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Improving the Geometry of Manholes Designed for Separate

Sewer Systems

Journal: Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering

Manuscript ID cjce-2018-0057.R2

Manuscript Type: Article

Date Submitted by the Author: 05-Jul-2018

Complete List of Authors: Abbas, Alaa; Liverpool John Moores University, Civil Engineering
Ruddock, Felicite; Liverpool John Moores University, Civil Engineering
Al Khaddar, Rafid ; Liverpool John Moores University, Civil Engineering
Rothwell, Glynn; Liverpool John Moores University, Maritime and
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Mechanical Engineering
Andoh, Robert; AWD Consult Inc,

Innovative design, manhole, mathematical model, separate sewer system,

aft

Keyword:
structural performance

Is the invited manuscript for

consideration in a Special Not applicable (regular submission)
Issue? :

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1 Improving the Geometry of Manholes Designed for Separate Sewer Systems

2
3
4 Alaa Abbas 1, Felicite Ruddock2, Rafid Alkhaddar3, Glynn Rothwell4 and Robert Andoh5
1
5 Postgraduate Research Student, Liverpool John Moores University, Department of Civil Engineering, Henry Cotton
6 Building, 15-21 Webster Street, Liverpool, L3 2ET, UK, [email protected]
2
7 Programme Leader, Department of Civil Engineering, Liverpool John Moores University, Peter Jost Center, Byrom Street,
8 Liverpool L3 3AF, UK, [email protected].
3
9 Professor of Water and Environmental Engineering and Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, Liverpool John
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10 Moores University, The Peter Jost Center, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK, [email protected]
4
11 Department of Maritime and Mechanical Engineering, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3
12 3AF, UK,[email protected]
5
13 Professor Robert Andoh, CEO and President of AWD Consult Inc. 32 Vista Drive, South Portland, ME 04106, USA,
14 [email protected]
15
16

17 Abstract
18 The design of manholes dates back more than 100 years. However, there have been developments

19 such as the use of new materials for the manufacture of manholes, and advances in inspection and

20 maintenance technologies, allowing improvements to the shape of manholes. This paper presents an
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21 innovative design for manholes, created to overcome the challenges associated with the installation of
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22 separate sewer systems in narrow streets, common to both UK and EU cities. The traditional separate

23 sewer system has two separate manholes. The proposed manhole combines these two manholes into

24 one structure, with two separate chambers, to allow storm flow and foul flow to pass through the same

25 manhole without mixing. The structural performance of the new design has been tested using

26 mathematical modelling validated by experimental tests. The results are compared with the structural

27 performance of traditional manholes. The new design shows an improved resistance to high live loads.

28

29
30 Keywords: Innovative design, manhole, mathematical model, separate sewer system, structural
31 performance.

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32 1. Introduction

33

34 The manhole is one of the main elements of a sewer network, used to gain access to the sewer for

35 inspection and maintenance. The construction of manholes has improved, over time, with reference to

36 the materials used. Originally built of brick, significant improvements were made by using concrete
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37 and precast materials. However, corrosion to concrete caused by H2S means that the inner surface of

38 manholes need to be coated, or newly developed materials such as fiberglass and polyethylene used

39 instead (Ahn et al. 2009; Hughes 2009; Petroff 1994). A manhole needs to provide sufficient working

40 space and safe entry and egress for personnel to the sewer system network (BSEN476 2011). Recently,

41 because of rapid developments in sewer inspection and maintenance equipment technology, many

42 water authorities have started using inspection manholes, instead of the traditional manhole, which

43 has the same design of a manhole but with smaller dimensions, this manhole suitable for equipment

44 entry rather than personnel access (BSEN752:2008 2013). The maximum space between two
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45 manholes and location of the manhole should be adequate to allow easy use of this equipment. This
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46 means that design criteria require manholes sited at every change of alignment, or gradient, and

47 wherever there is a change in the size of sewer pipes. They also need to be spaced at reasonable

48 intervals for inspection and maintenance, somewhere between 50 and 100 meters (BSEN752:2008

49 2013). Manholes are either rectangular or circular, but from a review of the literature, it is clear that

50 there is a paucity of research on manhole shape or structural performance (Bettez et al. (2001);

51 Saricimen et al. (2003)), specifically regarding combined manholes. A rectangular combined

52 manhole, one manhole structure with two chambers, one for wastewater the other for rainwater, was

53 patented by Würmseher (2014). Willi (1998) patented a design which was the same size as traditional

54 manholes but can be either rectangular or circular with two stage chambers arranged vertically, storm

55 chamber over sanitary. Work examining the structural performance of traditional manholes was

56 carried out by Sabouni and El Naggar (2011a). They used three manholes, two of diameter 1200 mm

57 (one reinforced, the other not), the third of diameter 1500 mm, both built from precast concrete. They

58 used a large-scale (4.5 m x 4.5 m x 7.62 m) geotechnical cell for testing and followed the Canadian

59 Highway Bridge Design Code as a guide for the application of live loads. They found that the range of

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60 displacement of the manholes ranged between 1.3 mm and 5.6 mm for all loading tests. They

61 concluded that the frictional resistance along the manhole structure, mitigated the effect of truck

62 loading. All their manholes withstood the truck loads, even the non-reinforced one. Sabouni and El

63 Naggar (2011b) used these results to validate a 3-dimensional Finite Element model (FE) for circular,

64 precast and concrete manholes. The FE model was used to test a different combination of concrete
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65 manholes in native soil conditions, including soil compaction, groundwater level, trench dimensions

