Reduction of Ores:
The process of reducing the suitably prepared ore is principally a
chemical one in which the important mineral is decomposed. It
employ heat are included in the Pyrometallurgical processes
which involve the reduction of the metal from aqueous solutions
by replacement or by electrolysis called hydrometallurgical
process. It is done by the application of heat and the use of
reducing agents which is known as Smelting. Cementation is a
process of reduction involving the displacement of the metal from
a liquid solution, as example, copper may be replaced from the
solution onto an iron plate.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.5

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS

SINTERING PROCESS

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.6

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Refining: Steelmaking
The refining of iron to make steel is where the carbon content of
hot metal is lowered, usually to less than 1 % by an oxidation
process in a steelmaking furnace. At the same time, alloying
materials are added to the furnace to achieve the required
chemical composition of the final product. The chemical content
is controlled very closely during this stage. Originally most steel
was produced by the "Bessemer" and "open hearth" processes
but these have been replaced by the more modern "basic oxygen
steelmaking" (BOS) and "electric arc furnace" (EAF) processes.
The BOS process uses pure oxygen, injected by a lance, for
refining the relatively impure hot metal (and scrap is used for
temperature control).

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.7

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Refining: Steelmaking
The electric arc furnace uses primarily electrical energy to
supply heat to melt scrap steel, sponge iron, or mixtures of
scrap and other iron units. Compared to the BOS process, the
EAF requires less chemical reaction for refining.
Fluxes:
The gangue which remains in the ore after dressing must be
removed in the furnace and furnace temperature are not high
enough to melt this gangue. Fluxes are the materials used in
metallurgical processing to react with impurities to form a liquid
slag at the process temperature. This allows the metal to be
easily separated from the impurities

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.8

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
STEEL MAKING PROCESS

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.9

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS

Basic Oxygen Converter Electric Arc Furnace Blast Furnace

Furnaces : Where melting and smelting operations can be carried out. It
must withstand a very high temperature. It is constructed with an outer
wall of silica brick, lines with a highest grade of refractory brick, the whole
is encased in a shell of steel plates which may be water-cooled.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.10

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Crucible steel is steel made by melting pig iron (cast iron), iron, and sometimes
steel, often along with sand, glass, ashes, and other fluxes, in a crucible.

Metal is melted without direct contact with

burning fuel mixture.
Sometimes called indirect-fuel fired
furnaces.
Container (crucible) is made of refractory
material or high temperature steel alloy.
Used for non-ferrous metals such as
bronze, brass, and alloy of zinc and
aluminum.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.11

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS

The Bessemer processwas the first inexpensive industrial

process for the mass production of steelfrom molten pig
ironbefore the development of the open hearth furnace. The key
principle is removal of impuritiesfrom the iron by oxidationwith air
being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation also raises
the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.12

 METALLURGY, PROPERTIES AND USES OF FERROUS
METALS AND ALLOYS
Steel : Alloy of iron and carbon in which carbon content does not
exceed 1.7%. It is produced from pig iron and scrap by processes
which remove some carbon and a certain amount of Sulphur,
phosphorous, manganese, and silicon. Steels containing only iron
and carbon together with small amount of impurities are classed
sa plain carbon steels, , while those containing certain elements
intentionally added are classed as alloy steels.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.13

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials

Why Study Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing

of Materials?
On occasion, fabrication and processing procedures adversely
affect some of the properties of materials. we note that some
steels may become embrittled during tempering heat treatments.
Also, some stainless steels are made susceptible to intergranular
corrosion when they are heated for long time periods within a
specific temperature range. Regions adjacent to weld
junctions may experience diminishments in strength and
toughness as a result of undesirable microstructural alterations. It
is important that engineers become familiar with possible
consequences attendant to processing and fabricating procedures
in order to prevent unanticipated material failures.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.1

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
LearningObjectives
After careful study of this chapter you should be able to do the
following:
1. Name and describe four forming operations that are used to
shape metal alloys.
2. Name and describe four casting techniques.
3. State the purposes of and describe procedures for the
following heat treatments: process annealing, stress relief
annealing, normalizing, full annealing, and spheroidizing.
4. Define hardenability.
5. Generate a hardness profile for a cylindrical steel specimen
that has been austenitized and then quenched, given the
hardenability curve for the specific alloy, as well as
quenching rateversus-bar diameter information.
6. Name and briefly describe four forming methods
that are used to fabricate glass pieces.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.2

