Tabulation

What is Tabulation
 The process of arranging organised data into a tabular format.
 Depending on the nature of the classification, it might be complicated, double, or
simple.
 The goal of a tabulation chart/data is to present a significant amount of complicated
data in a systematic way that allows readers to derive logical conclusions and
interpretations from it.
Types of Tabulations

 Simple Tabulation or One-way Tabulation:

o When the data is tabulated to only one aspect.
o E.g. - the tabulation of statistics on the world’s population separated by a single
attribute such as language.
 Double Tabulation or Two-way Tabulation:
o Occurs when data is tallied using two characters at a time.
o E.g. - A table must depict the population to be analysed in terms of the total
number of males and females in various Indian states.
 Three-way Tabulation:
o Display data from three mutually dependent and connected subjects.
o Let’s take the same example from before and expand on it with the new category
in the database. Now we need to know where each state is in terms of literacy
among men and women. In a three-way table, the tabulation for such categories
must be laid out.
 Complex Tabulation:
o A complicated tabulation is one in which the data are tabulated according to
several variables.
o A complicated tabulation, for example, is one in which data on the world’s
population is separated into three or more variables such as religion, language,
literacy, gender, and so on.
Rules of Tabulation
 All of the tables should be self-explanatory, while footnotes are a part of tables, they
should not be required to clarify the meaning of the data in a table
 If the amount of data is significant, it is preferable to divide it into numerous tables
rather than a single one
 Each table design, on the other hand, should be comprehensive in and of itself, as well
as serving the analysis’s aim
 To show data in a quick and simple way, the number of rows and columns should be
limited to a minimum
 Wherever necessary, data should be approximated before tabulating
  Stubs and titles should be self-explanatory and should not require the use of footnotes
in order to be understood
 If specific circumstances of acquired data cannot be tabulated under any stub or
caption, they should be put in a separate table with the heading miscellaneous
 When generating a table, the quantity and quality of data should never be
compromised
Objectives of Tabulation:
Tabulation is a technique for bridging the gap between data gathering and analysis.
 For the Purpose of Data Simplification
 To Draw Attention to Important Information
 To Make Comparisons Easier
 To Assist with Data Statistical Analysis
 Conserves space
Analysis
What is data analysis in research?
Research data analysis is a process used by researchers to reduce data to a story and interpret
it to derive insights.
Three essential things occur during the data analysis process — data organization, data
analysis, data interpretation
Why analyze data in research?
Researchers rely heavily on data as they have a story to tell or research problems to solve. It
starts with a question, and data is nothing but an answer to that question.
Types of data in research
 Qualitative data
o When the data presented has words and descriptions, then we call it qualitative
data.
o This type of data is usually collected through focus groups,
personal qualitative interviews, qualitative observation or using open-ended
questions in surveys.
 Quantitative data
o Any data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are called quantitative
data.
o You can present such data in graphical format, charts, or apply statistical
analysis methods to this data.
 o The (Outcomes Measurement Systems) OMS questionnaires in surveys are a
significant source of collecting numeric data.
 Categorical data
o It is data presented in groups.
o Example: A person responding to a survey by telling his living style, marital
status, smoking habit, or drinking habit comes under the categorical data.
o A chi-square test is a standard method used to analyze this data.
Data analysis in qualitative research
Commonly used methods,
 Content Analysis
o It can be used to analyze the documented information from text, images, and
sometimes from the physical items.
 Narrative Analysis
o This method is used to analyze content gathered from various sources such as
personal interviews, field observation, and surveys.
o The majority of times, stories, or opinions shared by people are focused on
finding answers to the research questions.
 Discourse Analysis
o This particular method considers the social context under which or within
which the communication between the researcher and respondent takes place.
o In addition to that, discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle and day-to-
day environment while deriving any conclusion.
 Grounded Theory
o When you want to explain why a particular phenomenon happened, then using
grounded theory for analyzing quality data is the best resort.
o Grounded theory is applied to study data about the host of similar cases
occurring in different settings.
o When researchers are using this method, they might alter explanations or
produce new ones until they arrive at some conclusion.
Data analysis in quantitative research
Preparing data for analysis
The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis so that the nominal
data can be converted into something meaningful. Data preparation consists of the below
phases.
Phase I: Data Validation
Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set standards,
or it is a biased data sample again divided into four different stages
 Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or the
questionnaire
 Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in
compliance with the research criteria
 Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data
sample
 Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an
online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the
questionnaire.
Phase II: Data Editing
 More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors.
 Respondents sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them
accidentally.
 Data editing is a process wherein the researchers have to confirm that the provided
data is free of such errors.
 They need to conduct necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and
make it ready for analysis.
Phase III: Data Coding
 Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation associated with
grouping and assigning values to the survey responses.
 If a survey is completed with a 1000 sample size, the researcher will create an age
bracket to distinguish the respondents based on their age.
 Thus, it becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the
massive data pile.