66 and method of installation. They found that soil water content (groundwater level) creates more stress

67 effects on manhole bases than any other factor. Al-Saleem and Langdon (2016) presented the results

68 of structural tests of a manhole under a single live load, this was part of work to develop and upgrade

69 standardised design guidelines for precast concrete manholes in New Zealand (CPAA 2016). They

70 concluded that the service life of a manhole is typically 100 years and that the designer needs to be

71 aware that the standard design is for normal application but that the manhole can be modified to meet

72 any special site requirements or project applications. IKT (2012) who estimated the total number of
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73 manholes in Germany at ten million, conducted a full-scale comparison laboratory experiment study,
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74 using cementitious and polymeric coatings to line manholes to improve their structure, and to treat

75 those which were deteriorating. A substantial study was carried out by Najafi and Sever (2015b), who

76 estimated the number of manholes in the USA to be approximately 20 million. Their study tested the

77 structural capabilities of the manhole when lined with specific materials using structure strength tests,

78 mathematical modelling and evaluated case histories. The procedure involved using a small-scale

79 model to validate an FE model, the results of which were used to upgrade the FE model to full scale.

80 The results from both Germany and the USA, revealed that manhole structural performance was not

81 affected by the type of lining or deterioration of said lining. Bandler (2007) conducted a study to test

82 two types of manhole materials; unreinforced concrete and masonry. Manholes were exposed to

83 axisymmetric pressure to simulate horizontal effective loads, the effect of the coating material

84 assessed in order to improve the structural performance of the manhole. Brown and Brown (2000)

85 studied the structural performance of manholes and the combination of vicinity asphalt surfacing

86 under wheel loadings, finding that surface displacement is a result of subgrade deformation rather

87 than manhole deformation.

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88 This paper presents a new design for manholes, gathering the two separate sewer manholes (sanitary

89 manhole and storm manhole) into one manhole structure with two separate chambers, one for sewage

90 flow the other for stormwater flow. This new design provides the advantages of decreases in cost and

91 a reduced footprint compared with traditional separate sewer systems, as it allows two pipes to be

92 positioned in one trench and the construction of separate sewer systems in narrow streets. The
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93 structural performance (correlation between manhole shape and soil) of the new manhole when buried

94 in soil, was tested in this research. Two prototypes were used; the new design and a traditional

95 manhole. The experimental results were used to validate a numerical model which upgraded the

96 model to real scale. The integrity of the structural performance of the new design has been tested and

97 compared with the structural performance of traditional manholes under the same conditions.

98
99 2. Design Loads
100
101 The manhole structure can be exposed to two types of loads; permanent dead loads such as the weight
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102 of the manhole structure, road layers, soil backfill and manhole cover, and live loads such as traffic

103 loads and hydrostatic flow load. The traffic load directly effects the manhole cover as it is normally
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104 on same level as the street surface. Table 1 shows the different categories of live loads (ASTM-C890

105 2006; BS 2010). The manhole wall needs to be thick enough to resist the compressive forces caused

106 by vertical loads and/or horizontal loads such as lateral earth pressure or hydrostatic pressure (ACPA

107 2008) . The lateral load pressure can be calculated as:

108 p = ws HKs + 62.4H

109
110 where p = total earth and hydrostatic pressure (pounds per square foot); ws = effective unit weight of backfill
111 material (pounds per cubic feet); H = depth of manhole (feet) and Ks = the conjugate ratio for the soil.
112
113 ASTM-C890 (2006) uses a pyramid method to calculate the distribution of traffic loading through

114 specific cover depths (H) such as pavement layers and filling soil above the structure of the manhole,

115 Equation 1 is used to calculate this load. The tire footprint for dual wheels is simulated by a

116 rectangular plate (L=50.8 cm x W=25.4cm), the pressure on the manhole structure being the pressure

117 at the base of the pyramid. Figures 1 and 2 show the distribution of dead loads and live loads on the

118 manholes. In this research, H is taken as zero to apply the maximum load that the top of the manhole

119 can be exposed to.

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120 P=F/(
+1.75)×(+1.75) …… (Eq 1)

121
122
123
124
125
Fig. 1. Pyramid method for the distribution of a live load "Reproduced, with permission from [ASTM
C890-13] copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428."
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Fig. 2. cumulative vertical loads "Reproduced, with permission from [ASTM C890-13] copyright
ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428."

126
127 3. Manhole models
128
129 The conventional, separate sewer system has two manholes; one for sewage, the other for stormwater.

130 The geometrical design of these manholes was created more than 100 years ago, Figure 3 illustrating

131 this design and its setup within a traditional separate sewer system (DEFRA 2011). Normally the
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132 dimensions of the conventional manhole are between 1 and 1.8 meters diameter at the intermediate

133 network (between the lateral pipes and trunk pipelines), the exact size dependant on the diameter of
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134 the inlet-outlet pipe servicing that manhole. The depth of the manhole is dependent on the level of the

135 outlet pipe and can be 1 meter at the beginning of the network, increasing to a depth of 7 meters

136 before using a lift station to raise the hydraulic gradient again to 1 meter. Novel approaches,

137 techniques and devices mean that the original design criteria established a century ago, is obsolete.

138 The negative impact of the combined sewer system on the environment has necessitated new

139 environmental regulations to encourage the use of separate sewer systems (Bizier 2007). Work is

140 required to comply with new regulations for the protection of the environment, even in areas where

141 the installation of traditional separate sewer systems is challenging (EPA 2007).