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Fabrication of Metals
Metal fabrication techniques are normally preceded by refining,
alloying, and often heat-treating processes that produce alloys with
the desired characteristics. The classifications of fabrication
techniques include various metal-forming methods, casting, powder
metallurgy, welding, and machining; often two or more of them must
be used before a piece is finished.
Forming Operations
Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is
changed by plastic deformation; for example, forging, rolling,
extrusion, and drawing are common forming techniques. Of course,
the deformation must be induced by an external force or stress, the
magnitude of which must exceed the yield strength of the
material.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.3

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
When deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at
which recrystallization occurs, the process is termed hot working ;
otherwise, it is cold working. With most of the forming techniques,
both hot- and cold-working procedures are possible. For hot-
working operations, large deformations are possible, which may
be successively repeated because the metal remains soft and
ductile.
Cold working produces an increase in strength with the
attendant decrease in ductility, since the metal strain hardens;
advantages over hot working include a higher quality surface
finish, better mechanical properties and a greater variety of them,
and closer dimensional control of the finished piece.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.4

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Classification Scheme of metal Fabrication Tecniques

FORGING
Forging is mechanically working or deforming a single piece of
a normally hot metal; this may be accomplished by the
application of successive blows or by continuous squeezing.
Forgings are classified as either closed or open die.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.5

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
FORGING
For closed die, a force is brought to bear on two or more die
halves having the finished shape such that the metal is deformed
in the cavity between them. For open die, two dies having simple
geometric shapes (e.g., parallel flat, semicircular) are employed,
normally on large workpieces.
ROLLING
Rolling, the most widely
used deformation process,
consists of passing a piece
of metal between two rolls; a
reduction in thickness
results from compressive
stresses exerted by the
rolls.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.6

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
EXTRUSION
For extrusion, a bar of metal is
forced through a die orifice by a
compressive force that is applied to
a ram; the extruded piece that
emerges has the desired shape
and a reduced cross-sectional area.
Extrusion products include rods and
tubing that have rather complicated
cross-sectional geometries;
seamless tubing may also be
extruded.
DRAWING
Drawing is the pulling of a metal piece through a die having a
tapered bore by means of a tensile force that is applied on the exit
side. A reduction in cross are results w/ corresponding + in length.
ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.7
 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
CASTING
Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal
is poured into a mold cavity having the desired shape; upon
solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but
experiences some shrinkage. Casting techniques are employed
when (1) the finished shape is so large or complicated that any
other method would be impractical, (2) a particular alloy is so
low in ductility that forming by either hot or cold working would
be difficult, and (3) in comparison to other fabrication processes,
casting is the most economical.
SAND CASTING
With sand casting, probably the most common method, ordinary
sand is used as the mold material. A two-piece mold is formed
by packing sand around a pattern that has the shape of the
intended casting.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.8

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
DIE CASTING
In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a mold under pressure
and at a relatively high velocity, and allowed to solidify with the
pressure maintained. A two-piece permanent steel mold or die is
employed; when clamped together, the two pieces form the
desired shape. When complete solidification has been achieved,
the die pieces are opened and the cast piece is ejected.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.9

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
INVESTMENT CASTING
For investment (sometimes called lost-wax) casting, the pattern is
made from a wax or plastic that has a low melting temperature.
Around the pattern is poured a fluid slurry, which sets up to form a
solid mold or investment; plaster of paris is usually used. The
mold is then heated, such that the pattern melts and is burned out,
leaving behind a mold cavity having the desired shape.
CONTINUOUS CASTING
At the conclusion of extraction processes, many molten metals are
solidified by casting into large ingot molds. The ingots are
normally subjected to a primary hot rolling operation, the product
of which is a flat sheet or slab; these are more convenient shapes
as starting points for subsequent secondary metal-forming
operations (i.e., forging, extrusion, drawing).

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.10

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
WELDING
In a sense, welding may be considered to be a fabrication
technique. In welding, two or more metal parts are joined to form
a single piece when one-part fabrication is expensive or
inconvenient. Both similar and dissimilar metals may be welded.
The joining bond is metallurgical (involving some diffusion) rather
than just mechanical, as with riveting and bolting. A variety of
welding methods exist, including arc and gas welding, as well as
brazing and soldering.