142
143
144
145
Fig. 3. Typical design of a sanitary manhole and storm manhole located in a separate sewer system

146

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147 This research constitutes a new approach to manhole design by combining the two manholes in a

148 separate system, into a one-manhole structure still keeping both storm flow and sewage flow separate.

149 The new structure has two chambers; an external chamber for stormwater flow and an inner chamber

150 for sewage flow. Figure 4 details the design of the new manhole, Figure 5 detailing a cross section of

151 the new manhole in the street. The first chamber, the outer chamber, has a stormwater inlet and a
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152 separate stormwater outlet. The second chamber comprises a sewage inlet and separate sewage outlet.

153 The two chambers are arranged coaxially, the storm pipe set above the sanitary pipe in one trench.

154 The dimensions of the outer chamber are between 2.5 to 3 meters diameter, the depth relative to the

155 level of the storm pipes (both inlet and outlet). The dimensions of the inner chamber range from 0.8 to

156 1.2 meters, the depth dependant on the level of the sanitary pipes (inlet and outlet).

157 The manhole itself can be concrete or plastic e.g. HDPE, PVC or GRP, the same material available for

158 traditional manhole manufacture. Because of this, there should be no difference in the lifetime service

159 of the new manhole in comparison to a traditional manhole. The hydraulic performance of the new
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160 manhole however, has a different impact on the serviceability of the sewer system, this requiring more
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161 research to establish the hydraulic integrity of the new design. A non-reinforced concrete manhole

162 was used to simulate a real scale model in this research.

163
164
Fig. 4. Innovative design of a manhole for separate sewer systems.

165
166
Fig. 5. Cross section of new manhole located in a separate sewer system.

167
168
169
170

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171 4. Methodology
172
173 A two-stage approach was followed in this research. In the first stage, the finite element model for

174 the case study was built with all the input criteria determined using lab tests to identify the properties

175 of the materials. Prototypes and experimental work were used to identify the boundary conditions

176 necessary to validate the results from the mathematical model (Brinkgreve 2013). The second stage
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177 used the mathematical model to ascertain the real scale dimensions of both manholes; the traditional

178 manhole and new design manhole. The FEA used ABAQUS to test the manhole-soil correlation and

179 identify degree of displacement under four loading categories; medium (HS15), heavy (HS20 and

180 HS25) and one overload (double heavy traffic load) when two trucks pass over the manhole at the

181 same time.

182

183 4.1 Experimental Work

184 Two prototypes, one of a traditional manhole with a diameter of 10 cm and depth of 30 cm, the other
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185 of the new design with the same dimensions for the inner chamber but with a diameter of 25 cm and
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186 depth of 25 cm for the external chamber, were constructed. The manholes were buried in soil in a

187 trench of dimensions 2.5 x 0.5 x1 meters. The trench was located in a hydraulic rig which was used to

188 apply live loads. The cell load and Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs), were used to

189 monitor applied loads and displacement of the manhole structure, the data recorded by an MC3

190 recorder. The results were used to validate the FE model, this validation allowing an upgrade to a real

191 scale FE model. Figure 6 illustrates the setup of the trench in the rig, the buried manholes, the location

192 of the load cell and the three (LVDTs) for the new manhole. Figure 7 shows the same set up for the

193 traditional manhole. An important input parameter for the FE model concerns the properties of the

194 materials used. Because this research focuses on the performance of the geometry of the manhole

195 buried in soil and not the stress of the manhole structure, the soil properties have been identified

196 through a series of geotechnical laboratory tests. These identified the degree of elastoplastic

197 behaviour of the soil and the contact relationship between the external surface of the manhole and

198 surrounding soil. A natural top-soil was used, normally available from the first layer of the ground

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199 surface around the UK, as this is the zone where manholes are buried. As steel was used to build the

200 prototype manholes, the friction factor between the steel surface and the soil was also determined.

201
202
203
204
205
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a a

b b
Fig. 6. Setup of the trench in the rig and Fig. 7. Setup of the trench in the rig and location of
location of measurement instruments on the measurement instruments on the traditional manhole
new manhole surface at three points on the surface at three points on the edge.
edge.
206

207

208 4.2 Mathematical model

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209 A wide range of tools are available to carry out finite element analyses (FEA), including commercial

210 packages such as ABAQUS (used in this research), designed for use with complicated geotechnical
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211 issues (Torben Pichler 2012). The development of mathematical tools and improvements to the

212 library of material applicable for FEA, allows geotechnical engineers to select which tools to use to

213 successfully solve geotechnical structural problems and simulate structural behaviours when

214 manholes are embedded in soil. That said, engineers still need to have both a geotechnical background

215 and a good understanding of the principles of FEA to avoid misjudgements. Soil is a complex media

216 because the texture of soil includes solid particles and voids, which can be full of air or water, making

217 predicting and simulating soil behaviour a considerable challenge (Mar 2002). Two FE models have

218 been created for the prototype simulation in the current research; one to simulate the new manhole,

219 the other a traditional manhole. The same experimental conditions, dimensions, boundary conditions

220 and materials were used. Restrictions at the base prevented movement but allowed displacement in

221 the y-axis for the external model’s faces and used the symmetry around the x-axis and z-axis for the

222 internal faces to simulate the full model behaviour. The symmetry of the model around the x-axis and

223 z-axis allows the use of a quarter model using the specific tools in Abaqus. The creation of a

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224 symmetrical model and use of only one quarter of the model decreases the run time while giving the

225 same results as a full 3D model . Surface to surface contact interaction was fixed with a friction factor

226 0.45 between the soil and steel, this determined from the experimental test. Figure 8 shows the mesh

227 for the symmetrical quarter of the new manhole model which has 45370 nodes, 35350 elements,

228 35269 linear hexahedral elements of type C3D8R and 81 linear wedge elements of type C3D6. Figure
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229 9 shows the mesh for the symmetrical quarter of the model of the traditional manhole which has

230 40532 nodes, 34928 elements, 34856 linear hexahedral elements of type C3D8R and 72 linear wedge

231 elements of type C3D6.

232

233

Fig. 8. The symmetrical quarter of the new Fig. 9. The symmetrical quarter of the traditional
manhole FE mesh model representing the full manhole FE mesh model representing the full 3D
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3D manhole. manhole.
234
235
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236
237
238 5. Results and discussion
239
240 5.1 Prototype experimental results
241
242 Loads have been applied to verify the capacity of the new manhole compared to the traditional

243 manhole, and to calculate the manhole shape – soil correlation. Four categories of loads were

244 simulated; medium traffic HS15, heavy traffic HS20 and HS25 and overload (double heavy traffic).

245 Figure 10 details the response of the new manhole under static applied loads, HS15, HS20, HS25, a

246 double HS25 and a dynamic double HS25, applied load at the end of the test, to establish the

247 maximum resistance. The displacement experienced by the new manhole was within acceptable

248 limits, the standard requirement being 13 mm (Sabouni and El Naggar 2011a), when under HS15,

249 HS20 and HS25 loadings. Displacement was 3.3 mm at HS15, 6.2 mm at HS20 and 9.2 mm at HS25.

250 When the applied load was increased to over load (twice the heavy load HS25), the new manhole

251 continued to be stable but the displacement was 22 mm, which is above acceptable limits. Soil density

252 and the degree of compaction of the filling soil, play a significant role in the stability of buried

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253 manholes under live loads (Abolmaali and Kararam 2010). Therefore, the same set of tests were

254 applied to the traditional manhole, the results presented in Figure 10. Displacements were 2.9 mm for

255 a load of HS15, 7 mm for HS20, 14.3 mm for HS25, the manhole sinking into the soil when HS25

256 was doubled. Steel was used to build the manhole prototype because of difficulties fabricating small

257 prototypes of concrete. The friction factor between the steel and soil is less than the friction factor
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258 between concrete and soil meaning that the degree of displacement will be lower when concrete is

259 used because the friction factor will be higher.

260
261 The comparisons between the displacement of the new manhole with the traditional manhole in

262 Figure 10, show that under a medium load (HS15), the traditional manhole has less displacement

263 compared to the new manhole. This is because the new manhole is heavier than the traditional one,

264 this adding a significant dead load. However, the effect of manhole weight is smaller when the traffic

265 load is increased. Against the application of heavy loads, the geometry of the manhole plays an
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266 important role, improving the resistance of the manhole.

267
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268
Fig. 10. Comparison between the new and traditional manholes under the same conditions and
live loads.

269
270
271 5.2 The results from the mathematical model.
272
273 The same series of loads (HS15, HS20 and HS25) and the exact boundary conditions as for the

274 physical model, were applied on manholes using a finite element model. Selecting the proper

275 constitutive model (stress–strain relationship) to simulate soil behaviour is an important aspect to

276 consider when using FE for soil models (Lees 2012). In this research, two constitutive models

277 (Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager) have been tested to identify the most appropriate model (Abbas

278 et al. 2017). The properties of the soil were defined by conducting three conventional triaxial

279 compression tests and one isotropic consolidation (compression) test, to establish the elastoplastic

280 behaviour of the soil (Helwany 2007). Table 2 lists the parameters for the materials. A point at the

281 center of manhole was selected to record displacement results because the maximum displacement

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282 occurs at the center. Figure 11 shows the results when a double heavy load was applied. The results

283 for each applied load shows the displacements at the same point, these compared with the results of

284 the measurements taken at the cover of the manhole for the experimental tests, under the same series

285 of loads.

286
287
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Fig. 11. The displacement of the new manhole at a double heavy load shown in a 3D quarter
symmetric FEA model.

288
289 The FE model output and the experiment model have a very close match regarding the displacement

290 of the new manhole under live loads, as demonstrated in Figure 12.

291
292
Fig. 12. Comparison of the displacements from both the experimental work and the FE model for
the new manhole, in soil, under live loads.
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293
294 The same point was selected to show the displacement results for the traditional manhole, a sample of
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295 the results at a double heavy load are presented in Figure 13.

296
297
Fig. 13. The displacement of the traditional manhole at a double heavy load shown in a 3D quarter
symmetric FEA model.
298
299
300
301 The comparison of the results from the FE model and the experiment model reveal a close match

302 regarding displacement at low loads and between displacements for the traditional manhole under

303 high live loads. The experimental measurements and FEA results gave a reliable assessment of the

304 behaviour of the geometry of the manhole and estimations of the margins of error expected from the

305 FEA. The experimental test and the FE model results for the traditional manhole are presented in

306 Figure 14.

307

308

309

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Fig. 14. Comparison of the displacement results from both experimental works and the FE model for
the traditional manhole prototype in soil under live loads.
310

311
312 One of the important validation processes is the comparison of the FE model with lab experimental

313 results to eliminate uncertainty and manage discrepancies in the model thus increasing confidence in

314 the real application (Moser and Folkman 2008). Validation makes the designer more aware of the
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315 inevitable inaccuracies between a real case study and an FE model (Mar 2002). The two stages

316 explained above, illustrate that all necessary steps to check and validate the accuracy of the FE model

317 have been taken. All the boundary conditions, contact interactions, material properties and steps were

318 identified correctly, meaning it was possible to upgrade the FE model to a real-life scale with

319 confidence.