Schematic crosssectional
representation showing the zones in
the vicinity of a
typical fusion weld.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.11

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Laser Beam Welding
A relatively modern joining technique is that of laser beam welding,
wherein a highly focused and intense laser beam is used as the
heat source. The laser beam melts the parent metal, and, upon
solidification, a fusion joint is produced; often a filler material need
not be used. Some of the advantages of this technique are as
follows: (1) it is a noncontact process, which eliminates
mechanical distortion of the workpieces; (2) it can be rapid and
highly automated; (3) energy input to the workpiece is low, and
therefore, the heat-affected zone size is minimal; (4) welds may be
small in size and very precise; (5) a large variety of metals and
alloys may be joined using this technique; and (6) porosity-free
welds with strengths equal to or in excess of the base metal are
possible. Laser beam welding is used extensively in the
automotive and electronic industries where high quality and rapid
welding rates are required.
ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.12
 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS
Annealing Processes : A heat treatment in which a material is
exposed to an elevated temperature for an extended time period
and then slowly cooled. Ordinarily, annealing is carried out to (1)
relieve stresses; (2) increase softness, ductility, and toughness;
and/or (3) produce a specific microstructure. Any annealing
process consists of three stages: (1) heating to the desired
temperature, (2) holding or ‘‘soaking’’ at that temperature, and (3)
cooling, usually to room temperature.
Process annealing is a heat treatment that is used to negate the
effects of cold work, that is, to soften and increase the ductility of
a previously strain-hardened metal. It is commonly utilized during
fabrication procedures that require extensive plastic deformation,
to allow a continuation of deformation without fracture or
excessive energy consumption.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.13

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Annealing of ferrous Alloys
Several different annealing procedures are employed to enhance
the properties of steel alloys.
Normalizing
Steels that have been plastically deformed by, for example, a rolling
operation, consist of grains of pearlite (and most likely a
proeutectoid phase), which are irregularly shaped and relatively
large, but vary substantially in size. An annealing heat treatment.
Full Anneal
A heat treatment known as full annealing is often utilized in low- and
mediumcarbon steels that will be machined or will experience
extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation.
Spheroidizing
Medium- and high-carbon steels having a microstructure containing
even coarse pearlite may still be too hard to conveniently machine
or plastically deform.
ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.14
 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
Conventional heat treatment procedures for producing martensitic
steels ordinarily involve continuous and rapid cooling of an
austenitized specimen in some type of quenching medium, such
as water, oil, or air. The successful heat treating of steels to
produce a predominantly martensitic microstructure throughout the
cross section depends mainly on three factors: (1) the composition
of the alloy, (2) the type and character of the quenching medium,
and (3) the size and shape of the specimen.
Hardenability
The influence of alloy composition on the ability of a steel alloy to
transform to martensite for a particular quenching treatment is
related to a parameter called hardenability.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.15

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials

FABRICATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

Since ceramic materials have relatively high melting temperatures,
casting them is normally impractical. Furthermore, in most
instances the brittleness of these materials precludes deformation.
Some ceramic pieces are formed from powders (or particulate
collections) that must ultimately be dried and fired. Glass shapes
are formed at elevated temperatures from a fluid mass that
becomes very viscous upon cooling. Cements are shaped by
placing into forms a fluid paste that hardens and assumes a
permanent set by virtue of chemical reactions.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.16

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF GLASSES
Glass Properties
Glassy, or noncrystalline, materials do not solidify in the same
sense as do those that are crystalline. Upon cooling, a glass
becomes more and more viscous in a continuous manner with
decreasing temperature; there is no definite temperature at which
the liquid transforms to a solid as with crystalline materials.
However, for glassy materials, volume decreases continuously
with temperature reduction; a slight decrease in slope of the curve
occurs at what is called the glass transition temperature, or fictive
temperature, Tg .

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.17

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF GLASSES
Glass Properties

Contrast of specific volume

versus-temperature behavior of
crystalline and noncrystalline
materials. Crystalline materials
solidify at the melting temperature
Tm. Characteristic of the
noncrystalline state is the glass
transition temperature Tg .

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.18

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Also important in glass-forming operations are the viscosity–
temperature characteristics of the glass. Figure 14.16 plots the
logarithm of viscosity versus the temperature for fused silica, high
silica, borosilicate, and soda–lime glasses. On the viscosity scale
several specific points that are important in the fabrication and
processing of glasses are labeled:
1. The melting point corresponds to the temperature at which
the viscosity is 10 Pa-s(100 P); the glass is fluid enough to be
considered a liquid.
2. The working point represents the temperature at which the
viscosity is 103 Pa-s(104 P); the glass is easily deformed at
this viscosity.
3. 3. The softening point, the temperature at which the viscosity
is 4 x106 Pa-s (4x107 P), is the maximum temperature at
which a glass piece may be handled without causing
significant dimensional alterations.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.19

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
GLASS FORMING
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated
temperature above which melting occurs. Most commercial glasses
are of the silica–soda–lime variety; the silica is usually supplied as
common quartz sand, whereas Na2O and CaO are added as soda
ash (Na2CO3) and limestone (CaCO3). For most applications,
especially when optical transparency is important, it is essential that
the glass product be homogeneous and pore free.
The press-and-blow
technique for producing
a glass bottle. (Adapted
from C. J. Phillips, Glass: The
Miracle Maker. Reproduced by
permission of Pitman Publishing
Ltd., London.)

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.20

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
HEAT TREATING GLASSES
Annealing
When a ceramic material is cooled from an elevated temperature, internal
stresses, called thermal stresses, may be introduced as a result of the difference
in cooling rate and thermal contraction between the surface and interior regions.

A process for the continuous drawing of sheet glass.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.21

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Glass Tempering
The strength of a glass piece may be enhanced by intentionally
inducing compressive residual surface stresses. This can be
accomplished by a heat treatment procedure called thermal
tempering.
POLYMERIZATION
The synthesis of the large molecular weight polymers is termed
polymerization; it is simply the process by which monomer units are
joined over and over, to generate each of the constituent giant
molecules. Most generally, the raw materials for synthetic polymers
are derived from coal and petroleum products, which are composed
of molecules having low molecular weights.
Polymer Additives:
Fillers Plasticizers Stabilizers Colorants Flame Retardants

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.22

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Filler materials are most often added to polymers to improve tensile
and compressive strengths, abrasion resistance, toughness,
dimensional and thermal stability, and other properties (wood flour
(finely powdered sawdust), silica flour and sand, glass, clay, talc,
limestone, and even some synthetic polymers.
Plasticizers: The additives that improves the flexibility, ductility, and
toughness of polymers. Generally, liquids having low vapor
pressure and molecular weights.
Stabilizers: Additives that counteracts the deteriotative processes
resulting into exposure to lights (UV Radiation and oxidation).
Flame Retardants: Additives that enhance the flammability
resistance of the remaining combustible polymers through gas
phase or chemical reaction the cools the combustion region.
Colorants: Imparts specific color to a polymer (dyes or pigments)

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.23

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
FORMING TECHNIQUES FOR PLASTICS
Fabrication of polymeric materials normally occurs at elevated
temperatures and often by the application of pressure.
Thermoplastics are formed above their glass transition
temperatures, if amorphous, or above their melting temperatures, if
semi-crystalline; an applied pressure must be maintained as the
piece is cooled so that the formed article will retain its shape.
Molding is the most common method for forming plastic polymers.
The several molding techniques used include compression,
transfer, blow, injection, and extrusion molding.
Compression and Transfer Molding
The appropriate amounts of thoroughly mixed polymer and
necessary additives are placed between male and female mold
members, as illustrated in Figure.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.24

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
Compression and Transfer Molding
Both mold pieces are
heated; however, only one
is movable. The mold is
closed, and heat and
pressure are applied,
causing the plastic
material to become viscous
and conform to the mold
shape.
Schematic diagram of a compression molding
apparatus.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.25

 Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials
INJECTION MOLDING
The polymer analogue of die casting for metals, is the most widely
used technique for fabricating thermoplastic materials. A
schematic cross section of the apparatus used is illustrated in
Figure.

Schematic diagram of an injection molding apparatus.