320
321
322 5.3 The real FE model results
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323
324 Normally the dimensions of traditional manholes used in most sewer networks are 1 to 1.8 meters
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325 diameter, the depth ranging from 1 to approximately 7 meters. Real scale dimensions were selected

326 for intermediate networks in the sewer system where new systems were expected to be located. The

327 traditional manhole was 1.3 meters in diameter and 3.4 metre deep; the storm chamber of the new

328 manhole 2.8 meters in diameter and 2.65 meters deep, the sanitary chamber having the same

329 dimensions as the traditional manhole. The soil was of 8.5 meters radius and 15 meters deep to

330 identify the maximum area affected by force (Brinkgreve 2013). The same soil properties as for the

331 prototype model, were used for the real scale module. Non-reinforced concrete (Najafi and Sever

332 2015b), was used for the manhole material. The new manhole had 143345 nodes and 138100 elements

333 element types (C3D6 & C3D8R). Figure 15 illustrates the setup of the new manhole in soil.

334 Regarding the traditional manhole, the mesh used was finer to control for the instability found during

335 experimental testing and to avoid aborting the test as a result of the substantial displacement that can

336 occur. The number of nodes was 377705, 373240 elements, the element types the same as for the new

337 manhole (C3D6 & C3D8R). Figure 16 illustrates the setup of the traditional manhole model in soil.

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Fig. 15. Setup of the real scale of new manhole Fig. 16. Setup of the real scale of traditional
– soil model. manhole-soil model.
338
339
340
341 The data regarding the FE model were taken at the center point of the manhole base for both the new
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342 and traditional manhole. The maximum displacement at the base of the both manholes was identified.

343 The new manhole is stable, even under high loading (loads 360 KN), the displacement of the soil

344 below the manhole centerline being 8.16 mm, 3.55 mm under loading HS25 (90kN), 3.3 mm when the

345 load was HS20 (70-80 kN) and approximately 3 mm when the load was HS15 (50-60kN). These

346 results reflect high stability against very high loads, more than double the loads that normally occur.

347 The displacements for the traditional manhole had less stability under high loads (loads 360 KN)

348 because the area of the base is smaller than that of the new manhole. The displacement of soil below

the manhole centerline was 11.8 mm at 360 kN, 3.4 mm when the load was HS25 (90kN), 3 mm when
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349

350 the load was HS20 (70-80 kN) and 2.7 mm when the load was HS15 (50-60kN). The traditional
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351 manhole has less displacement under medium loads and about the same displacement under heavy

352 loads compared with the displacement of the new manhole under the same loads. It also experiences

353 higher displacement under over-loads in comparison to the new manhole. The traditional manhole has

354 less displacement under medium (HS15) loads compared to the new manhole, because of the

355 increased weight of the new manhole which, this adding an extra load to the live load causing

356 additional displacement. Figure 17 shows a comparison of the displacement of the soil below the new

357 and traditional manholes.

358
359
360
361
362
Fig. 17. A comparison of the displacement for both manholes under different loads (FE model).

363
364

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365 The results for displacement to both manhole covers and the soil surface for the new manhole,

366 indicates that the new manhole has more impact on the surrounding soil as it was displaced between

367 1-2 mm, under medium and heavy loads (50 to 90 kN), affecting a 3-meter circle around the manhole.

368 This displacement increased to between 2-3.5 mm under a double-heavy load. This displacement

369 represents a summation of the soil displacement below the manhole and the deformation of the
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370 manhole material. The displacement increases from 8.16 mm to 9.95 mm under extreme loading, from

371 3.55 mm to 4 mm when the load was HS25 (90kN), from 3.3mm to 3.8 mm when the load was HS20

372 (70-80 kN) and from 3 mm to 3.48 mm when the load was HS15 (50-60 kN). These surface

373 displacements need to be taken into consideration when designing road surfaces as the soil

374 displacement below the manhole base effects connecting manhole pipes. This is critical in many cases

375 of sewer collapse, the collapse happens at the connection joint between the pipes and the manhole

376 because of relative displacement. There was less displacement with the new manhole model, both

377 total surface and soil below the manhole. This increases the safety of sewer systems subject to very
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378 high loads. The stress results for the new manhole revealed that the maximum stress is on a slab
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379 positioned at the external wall of the storm chamber. The stress is decreased in the direction of the

380 center of the manhole and increased slightly in the area close to the internal wall. The displacement

381 occurring in the traditional manhole surface increased from 11.8 mm to 12.3 mm under high loads.

382 This includes the displacement of the soil underneath manhole and the manhole structure deformation,

383 from 3.4 mm to 3.6 mm when the load was HS25 (90kN), from 3 mm to 3.2 mm when the load was

384 HS20 (70-80 kN) and from 2.7 mm to 2.85 mm when the load was HS15 (50-60kN). These results

385 show that the traditional manhole has less displacement under medium loads and about the same

386 displacement as the new manhole design under heavy loads. It has high displacement under over-

387 loads which are close to failure at 13 mm. A smaller manhole has less impact on the surrounding

388 surface soil, displacements between 1-2 mm across all loads. The stress in the surrounding soil

389 generated by the traditional manhole structure was higher than the stress experienced by the new

390 manhole. It was about three times higher, in comparison to the new manhole which has a larger

391 surface area working to mitigate load stress effects. This reduction in stress is promising as it may

392 allow the use of lightweight materials such as GRP, HDPE or PVC to build the whole, or part of, the

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393 manhole structure, e.g. the inner chamber, while using concrete for the external chamber (the storm

394 chamber). There is also the potential to decrease the thickness of the walls, or to minimise the amount

395 of reinforced steel required.