ME 260: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MATERIALS 1.26

Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials

EXTRUSION
The extrusion process is simply injection molding of a viscous
thermoplastic through an open-ended die, similar to the extrusion
of metals.
BLOW MOLDING
The blow molding process for the fabrication of plastic containers is
similar to that used for blowing glass bottles.
CASTING
Like metals, polymeric materials may be cast, as when a molten
plastic material is poured into a mold and allowed to solidify. Both
thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics may be cast.
Applications and Processing of Ceramics
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Why Study “Applications and Processing of
Ceramics?
It is important for the engineer to realize how the applications and processing of
ceramic materials are influenced by their mechanical and thermal properties,
such as hardness, brittleness, and high melting temperatures.
In the processing/structure/properties/performance scheme, reasons for
studying applications and processing of ceramics are as follows:
• During the processing of a glass-ceramic, it is necessary to melt and
subsequently shape a viscous mass.
• Melting and shaping procedures are facilitated with a knowledge of the
temperature dependence of viscosity. The viscosity–temperature behavior
of glasses is presented in this chapter.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Why Study “Applications and Processing of
Ceramics?
Another step in the processing of glass-ceramics is crystallization of the glass
material. Crystallization is accomplished during cooling from an elevated
temperature. We also explore in this chapter how rate of cooling affects degree
of crystallization.
• In the crystallization process a non-crystalline material is transformed into a
fine-grained polycrystalline one. Accompanying this transformation is an
alteration in properties, which is also
discussed.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
GLASSES
The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, lenses, and fiberglass
represent typical applications. As already mentioned, they are non crystalline
silicates containing other oxides, notably CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3, which
influence the glass properties. A typical soda–lime glass consists of approximately
70 wt% SiO2, the balance being mainly Na2O (soda) and CaO (lime). The
compositions of several common glass materials are contained in Table 13.1.
Possibly the two prime assets of these materials are their optical transparency
and the relative ease with which they may be fabricated.
GLASS-CERAMICS
Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform from a non-crystalline state to
one that is crystalline by the proper high-temperature heat treatment. Called
Crystalization and the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline material that is
often called a Glass – Ceramic.
Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Properties and Applications of Glass-Ceramics
Glass-ceramic materials have been designed to have the following
.characteristics:
relatively high mechanical strengths; low coefficients of thermal expansion (to
avoid thermal shock); relatively high temperature capabilities; good dielectric
properties (for electronic packaging applications); and good biological
compatibility. The most common uses for these materials are as ovenware,
tableware, oven windows, and range tops—primarily because of their strength
and excellent resistance to thermal shock
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
CLAY PRODUCTS
One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is clay. This inexpensive
ingredient, found naturally in great abundance, often is used as mined without any
upgrading of quality. Another reason for its popularity lies in the ease with which
clay products may be formed; when mixed in the proper proportions, clay and
water form a plastic mass that is very amenable to shaping. Structural clay
products include building bricks, tiles, and sewer pipes—applications in which
structural integrity is important. The whiteware ceramics become white after the
high-temperature firing. Included in this group are porcelain, pottery, tableware,
china, and plumbing fixtures (sanitary ware).
REFRACTORIES
Another important class of ceramics that are used in large tonnages is the
refractory ceramics. The capacity to withstand high temperatures without melting
or decomposing
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Porosity is one microstructural variable that must be controlled to produce a
suitable refractory brick. Strength, load-bearing capacity, and resistance to attack
by corrosive materials all increase with porosity reduction. At the same time,
thermal insulation characteristics and resistance to thermal shock are diminished.
Of course, the optimum porosity depends on the conditions of service.
Fireclay Refractories
The primary ingredients for the fireclay refractories are high-purity fireclays,
alumina and silica mixtures usually containing between 25 and 45 wt% alumina.
Fireclay bricks are used principally in furnace construction, to confine hot
atmospheres, and to thermally insulate structural members from excessive
temperatures.
Silica Refractories
The prime ingredient for silica refractories, sometimes termed acid refractories, is
silica. Commonly used in the arched roofs of steel- and glass-making furnaces.
These materials, well known for their high-temperature load-bearing capacity.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics

Special Refractories
Yet other ceramic materials are used for rather specialized refractory applications.
Some of these are relatively high-purity oxide materials, many of which may be
produced with very little porosity.

ABRASIVES
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which
necessarily is softer. Therefore, the prime requisite for this group of materials is
hardness or wear resistance; in addition, a high degree of toughness is essential
to ensure that the abrasive particles do not easily fracture. The more common
ceramic abrasives include silicon carbide, tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum
oxide (or corundum), and silica sand.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
CEMENTS
Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic cements: cement,
plaster of paris, and lime, which, as a group, are produced in extremely large
quantities. The characteristic feature of these materials is that when mixed with
water, they form a paste that subsequently sets and hardens. Of this group of
materials, portland cement is consumed in the largest tonnages. It is produced by
grinding and intimately mixing clay and lime-bearing minerals in the proper
proportions and then heating the mixture to about 14000C (2550oF) in a rotary
kiln; this process, sometimes called calcination, produces physical and chemical
changes in the raw materials.
ADVANCED CERAMICS
advanced ceramics are utilized in optical fiber communications systems, in
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), as ball bearings, and in applications
that exploit the piezoelectric behavior of a number of ceramic materials.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Optical Fibers
One new and advanced ceramic material that is a critical component in our
modern optical communications systems is the optical fiber. The optical fiber is
made of extremely high-purity silica, which must be free of even minute levels of
contaminants and other defects that absorb, scatter, and attenuate a light beam.
Ceramic Ball Bearings
A bearing consists of balls and races that are in contact with and rub against one
another when in use. In the past, both ball and race components traditionally have
been made of bearing steels that are very hard and extremely corrosion resistant
and may be polished to a very smooth surface finish. Some of the applications
that employ these hybrid bearings include inline skates, bicycles, electric motors,
machine tool spindles, precision medical hand tools (e.g., high-speed dental drills
and surgical saws), and textile, food-processing, and chemical equipment.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Fabrication and Processing of Ceramics

Figure 1.. A Ceramic

fabrication techniques
classification scheme
for the ceramic forming
techniques discussed in this
chapter.
Applications and Processing of Ceramics

Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics

Glass Properties
Glassy, or non-crystalline, materials do not solidify in the same sense as do those
that are crystalline. Upon cooling, a glass becomes more and more viscous in a
continuous manner with decreasing temperature; there is no definite temperature
at which the liquid transforms to a solid as with crystalline materials.
For crystalline materials, there is a discontinuous decrease in volume at the
melting temperature Tm. However, for glassy materials, volume decreases
continuously with temperature reduction; a slight decrease in slope of the curve
occurs at what is called the glass transition temperature.
After fabrication, glasses may be annealed and/or tempered to improve
mechanical characteristics.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products
• Clay minerals assume two roles in the fabrication of ceramic bodies: When
water is added to clay it becomes pliable and amenable to forming. Clay
minerals melt over a range of temperatures; thus, during firing, a dense
and strong piece is produced without complete melting.
• For clay products, two common fabrication techniques are hydroplastic
forming
and slip casting.
For hydroplastic forming, a plastic and pliable mass is formed into a desired
shape by forcing the mass through a die orifice. With slip casting, a slip
(suspension of clay and other minerals in water) is poured into a porous mold. As
water is absorbed into the mold, a solid layer is deposited on the inside of the
mold wall.
• After forming, a clay-based body must be first dried and then fired at an
elevated temperature to reduce porosity and enhance strength.
Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Figure 2 Schematic representation of the
steps in uniaxial powder pressing. (a) The
die cavity is filled with powder. (b) The
powder is compacted by means of pressure
applied to the top die.

POWDER PRESSING
• Some ceramic pieces are formed by powder compaction; uniaxial,
isostatic, and hot pressing techniques are possible.
• Densification of pressed pieces takes place by a sintering mechanism
(Figure 13.16) during a high-temperature firing procedure.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Figure 3 Schematic representation of the
steps in uniaxial powder pressing. (c) The
compacted piece is ejected by rising
action of the bottom punch. (d) The fill
shoe pushes away the compacted piece,
and the fill step is repeated.

Figure 4 Schematic diagram

showing the tape-casting process
using a doctor blade.
 Applications and Processing of Ceramics

TAPE CASTING

thin sheets of a flexible tape are produced by means of a casting process. These
sheets are prepared from slips, in many respects similar to those that are
employed for slip casting. This type of slip consists of a suspension of ceramic
particles in an organic liquid that also contains binders and plasticizers that are
incorporated to impart strength and flexibility to the cast tape.
Synthesis,
Fabrication and
Processing of
Polymers
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of
Polymers
WHY STUDY the Synthesis, Fabrication, Processing of
Polymers?

Polymers are used in a wide variety of applications, such as

construction materials and microelectronics processing. Thus,
most engineers will be required to work with polymers at some
point in their careers. Understanding the mechanisms by which
polymers elastically and plastically deform allows one to alter and
control their moduli of elasticity and strengths. Also, additives may
be incorporated into polymeric materials to modify a host of
properties, including strength, abrasion resistance, toughness,
thermal stability, stiffness, deteriorability. Several techniques are
used to form polymer fibers; in one fabrication procedure the fibers
are spun from the molten material.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers

POLYMER TYPES
There are many different polymeric materials that are familiar to us and find a
wide variety of applications; in fact, one way of classifying them is according to
their end use. Within this scheme the various polymer types include plastics,
elastomers (or rubbers), fibers, coatings, adhesives, foams, and films. Depending
on its properties, a particular polymer may be used in two or more of these
application categories. For example, a plastic, if crosslinked and utilized above its
glass transition temperature, may make a satisfactory elastomer. Or a fiber
material may be used as a plastic if it is not drawn into filaments. This portion of
the chapter includes a brief discussion of each of these types of polymer.
PLASTICS

Plastics are materials that have some structural rigidity under load and are used
in general-purpose applications. Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(vinyl
chloride), polystyrene, and the fluorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters
may all be classified as plastics.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Coatings
Coatings are frequently applied to the surface of materials to serve one or more
of the following functions: (1) to protect the item from the environment that may
produce corrosive or deteriorative reactions; (2) to improve the item’s
appearance; and (3) to provide electrical insulation. Many of the ingredients in
coating materials are polymers, most of which are organic in origin. These
organic coatings fall into several different classifications: paint, varnish, enamel,
lacquer, and shellac

FIBERS
The fiber polymers are capable of being drawn into long filaments having at least
a 100:1 length-to-diameter ratio. Most commercial fiber polymers are used in the
textile industry, being woven or knit into cloth or fabric. To be useful as a textile
material, a fiber polymer must have a host of rather restrictive physical and chemical
properties. While in use, fibers may be subjected to a variety of mechanical
deformations—stretching, twisting, shearing, and abrasion.
 Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers

MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Adhesives
An adhesive is a substance used to bond together the surfaces of two solid
materials (termed adherends). There are two types of bonding mechanisms:
mechanical and chemical. In mechanical bonding there is actual penetration of
the adhesive into surface pores and crevices. Adhesive bonding offers some
advantages over other joining technologies (e.g., riveting, bolting, and welding),
including lighter weight, the ability to join dissimilar materials and thin
components, better fatigue resistance, and lower manufacturing costs.