396

397
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398

399 5.4 Investigation of manhole body structure

400
401 The change in geometry of the manhole created a change in its structural behaviour. The non-

402 reinforced traditional manhole has been previously tested by Sabouni and El Naggar (2011a) who

403 used two manholes of 1200 mm and 1500 mm. They used 52 MPa as the cylinder compressive

404 strength for the concrete of the base manhole, this a relatively high strength. Their results indicated

405 that both manholes were able to withstand the applied loads, the maximum overall calculated strain

406 approximately 75% in the 1200 mm manhole and 83% in 1500 mm manhole less than the base
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407 cracking strain. Sabouni and El Naggar (2011b) also generated a numerical model (FE) for both
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408 manholes. They found that the cracking moment (Mcr) of the manhole bases was 16.3 kN·m/m for the

409 1200 mm manhole and 62.4 kN·m/m for 1500 mm manhole, the average bending moment calculated

410 at 4.8 kN·m for the 1200 mm manhole and 10.25 kN·m for the 1500 mm manhole. Further to this,

411 Najafi and Sever (2015a) carried out testing and an FE study for a manhole of 1200 mm, reporting the

412 maximum strain as 0.00019 and the maximum moment as 1 kN·m/m compared with a calculated

413 cracking moment of 15.43 kN·m/m. They used non-reinforced concrete, which has a 40 MPa cylinder

414 compressive strength. It should also be noted that they applied a low load (HS15), approximately 53

415 kN, to the manhole.

416 The same procedure and materials as used by Najafi and Sever (2015a) were used in this research.

417 The applied load however was different as we applied conservative traffic loads to the manhole. Table

418 2 shows the properties of the concrete used for the manhole. ACI318 limits the strain in the concrete

419 to 0.003. The cracking moment of the concrete is calculated using an ACI318 equation (3), 22.7 kN-m

420 for the base of the traditional manhole and 34.1 kN-m for the new manhole. These limits were used to

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421 compare the output of both structural manhole models. Table (3) illustrates the maximum strain on the

422 manhole body and the percentage difference for the bending moment of the base manholes compared

423 with the cracking moment.

424
425 According to ACI318 the cracking moment of the concrete is calculated as follows:
426
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427  = 
…………(Eq 2)
428
429 For circular concrete slabs, it is
430

431  = 
…………(Eq 3)
432
433
434 where Ig is the gross moment of inertia (m4); b and h are the width and thickness of manhole base
435 slab, and fcr is the flexural cracking strength.
436
437 Figures 18a and b show the strain and location of the maximum bending moment in the base of the

438 manhole for both the new manhole body and the traditional manhole body, under a double heavy load
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439 (180kN). The new manhole almost failed under double heavy loads, this the extreme case, while the

440 traditional manhole was able to withstand this extent of loading. Double heavy loads are used in this
aft

441 study to test the maximum structural capacity of the manhole. The manhole body structure will be

442 studied in detail using reinforced concrete and light-weight materials such as GRP or HDPL in a

443 subsequent study. We will also investigate if the provision of a flexible joint between the sanitary

444 wall chamber and the base of storm chamber can improve the structural performance of the manhole.

445 The structure of the new manhole body can effected by the degree of compaction of the soil

446 underneath the two chambers of the manhole. Any difference in soil stiffness below these chambers

447 can led to differential settlement which generates more stress in the body of the manhole depending

448 on the location of the applied load. Therefore, reinforced concrete is required for the new manhole

449 design when it is not being laid in a narrow street and can be exposed to double heavy loads.

Fig. 18 a. The strains and location of maximum Fig. 18 b. The strains and location of maximum
bending moment in the base of the new manhole bending moment in the base of the traditional
body under a double heavy load (180kN). manhole body under a double heavy load
(180kN).

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450 6. Conclusions
451
452 The technological development of inspection and maintenance equipment for sewer systems, in

453 combination with the availability of new materials for pipe and manhole manufacture, has allowed

454 improvements to be made to traditional manholes. Environmental regulations in many developed and

455 developing countries, require separate sewer systems to be built as combined sewer systems are no
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456 longer acceptable. As a response, this research has presented a new design for manholes, siting the

457 two traditional separate sewer system manholes together in one manhole structure, improving on the

458 installation method of separate sewer systems in narrow streets. It has two separate chambers; an

459 external chamber used to carry storm flow and an inner chamber used for sewage flow. Because of the

460 design, it is bigger and heavier in comparison to the traditional manhole. Structural performance

461 testing was carried out using 3D finite element analysis and compared to the performance of

462 traditional manholes. The results revealed that:

463 The weight of the new manhole added a dead load to the loads applied, this affecting the
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464 behaviour of the manhole. The displacement was higher than that for a traditional manhole under
aft

465 a small live load.

466 • Under heavy loads, both the new and traditional manhole exhibit the same behaviour (settlement)

467 and both operate within standard limitations.

468 • The new manhole has very good stability under extremely high loads; the traditional manhole

469 experienced more settlement under the same load.