Films
Polymeric materials have found widespread use in the form of thin films. Films
having thicknesses between 0.025 and 0.125 mm (0.001 and 0.005 in.) are
fabricated and used extensively as bags for packaging food products and other
merchandise, as textile products, and in a host of other uses.
 Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
Foams
Foams are plastic materials that contain a relatively high volume percentage of
small pores and trapped gas bubbles. Both thermoplastic and thermosetting
materials are used as foams; these include polyurethane, rubber, polystyrene, and
poly(vinyl chloride). Foams are commonly used as cushions in automobiles and
furniture as well as in packaging and thermal insulation.

ADVANCED POLYMERIC MATERIALS

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is a linear polyethylene
that has an extremely high molecular weight. this material has a relatively low
melting temperature, its mechanical properties diminish rapidly with increasing
temperature. 1) An extremely high impact resistance; 2) Outstanding resistance to
wear and abrasion; 3) A very low coefficient of friction; 4) A self-lubricating and
nonstick surface; 5) Excellent low-temperature properties. etc
 Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
ADVANCED POLYMERIC MATERIALS
Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is a linear polyethylene
that has an extremely high molecular weight. this material has a relatively low
melting temperature, its mechanical properties diminish rapidly with increasing
temperature. This unusual combination of properties leads to numerous and
diverse applications for this material, including bulletproof vests, composite military
helmets, fishing line, ski-bottom surfaces, golf ball cores, bowling alley and ice
skating rink surfaces, biomedical prostheses, blood filters, marking pen nibs, bulk
material handling equipment (for coal, grain, cement, gravel, etc.), bushings, pump
impellers, and valve gaskets.

Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs) are a group of chemically complex and

structurally distinct materials that have unique properties and are used in diverse
applications. these materials do not fall within any of conventional liquid,
amorphous, crystalline, or semi crystalline classifications, but may be considered a
new state of matter—the liquid crystalline state, being neither crystalline nor liquid.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
ADVANCED POLYMERIC MATERIALS
Liquid crystal polymers (LCPs) - The principal use of liquid crystal polymers is in
liquid crystal displays (LCDs) on digital watches, flat-panel computer monitors and
televisions, and other digital displays. Here cholesteric types of LCPs are
employed which, at room temperature, are fluid liquids, transparent, and optically
anisotropic.

Thermoplastic Elastomers
The thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs or TEs) are a type of polymeric material that,
at ambient conditions, exhibits elastomeric (or rubbery) behavior, yet is thermo-
plastic. In quite a variety of applications, the thermoplastic elastomers have
replaced the conventional thermoset elastomers. Typical uses for the TPEs include
automotive exterior trim (bumpers, fascia, etc.), automotive underhood
components (electrical insulation and connectors, and gaskets), shoe soles and
heels, sporting goods (e.g., bladders for footballs and soccer balls), medical barrier
films and protective coatings, and components in sealants, caulking, and
adhesives.
 Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING

Polymerization
The synthesis of these large molecules (polymers) is termed polymerization; it is
simply the process by which monomers are linked together to generate long
chains composed of repeat units. Most generally, the raw materials for synthetic
polymers are derived from coal, natural gas, and petroleum products.

Addition polymerization (sometimes called chain reaction polymerization) is a

process by which monomer units are attached one at a time in chainlike fashion
to form a linear macromolecule. Three distinct stages—initiation, propagation,
and termination—are involved in addition polymerization. During the initiation
step, an active center capable of propagation is formed by a reaction between
an initiator (or catalyst) species and the monomer unit. Figure 5
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING
Polymerization
Condensation (or step reaction) polymerization is the formation of polymers by
stepwise intermolecular chemical reactions that may involve more than one
monomer species. There is usually a small molecular weight by-product such as
water that is eliminated (or condensed).

Figure 6
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING

Polymer Additives
Foreign substances called additives are intentionally introduced to enhance or
modify many of these properties, and thus render a polymer more serviceable.
Typical additives include filler materials, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants, and
flame retardants.

Filler materials are most often added to polymers to improve tensile and
compressive strengths, abrasion resistance, toughness, dimensional and
thermal stability, and other properties.