470 • The new manhole was stable and had less displacement under a double heavy load. However,

471 the bending moment was close to the cracking moment at the base of the storm chamber under a

472 double heavy load; reinforcement was recommended for the slab (cover) and the base of the

473 manhole. This will be examined in the next stage of the current research.

474 • The levels of soil stress in the new manhole were dramatically reduced, in comparison to soil

475 stress in the traditional manhole structure, under identical loads.

476 The structural improvements generated by the mathematical model (successfully calibrated by the

477 experimental work), allow the safe use of this new manhole in narrow streets, prevalent in the UK and

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478 EU, which up to now have constituted a real challenge when constructing traditional separate sewer

479 systems. The displacement of the new manhole is higher than the displacement of the traditional

480 manhole, under low loads, because of the weight of the new manhole. This effect is expected to

481 disperse through the construction stage under good compaction processes. The new manhole shows

482 high stability and resistance against high live loads. The stress created by live loads on the new
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483 manhole was significantly lower than that for traditional manholes. This implies that a review can be

484 made of the thickness and reinforcement required for the walls of the manhole, including the potential

485 to use lighter materials such as GRP, HDPE and PVC in the manufacture of new structures.

486
487 Acknowledgements
488 The first authors would like to express their sincere thanks to the Al Ghalowa Company for their

489 support. Thanks are also extended to LJMU technical staff for providing the necessary support to

490 carry out the experimental testing.

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491
492
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493 References:
494 Abbas, A., Ruddock, F., Alkhaddar, R., Rothwell, G., and Andoh, R. 2017. Pipeline–Soil Interaction
495 Simulation under Live Loads Using Elastoplastic Finite Element Models with Laboratory Validation,
496 California, USA ASCE.

497 Abolmaali, A., and Kararam, A. 2010. Nonlinear Finite-Element-Based Investigation of the Effect of
498 Bedding Thickness on Buried Concrete Pipe. Journal of Transportation Engineering 136(9): 793-799.

499 ACPA, A.C.P.A. 2008. Design data 20: Circular precast concrete manhole. American Concrete Pipe
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500 Association, Virginia, USA.

501 Ahn, N., Park, D.K., Lee, J., and Lee, M.K. 2009. Structural test of precast polymer concrete. Journal
502 of Applied Polymer Science 114(3): 1370-1376.

503 Al-Saleem, H.I., and Langdon, W. 2016. Precast Concrete Manholes - A review and Upgrade of
504 Current Practice. In WATER NEW ZEALAND 2016 STORMWATER CONFERENCE, NEW
505 ZEALAND.

506 ASTM-C890. 2006. Standard Practice for Minimum Structural Design Loading for Monolithic or
507 Sectional Precast Concrete Water and Wastewater Structures. American Section of the International
508 Association for Testing Materials, United States.
Dr

509 Bandler, A. 2007. The Structural Capacity of Repaired Manholes, Department of Civil Engineering,
510 Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada.
aft

511 Bettez, J., Townsend, R.D., and Comeau, A. 2001. Scale model testing and calibration of City of
512 Ottawa sewer weirs. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 28(4): 627-639.

513 Bizier, P. 2007. Gravity Sanitary Sewer Design and Construction. American Society of Civil
514 Engineers, USA

515 Brinkgreve, R.B.J. 2013. Validating Numerical Modelling in Geotechnical Engineering. NAFEMS.

516 Brown, S.F., and Brown, C.J. 2000. The structural characteristics of manhole installations in
517 pavements.

518 BS. 2010. BS 9295:2010 - Guide to the structural design of buried pipelines. BSI, UK.

519 BSEN476. 2011. Generla requirements for components used in drains and sewers. BSI British
520 Standards, UK. p. 25.

521 BSEN752:2008. 2013. Drain and sewer systems outside buildings. British Standards, UK.

522 CPAA, C.P.A.o.A. 2016. Loads on Circular Precast Concrete Manholes and Access Chambers. In
523 GUIDANCE NOTE (NZ), Australia. p. 8.

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524 DEFRA. 2011. National Build Standards Design and Construction of new gravity foul sewers and
525 lateral drains. In Water Industry Act 1991 Section 106B, Flood and Water Management Act 2010
526 Section 42. Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs, UK. p. 36.

527 EPA, U.S.E.P.A. 2007. Innovation and Research for Water Infrastructure for the 21st Century, USA.

528 Helwany, S. 2007. Applied Soil Mechanics with ABAQUS Applications. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
529 Hoboken, NJ, USA.
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530 Hughes, J.B. 2009. Manhole Inspection and Rehabilitation. American Society of Civil Engineers
531 ASCE, Reston, Va.

532 IKT, I.f.U.I. 2012. Rehabilitation of Wastewater Manholes: Large Scale Tests ans in-Situ Studies
533 Institute for Underground Infrastructure, Germany

534 Lees, A. 2012. Obtaining Parameters for Geotechnical Analysis. NAFEMS.

535 Mar, A. 2002. How To Undertake Finite Element Based Geotechnical Analysis. NAFEMS.

536 Moser, A.P., and Folkman, S. 2008. Buried Pipe Design McGraw-Hill.
Dr

537 Najafi, M., and Sever, V.F. 2015a. Structural Capabilities of No-Dig Manhole Reha. Water
538 Environment Research Foundation, USA
aft

539 Najafi, M., and Sever, V.F. 2015b. Structural Capabilities of No-Dig Manhole Rehabilitation. Water
540 Environment Research Foundation.

541 Petroff, L.J. 1994. Design methodology for high density polyethylene manholes. In Buried Plastic
542 Pipe Technology. Edited by D. Eckstein. ASTM STP 1222. pp. 52–65.

543 Sabouni, R., and El Naggar, M.H. 2011a. Circular precast concrete manholes: experimental
544 investigation. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 38(3): 319-330.

545 Sabouni, R., and El Naggar, M.H. 2011b. Circular precast concrete manholes: numerical modeling.
546 Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 38(8): 909-920.

547 Saricimen, H., Shameem, M., Barry, M.S., Ibrahim, M., and Abbasi, T.A. 2003. Durability of
548 proprietary cementitious materials for use in wastewater transport systems. Cement and Concrete
549 Composites 25: 421-427.

550 Torben Pichler, T.P., Thorben Hamann, Sascha Henke, Gang Qiu. 2012. High-Performance Abaqus
551 Simulations in Soil Mechanics Reloaded – Chances and Frontiers, USA, May 15-17, Dassault
552 Systèmes

553 Willi, G. 1998. Schacht für Kontroll-, Wartungs- oder Reparaturarbeiten Edited by E.P. Office,
554 Germany. p. 2.

555 Würmseher, H. 2014. Abwasserschacht (Manhole) Edited by D.P.-u. Markenamt, Germany p. 7.

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Table 1: Vehicle load designations

Designation Load, max Uses

ASTM HS25 (89 200 N) per wheel heavy traffic

ASTM HS20 (71 200 N) per wheel heavy traffic

ASTM HS15 (53 400 N) per wheel medium traffic

ASTM H10 (35 600 N) per wheel light traffic

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185 kN One wheel from 4th axle (heaviest wheel load)

Extreme heavy load with load factors 2.1 and 2.4 (Sabouni and El
207 kN Naggar 2011b)

Main roads
2 × 112.5 kN 112.5 kN wheel loads including an impact factor
of 1.3
Loading according to
BS 540012:1978) citied Light trafficked roads
in BS 9295:2010 2 × 105 kN 105 kN wheel loads including an impact factor of
1.5
Fields
2 × 60 kN 60 kN wheel loads, including an impact factor of
2.0
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Table 2: Model parameters

Items Parameters Value
Density 1685 kg/m3
E 16.943 MPa
ʋ 0.295
Soil Drucker –Prager
β 50
K 0.8
ψ 15
Density 7850 kg/m3
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Steel E 210GPa
ʋ 0.3
Density 1855 kg/m3
E 100MPa
Bedding ϕ 35
C 0
ʋ 0.4
Density 2200 kg/m3
E 29,992 MPa
ʋ 0.2
Plasticity
Dilation Angle 38
Eccentricity 0.1
fb0/fc0 1.16
Concrete K 0.667
Viscosity Parameter 10-7
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Compressive Behaviour
Yield stress 27,000 kPa 39,990 kPa
Inelastic Strain 0 0.01
aft

Tensile Behaviour
Yield stress 5000 kPa 2200 kPa 50 kPa
Cracking strain 0 0.006 0.015

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Table 3. Percentage difference for the bending moment of the manhole bases, the cracking moment
and the maximum strain on the body of the manhole.
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75x54mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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Fig. 1. Pyramid method for the distribution of a live load "Reproduced, with permission from [ASTM C890-13] ASTM International"
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107x148mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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Fig. 2. Cumulative vertical loads "Reproduced, with permission from [ASTM C890-13] ASTM International"
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209x148mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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Fig. 3. Typical design of a sanitary manhole and storm manhole located in a separate sewer system
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209x148mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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Fig 4. Innovative design of a manhole for separate sewer systems.
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297x420mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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Fig. 5. Cross section of new manhole located in a separate sewer system.
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Fig. 6 a and b. Setup of the trench in the rig and location of measurement instruments on the new manhole
surface at three points on the edge.

179x110mm (150 x 150 DPI)

aft

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Fig. 7 a and b. Setup of the trench in the rig and location of measurement instruments on the traditional
manhole surface at three points on the edge.

138x72mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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108x63mm (150 x 150 DPI)
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Fig. 8. The symmetrical quarter of the new manhole FE mesh model representing the full 3D manhole
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107x63mm (150 x 150 DPI)
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Fig. 9. The symmetrical quarter of the traditional manhole FE mesh model representing the full 3D manhole
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Fig. 10. Comparison between the new and traditional manholes under the same conditions and live loads.
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model.
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Fig. 11. The displacement of the new manhole at a double heavy load shown in a 3D quarter symmetric FEA
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Fig 12. Comparison of the displacements from both the experimental work and the FE model for the new
manhole, in soil, under live loads.

128x96mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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symmetric FEA model.

aft

167x152mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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Fig. 13. The displacement of the traditional manhole at a double heavy load shown in a 3D quarter
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Fig. 14. Comparison of the displacement results from both experimental works and the FE model for the
traditional manhole prototype in soil under live loads.

132x100mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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Fig 15. Setup of the real scale of new manhole – soil model.
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Fig. 16. Setup of the real scale of traditional manhole-soil model.
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Fig. 17. A comparison of the displacement for both manholes under different loads (FE model).
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Fig. 18 a. The strains and location of maximum bending moment in the base of the new manhole body
under a double heavy load (180kN).
Fig. 18 b. The strains and location of maximum bending moment in the base of the traditional manhole body
under a double heavy load (180kN).

126x53mm (150 x 150 DPI)

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