Plasticizers aids in improving the flexibility, ductility, and toughness of polymers

improved with the aid of additives called. Their presence also produces
reductions in hardness and stiffness.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING
Polymer Additives
Stabilizers ; Some polymeric materials, under normal environmental conditions,
are subject to rapid deterioration, generally in terms of mechanical integrity.
Additives that counteract deteriorative processes are called stabilizers. One
common form of deterioration results from exposure to light [in particular
ultraviolet (UV) radiation]. Ultraviolet radiation interacts with and causes a
severance of some of the covalent bonds along the molecular chains, which
may also result in some crosslinking.

Colorants impart a specific color to a polymer; they may be added in the form of
dyes or pigments.The molecules in a dye actually dissolve in the polymer.
Pigments are filler materials that do not dissolve, but remain as a separate
phase; normally they have a small particle size and a refractive index near that
of the parent polymer. Others may impart opacity as well as color to the polymer.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING
Polymer Additives
Flame Retardants
The flammability of polymeric materials is a major concern, especially in the
manufacture of textiles and children’s toys. Most polymers are flammable in their
pure form; exceptions include those containing significant contents of chlorine
and/or fluorine, such as poly(vinyl chloride) and polytetrafluoroethylene.

Forming Techniques For Plastics

Quite a variety of different techniques are employed in the forming of polymeric
materials. The method used for a specific polymer depends on several factors:
(1) whether the material is thermoplastic or thermosetting; (2) if thermoplastic,
the temperature at which it softens; (3) the atmospheric stability of the material
being formed; and (4) the geometry and size of the finished product.There are
numerous similarities between some of these techniques and those used for
fabricating metals and ceramics.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING
Compression and Transfer Molding: For
compression molding, the appropriate
amounts of thoroughly mixed polymer and
necessary additives are placed between
male and female mold members, as
illustrated in Figure 7.

Forming Techniques For Plastics

Molding is the most common method for forming plastic polymers. The several
molding techniques used include compression, transfer, blow, injection, and
extrusion molding. For each, a finely pelletized or granulized plastic is forced, at
an elevated temperature and by pressure, to flow into, fill, and assume the
shape of a mold cavity.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING
Forming Techniques For Plastics
Injection molding, the polymer analogue
of die casting for metals, is the most
widely used technique for fabricating
thermoplastic materials. A schematic cross
section of the apparatus used is illustrated
in Figure 8.

The extrusion process is the molding of a viscous thermoplastic under pressure

through an open-ended die, similar to the extrusion of metals. A mechanical
screw or auger propels through a chamber the pelletized material, which is
successively compacted, melted, and formed into a continuous charge of
viscous fluid
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING

Forming Techniques For Plastics

A mechanical screw or auger
propels through a chamber the
pelletized material, which is
successively compacted,
melted, and formed into a
continuous charge of viscous
fluid. (Figure 9).
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers

POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING

Forming Techniques For Plastics

The blow-molding process for the fabrication of plastic containers is similar to

that used for blowing glass bottles, as represented in Figure 13.8. First, a
parison, or length of polymer tubing, is extruded. While still in a semimolten
state, the parison is placed in a two-piece mold having the desired container
configuration. The hollow piece is formed by blowing air or steam under
pressure into the parison, forcing the tube walls to conform to the contours of
the mold. Of course the temperature and viscosity of the parison must be
carefully regulated.
Like metals, polymeric materials may be cast, as when a molten plastic material
is poured into a mold and allowed to solidify. Both thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastics may be cast.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING
Forming Techniques For Plastics
The process by which fibers are formed from bulk polymer material is termed
spinning. Most often, fibers are spun from the molten state in a process called
melt spinning. The material to be spun is first heated until it forms a relatively
viscous liquid. Next, it is pumped through a plate called a spinneret, which
contains numerous small, typically round holes. As the molten material passes
through each of these orifices, a single fiber is formed, which is rapidly
solidified by cooling with air blowers or a water bath. wo other techniques that
involve producing fibers from solutions of dissolved polymers are dry spinning
and wet spinning. For dry spinning the polymer is dissolved in a volatile
solvent. The polymer-solvent solution is then pumped through a spinneret into
a heated zone; here the fibers solidify as the solvent evaporates.
Synthesis, Fabrication and Processing of Polymers
POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING
Forming Techniques For Plastics

Many films are simply extruded through a

thin die slit; this may be followed by a
rolling (calendering) or drawing
operation that serves to reduce thickness
and improve strength. Alternatively, film
may be blown: continuous tubing is
extruded through an annular die; then,
by maintaining a carefully controlled
positive gas pressure inside the tube and
by drawing the film in the axial direction
as it emerges from the die, the material
expands around this trapped air bubble
like a balloon (Figure 10).